Chapter 3

HEREDITY AND VARIATION.

3.1 Cell Division.

Chromosomes. are the nucleus of a cell contains many small thread-like structures. made of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and protein. contain hereditary material called genes. the nucleus of each organisms cell contain chromosomes which always exist in pairs (except in gametes). example a human has !" pairs of chromosomes. in each pair of chromosomes# one chromosome inherited from the father and one from the mother. all somatic cells of the same type of organisms ha$e the same number of chromosomes. by determining the number of chromosomes in the nucleus of a cell# the type of organism can be known. Genes. are hereditary material or heritable characteristics located on chromosomes. is a DNA unit which functions to code the heritable characteristics. example passes on hereditary information from one generation to another. exist in pairs. one gene is inherited from the father and one from the mother. genes determine characteristics like body height# hair colour# fingerprint# and appearance.

Relationship between gene, chromosome, and DNA. %uman built of &ells containing &hromosomes containing of

&haracteristics in human determining

'enes forming

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

Type of Cell Division. the processes of reproduction and growth of any organism in$ol$e cell di$ision there are two types# which is mitosis meiosis Mitosis

is a cell di$ision process which takes place only in somatic cells. for plants# it occurs at the tip of the root and shoot. through mitosis# each daughter cell contains the same number of chromosomes# and thus the same genes# as the parent cell. the importance of mitosis a) forms new cells for growth b) forms new cells to replace cells or tissues which are damaged or ha$e died. c) enables hereditary material in parent cell to be passed on to daughter cells. d) enables asexual reproduction in some organisms.

Meiosis

the process of cell di$ision to produce gametes with half of the number of chromosomes of the parent cell. occurs only in the reproducti$e organs. occurs in the testis of a male and the o$ary of female who ha$e attained sexual maturity. meiosis also occurs in the anther and o$ary of plants. meiosis causes $ariation among species of the same organism. this is because the chromatids o$erlaps with one another and the exchange of genetic material (chromosomes and genes) takes place. this occurrence is called crossing o$er. exchange of genetic material among chromatids during crossing o$er produces a combination of new genes in gametes. this process causes genetic $ariation. this also explains why children that are born to the same parents show different characteristics. the importance of meiosis a) ensures that the number of chromosomes is diploid in the (ygote when the nucleus of sperm fuses with the nucleus of an o$um during fertilisation. b) combination of different chromosomes and crossing o$er which occur causing $ariation to take place in the next generation.

Comparison between meiosis and mitosis )imilarities chromosome replication takes place call di$ision occurs new cells are produced eiosis During the formation of gametes Differences *hen this process happens i!osis During the formation of somatic cells

.estes and o$aries Anther and o$ary .wice -ccurs during the first cell di$ision only /our

*here this process happens in animals *here this process happens in plants Number of cell di$ision +eplication ,rocess Number of daughter cells produced Number of chromosomes in daughter cells compared to those in parent cell 'enetic make-up in daughter cells compared to those of parent cell &rossing -$er ech$nism of Inheri!$nce.

)omatic cells .ip of the root and shoot -nce -ccurs

.wo

%alf

)ame

Different %appens

)ame Doesnt happen

3." #rinciples $n%

Domin$n! &enes $n% recessive &enes. gametes in$ol$ed in fertilisation contain chromosomes# chromosomes are made up of DNA molecules# certain segments in the DNA are made up of genes# these genes are responsible for traits. examples of traits passed on from parents are skin color# hair color# blood group and height. genes that exist in pairs in chromosomes control the characteristics inherited from the parents. there are two types of genes Dominant genes are genes which show the characteristics that they control when paired with a dominant gene or a recessi$e gene. +ecessi$e genes are genes which only show the characteristics that they control when these genes are paired with another recessi$e gene.

the characteristics determined by this genes are called dominant traits. dominant traits are shown if one or both dominant genes which control the particular characteristics are present. human traits controlled by this genes tall# curly hair# free ear lobe# black hair# able to roll the tongue# dimples# long eye lashes# righthanded# pigments in skin# black or brown iris# normal eyesight

the characteristics determined by this genes are called recessi$e traits. recessi$e traits are only shown if the recessi$e genes are not paired with dominant genes.

human traits controlled by this genes short# straight hair# attached ear lobe# blond hair# unable to roll the tongue# no dimples# short eye lashes# lefthanded# albino# blue iris# colourblindness

dominant genes are represented by the letter 0.. recessi$e genes are represented by the letter 0t.

ech$nism of !r$i! inheri!$nce. the studies of 'regor 1endel on the pea plant can explain trait inheritance in organisms. 1endel cross-bred tall pea plats which were pure breed with short pea plants which were also pure breed.

he found that all pea plants in the first generation were tall. the tall pea plants in the first generation were then cross-bred among themsel$es. 1endel found that three 2uarters of the pea plants in the second generation were tall and one 2uarter of them short. in this experiment# only one trait inheritance is studied# hence# that inheritance is called monohybrid inheritance. genotype refers to the genetic make-up of an organism. phenotype refers to the physical appearance which can be seen in an organism. example# if a tall person has a .. gene# he is said to ha$e .. genotype and shows tall phenotype. organisms in the first filial generation# /3# are called hybrids. a hybrid contains a dominant gene and recessi$e gene. ex impure breed (.t) combination of gametes at the first filial generation# / 3# can be shown in the ,unnett )2uare. Gen .tttT t Punnet square tall plant (pure breed) dwarf plant (pure breed) x tt all plants in the first filial generation# /3# are tall (3445) this situation shows that tall trait is controlled by the dominant gene while short trait is controlled by the recessi$e gene. ratio of plants that are tall to dwarf plants are " 3. probability of obtaining tall plants in the second generation is 675 while the short plants is !75. T .. ! .t

,arents 1eiosis 'ametes /ertilisation /irst filial generation /irst filial generation 1eiosis 'ametes /ertilisation .t . .

..

.t tall plant .t (hybrid) tall tall .t x

.t tall

tall plant .t (hybrid) tall .t

.t

.t

tt

)econd filial generation

tall

tall

tall

dwarf

3.3 'e( De!ermin$!ion $n% The Occ)rrence of T*ins in H)m$n +ein&s. 'e( Chromosomes a human somatic cell has !" pairs of chromosomes (89 chromosomes). from the !" pairs of chromosomes# !! pairs are autosomes and one pair is sex chromosomes. sex chromosome determine the sex of a person. male sex chromosomes are :;. male somatic cell contains !! pairs of autosomes with one : chromosome and one ; chromosome. 88 < :; in meiosis# a male produces two types of gamete which o carries !! autosomes and one : chromosome. !!<: o carries !! autosomes and one ; chromosome. !!<; female sex chromosome is :: female somatic cell contains !! pairs of autosomes and two : chromosomes. 88 < :: in meiosis# a female gamete only carries !! autosomes and one : chromosome. !!<: 'e( De!ermin$!ion. the sex of child is determined by the father according to the type of sperm that fertilises the o$um. if a sperm that carries o the x chromosomes fertilises an o$um# a baby girl is born. o the y chromosomes fertilises an o$um# a baby boy is born. the probability of ha$ing a male child or female child is the same= 74 74 ,arents
88 < :;

88 < ::

1eiosis 'ametes /ertilisation -ffspring

88 < :: 88 < :: 88 < :; 88 < :; !!< : !! < ; !! < : !! < :

female 74

female

male 74

male

Occ)rrence of !*ins. in humans# normally one o$um fertilised by one sperm to form one (ygote which will de$elop to form an embryo. sometimes more than one embryo is produced in a pregnancy. twins - two babies born to a mother in a pregnancy and generally at the same time. - there are two types of twins identical twins non-identical twins Comparison between identical and non-identical twins. )imilarities two babies born in a pregnancy Differences Differences /ormation I%en!ic$l T*ins /ormed when an o$um fertilised by a sperm di$ides into two to form two similar embryos. .he two embryos formed will grow in one shared placenta in the mothers uterus. )ame genetic make-up. .herefore# identical twins ha$e the same appearance and the same sex. .he sex of identical twins are the same. Non,i%en!ic$l !*ins /ormed when two o$a are released by the o$ary at the same time and fertilised separately by two sperms to form two different embryos. .he two embryos formed when grow in separate placentas in the mothers uterus Different genetic make-up since they originate from two different o$a and sperms. .herefore# non-identical twins ha$e different appearances. .he sex of non-identical twins may be the same or different.

,lacenta

'enetic make-up

)ex

sometimes the di$ision of the embryo is not complete# therefore )iamese twins are formed. )iamese twins may share certain organs like brain# stomach# or heart and maybe >oined to one another at the head# abdomen# breast# or buttocks.

they can be separated by surgery if they do not share important organs like brain# heart# kidneys# or lungs.

3.

)!$!ion is the spontaneous change to the structure of genes or chromosomes of an organism. causes change of characteristics in a child. occurs in somatic cells or in gametes. the effect of mutation will be inherited by one generation to another. there are two types of mutation gene mutations chromosome mutations

Gene )!$!ions in$ol$e changes in the structure of gene. gene mutations change or produce the new genes to replace normal genes. genes that ha$e undergone mutation are called mutants. Here%i!y %ise$se c$)se% .y &ene m)!$!ion Albinism +rief e(pl$n$!ion )ickle cell anaemia &olour-blindness %aemophilia albinisms is caused by the change in the gene that controls skin colour. the newly produced genes are unable to produce skin pigment. the skin and hair of albinos are white and their eyes are pink. sickle cell anaemia is a type of disease caused by the change in the genes that produce haemoglobin. haemoglobin that has undergone mutation is not efficient in transporting oxygen. is a sex-linked disease determined by a recessi$e gene on the : chromosome. a colour-blind person cannot see or differentiate the colours red and green. caused by the deficiency if a type of protein in the blood re2uired for blood clotting. haemophilia is caused by the deficiency of a type of protein in the blood re2uired for blood clotting. haemophilia is a sex-linked disease determined by a recessi$e gene on the : chromosome.

 a patient who has wound will experience continuous bleeding or will take a long time for the blood to clot thus this condition way lead to death.

Chromosome )!$!ions in$ol$e changes in the number of chromosomes or arrangement of genes in chromosomes. sometimes# a portion of a chromosome may break away and go missing# or become attached itself to other chromosomes. this causes the arrangement of a chromosome to change and differ from normal. the number of chromosomes can be increased or decreased chromosome mutations can cause hereditary diseases like Downs syndrome# ?linefelters syndrome# and .urners syndrome. Downs syndrome o this heredity disease is caused by the presence of one extra chromosome at chromosomes !3 in the somatic cells. o incomplete separation of chromosomes during meiosis causes the (ygote to ha$e an extra chromosome 86 in total. o characteristics of a downs syndrome patient i. slanting eyes ii. metal retardation iii. short fingers i$. wide distance between eyes $. small mouth but big tongue $i. protruding tongue causing the mouth to remain partially open ?linefelters syndrome o a person who suffers from this hereditary diseases has one extra : chromosome ::; .urners syndrome o a person who suffers from this hereditary lacks one : chromosome. o people with .urner@s syndrome ha$e only one sex chromosome which is :-. /$c!ors !h$! c$)se m)!$!ion. i. mutation can occur naturally# caused by substances found in food or en$ironment. ii. agents causes mutations are called mutagens.

iii. chemical substances like pesticides# nicotine in cigarettes# drugs# nitrous acid and some preser$ati$es# colouring and artificial sweetener can cause mutation. i$. radiation A radioacti$e radiation can cause mutation A gamma ray can affect growth and cell di$ision A ultra$iolet rays and :-ray rays can cause skin cells to mutate and this may cause cancer $. temperatures which are too high or too low can also cause mutation. A%v$n!$&es $n% %is$%v$n!$&es of m)!$!ion. not all occurrences of mutation bring ad$erse effects to organisms. ad$antages of mutation mutation causes $ariations in organisms which allow them to adapt to the en$ironment. species that are more resistant to disease# weather# and polluted en$ironment can be produced. disad$antages of mutation some mutations cause diseases like colour-blindness and haemophilia cannot be cured. sometimes# disease like haemophilia and sickle cell anaemia can cause death. ?linefelters syndrome causes infertility. mutation causes physical# mental# or foestus retardation. 3.0 Effec!s of Gene!ic Rese$rch on H)m$n 1ife. 3. +esearch in genetics has contributed greatly to medicine and agriculture. !. Bn medicine# genetic research has helped to identify $arious hereditary diseases and ways to pre$ent those diseases. ". Bn agriculture# genetic research aims at impro$ing the 2uality of breeds through selecti$e breeding bringing in new species with higher resistance to diseases or pests obtaining the production of large 2uantities of crops and li$estock in the shortest time. e%icine. most of the hereditary diseases like colour-blindness# haemophilia and albinism are caused by recessi$e genes. genetic research can tell us how albinism caused by recessi$e genes an autosomes is inherited.

se$eral types of recessi$e genes that cause hereditary diseases are only found in the : chromosome. (such genes are called sex-linked genes) such genes are normally passed down by females who are the carrier to their children. colour-blindness and haemophilia are example of hereditary diseases caused by sex-linked genes in humans. a female can only suffer from colour-blindness if she has both recessi$e genes of this characteristics. a male will suffer from this diseases if he has one recessi$e gene. these are genes which are present in the : chromosomes but not in the ; chromosomes. Aa x Aa

,arents 1eiosis 'ametes /ertilisation 'enotype of -ffspring AA A

Aa normal but is a carrier

Aa normal but is a carrier

aa albino

&haracteristics of normal -ffspring

inheritance of albinism in humans ,arents 1eiosis 'ametes /ertilisation 'enotype of -ffspring :: ::b normal girl but is a carrier :; :b; : ; : :b :; x ::b

normal &haracteristics of girl -ffspring

normal boy colour but is a carrier -blind boy

inheritance of colour-blindness in humans

hereditary diseases like Downs syndrome can be identified on the foetus in the mothers womb. foetal cells in the mothers amniotic fluid are examined under a microscope. if 86 chromosomes are obser$ed in the foetal nucleus# the foetus is pro$ed ha$ing Downs syndrome. today# genetic engineering enables the transfer of DNA or genes from one organism to another.

A&ric)l!)re. selecti$e breeding is done on crops and li$estock. plants or li$estock are cross-bred from different $arieties to produce new $arieties which ha$e the desired characteristics. Type of crop ,addy -il palm 1ai(e ,apaya #$ren! pl$n! ,C.A from Bndonesia and D'*' from &hina Pisifera with dura )weetcorn from .aiwan and 1exico Hy.ri% B+-D .enera 1asmadu Ch$r$c!eris!ics of hy.ri% Eear more fruits# ripen faster and are more resistant to dry season Eear more fruits and ha$e thinner shell with more content /ruits are sweeter# bigger# and more resistant to disease and dry season /ruits are sweeter and ha$e more content

)ubang 9 and Cxotica )unrise )olo from %awaii examples of selecti e breeding in crops #$ren!s /resian and local

Type of lives!oc2 &ow &ow 'oat )heep

&hicken

Ch$r$c!eris!ics of ne* .ree% New breed produces more milk and are more adaptable to the change in the en$ironment /emale cow and male wild New breed (selembu) that ox grows faster and produces better 2uality Fumnapari goat from Bndia New breed that can produce and local goat more meat and milk )heep from Australia and New breed (1alin-:) is bigger local 1alin in si(e# matures faster# supplies better 2uality meat and wool Bmported and local New breed that grows and

!ampung chicken matures faster examples of breeding in li estoc! techni2ues of artificial insemination and embryo transfer are used in crossbreeding artificial insemination A good 2uality semen from the male animal is placed into the body of the female animal for fertilisation embryo transfer A an embryo of a good breed is placed into the uterus of a female animal

Gene!ic en&ineerin&.

'enetic 1odification

Ad$antages Eody health food containing certain nutrients re2uired by the body can be produced. Eetter 2uality crops and li$estock better 2uality of crops and li$estock can be produced. 2uantity can be increased. crops and li$estock that grow faster can be produced.

Disad$antages Nutritional $alue of food generically modified food may not ha$e the same nutritional $alue. Cffect of new genes new genes in food may be transferred to the human body. such genes may affect the functions of human cells.

Gong-term effect new species of crops and li$estock which &onser$ation of en$ironment adapt better to the change in the the use of pesticide can be reduced with en$ironment might cause authentic the production of crops which ha$e high 3.3 V$ri$!ion Amon& 1ivin& Thin&s. species to become extinct. resistance to diseases or pests. $ariation is the differences in the characteristics which exists among indi$iduals of the same species there are two types of $ariation continuous $ariation discontinuous $ariation Con!in)o)s V$ri$!ion. refers to characteristics which do not show ob$ious $ariation in a trait among indi$iduals of the same species. has continuous intermediate range between two extremes. examples of continuous $ariation are

i. height ii. body weight iii. intelligence i$. skin colour $. width of shoulder $i. length of sole continuous $ariation can be shown by a histogram

number of students

body weight Discon!in)o)s V$ri$!ion. discontinuous $ariation refers to characteristics which shows ob$ious and definite $ariation in a trait among indi$iduals if the same species examples of discontinuous $ariations are i. blood group ii. fingerprint iii. ability to roll the tongues i$. ear lobe $. left-handedness $i. presence of dimples discontinuous $ariation can be shown by a bar chart number of students

AE

blood groups

/$c!ors !h$! c$)se v$ri$!ion. there are ! factors which cause $ariation genetic factor en$ironmental factor Impor!$nce of v$ri$!ion. 3. Hariations which exist among the same species are important for the formation of new species. Eesides this# $ariations enable us to distinguish indi$iduals in the same species. !. Hariations enable newly produced species to adapt themsel$es better to any changes in the en$ironment. ". Bn plants# features of $ariation like resistance to pathogens# enable the plants to grow rapidly and reproduce 2uickly.