Riddle In Hinduism ______________________________________________

Contents PART I - RELIGIOUS Riddle No. 1 : The difficulty of knowing why one is a Hindu Riddle No. 2 : The Origin Of The VedasThe Brah inic !"#lanation or $n !"ercise %n The $rt Of &ircu locution Riddle No. ' : The Testi ony Of Other (hastras On The Origin Of The Vedas Riddle no. ) : *hy suddenly the +rah ins declare the ,edas to +e infalli+le and not to +e -uestioned. Riddle no. / : *hy did the +rah ins go further and declare that the ,edas are neither ade +y an nor +y god. Riddle no. 0 : The contents of the ,edas: ha,e they any oral or s#iritual ,alue. Riddle no. 1 : The turn of the tide or how did the +rah ins deceare the ,edas to +e lower than the lowest of their shastras. Riddle no. 2 : How the u#anishads declared war on the ,edas. Riddle no. 3 : How the u#anishads ca e to +e ade su+ordinate to the ,edas. Riddle no. 14 : *hy did the +rah ins ake the hindu gods fight against one another. Riddle no. 11 : *hy did the +rah ins ake the hindu gods suffer to rise and fall. Riddle no. 12 : *hy did the +rah ins dethrone the gods and enthrone the goddesses. Riddle no. 1' : The riddle of the ahi sa Riddle no. 1) : 5ro ahi sa +ack to hi sa Riddle no. 1/ : How did the +rah ins wed an ahi sak god to a +loodthirsty 6oddess. APPENDIX PART II - SOCIAL PART III - POLITICAL RIDDLE No. 1 THE DI ICULT! O "NO#ING #H! ONE IS A HINDU %ndia is a con7eries of co unities. There are in it 8arsis9 &hristians9 :oha edans and Hindus. The +asis of these co unities is not racial. %t is of course religious. This is a su#erficial ,iew. *hat is interesting to know is why is a 8arsi a 8arsi and why is a &hristian a &hristian9 why is a :usli a :usli and why is a Hindu a Hindu. *ith regard to the 8arsi9 the &hristian and the :usli it is

s ooth sailing. $sk a 8arsi why he calls hi self a 8arsi he will ha,e no difficulty in answering the -uestion. He will say he is a 8arsi +ecause he is a follower of ;oraster. $sk the sa e -uestion to a &hristian. He too will ha,e no difficulty in answering the -uestion. He is a &hristian +ecause he +elie,es in <esus &hrist. 8ut the sa e -uestion to a :usli . He too will ha,e no hesitation in answering it. He will say he is a +elie,er in %sla and that is why he is a :usli . Now ask the sa e -uestion to a Hindu and there is no dou+t that he will +e co #letely +ewildered and would not know what to say. %f he says that he is a Hindu +ecause he worshi#s the sa e 6od as the Hindu &o unity does his answer cannot +e true. $ll Hindus do not worshi# one 6od. (o e Hindus are onotheists9 so e are #olytheists and so e are #antheists. !,en those Hindus who are onotheists are not worshi##ers of the sa e 6ods. (o e worshi# the 6od Vishnu9 so e (hi,a9 so e Ra a9 so e =rishna. (o e do not worshi# the ale 6ods. They worshi# a goddess. !,en then they do not worshi# the sa e 6oddesses. They worshi# different 6oddesses. (o e worshi# =ali9 so e worshi# 8ar,ati9 so e worshi# >a" i. &o ing to the 8olytheists they worshi# all the 6ods. They will worshi# Vishnu and (hi,a9 also Ra a and =rishna. They will worshi# =ali9 8ar,ati and >a" i. $ Hindu will fast on the (hi,aratri day +ecause it is sacred to (hi,a. He will fast on !kadashi day +ecause it is sacred to Vishnu. He will #lant a Bel tree +ecause it is sacred to (hi,a and he will #lant a Tulsi +ecause it is dear to Vishnu. 8olytheists a ong the Hindus do not confine their ho age to the Hindu 6ods. No Hindu hesitates to worshi# a :usli 8ir or a &hristian 6oddess. Thousands of Hindus go to a :usli 8ir and ake offerings. $ctually there are in so e #laces Brah ins who own the office of a hereditary #riesthood of a :usli 8ir and wear a :usli 8ir?s dress. Thousands of Hindus go to ake offerings to the &hristian 6oddess :ant :auli near Bo +ay. The worshi# of the &hristian or :usli 6ods is only on occasions. But there are ore #er anent transfer of religious allegiance. There are any so@called Hindus whose religion has a strong :uha adan content. Nota+le a ongst these are the followers of the strange 8anch#iriya cult9 who worshi# fi,e :uha adan saints9 of uncertain na e and identity9 and sacrifice cocks to the 9 e #loying for the #ur#ose as their #riest a :uha adan Aafali fakir. Throughout %ndia any Hindus ake #ilgri ages to :uha adan shrines9 such as that of (akhi (arwar in the 8un7a+. (#eaking of the :alkanas :r. Blunt says that they are con,erted Hindus of ,arious castes +elonging to $gra and the ad7oining districts. chiefly :uttra9 !ttah and :ain#uri. They are of Ra7#ut9 <at and Bania descent. They are reluctant to descri+e the sel,es as :usal ans9 and generally gi,e their original caste na e and scarcely recogniBe the na e :alkana. Their na es are HinduC they ostly worshi# in Hindu te #les: they use the salutation Ra @Ra : they inter arry a ongst

the sel,es only. On the other hand9 they so eti es fre-uent a os-ue9 #ractise circu cision and +ury their dead: they will eat with :uha adans if they are #articular friends. %n 6u7arat there are se,eral si ilar co unities such as the :atia =un+is9 who call in Brah ans for their chief cere onies9 +ut are followers of the 8irana saint % a (hah and his successors9 and +ury their dead as do the :uha adans: the (heikhadas at their weddings e #loy +oth Hindu and a :uha adan #riest9 and the :o ans who #ractise circu cision9 +ury their dead and read the 6u7arati =oran9 +ut in other res#ects follow Hindu custo and cere onial. %f he says that D% a a Hindu +ecause % hold to the +eliefs of the HindusD his answer cannot +e right for here one is confronted with the fact that Hinduis has no definite creed. The +eliefs of #ersons who are +y all ad itted to +e Hindus often differ ore widely fro each other than do those of &hristians and :uha adans. >i iting the issue to cardinal +eliefs the Hindus differ a ong the sel,es as to the +eliefs which arc of cardinal i #ortance. (o e say that all the Hindu scri#tures ust +e acce#ted9 +ut so e would e"clude the Tantras9 while others would regard only the Vedas as of #ri ary i #ortanceC so e again think that the sole essential is +elief in the doctrine of kar a and ete #sychosis. $ co #le" congeries of creeds and doctrines is Hinduis . %t shelters within its #ortals onotheists9 #olytheists and #antheistsC worshi##ers of the great 6ods (hi,a and Vishnu or of their fe ale counter#arts9.as well as worshi##ers of the di,ine others or the s#irits of trees9 rocks and strea s and the tutelary ,illage deitiesC #ersons who #ro#itiate their deity +y all anner of +loody sacrifices9 and #ersons who will not only kill no li,ing creature +ut who ust not e,en use the word ?cut ?C those whose ritual consists ainly of #rayers and hy ns9 and those who indulge in uns#eaka+le orgies in the na e of religionC and a host of ore or less heterodo" sectaries9 any of who deny the su#re acy of the Brah ans9 or at least ha,e non@Brah anical religious leaders. %f he says that he is a Hindu +ecause he o+ser,es the sa e custo s as other Hindus do his answer cannot +e true. 5or all Hindus do not o+ser,e the sa e custo s. %n the north near relati,es are for+idden to arryC +ut in the south cousin arriage is #rescri+ed9 and e,en closer alliances are so eti es #er itted. $s a rule fe ale chastity is highly ,alued9 +ut so e co unities set little store +y it9 at any rate #rior to arriage9 and others ake it a rule to dedicate one daughter to a life of religious #rostitution. %n so e #arts the wo en o,e a+out freelyC in others they are ke#t secluded. %n so e #arts they wear skirtsC in others trousers. $gain if he said that he is a Hindu +ecause he +elie,es in the caste syste his answer cannot +e acce#ted as satisfactory. %t is -uite true that no Hindu is interested in what his neigh+our +elie,es9 +ut he is ,ery uch interested in knowing whether

he can eat with hi or take water fro his hands. %n other words it eans that the caste syste is an essential feature of Hinduis and a an who does not +elong to a recogniBed Hindu &aste cannot +e a Hindu. *hile all this is true it ust not +e forgotten that o+ser,ance of caste is not enough. :any :usal ans and any &hristians o+ser,e caste if not in the atter of inter@dining certainly in the atter of inter@ arriage. But they cannot +e called Hindus on that account. Both ele ents ust +e #resent. He ust +e a Hindu and he ust also o+ser,e caste. This +rings us +ack to the old -uestion who is a Hindu. %t lea,es us where we are. %s it not a -uestion for e,ery Hindu to consider why in the atter of his own religion his #osition is so e +arrassing and so #uBBling. *hy is he not a+le to answer so si #le a -uestion which e,ery 8arsi9 e,ery &hristian9 and e,ery :usli can answer. %s it not ti e that he should ask hi self what are the causes that has +rought a+out this Religious chaos . No. $ THE ORIGIN O THE %EDAS& THE 'RAH(INIC EXPLANATION OR AN EXERCISE IN THE ART O CIRCU(LOCUTION There is hardly any Hindu who does not regard the Vedas as the ost sacred Book of his religion. $nd yet ask any Hindu what is the origin of the Vedas and it would +e difficult to find one who can gi,e a clear and a definite answer to the si #le -uestion. Of course9 if the -uestion was addressed to a Vedic Brah in he would say that the Vedas are (anatan. But this is no answer to the -uestion. 5or first of all what does the word Sanatan eans. The +est e"#lanation of the word Sanatan is to +e found in the &o entary +y =alluka Bhatt on &ha#ter % (hiokas 22@2' of the :anu ( riti. This is what =ulluka Bhatt defines the word (anatanEFf1G. We have found 72 pages dealing with the subject " Origin of the Vedas ". These pages were neither arranged properly nor paged either by the typist or by the author. We have atte pted to organi!e and arrange all these loose papers syste atically and divide the into the "iddle #o$ 2 to %$ in accordance with the arrange ent given in the Table of contents. &t is difficult to assu e that all these pages are co plete in the treat ent of the subject of each 'hapter. (There is$ however$ one independent chapter containing %) pages under the title *"iddle of the Vedas *placed as +ppendi, &. That essay deals with all the subjects entioned in the Table of 'ontents at Sr. #o. 2 to % in a consolidated anner. Several paras ay be found repeated in that essay. The original -S of the chapters 2 to % included here hears corrections and odifications in the handwriting of the author$ whereas the 'hapter included as +ppendi, & is a typed second copy having no corrections at all. We have followed the chronology of the Table of contents and
RIDDLE

the pages of corrected -S are arranged accordingly.. DThe word (anatana he says9 eans ?eternally #re@e"isting?. The doctrine of the su#erhu an origin of the Vedas is aintained +y :anu. The sa e Vedas which He"istedI in the #re,ious undane era H=al#aI were #reser,ed in the e ory of the o niscient Brah a9 who was one with the su#re e s#irit. %t was those sa e Vedas that9 in the +eginning of the #resent =al#a9 he drew forth fro $gni9 Vayu and (uryaC and this dog a9 which is founded u#on the Veda9 is not to +e -uestioned9 for the Veda says9 ?the Rig@Veda co es fro $gni9 the Ja7ur@Veda fro Vayu9 and the Sa a/Veda fro (urya. D To understand the e"#lanation +y 0ullu1a 2hatt it is necessary to e"#lain what =al#a eans. $ =al#a is a reckoning of ti e ado#ted +y the Vedic Brah ins. The Brah anic reckoning of ti e di,ides ti e into H1I Varsha9 H2I Juga9 H'I :ahayuga9 H)I :an,antara and H/I =al#a. Varsha is easy enough to understand. %t corres#onds to the ter year. *hat e"actly the #eriod of ti e co,ered +y the ter Juga co,ers there is no unani ity. $ :ahayuga is a #eriod co,ered +y a grou# of four Jugas: H1I =rita Juga9 H2I Treta Juga9 H'I Awa#ar Juga and H)I =ali Juga. The four Jugas follow one another in a cycle9 when the #eriod of the first Juga is s#ent it is followed +y the second and so on in the order gi,en. *hen the cycle is co #lete one :ahayuga is co #leted and a new :ahayuga o#ens. !,ery :ahayuga +egins with the =rita Juga and ends with =ali Juga. There is no uncertainty as to the ti e relation of a :ahayuga and a =al#a. 11 :ahayugas ake one =al#a. There is howe,er so e uncertainty as to the ti e relation +etween :ahayuga and :an,antara. $ :an,antara is e-ual to 11 :ahayugas Dand so ething oreD?. *hat e"act #eriod of ti e that ?so ething ore? eans9 the Brah ins ha,e not +een a+le to state categorically. &onse-uently the ti e relation +etween :an,antara and =al#a is uncertain. But this does not atter ,ery uch for our #resent #ur#oses. 5or the #resent it is enough to confine our attention to =al#a. The idea underlying ? =al#a ? is closely connected with the creation and dissolution of the Kni,erse. The creation of the world is called Srashti. The dissolution of the uni,erse is called 3ralaya. Ti e +etween Srashti and 3ralaya is called 0alpa. The idea of the origin of the Vedas is thus ore inti ately connected with the idea of =al#a. $ccording to this sche e of things9 what is su##osed to ha##en is that when a 0alpa +egins creation +egins. *ith the +eginning of the creation there co es into +eing a new series of Vedas. *hat =ulluka Bhatt wants to con,ey is that though in a sense e,ery new =al#a has a new series of Vedas the sa e old Vedas are re#roduced +y Brah a fro his e ory. That is why he says the Vedas are

(anatan i.e.9 eternally #re@e"isting. *hat =alluka Bhatt says is that the Vedas are re#roduced fro e ory. The real -uestion is who ade the and not who re#roduced the . !,en if one acce#ts the theory of re#roduction at the +eginning of each =al#a the -uestion still re ains who ade the Vedas when the 5irst =al#a +egan. The Vedas could not ha,e co e into +eing e,/nihilo. They ust ha,e a +eginning though they ay ha,e no end. *hy don?t the Brah ins say o#enly. *hy this circu locution. RIDDLE NO. ) THE TESTI(ON! O OTHER SHASTRAS ON THE ORIGIN O THE %EDAS I The search for the origin of the Vedas ay well +egin with the Vedas the sel,es. The Rig@Veda #ro#ounds a theory of the origin of the Vedas. %t is set out in the fa ous 8urusha (ukta. $ccording to it9 there was a ystic sacrifice of the 8urusha a ythical +eing and it is out of this sacrifice that the three Vedas na ely. Rig9 (a a9 Ja7us ca e into +eing. The (a a@Veda and Ja7ur@Veda ha,e nothing to say a+out the origin of the Vedas. The only other Veda that refers to this -uestion is the $thar,a@Veda. %t has any e"#lanations regarding the origin of the Vedas. One e"#lanation EFf2G reads as follows: D 5ro Ti e the Rig ,erses s#rangC the Ja7us s#rang fro Ti e. D There are also two other ,iews #ro#ounded in the $thar,a@Veda on this su+7ect. The first of these is not ,ery intelligent and ay +e gi,en in its own language which runs as follows : D Aeclare who that (ka +a Hsu##orting #rinci#leI is in who the #ri e,al rishis9 the rick9 sa an9 and ya7ush9 the earth and the one rishi9 are sustained.... D Aeclare who is that (ka +a fro who they cut off the rick ,erses9 fro who they scra##ed off the ya7ush9 of who the sa an ,erses are the hairs and the ,erses of $thar,an and $ngiras the outh. D O+,iously this state ent is a challenge to so e one who had #roclai ed that the Rig9 (a a and Ja7ur Veda were +orn out of a (ka +a. The second e"#lanation gi,en in the $thar,a@Veda is that the Vedas s#rang fro %ndra. II This is all that the Vedas ha,e to say a+out their own origin. Ne"t in order of the Vedas co e the Brah anas. *e ust therefore in-uire into what they ha,e to say on this su+7ect. The only Brah anas which atte #t to e"#lain the origin of the Vedas are the (ata#atha Brah ana9 the Taitteriya Brah ana. $itereya Brah ana and =aushitaki Brah ana. The (ata#atha Brah ana has a ,ariety of e"#lanations. One attri+utes the origin of the Vedas to 8ra7a#ati . $ccording to it:
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D 8ra7a#ati9 was for erly this uni,erse Hi.e.9 the sole e"istenceI one only. He desired9 ? ay % +eco e9 ay % +e #ro#agated ?. He toiled in de,otion9 he #erfor ed austerity. D 5ro hi 9 when he had so toiled and #erfor ed austerity9 three worlds were createdearth9 air and sky. He infused war th into these three worlds. 5ro the 9 thus heated9 three lights were #roduced9 $gni HfireI9 this which #urifies i.e.9 8a,ana9 or Vayu9 Hthe *indI9 and (urya Hthe (unI. He infused heat into these three lights. 5ro the so heated the three Vedas were #roduced9 the Rig@Veda fro $gni HfireI9 the Ja7ur@Veda fro Vayu H*indI and the (a a@Veda fro (urya Hthe (unI. He infused war th into these three Vedas. 5ro the so heated three lu inous essences were #roduced9 bhuh$ fro the Rig@Veda9 bhuvah fro the Ja7ur@Veda9 and svar fro the (a a@Veda. Hence9 with the Rig@Veda9 the office of the adhvaryu4 with the (a a@Veda9 the duty of the udgatri4 while the function of the +rah an arose through the lu inous essence of the tri#le science Hi.e.9 the three Vedas co +inedI.?D The (ata#atha Brah ana gi,es another ,ariant of this e"#lanation of the origin of the Veda fro 8ra7a#ati. The e"#lanation is that 8ra7a#ati created the Vedas fro waters. (ays the (ata#atha Brah ana: DThis ale9 8ra7a#ati9 desired9 ?:ay % ulti#ly9 ay % +e #ro#agated ?. He toiled in de,otionC he #ractised austere@fer,our. Ha,ing done so he first of all created sacred knowledge9 the tri#le Vedic science. This +eca e a +asis for hi . *herefore en say9 ? sacred knowledge is the +asis of this uni,erse ?. Hence after studying the Veda a an has a standing groundC for sacred knowledge is his foundation. Resting on this +asis he H8ra7a#atiI #ractised austere@fer,our. He created the waters fro Vach Hs#eechI as their world. Vach was hisC she was created. $s she #er,aded Ha#notI waters were called ?a#ah?. $s she co,ered Ha,rinotI all9 water was called ?Var?. He desired9 ?:ay % +e #ro#agated fro these waters ?. $long with this tri#le Vedic science he entered the waters. Thence s#rang an egg. He ga,e it an i #ulseC and said ?let there +e9 let there +e9 let there +e again ?.Thence was first created sacred knowledge9 the tri#le Vedic science. *herefore en say9 ?(acred knowledge is the first@+orn thing? in this uni,erse. :oreo,er9 it was sacred knowledge which was created fro that :ale in front9 wherefore it was created as his outh. Hence they say of a an learned in the Veda9 ?he is like $gniC for the sacred knowledge is $gni?s outh ?. D There is a third e"#lanation gi,en in the (ata#atha Brah ana: D % settle thee in the ocean as they seat. D D :ind is the ocean. 5ro the ind@ocean with s#eech for a sho,el the 6ods dug out the tri#le Vedic science. Hence this ,erse has +een utteredC ?:ay the +rilliant deity today know where they #laced that offering which the 6ods dug out with shar# sho,els. :ind is the oceanC s#eech is the shar# sho,elC the tri#le Vedic (cience is
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the offering. %n reference to this the ,erse has +een uttered. He settles it in :ind.D The Taitteriya @ Brah ana has three e"#lanations to offer. %t s#eaks of the Vedas as +eing deri,ed fro 8ra7a#ati. %t also says 8ra7a#ati created king (o a and after hi the three. Vedas were created . This Brah ana has another e"#lanation -uite unconnected with 8ra7a#ati. $ccording to it: DVach Hs#eechI is an i #erisha+le thing9 and the first@+orn of the cere onial9 the other of the Vedas9 and the centre@#oint of i ortality. Aelighting in us9 she ca e to the sacrifice. :ay the #rotecting goddess +e ready to listen to y in,ocation9 she who the wise rishis9 the co #osers of hy ns9 the 6ods sought +y austere@fer,our9 and +y la+orious de,otion. D To crown all this the Taitteriya Brah ana offers a third e"#lanation. %t says that the Vedas ca e fro the +eard of 8ra7a#ati. Ill The K#anishads ha,e also atte #ted to e"#lain the origin of the Vedas. The e"#lanation offered +y the &hhandogya K#anishad is the sa e as that gi,en +y the (ata#atha Brah anana ely that the Rig@Veda originated fro $gni9 Ja7us fro Vayu and (a fro the (un. The Brahad $ranyaka K#anishad has two e"#lanations to offer. %n one #lace9 it says : D$s fro a fire ade of oist wood9 ,arious odifications of s oke #roceed9 so is the +reathing of this great Being the Rig@Veda9 the Ja7ur@Veda9 the (a a@Veda9 the $thar,angirases9 the %tihasas9 8uranas9 science9 the K#anishads9 ,erses HslokasI9 a#horis s9 co ents of different kindsall these are his +reathings. D %n another #lace9 it says D 8ra7a#ati Hidentified with Aeath or the Ae,ourerI is said to ha,e #roduced Vach Hs#eechI9 and through her9 together with soul9 to ha,e created all things9 including the Vedas.D DBy that s#eech and that soul he created all things whatsoe,er9 rick9 ya7ush9 and sa an te"ts9 etres9 sacrifices9 creatures and ani als. D DThe three Vedas are Hidentifia+le withI these three things Hs#eech9 ind and +reathI. (#eech is the Rig@Veda9 ind the Ja7ur@Veda and +reath the (a a@Veda.D I% &o ing to the ( ritis9 there are two theories as to the origin of the Vedas to +e found in the :anu ( riti. %n one #lace 9 it is said that the Vedas were created +y Brah a. DHe HBrah aI in the +eginning fashioned fro the words of the Veda the se,eral na es9 functions9 and se#arate conditions of all HcreaturesI. That >ord also created the su+tle host of acti,e and li,ing deities9 and of (adhyas9 and eternal sacrifice. $nd in order to the #erfor ance of sacrifice9 he drew forth fro $gni9 fro Vayu and fro (urya9 the tri#le eternal Veda9 distinguished as Rick9 Ja7ush and (a an.D
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%n another #lace he see s to acce#t the story of 8ra7a#ati +eing the originator of the Vedas as would +e e,ident fro the following:
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D8ra7a#ati also ilked out of the three Vedas the letters9 *a *$ * u *$ *nd " * together with the words *bhuh ?9 ? bhuvah ?and * svar *. The sa e su#re e 8ra7a#ati also ilked fro each of the three Vedas one of the three #ortions of the te"t called (a,itri Hor gayatriI9 +eginning with the word tat... . The three great i #erisha+le #articles H+huh9+hu,ah9 s,arI #receded +y o 9 and the gayatri of three lines9 are to +e regarded as he outh of Brah a.D % %t is also interesting to note what the 8uranas ha,e to say a+out the origin of the Vedas. The Vishnu 8urana says: D 5ro his eastern outh Brah a for ed the gayatra9 the rick ,erses9 the tri,rit9 the so a@rathantara9 and of sacrifices9 the agnishto a. 5ro his southern outh he created the ya7ush ,erses9 the trishtu+h etre9 the #anchadasa@sto a9 the ,rihat@ sa an and the ukthya. 5ro his western outh he for ed the sa an ,erses9 the 7agati etre9 the sa#tadasa@sto a9 the ,airu#a9 and the atiratra. 5ro his northern outh he fra ed the eka,insa9 the athar,an9 the a#torya an9 with the anushtu+h and +ira7 etres. D The Bhag,at 8urana says: DOnce the Vedas s#rang fro the four@faced creator9 as he was editating ? how shall % create the aggregate worlds as +efore.. . . He for ed fro his eastern and other ouths the Vedas called rick9 ya7ush9 sa an9 and athar,an9 together with #raise9 sacrifice9 hy ns and e"#iation. D 56There appears lo be so e 7uotations issing as there is no lin1 between these two paragraphs.8 D !ntering +etween her eyes. 5ro her there was then #roduced a -uadru#le +eing in the for of a :ale9 lustrous as Brah a9 undefined9 eternal9 undecaying9 de,oid of +odily senses or -ualities9 distinguished +y the attri+ute of +rilliancy9 #ure as the rays of the oon9 radiant9 and e +odied in letters. The 6od fashioned the Rig@Veda9 with the Ja7ush fro his eyes9 the (a a@Veda fro the ti# of his tongue9 and the $thar,an fro his head. These Vedas9 as soon as they are +orn9 find a +ody9 HkshetraI. Hence they o+tain their character of Vedas9 +ecause they find H,indantiI that a+ode. These Vedas then create the #re@e"istent eternal Brah a Hsacred scienceI9 a :ale of celestial for 9 with their own ind@+orn -ualities. D %t also acce#ts 8ra7a#ati as the origin. %t says that when the (u#re e +eing was intent on creating the Kni,erse9 Hiranyagar+ha9 or 8ra7a#ati9 issued fro his outh the sound ? O ?9 and was desired to di,ide hi selfa #rocess which he was in great dou+t how he should effect the Hari,a sa #roceeds : D *hile he was thus reflecting9 the sound ? o ? issued fro hi 9 and resounded through the earth9 air and sky. *hile the 6od of 6ods was again and again
Ff10G Ff11G Ff12G

re#eating this9 the essence of ind9 the ,ashatkara #roceeded fro his heart. Ne"t9 the sacred and transcendent ,yahritis9 H+huh9 +hu,ah9 s,arI9 for ed of the great s riti9 in the for of sound9 were #roduced fro earth9 air9 and sky. Then a##eared the goddess9 the ost e"cellent of eters9 with twenty@four sylla+les Hthe gayatriI. Reflecting on the di,ine te"t H+eginning withI ?tat?9 the >ord for ed the (a,itri. He then #roduced all the Vedas9 the Rick9 (a an9 $thar,an9 and Ja7ush9 with their #rayers and rites.D %I Here we ha,e ele,en different e"#lanations regarding the origin of the VedasH1I as originating fro the ystical sacrifice of 8urusha9 H2I as resting on (ka +ha9 H'I as cut or scra#ed off fro hi 9 as +eing his hair and his outh9 H)I as s#ringing fro %ndra9 H/I as #roduced fro Ti e9 H0I as #roduced fro $gni9 Vayu and (urya9 H1I as s#ringing fro 8ra7a#ati9 and the *aters9 H2I as +eing the +reath of Brah a9 H3I as +eing dug +y the 6ods out of ind@ocean9 H14I as +eing the hair of 8ra7a#ati?s +eard and H%%I as +eing the offs#ring of Vach. This +ewildering ulti#licity of answers to a si #le -uestion is a riddle. The writers who ha,e co e forward to furnish these answers are all Brah ins. They +elong to the sa e Vaidik school of thought. They alone were the guardians of the ancient religious lore. *hy should they ha,e gi,en such incoherent and chaotic answers to a ,ery si #le -uestion. R%AA>! No. ) *HJ (KAA!N>J TH! BR$H:%N( A!&>$R! TH! V!A$( TO B! %N5$>>%B>! $NA NOT TO B! LK!(T%ON!A. To say that the Vedas occu#y a ,ery high #osition in the Religious literature of the Hindus is to ake an understate ent. To say that the Vedas for the sacred literature of the Hindus will also +e an inade-uate state ent. 5or the Vedas +esides +eing a sacred literature of the Hindus is a +ook whose authority cannot +e -uestioned. The Vedas are infalli+le. $ny argu ent +ased on the Vedas is final and conclusi,e. There is no a##eal against it. This is the theory of the Vedic Brah ins and is acce#ted +y the generality of the Hindus. I On what does this theory rest. The theory rests on the ,iew that the Vedas are +paurusheya. *hen the Vedic Brah ins say that the Vedas are +paurusheya what they ean is that they were not ade +y an. Not +eing ade +y an9 they are free fro the failings9 faults and frailties to which e,ery an is su+7ect and are therefore infalli+le. II %t is difficult to understand how such a theory ca e to +e #ro#ounded +y the Vedic Brah ins. 5or there was a ti e when the Vedic Brah ins the sel,es thought -uite

differently on the -uestion of the authority of the Vedas as +eing final and conclusi,e. These Vaidi1 Brah ins are no other than the authors of the ,arious Ahar a (utras. The following are the ,iews e"#ressed +y the Ahar a (utras on -uestion of the authority of the Vedas: To +egin with the 6auta a Ahar a (utra. %t lays down the following rule on the -uestion of the infalli+ility of the Vedas. DThe Veda is the source of the sacred lawD 1@1. D$nd the tradition and #ractice of those who know the VedaD %@2. D D%f authorities of e-ual force are conflicting9 Heither ay +e followed atI #leasureD %@ ). The Vashishta Ahar a (utra #ro#ounds the following ,iew: DThe sacred law has +een settled +y the re,ealed te"ts i.e.9 Vedas and +y the tradition of the sagesD %@). D On the failure of Hrules gi,en inI these Htwo sourcesI the #ractice of (hishtas HhasI authorityD %@/. The ,iews of Baudhayana are gi,en +elow: 8rasna %9 $dhyaya %9 =andika %. (1) H1I The sacred law is taught in each Veda. (2) H2I *e will e"#lain HitI in accordance with that. H'I HThe sacred lawI9 taught in the tradition H( ritiI stands second. H)I The #ractice of the (ishtas HstandsI third. H/I On failure of the an $sse +ly consisting at least of ten e +ers Hshall decide dis#uted #oints of lawI. The ,iew taken +y the $#asta +a Ahar a (utra is clear fro the following e"tract fro that (utra: DNow9 therefore9 we will declare the acts #roducti,e of erit which for #art of the custo s of daily lifeD 1@1. DThe authority Hfor these dutiesI is the agree ent Hsa ayaI of those who know the lawD. 1@2. D$nd Hthe authorities for the latter areI the Vedas aloneD 1@'. *ith regard to the Shishtas +oth the Vashishtha Ahar a (utra and also the Baudhayana Ahar a (utra ha,e taken #articular care to define who can +e regarded as Shishtas. The Vashishta Ahar a (utra says: DHe whose heart is free fro desire His calledI a (hishtaD. %@0. Baudhayana goes into uch greater details a+out the -ualification of the (hishtas. This is what he says: D/. (hishtas9 forsooth9 Hare thoseI who are free fro en,y9 free fro #ride9 contented with a store of grain sufficient for ten days9 free fro co,etousness9 and free fro hy#ocrisy9 arrogance9 greed9 #er#le"ity and anger.D

D 0. Those are called (hishtas who9 in accordance with the sacred law9 ha,e studied the Veda together with its a##endages9 know how to draw inferences fro that HandI are a+le to adduce #roofs #erce#ti+le +y the senses fro the re,ealed te"ts. D Baudhayana has also so ething ,ery interesting to say a+out the asse +ly who he authorises to decide. The following are his ,iews on the atter: D2. Now they -uote also Hthe following ,ersesI: ?5our en9 who each know one of the four Vedas9 a :i ansaka9 one who knows the $ngas9 one who recites Hthe works onI the sacred law9 and three Brah anas +elonging to Hthree differentI orders9 constitute an asse +ly consisting at least of ten e +ers. D D3. There ay +e fi,e9 or there ay +e three9 or there ay +e one +la eless an9 who decides H-uestions regardingI the sacred law. But a thousand fools HcanI not do itI. D D$s an ele#hant ade of wood9 as an antelo#e ade of leather9 such an unlearned Brah anaC those three ha,ing nothing +ut the na e Hof their kindID. This re,iew of Ahar a (utras? Ff13Gshows that the H1I Veda9 H2I Tradition H( ritiI9 H'I 8ractice of (hishta and H)I $gree ent in an asse +ly were the four different authorities which were re-uired to +e referred to in the decision of an issue which was in contro,ersy. %t also shows that there was a ti e when the Vedas were not the sole infalli+le authorities. That was the ti e re#resented +y the Ahar a (utras of Vashishta and Baudhayana. $#asta +ha does not in,est the Vedas with any authority at all. =nowledge of Vedas is ade +y hi as an electoral -ualification for e +ershi# of the $sse +ly whose agreed decision is the law and the only law. The Veda was not at all regarded as a +ook of authority and when the only recogniBed source of authority was an agree ent arri,ed at in an $sse +ly of the learned. %t is only in the ti e of 6auta a that the Vedas ca e to +e regarded as the only authority. There was a ti e when an agreed decision of the $sse +ly was ad itted as one source of authority. That is the #eriod re#resented +y Baudhayana. This conclusion is reinforced +y the following -uotation fro the (ata#atha Brah ana. %t says: 69eft inco plete. :uotation and further discussion not given.8 RiAA>! No. / *HJ A%A TH! BR$H:%N( 6O 5KRTH!R $NA A!&>$R! TH$T TH! V!A$( $R! N!%TH!R :$A! BJ :$N NOR BJ 6OA. The Vedic Brah ins were not content with in,esting the Vedas with %nfalli+ility. They went further and asserted that the Vedas were $#aurusheya. By this they eant the Vedas were not ade +y an. This doctrine no dou+t leads to the doctrine of %nfalli+ility. 5or not +eing ade +y an they are free fro the failings9 faults and frailties of an and are therefore infalli+le. $ll the sa e it is necessary to

e"a ine the theory se#arately for it is an inde#endent theory. %s there really no hu an author of the Vedas. $re they really $#aurusheya. The +est e,idence on the su+7ect is the e,idence of the +nu1ra anis; a s#ecial class of literature which for s #art of the ancient (anskrit literature. *hat are called $nukra anis are nothing +ut syste atic indices to ,arious #ortions of the ancient Vedic literature. !,ery Veda has an $nukra ani9 so eti es ha,e ore than one $nukra ani. (e,en $nukra anis for the Rig@Veda are known to +e in e"istence9 fi,e +y (haunaka9 one +y =atyayana and one +y an unknown author. 5or the Ja7ur@Veda there e"ist three $nukra anis9 one for each of the three (hakhas9 $treyi9 &harayaniyas and :adhyandina. 5or the (a a@Veda there are two $nukra anis9 one is called $rsheya@Brah ana and the other is known +y the na e 8arishistas. $s to the $thar,a@Veda one $nukra ani is known to e"ist. %t is known as Brihat@ (ar,anukra ani. The ost #erfect $nukra ani according to 8rof. :a" :uller is =atyayana?s (ar,anukra ani to the Rig@Veda. %ts i #ortance lies in the tact that it gi,es H1I the first words of each hy n9 H2I the nu +er of ,erses. H'I the na e and the fa ily of the Rishi who co #osed it9 H)I the na es of the deities and H/I the etres of e,ery ,erse. *hat e erges fro a reference to the (ar,anukra ani is that the Rishis are the authors of the hy ns which ake u# the Rig@Veda. The Rig@Veda therefore on the e,idence of the $nukra ani cannot +ut +e regarded as a an@ ade work. The sa e ust +e the conclusion regarding the other Vedas. That the $nukra anis are realistic is #ro,ed +y any #assages in the Rig@Veda in which the Rishis descri+e the sel,es as the co #osers of the hy ns. Below are gi,en a few of such #assages: DThe =an,as ake a #rayer to you9 hear well their in,ocation?. Thus9 O9 %ndra9 yoker of steeds9 ha,e the 6ota as ade hy ns for these efficaciouslyD DThis hy n has efficaciously +een ade to you9 4 o#ulent $s,ins9 +y the :anasD DThese agnifying #rayers9 HthisI hy n9 4 $s,ins9 the 6ritsa adas ha,e ade for you D D$s#iring to hea,en9 the sage =usikas ha,e ade a hy n with #raises to thee9 O %ndra. D DNodhas9 descendant of 6ota a9 fashioned this new hy n for HtheeI. %ndra9 who are of old9 and who yokest thy steedsD DThus 49 hero9 ha,e the 6ritsa adas9 desiring succour9 fashioned for thee a hy n as en ake works. D DThe sages generated an efficacious #roduction and a #rayer for %ndra.D DThese hy ns9 $gni9 generated for thee9 cele+rate thy +ounty in cows and horses. D DOur father hath disco,ered Hor in,entedI this great9 se,enheaded hy n9 +orn of sacred truthC $yasya9 friend of all en cele+rating %ndra9 has generated the fourth

song of #raise.D D*e9 the Raghuanas9 ha,e uttered to $gni honied s#eechC we incessantly laud hi with eulogies. D DThus9 all ye $dityas9 $diti9 and ye ruling #owers9 has the wise son of 8lati agnified you. The celestial race has +een lauded +y the i ortal 6aya. D D He it is who they call a rishi9 a #riest9 a #ious sacrificer9 a chanter of #rayers9 a reciter of hy ns9 he it is who knows the three +odies of the +rilliant H$gniI9 the an who is ost #ro inent in +estowing gifts. D $#art fro the e,idence of the $nukra anis there is another sort of e,idence which ilitates against the theory of the Vedas +eing $#aurusheya. The Rishis the sel,es ha,e treated the Vedas as a hu an and as a historical #roduct. The hy ns of Rig@Veda distinguish +etween ancient and odern Rishis. Here are a few of the : D$gni9 who is worthy to +e cele+rated +y for er as well as odern rishis9 will +ring the gods hither. D DThe for er rishis who in,oked thee for succour. D DHear the hy n of e this odern sage9 of this odern HsageI. D D %ndra9 as thou hast +een like a 7oy to for er worshi##ers who #raised thee9 like waters to the thirsty9 % in,oke thee again and again with this hy n. D DThe ancient rishis9 res#lendent and sage9 ha,e #laced in front of the HBrihas#atiI with gladdening tongue.D DNeither the ancients nor later en9 nor any odern an9 has attained to Hconcei,edI thy #rowess9 O9 :adha,an.D D$s H%ndra?sI for er worshi##ers were9 H ay we +eI +la eless9 irre#roacha+le9 and unhar ed.D D5or9 now9 4 energetic god9 en are thy worshi##ers as the ancients +orn of old and the en of the iddle and later ages ha,e +een thy friends. $nd 49 uch@ in,oked think of the ost recent of all. DTo Hi H%ndraI our ancient fathers9 the se,en Na,aga,a sages desiring food9 HresortedI with their hy ns. D D6lorified +y our newest hy n9 do thou +ring to us wealth and food with #rogeny.D $ closer study of the Rig@Veda will show that the Rig@Veda itself akes a distinction +etween old hy ns and new hy ns. (o e of the are gi,en +elow: D6lorified +y our newest hy n9 do thou +ring to us wealth and food and #rogeny.D D$gni thou hast announced Hor do thou announcestI a ong the gods this our offering9 our newest hy n.D DThrough our new hy ns9 do thou9 ,igorous in action9 destroyer of cities9 sustain us with in,igorating +lessings. D D % +ring to $gni9 the son of strength9 a new and energetic hy n9 a #roduction of9 thought uttered +y the ,oice H,achahI.D

D % #resent to the ighty #rotector a ental #roduction9 a new utterance HnowI s#ringing u#D D:ay the new #rayer i #el thee9 the heroic well@accourted9 the loud@thundering to succour us. D D % seek like the ancients9 to sti ulate thee9 the ancient9 with a new hy n. D D:ay the new hy ns ade to #raise you9 ay these #rayers gratify you.D D (ing O9 (o+hari9 with a new hy n to these youthful9 ,igorous9 and +rilliant HgodsI D%ndra9 slayer of Vritra9 thunderer9 in,oked of any9 we HthyI nu erous Hworshi##ersI +ring to thee9 as thy hire9 hy ns which ne,er +efore e"isted. D D % will address to this ancient HdeityI y new #raises which he desires: :ay he listen to usD D Aesiring horses9 cattle9 and wealth we in,oke thee to a##roach us. D 6i,en this a+undance of e,idence to #ro,e the hu an origin of the Vedas it is a riddle to find that the Brah ins should so strenuously #ro#agate this e"tra,agant ,iew that the Vedas are not an ade. *hat ade the Brah ins #ro#agate such a ,iew. Notwithstanding this there were e inent #hiloso#hers who were #re#ared to acce#t the authority of the Vedas although they were not #re#ared to ad it that the Vedas were Sanatan or +paurush. The 6auta a the founder of what is called the Nyaya syste of 8hiloso#y said: DThe authority of the Veda9 like that of the for ulas9 and the $yur@Veda Htreatise on edicineI follows fro the authority of the co #etent #ersons fro who they #roceeded. (ince the co #etent aker of the Veda #ossesses authority9 inculcates truth9 it results fro the force of the ter s that the Veda was uttered +y a #erson of this characterC and +y this reasoning the authority of the Veda is to +e inferred. He illustrates this +y the case of the for ulas and the $yur@Veda. By for ulas ( antra. are eant the sentences which neutraliBe #oison etc.9 and the section containing the $yur@Veda for s #art of the Veda. Now as the authority of these two classes of writings is ad itted +y general consent9 the authority of e,erything which #ossess the characteristics of the Veda ust +e inferred fro this e"a #le. (o e9 howe,er9 e"#lain the a#horis thusC a Veda is that in which authority is found or recogniBed. 5ro such Vedicity Hor 8ossession of the character of a VedaI the authority of any work is to +e inferred. D The Vaishashika syste ad its that the Vedas are authoritati,e. But the grounds on which it rests its conclusion are: H1I That the Vedas are the #roduct of an intelligent ind and H2I That they ha,e +een uttered +y 6od. Therefore they are authoritati,e. The (ankhya syste founded +y =a#ila held the ,iew that eternity cannot +e #redicated of the Vedas9 since ,arious te"ts in the Vedas the sel,es declare the to ha,e +een #roduced. %t e"#ressly denies that the Vedas originated fro the

conscious effort of any di,ine +eing. $ccording to the (ankhya9 the Vedas like the (un shine +y their own light9 and e,ince an inherent #ower +oth of re,ealing their own #erfection and of elucidating all other things9 #ast and future9 great and s all9 near and re ote. The syste of 8hiloso#hy known as the Vedanta see s to su##ort two distant ,iews. %t ascri+es the origin of the Vedas to Brah a as its source or cause of source using the ter Brah a as neuter denoting the su#re e s#irit and not as asculine designating the #ersonal creator. %t also s#eaks of the eternity of the Vedas and akes ention of a self@de#endent author. The Brah ins did not re ain content with the argu ent that the Vedas were not ade +y an. They went uch further and contended that the Vedas were not ade e,en +y 6od. This theory is #ro#ounded +y <ai ini the author of the 8ur,a :i ansa. <ai ini?s argu ents in fa,our of the thesis are so strange that one has to know the in order to realiBe their strangeness. %t is in the 3urva -i ansa; a +ook of Brah anic #hiloso#hy that this doctrine of the Vedas +eing $#aurusheya is #ro#ounded. The following e"tracts fro the +ook will re,eal the nature of the argu ent. <ai ini the author of the 8ur,a :i a sa first deals with the argu ent of the Naiyayikas who assert that the Vedas are ade +y 8ara eshwara and states the case ade out +y the Naiyayikas. The argu ent of the :i ansakas is: DThe Veda could not ha,e +een uttered +y the incor#oreal 8ara es,ara H6odI9 who has no #alate or other organs of s#eech9 and therefore cannot +e concei,ed to ha,e #ronounced the letters Hof which it is co #osed.I. This o+7ection Hanswers the NaiyayikaI is not ha##y9 +ecause9 though 8ara es,ara is +y nature incor#oreal9 he can yet9 +y way of s#ort assu e a +ody9 in order to show kindness to his de,oted worshi##ers. &onse-uently9 the argu ents in fa,our of the doctrine that the Veda had no #ersonal author are inconclusi,e.D He then #roceeds to state his argu ents in fa,our of the Aoctrine of the :i ansakas D % shall now clear u# all these difficulties. *hat is eant +y this paurusheyatva H?deri,ation fro a #ersonal author?I which it is sought to #ro,e. %s it H1I ere #rocession (utpannatva. fro a #erson H#urushaI like the #rocession of the Veda fro #ersons such as oursel,es9 when we daily utter it. or H2I is it the arrange ent with a ,iew to its anifestationof knowledge ac-uired +y other odes of #roof9 in the sense in which #ersons like oursel,es co #ose a treatise. %f the first eaning +e intended9 there will +e no dis#ute. %f the second sense +e eant9 % ask whether the Veda is #ro,ed Hto +e authoritati,eI in ,irtue HaI of its +eing founded on inference9 or H+I of its +eing founded on su#ernatural infor ation (aga a/halat.<. . The for er alternati,e HaI i.e.9 that the Veda deri,es its authority fro +eing

founded on inference cannot +e correct9 since this theory +reaks down9 if it +e a##lied to the sentence of the :alati :adha,a or any other secular #oe Hwhich ay contain inferences destitute of authorityI. %f9 on the other hand9 you say H+I that the contents of the Veda are distinguished fro those of other +ooks of ha,ing authority9 this e"#lanation also will fail to satisfy a #hiloso#her. 5or the word of the Veda is Hdefined to +eI a word which #ro,es things that are not #ro,a+le +y any other e,idence. Now if it could +e esta+lished that this Vedic word did nothing ore than #ro,e things that are #ro,a+le +y other e,idence9 we should +e in,ol,ed in the sa e sort of contradiction as if a an were to say that his other was a +arren wo an. $nd e,en if we conceded that 8ara eswara ight in s#ort assu e a +ody9 it would not +e concei,a+le that in that case he should #ercei,e things +eyond the reach of the senses9 fro the want of any eans of a##rehending o+7ects re o,ed fro hi in #lace9 in ti e9 and in nature. Nor is it to +e thought that his eyes and other sense alone would ha,e the #ower of #roducing such knowledge9 since en can only attain to conce#tions corres#onding with what they ha,e #ercei,ed. This is what has +een said +y the 6uru H8ra+hakaraI when he refutes this su##osition of an o niscient authorC ?*here,er any o+7ect is #ercei,ed H+y the organ of sightI in its ost #erfect e"ercise9 such #erce#tion can only ha,e reference to the ,ision of so ething ,ery distant or ,ery inute9 since no organ can go +eyond its own #ro#er o+7ects9 as e.g.9 the ear can ne,er +eco e cogniBant of for ?. Hence the authority of the Veda does not arise in ,irtue of any su#ernatural infor ation ac-uired +y the Aeity in a cor#oreal sha#e.D These are argu ents urged +y <ai ini to destroy the case of the Naiyayikas. <ai ini then #roceeds to gi,e his #ositi,e argu ents to show why the Vedas are not the word of 6od +ut so ething su#erior to that. This is what he says: D %n the #receding a#horis it was declared that the connection of words and their eanings is eternal. Aesiring now to #ro,e that this Heternity of connectionI is de#endent on the eternity of words Hor soundI9 he +egins +y setting forth the first side of the -uestion9 ,iB.9 the doctrine of those who aintain that sound is not eternal.D D(o e9 i.e.9 the followers of the Nyaya #hiloso#hy9 say that sound is a #roduct9 +ecause we see that it is the result of effort9 which it would not +e if it were eternal.D DThat it is not eternal9 on account of its transitoriness9 i.e.9 +ecause after a o ent it ceases to +e #ercei,ed.D DBecause9 we e #loy in reference to it the e"#ression ? aking? i.e.9 we s#eak of ? aking? a sound.D D Because it is #ercei,ed +y different #ersons at once9 and is conse-uently in i ediate contact with the organs of sense of those9 +oth far and near9 which it could not +e if it were one and eternal.D

D Because sounds ha,e +oth an original and a odified for C as e.g.9 in the case of dadhi atra$ which is changed into d adhy atra$ the original letter ?i ? +eing altered into * y * +y the rules of #er utation. Now9 no su+stance which undergoes a change is eternal.D D Because sound is aug ented +y the nu +er of those who ake it. &onse-uently the o#inion of the :i ansaka9 who say that sound is erely anifested9 and not created9 +y hu an effort9 is wrongC since e,en a thousand anifesters do not increase the o+7ect which they anifest9 as a 7ar is not ade larger +y a thousand la #s.D These o+7ections against the :i ansaka theory that sound is anifested9 and not created9 +y those who utter it9 are now answered +y <ai ini. (ays <ai ini: DBut9 according to +oth schools9 ,iB.9 that which holds sound to +e created9 and that which regards it as erely anifested9 the #erce#tion of it is alike o entary. But of these two ,iews9 the theory of anifestation is shown in the ne"t a#horis to +e the correct one.D DThe non@#erce#tion at any #articular ti e9 of sound9 which9 in reality9 #er#etually e"ists9 arises fro the fact that the utterer of sound has not co e into contact with his o+7ect i.e.9 sound. (ound is eternal9 +ecause we recogniBe the letter ? 1 ?9 for instance9 to +e the sa e sound which we ha,e always heard9 and +ecause it is the si #lest ethod of accounting for the #heno enon to su##ose that it is the sa e. The still at os#here which interferes with the #erce#tion of sound is re o,ed +y the con7unctions and dis7unctions of air issuing fro a s#eaker?s outh9 and thus sound Hwhich always e"ists9 though un#ercei,edI +eco es #erce#ti+le. This is the re#ly to the o+7ection of its ?transitoriness?. DThe word9 ? aking? sounds9 erely eans e #loying or uttering the .D DOne sound is si ultaneously heard +y different #ersons9 7ust as one (un is seen +y the at one and the sa e ti e. (ound like the (un9 is a ,ast9 and not a inute o+7ect9 and thus ay +e #erce#ti+le +y different #ersons9 though re ote fro one another.D DThe letter ?y?9 which is su+stituted for ?i? in the instance referred to under (utra 149 is not a odification of ?i?9 +ut a distinct letter. &onse-uently9 sound is not odified.D D %t is an increase of ?noise ?9 not of sound9 that is occasioned +y a ultitude of s#eakers. The word ? noise ? refers to the ?con7unctions ? and ?dis7unctions? of the air which enter si ultaneously into the hearer?s ear fro different -uartersC and it is of these that an increase takes #lace.D D (ound ust +e eternal9 +ecause its utterance is fitted to con,ey a eaning to other #ersons. %f it were not eternal Hor a+idingI9 it would not continue till the hearer had learned its sense9 and thus he would not learn the sense9 +ecause the cause had ceased to e"ist.D D (ound is eternal9 +ecause it is in e,ery case correctly and unifor ly recognised +y any #ersons si ultaneouslyC and it is inconcei,a+le that they should all at once

fall into a istake.D D *hen the word *go * HcowI has +een re#eated ten ti es9 the hearers will say that the word *go" has +een ten ti es #ronounced9 not that ten words ha,ing the sound of *go* ha,e +een utteredC and this fact also is adduced as a #roof of the eternity of sound. D (ound is eternal9 +ecause we ha,e no ground for antici#ating its destruction. D But it ay +e urged that sound is a odification of air9 since it arises fro its con7unctions9 and +ecause the (iksha Hor Vedanga treating of #ronunciationI says that ?air arri,es at the condition of sound? and as it is thus #roduced fro air9 it cannot +e eternal.D $ re#ly to this difficulty is gi,en in (utra 22. D (ound is not a odification of air9 +ecause if it were9 the organ of hearing would ha,e no a##ro#riate o+7ect which it could #ercei,e. No odification of air Hhel# +y the Naiyayikas to +e tangi+leI could +e #ercei,ed +y the organ of hearing9 which deals only with intangi+le sound.D D$nd the eternity of sound is esta+lished +y the argu ent disco,era+le in the Vedic te"t9 ? with an eternal ,oice9 O Viru#a ?. Now9 though this sentence had another o+7ect in ,iew9 it9 ne,ertheless9 declares the eternity of language9 and hence sound is eternal.D (uch is the argu ent +y <ai ini in fa,our of his thesis that the Vedas are eternal and not ade +y an9 not e,en +y 6od. The +ases on which his thesis rests are si #le. =irstly 6od has no +ody and no #alate and therefore he could not utter the Vedas. Secondly$ $ssu ing 6od had a +ody9 6od could not #ercei,e things which are +eyond the reach of the senses while the Vedas contain things +eyond the reach of hu an senses. Thirdly$ The connection +etween a word and its eaning is eternal. =ourthly$ (ound is eternal. =ifthly$ Because sound is eternal words which are ade u# of sounds are also eternal. Si,thly Because words are eternal therefore the Vedas are eternal and +ecause the Vedas are eternal they are not ade +y an nor +y 6od. *hat can one say of these #re ises. &an there +e anything ore a+surd. *ho can acce#t that the Vedas contain so ething not co #rehensi+le +y hu an senses . *ho can acce#t that there is an eternal connection +etween a word and its eaning . *ho can acce#t that sound is not created nor anifested +ut is eternal. Ha,ing regard to these a+surd #re ises one is led to ask why did the Brah ins ake such a des#arate atte #t for esta+lishing a des#arate conclusion. *hat did they want to gain there+y. *as it +ecause the Vedas had +een ade the e"#onent of the &hatur,arna with the Brah ins as the >ord of all.

RIDDLE NO. + THE CONTENTS O THE %EDAS, HA%E THE! AN! (ORAL OR SPIRITUAL %ALUE% %f the Vedas are to +e acce#ted as +inding and %nfalli+le then what they teach ust ha,e ethical and s#iritual ,alue. No+ody can regard a rag to +e +inding and infalli+le +ecause a 8hiloso#her like <ai ini ca e forward to lend his authority to such a #ro#osal. Ha,e the Vedas any ethical or s#iritual ,alue. !,ery Hindu who regards the Vedas are infalli+le is +ound to consider this -uestion. :odern writers ha,e e"#ressed ,iews which deny any s#iritual ,alue to the Vedas. $s an illustration one ay refer to the ,iews of 8rof. :uir. $ccording to 8rof. :uir : DThe whole character of these co #ositions and the circu stances under which9 fro internal e,idence9 they a##ear to ha,e arisen9 are in har ony with the su##osition that they were nothing ore than the natural e"#ression of the #ersonal ho#es and feelings of those ancient +ards of who they were first recited. %n these songs the $ryan sages cele+rated the #raises of their ancestral gods Hwhile at the sa e ti e they sought to conciliate their goodwill +y a ,ariety of o+lations su##osed to +e acce#ta+le to the I9 and +esought of the all the +lessings which en in general desired health9 wealth9 long life9 cattle9 offs#ring9 ,ictory o,er their ene ies9 foregi,eness of sin9 and in so e cases also celestial felicity.D %t would no dou+t +e o+7ected that all foreign scholars are #re7udiced and that their ,iews cannot therefore +e acce#ted. 5ortunately we are not altogether de#endent u#on the ,iews of foreigners. There are leaders of indegeneous schools of thought which ha,e taken the sa e ,iew. The ost notorious e"a #le is that of the &har,akas. The o##osition of &har,aka can +e seen fro the following -uotation which re#roduces his line of argu ent against the Vaidikas : D %f you o+7ect that9 if there +e no such thing as ha##iness in a future world9 then how should en of e"#erienced wisdo engage in the agnihotra and other sacrifices9 which can only +e #erfor ed with great e"#enditure of oney and +odily fatigue. Jour o+7ection cannot +e acce#ted as any #roof to the contrary9 since the agnihotra9 etc.9 are only useful as eans of li,elihood: for the Veda is tainted +y three faults of untruth9 self@contradiction9 and tautologyC then again the i #ostors who call the sel,es Vaidic #undits are utually destructi,e9 as the authority of the <nan@ =anda is o,erthrown +y those who aintain the authority of the =ar a@=anda and those who aintain the authority of the <nan@=anda re7ect that of the =ar a@=andaC and lastly9 the three Vedas the sel,es are only the incoherent rha#sodies of kna,es and to this effect runs the #o#ular saying: DThe $gnihotra9 the three Vedas9 the ascetic9 three sta,es9 and s earing oneself with ashes9D Brihas#ati says9 Dthese are +ut eans of li,elihood for those who ha,e
Ff24G Ff21G

no anliness nor sense.?D Brahas#ati is another e"a #le of the sa e school of thought. Brahas#ati was far ore +old and ilitant in his o##osition to the Vedas than the &har,akas. $s re#orted +y :adha,a $charya9 Brahas#ati argued :Ff22G DThere is no hea,en9 no final li+eration9 nor any soul in another world: Nor do the actions of the four castes9 orders etc.9 #roduce any real effect. The $gnihotra9 the three Vedas9 the ascetic?s three stages and s earing one?s self with ashes9 . . .. were ade +y Nature as the li,elihood of those destitute of knowledge and anlinessC %f a +east slain in the <yotishto a rite will itself go to hea,enC why then does not the sacrificer forthwith offer his own father. %f the (raddha #roduces gratification to +eings who are dead9 then here9 too9 in the case of tra,ellers when they start9 it is needless to gi,e #ro,isions for the 7ourney. %f +eings in hea,en are gratified +y our offering the (raddha here9 then why not gi,e the food down +elow to those who are standing on the houseto#. *hile life re ains let a an li,e ha##ily9 let hi feed on ghee e,en though he runs in de+tC *hen once the +ody +eco es ashes9 how can it e,er return again. %f he who de#arts fro the +ody goes to another world9 how is that he co es not +ack again restless for lo,e of his kindred. Hence it is only a eans of li,elihood that Brah ans ha,e esta+lished here. $ll these cere onies are for the dead9 there is no other fruit anywhere. The three authors of the Vedas were +uffoons9 kna,es and de ons. $ll the well@known for ulas of the #undits <ar#hari9 Tur#hari9 and all the o+scene rites for the -ueen co anded in the $swa edha: These were in,ented +y +uffoons9 and so all the ,arious kinds of #resent. to the #riests. *hile the eating of flesh was si ilarly co ended +y night #rowling de ons.D %f the o#inions of the &har,aka and Brahas#ati are not acce#ted there is #lenty of other e,idence. That e,idence is recorded in the +ooks of the ,arious schools of #hiloso#hy such as the Nyaya9 Vaishashikha9 8ur,a and Kttar :i a sa. %t ust +e said to the credit of the authors of the te"t@+ooks of these #hiloso#hies that +efore #roceeding to defend the authority of the Vedas they ha,e +een ,ery careful to set out the case of their o##onents who were o##osed to the authority of the. Vedas. This fact ena+les us to #ro,e two things: H1I That there was a school of thought which was o##osed to recogniBe the Vedas as +ooks of authorityC H2I That they were a res#ecta+le grou# of #eo#le whose o#inions the defenders of the authority of the Vedas were +ound to consider. % re#roduce +elow the case of the o##onents as set out in the Nyaya and the 8ur,a :irnarnsa. 6ota a the author of the Nyaya syste of 8hiloso#hy was an u#holder of the doctrine of the authority of the Vedas. He has su ariBed the argu ents of his o##onents in (utra /1 which reads as follows :
Ff2'G

DThe Veda has no authority9 since it has the defects of falsehood9 self@ contradiction9 and tautology. That ,er+al e,idence9 which is distinct fro such as relates to ,isi+le o+7ects9 i.e.9 the Veda9 has no authority. *hy. Because it has the defects of falsehood etc.D D Of these defects9 that of falsehood is esta+lished +y the fact that we so eti es o+ser,e that no fruit results fro #erfor ing the sacrifice for a son9 or the like. ? (elf@ contradiction ? is a discre#ancy +etween a for er and a later declaration. Thus the Veda says ?he sacrifices when the (un is risenC he sacrifices when the (un is not yet risen. He sacrifices9 H% cannot e"#lain the ne"t words says :uir9I $ tawny Hdog.I carries away the o+lation of hi who sacrifices +efore the (un has risen: and +oth of these two carry off the o+lation of hi who sacrifices. Now here there is a contradiction +etween the words which en7oin sacrifices and the words which inti ate +y censure that those sacrifices will occasion disastrous results. $gain9 the Veda has no authority9 owing to its ?tautology?9 as where it is said9 he re#eats the first thrice9 he re#eats the last thrice. 5or as the lastness ulti ately coincides with the firstness and as there is a tri#le re#etition of the words9 this sentence is tautological. Now since these #articular sentences ha,e no authority9 the entire Veda will +e #ro,ed +y these s#eci ens to stand in the sa e #redica ent9 since all its other #arts ha,e the sa e author9 or are of the sa e character9 as these #ortions.D &o ing to <ai ini. He su arises the ,iews of the o##onents of the Vedas in the first #art of (utras 22 and '2 of his 8ur,a :i a sa. (utra 22 says : D %t is also o+7ected that the Vedas cannot +e eternal9 +ecause we o+ser,e that #ersons9 who are not eternal9 +ut su+7ect to +irth and death9 are entioned in the . Thus it is said in the Veda ? Ba+ara 8ra,ahani desired ?9 ? =usur,inda $uddalaki desired ?. Now9 as the sentences of the Veda in which they are entioned9 could not ha,e e"isted +efore these #ersons were +orn9 it is clear that these sentences had a +eginning9 and +eing thus non@eternal9 they are #ro,ed to +e of hu an co #osition.D (utra '2 says : D %t is asked how the Veda can constitute #roof of duty when it contains such incoherent nonsense as the following: ?$n old o"9 in +lanket and sli##ers9 is standing at the door and singing +enedictions. $ Brah an fe ale9 desirous of offs#ring9 asks9 ? 8ray O =ing9 what is the eaning of intercourse on the day of the new oon.? or the following: ?the cows cele+rated this sacrifice?.D This is also the ,iew of Jaska the author of Nirukta who says: HOf the four kinds of ,erses s#ecified in the #receding sectionI9 HaI those which address a god as a+sent9 H+I those which address hi as #resent9 and HcI those which address the worshi##ers as #resent and the god as a+sent9 are the ost nu erous9 while HdI those which refer to the s#eaker hi self are rare. %t ha##ens also that a god is #raised without any +lessing +eing in,oked9 as in the hy n HR.V.i. '2I. D % declare the heroic deeds of %ndra9D etc. $gain9 +lessings are in,oked without
Ff2)G Ff2/G

any #raise +eing offered9 as in the words9 ?:ay9 % see well with y eyes9 +e res#lendent in y face9 and hear well with y ears?. This fre-uently occurs in the $dh,arya,a HJa7urI9 and in the sacrificial for ula. Then again we find oaths and curses as in the words HR.V.,ii. 14)9 1/I9 ?:ay % die today9 if % a a Jatudhana9? etc. 5urther9 we o+ser,e the desire to descri+e so e #articular state of things9 as in the ,erse HR. V. ". 1239 2I. ? Aeath was not then9 nor i ortality9? etc. Then there is la entation9 arising out of a certain state of thing9 as in the ,erse HR. V. ". 3/9 1)I9 ?The +eautiful god will disa##ear and ne,er return9? etc. $gain we ha,e +la e and #raise9 as in the words HR. V. ". 1119 0I. ?The an who eats alone9 sins alone9 etc. (o9 too9 in the hy n to dice HR. V. ". ')9 1'I there is a censure u#on dice9 and a co endation of agriculture. Thus the o+7ects for which the hy ns were seen +y the rishis were ,ery ,arious.D To -uote the words of Jaska again D !ach #articular hy n has for its deity the 6od to who the Rishi9 seeking to o+tain any o+7ect of desire which he longs for9 addresses his #rayer.D %f this is not enough to #ro,e that there is no ethical or s#iritual Value in the Vedas further e,idence could +e added. $s to orality there is hardly any discussion a+out it in the Rig@Veda. Nor does the Rig@Veda contain ele,ating e"a #les of oral life. Three illustrations of cases on the other side ay well +e gi,en: 5irst is the con,ersation +etween >a a and >a i who were +rother and sister. DHJa i s#eaksI. % in,ite y friend to friendshi#9 ha,ing co e o,er the ,ast and desert ocean ay Vedhas9 after reflecting9 #lace in the earth the offs#ring Hof theeI the father9 endowed with e"cellent -ualities.D DHJa a s#eaksI. Thy friend desires not this friendshi#9 for although of one origin9 she is of a different for C the hero sons of the great $sura HareI the u#holders of hea,en9 en7oying ,ast renown.D DHJa i s#eaksI. The i ortals take #leasure in Ha unionI like this which is for+idden to e,ery ortalC let thy ind then concur with ine9 and as the #rogenitor Hof allI was the hus+and Hof his daughterI9 do thou en7oy y #ersonD DHJa a s#eaksI. *e ha,e not done what was done for erlyC for how can we who s#eak truth9 utter now that which is untrue. 6andhar,a Hthe sunI was in the watery Hfir a entI9 and the water was his +ride. (he is our co on #arent9 hence our near affinity.D DHJa i s#eaksI. The di,ine o nifor generator Twashtri9 the #rogenitor9 ade us two hus+and and wife9 e,en in the wo +C none frustrate his undertakingC earth and hea,en are conscious of this our HunionI.D DHJa a s#eaksI. *ho knows anything of this HhisI first day Hof e"istenceI. *ho has +eheld it. *ho has here re,ealed it. The dwelling of :itra and of Varuna is

,ast. *hat sayest thou9 who #unishest en with hell.D DHJa i s#eaksI. The desire of Ja a hath a##roached e Ja i9 to lie with hi in the sa e +edC % will a+andon y #erson as a wife to her hus+andC let us e"ert oursel,es in union like the two wheels of a wagon.D DHJa a s#eaksI. The s#ies of the 6ods9 which wander u#on earth9 ne,er sto#9 ne,er close their eyes. $ssociate -uickly9 destructress with so e other than with e9 and e"ert yoursel,es in union9 like the two wheels of a wagon.D DHJa i s#eaksI. To hi HJa aI let e,ery whorshi##er sacrifice +oth day and night9 on hi let the eye of the (un re#eatedly riseC Hfor hi ayI the kindred #air Hday and night uniteI with hea,en and earth. Ja i will adhere to the non@affinity of Ja a.D DHJa a s#eaksI. The su+se-uent ages will co e9 when sisters will choose one who is not a +rother Has a hus+andIC therefore9 aus#icious one9 choose another hus+and than e9 and ake thine ar a #illow for thy ate.D DHJa i s#eaksI. %s he a +rother whose sister has no lord. %s she a sister Hwhose +rotherI isfortune a##roaches. O,erco e +y desire9 % strongly urge this one re-uestC unite thy #erson with ine.D DHJa a s#eaksI. % will not unite y #erson with thineC they call hi who a##roaches a sister9 a sinner. !n7oy #leasure with so e other than eC thy +rother9 aus#icious one9 has no such desire.D D HJa i s#eaksI. $las9 Ja a9 thou art fee+leC we understand not thy ind or thy heart. (o e other fe ale e"+rances thee as a girth a horse9 or as a cree#er a tree.D DHJa a s#eaksI. Ao thou9 Ja i9 e +race anotherC and let another e +race thee as a cree#er a treeC seek his affection9 let hi seek thineC and ake a ha##y union.D D:ay $gni9 the destroyer of the Rakshasas consenting to our #rayer9 dri,e hence Hthe e,il s#iritI who Hin the for ofI sickness assails thine e +ryo9 who9 as the disease durna an9 assails thy wo +.D D:ay $gni concurring in our #rayer9 destroy the canni+al who9 as sickness9 assails thine e +ryo9 who9 as the disease durna an9 assails thy wo +.D D :ay we e"ter inate fro hence Hthe e,il s#iritI who destroys the i #regnating energy9 the ger as it settles9 the o,ing e +ryo9 who seeks to destroy Hthe +a+eI when +orn.D D :ay we e"ter inate fro hence Hthe e,il s#iritI9 who se#arates thy thighs9 who lies +etween hus+and and wife9 who entering thy wo +9 de,ours Hthe seedsI. :ay we e"ter inate fro hence Hthe e,il s#iritI9 who in the for of +rother9 hus+and9 or #ara our9 a##roaches thee9 and seeks to destroy thy offs#ring.D D :ay we e"ter inate fro hence Hthe e,il s#iritI who9 ha,ing +eguiled thee +y slee# or darkness9 a##roaches thee9 and seeks to destroy thy offs#ring.D Take so e of the Hy ns or #rayers that are to +e found in the Rig@Veda. The following are a few of the 1. 1. Oh M 6od Vayu9 how ,ery +eautiful you are. *e ha,e #re#ared the

(o arasa Han into"icating drinkI with s#ices. 8ray co e and drink it and grant us our #rayersRig. Ved. %. 1.2.1. 2. 2. OhM 6od %ndra. Bring ye wealth for our #rotection. >et the wealth that you +ring ake us ha##y +e increasing and e,erlasting and hel# us to kill our ene ies1. 1.2.1. 3. '. OhM ye #eo#le whene,er you are #erfor ing your ya7na9 fail not to #raise the 6ods %ndra and $gni. $d,ance their #osition and sing their #raises in the 6ayatri :eter%. 21.2. 4. ). Oh M ye $gni9 #lease +ring the wi,es of the 6ods and Twashta who are eager to co e and drink (o a%. 22.3. 5. /. *e #ray that the 6ods? wi,es co e to us with all a,aila+le wings and with all ha##iness%. 22.11. 6. 0. % a #raying the wi,es of %ndra9 Varuna and $gni to co e to y #lace to drink (o a. 7. 1. OhM Varuna9 we are su##licating +efore you to re o,e your anger. OhM ye $sura9 you are all wise9 relie,e us fro our sins%. 2).1). 8. 2. Our (o arasa has +een #re#ared +y wo en who ha,e churned it +ackward and forward. OhM ye %ndra we #ray you to co e and drink this (o a1. 22.'. 9. 3. Jour ene ies who do not ake any offering to you ay disa##ear and let your followers who do #ros#er. Oh M %ndra gi,e us +est cows and +est horses and ake us fa ous in the world.1. 23.). 10. 14. OhM $gni sa,e us fro Rakshasas9 fro cunning ene ies9 fro those who hate us and want to kill us.1. '0.1/. 11. 11. OhM %ndra9 you are a hero. &o e and drink the (o a we ha,e #re#ared and +e ready to gi,e us wealth. >oot the wealth of those who do not ake you any offering and gi,e the sa e to us1. 21@2@3. 12. 12. OhM %ndra9 drink this (o a which is the +est9 gi,ing i ortality and ost into"icating.%. 2)@). 13. 1'. Oh M $dityas9 you co e to gi,e us your +lessings. Jou gi,e us ,ictory in war. Jou are wealthy. Jou are charita+le. <ust as a chariot is #ulled through a difficult #ath in the sa e way you #ull us through our dangers.1. 140@22. 14. 1). Oh M ye :arutas. . . . .your followers are singing your #raises. Be #leased to co e and sit on the grass@cushion #re#ared for you for the #ur#ose of drinking (o a.V%%. /1@1@2. 15. 1/. OhM ye :itra@Varuna we ha,e offered you worshi# in the ya7na. Be #leased to acce#t it and sa,e us fro all dangersV%%. 04@12. These are only a few ,erses out of a large +undle which for the Rig@Veda. But there can +e no dou+t that this sa #le s all as it is is true to +ulk. % ay state that % ha,e deli+erately o itted a good any o+scene #assages to +e

found in the Rig@Veda and Ja7ur@Veda. Those who ha,e any curiosity in the atter ight look u# the con,ersation +etween (urya and 8ushan in Rig@Veda :andal N. 2/.'1 and +etween %ndra and %ndrani in Rig@Veda. :andal N. 20.0. $ further o+scenity will also +e found in the $sh,a edha (ection of the Ja7ur@Veda. >ea,ing these o+scenities aside and confining oneself to the #rayer #ortion of the Rig@Veda can any one say that these are orally or s#iritually ele,ating #rayers. $s to #hiloso#hy there is nothing of it in the Rig@Veda. $s 8rof. *ilson o+ser,es there is in the Rig@Veda9 which is the stock Veda9 scarcely any indication or doctrinal or #hiloso#hical s#eculation9 no allusion to the later notions of the se,eral schools9 nor is there any hint of ete #sychosis9 or of the doctrine inti ately allied to it9 of the re#eated reno,ation of the world. The Vedas ay +e useful as a source of infor ation regarding the social life of the $ryans. $s a #icture of #ri iti,e life it is full of curiosity +ut there is nothing ele,ating. There are ore ,ices and a few ,irtues. %% *e ay now turn to the $thar,a@Veda and e"a ine its contents. The +est % can do is to #resent the following e"tracts fro the ta+le of contents of the $thar,a@Veda. Book 1. &har s to cure diseases and #ossession +y de ons of disease H+haishagyaniI. ,9 22. &har against tak an Hfe,erI and related diseases. ,i9 24. &har against tak an Hfe,erI. i9 2/. &har against tak an Hfe,erI. ,ii9110. &har against tak an Hfe,erI. ,9 ). 8rayer to the =ushtha@#lant to destroy tak an Hfe,erI. "i"9'3.8rayer to the =ushtha@#lant to destroy tak an Hfe,erI and other ail ents. i9 12. 8rayer to lightening9 concei,ed as the cause of fe,er9 headache9 and cough. i9 22. &har against 7aundice and related diseases. ,i9 1). &har against the disease halasa. ,i9 14/. &har against cough. i9 2. &har against e"cessi,e discharges fro the +ody. ii9 '. &har against e"cessi,e discharges fro the +ody9 undertaken with s#ring@ water. ,i9 )). &har against e"cessi,e discharges fro the +ody. i9 '. &har against consti#ation and retention of urine. ,i9 34. &har against internal #ain HcolicI due to the issiles of Rudra. i9 14. &har against dro#sy. ,ii9 2'. &har against dro#sy. ,i9 2). Aro#sy9 heart@disease9 and kindred aladies cured +y flowing water.

,i9 24. $n o+lation to the sun9 concei,ed as one of the two. ii9 2. &har against kshetriya9 hereditary disease. ii9 14. &har against kshetriya9 hereditary disease. iii9 1. &har against kshetriya9 hereditary disease. i9 2'. >e#rosy cured +y a dark #lant. i9 2). >e#rosy cured +y a dark #lant. ,i9 2'. &har for curing scrofulous sores called apa1it. ,ii9 10. $. &har for curing scrofulous sores called apa1it. B. &har for curing tu ours called gayana. &. (tanBa sung at the id@day #ressure of (o a. ,ii9 1). $. &har for curing scrofulous sores called a#akit. B. &har to a##ease 7ealousy. &. 8rayer to $gni9 the lord of ,ows. ,i9 2/. &har against scrofulous sores u#on neck and shoulders. ,i9 /1. Krine HgalashaI as a cure for scrofulous. i,9 12. &har with the #lant arundhati HlakshaI for the cure of fractures. ,9 /. &har with the #lant silaki HlakshaI arundhati for the cure of wounds. ,i9 143. The #e##er@corn as a cure for wounds. i9 11. &har to sto# the flow of +lood. ii9 '1. &har against wor s. ii9 '2. &har against wor s in cattle. ,9 2'. &har against wor s in children. i,9 0. &har against #oison. %,9 1. &har against #oison. ,i9 144. $nts as an antidote against #oison. ,. 1'. &har against snake@#oison. ,i9 12. &har against snake@#oison. ,ii9 /0. &har against the #oison of ser#ants9 scor#ions and insects. ,i9 10. &har against o#thal ia. ,i9 21. &har to #ro ote the growth of hair. ,i9 1'0. &har with the #lant nitauni to #ro ote the growth of hair. ,i9 1'1. &har to #ro ote the growth of hair. i,9 ). &har to #ro ote ,irility. ,i. 111. &har against :ania. i,9 '1. &har with the #lant agasringi to dri,e out Rakshasas9 $#saras and 6andhar,as. ii9 3. 8ossession +y de ons of disease9 cured +y an a ulet of ten kinds of wood. i,9 '0. &har against de ons H#isakaI concei,ed as the cause of disease. ii9 2/. &har with the #lant #risni#arni against the de on of disease called kan,a. ,i9 '2. &har for dri,ing away de ons HRakshas and 8isakasI.

ii9 ). &har with an a ulet deri,ed fro the gangidatree against diseases and de ons. "i"9 '). &har with an a ulet deri,ed fro the gangidatree against diseases and de ons. "i"9 '/. &har with an a ulet deri,ed fro the gangidatree against diseases and de ons. ,i9 2/. !"orcis of disease +y eans of an a ulet fro the ,arana@tree. ,i9 121. The ki#uddru@tree as a #anacea. "i"9 '2. The healing #ro#erties of hdelliu . ,i9 31. Barley and water as uni,ersal re edies. ,iii9 1. Hy n to all agic and edicinal #lants used as a uni,ersal re edy. ,i9 30. 8lants as a #anacea. ii9 ''. &har to secure #erfect health. i"9 2. &har to #rocure i unity fro all diseases. ii9 23. &har for o+taining long life and #ros#erity +y trans ission of disease. %%. 8rayers for long life and health HayushyaniI. iii9 11. 8rayer for health and long life. ii9 22. 8rayer for long life #ronounced o,er a +ody. iii9 '1. 8rayer for health and long life. ,ii9 /'. 8rayer for long life. ,iii9 1. 8rayer for e"e #tion fro the dangers of death. ,iii9 2. 8rayers for e"e #tion fro the dangers of death. ,9 '4. 8rayer for e"e #tion fro disease and death. i,9 3. (al,e HanganaI as a #rotector of life and li +. i,9 14. The #earl and its shell as an a ulet +estowing long life and #ros#erity. "i"9 20. 6old as an a ulet for long life. %%%. % #recations against de ons9 sorcerers9 and ene ies Ha+hikarikani and =ritya#ratiharananI. i9 1. $gainst sorcerers and de ons. i9 2. $gainst sorcerers and de ons. i910. &har with lead9 against de ons and sorcerers. ,i9 2. The so a@o+lation directed against de ons HrakshasI. ii9 1). &har against a ,ariety of fe ale de ons9 concei,ed as hostile to cattle and ho e. iii9 3. $gainst Vishkandha and =a+a,a Hhostile de onsI.

en9

i,9 24. &har with a certain #lant Hsada #ushnaI which e"#oses de ons and ene ies. i,9 11. &har with the a#a arga@#lant9 against sorcery9 de ons and ene ies. i,9 12. &har with the a#a arga@#lant against sorcery9 de ons and ene ies. i,9 13. :ystic #ower of the a#a arga@#lant9 against de ons and sorcerers. ,ii9 0/. &har with the a#a arga@#lant against curses9 and the conse-uence of sinful deeds. "9 1. &har to re#el sorceries or s#ells. ,9 1). &har to re#el sorceries or s#ells. ,9 '1. &har to re#el sorceries or s#ells. ,iii9 /. 8rayer for #rotection addressed to a talis an ade fro the wood of a sraktya@tree. "9 '. 8raise of the ,irtue of an a ulet deri,ed fro the ,arana@tree. "90. 8raise of the ,irtues of an a ulet of khadira@wood in the sha#e of a #loughshare. i"9 10. 8rayer to Varuna for #rotection against treacherous designs. ii9 12. % #recation against ene ies thwarting holy work. ,ii9 14. 5rustration of the sacrifice of an ene y. ii9 1. &har against curses and hostile #lots undertaken with a certain #lant. iii9 0. The as,attha@tree as a destroyer of ene ies. ,i. 1/. O+lation for the su##ression of ene ies Hnai+adhya ha,ihI. ,i. '1. &urse against one that #ractises hostile char s. ,ii. 1'. &har to de#ri,e ene ies of their strength. %V. &har s #ertaining to wo en Hstrikar aniI. ii9 '0. &har to o+tain a hus+and. ,i9 04. &har to o+tain a hus+and. ,i9 22. &har for o+taining a wife. ,i. 12. Blessing for a arried cou#le. ,ii9 '0. >o,e@char s#oken +y a +ridal cou#le. ,ii. '1. &har #ronounced +y the +ride o,er the +ridegroo . ,i9 21. $ +racelet as an a ulet to ensure conce#tion. iii. 2'. &har for o+taining a son H#u sa,ana I. ,i9 11. &har for o+taining a son H#u sa,ana I. ,ii9 '/. $n incantation to ake a wo an sterile. ,i. 11. &har to #re,ent iscarriage. i9 11. &har for easy #arturition. i. '). &har with licorice9 to secure the lo,e of a wo an. ii9 '4. &har to secure the lo,e of a wo an.

,i. 2. &har to secure the lo,e of a wo an. ,i9 3. &har to secure the lo,e of a wo an. ,i9142. &har to secure the lo,e of a wo an. iii9 2/. &har to secure the #assionate lo,e of a wo an. ,ii. '2. &har to secure the lo,e of a an. ,i9 1'4. &har to arouse the #assionate lo,e of a an. ,i9 1'2. &har to arouse the #assionate lo,e of a an. i,9 /. &har at an assignation. ,i9 11. &har to cause the return of a truant wo an. ,i9 12. &har to allay 7ealousy. i9 1). $ wo an?s incantation against her ri,al. iii. 12. &har of a wo an against a ri,al or co@wife. ,i9 1'2. &har for de#ri,ing a an of his ,irility. i. 12. &har to re o,e e,il +odily characteristics fro a wo an. ,i. 114. !"#iatory char lor a child +orn under an unlucky star. ,i. 1)4. !"#iation for the irregular a##earance of the first #air of teeth. V. &har s #ertaining to royalty Hragakar aniI. i,. 2. 8rayer at the consecration of a king. iii9 '. &har for the restoration of an e"iled king. iii9 ). 8rayer at the election of a king. i,9 22. &har to secure the su#eriority of a king. iii9 /. 8raise of an a ulet deri,ed fro the #arna@tree9 designed to strengthen royal #ower. i9 3. 8rayer for earthly and hea,enly success. ,i9 '2. 8rayer for lustre and #ower. ,i9 '3. 8rayer tor glory HyasasI. ,iii 2. Battle@char . i9 13. Battle@char against arrow@wounds. iii9 1. Battle@char for confusing the ene y. iii9 2. Battle@char for confusing the ene y. ,i9 31. Battle@char of a king u#on the e,e of +attle. ,i. 33. Battle@char of a king u#on the e,e of +attle. "i9 3. 8rayer to $r+udi and Nyar+udi for hel# in +attle. "i. 14. 8rayer to Trish dhi for hel# in +attle. ,9 24. Hy n to the +attle@dru . ,9 21. Hy n to the +attle@dru 9 the terror of the ene y. V%. &har s to secure har ony9 influence in the $sse +ly9 and the like

Hsa

anasyaniI. to secure har ony. to allay discord. to allay discord. against strife and +lood shed. to allay discord. to a##ease anger. to a##ease anger. to #rocure influence in the asse +ly. against o##onents in de+ate undertaken with the #ata@#lant. to +ring a+out su+ ission to one?s will.

iii. '4. &har ,i9 1'. &har ,i. 1). &har ,ii. /2. &har ,i9 0). &har ,i. )2. &har ,i. )'. &har ,ii. 12. &har ii9 21. &har ,i9 3). &har

V%%. &har s to secure #ros#erity in house9 field cattle +usiness. ga +ling and kindred atters. iii9 12. 8rayer at the +uilding of a house. ,i9 1)2. Blessing during the sowing of grain. ,i9 13. &har for #rocuring increase of grain. ,i9 /4. !"orcis of ,er in infesting grain in the field. ,ii. %%. &har to #rotect grain fro lightning. ii9 20. &har for the #ros#erity of cattle. iii9 1). &har for the #ros#erity of the cattle. ,i9 /3. 8rayer to the #lant arundhati for #rotection to cattle. ,i9 14. &har to secure the attach ent of a cow to her calf. iii9 22. 5or ula in e"#iation of the +irth of twin@cal,es. ,i9 32. &har to endow a horse with swiftness. iii9 1'. &har for conducting a ri,er into a new channel. ,i9 1409 &har to ward offdanger fro fire. i,9 '. (he#hered?s char against wild +easts and ro++ers.. iii9 1/. $ erchant?s #rayer. i,9 '2. +. 8rayer for success in ga +ling. '. 8rayer to secure the return of cal,es that ha,e strayed to a distance. ,ii9 /4. 8rayer for success at dice. ,i9 /0. !"orcis of ser#ents fro the #re ises. "9 ). &har against ser#ents in,oking the horse of 8edu that slays ser#ents. "i9 2. 8rayer to Bha,a and (ar,a for #rotection fro dangers. i,9 22. 8rayer to Bha,a and (ar,a for #rotection fro dangers.

,ii9 3. &har for finding lost #ro#erty. ,i9 122. 8ro#itiation of the weather@#ro#het. "i9 0. 8rayer for deli,erance fro cala ity9 addressed to the entire #antheon. V%%%. &har s in e"#iation of sin and defile ent. ,i9 )/. 8rayer against ental delin-uency. ,i9 20. &har to a,ert e,il. ,i9 11). !"#iatory for ula for i #erfections in the sacrifice. ,i9 11/. !"#iatory for ulas for sins. ,i9 112. !"#iation for the #recedence of a younger +rother o,er an elder. ,i9 11'. !"#iation for certain heinous cri es. ,i9 124. 8rayer for hea,en after re ission of sins. ,i9 21. &har against #igeons regarded as o inous +irds. ,i9 23. &har against #igeons regarded as o inous +irds. ,i9 23. &har against o inous #igeons and owls. ,ii9 0). !"#iation when one is defiled +y a +lack +ird of o en. ,i9 )0. !"orcis of e,il drea s ,ii9 11/. &har for the re o,al of e,il characteristics9 and the ac-uisition of aus#icious. Ill %t will thus +e seen that the $thar,a@Veda is nothing +ut a collection of sorcery9 +lack@ agic and edicine. Three@fourths of it is full of sorcery and +lack agic. %t ust not howe,er +e assu ed that it is only the $thar,a@Veda which contains +lack@ agic and sorcery. The Rig@Veda is not altogether free fro it. There are in it :antras relating to +lack agic and sorcery. % gi,e +elow three (uktas which deal with this atter: SU"TA X%II .CXL%/ The deity or rather the ai of the hy n is the getting rid of a ri,al wifeC the Rishi is %ndrani9 the etre of the last ,erse is 8ankati9 of the rest $nushtu+h. 1. % dig u# this ost #otent edicinal cree#er9 +y which Ha wifeI destroys a ri,al wife9 +y which she secures to herself her hus+and. 2. 2. 4 H#lantI with u#@turned lea,es9 aus#icious9 sent +y the 6ods9 #owerful9 re o,e y ri,al and ake y hus+and ine alone. 3. '. !"cellent H#lantI ay % too +e e"cellent a ongst the e"cellent9 and ay
1.

she who is y ri,al +e ,ile a ongst the ,ile. 4. ). % will not e,en utter her na e9 no Hwo anI takes #leasure in that #erson: ay we re o,e the other ri,al wife to a distance. 5. /. % a triu #hing9 thou art triu #hant: we two +eing #owerful will triu #h o,er y ri,al. 6. 0. % ake thee the triu #hant Hher+I y #illow9 % su##ort thee with that ore triu #hant H#illowI: let thy ind hasten to e as a cow to her calf9 let it s#eed on its way like water. SU"TA I% .CL%/ The deity of ,erses % and ) is the a,erting of isfortune H$laksh ighnaI9 of ,erses 2 and ' Brah anas#ati9 and of ,erse / the Viswade,asC the Rishi is (iri +itha9 the son of Bharadwa7a9 the etre is $nushtu+h.
1. 1. :isera+le9 ill@fa,oured9 defor ed e,er@railing HgoddessI9 go to thy

ountainC

with these e"#loits of (iri +itha we scare thee away. 2. 2. :ay she +e scared away fro this HworldI9 scared away fro the ne"t HworldI9 the destructress of all e +ryosC shar#@horned Brihas#ati a##roach9 dri,ing away Aistress. 3. '. The wood which floats +y the seashore far off9 re ote fro an9 seiBe that9 HO9 goddessI hard to destroy9 and therewith go to a distant shore. 4. ). Ktterers of discordant sounds9 when swiftly o,ing you de#arted9 all the ene ies of %ndra were slain9 disa##earing like +u++les. 5. /. These HViswade,asI ha,e +rought +ack the HstolenI cattle9 they ha,e +uilt u# the fire: they ha,e #ro,ided food for the 6ods. *ho will o,erco e the . SU"TA XII .CLXIII/ The deity is the cure of #hthisis: the Rishi is Vi,rihan9 the son of =asya#a9 the etre is $nushtu+h. thine eyes9 fro thy head9 fro thy nose9 ears9 fro thy chin9 fro thy +rain9 fro thy tongue. 2. 2. % +anish disease fro thy neck9 fro thy sinews9 fro thy +ones9 7oints9 fro thy u##er ar s9 fro thy shoulders9 and fro thy fore@ar s. 3. '. % +anish disease fro thine entrails9 fro thy anus9 fro thine a+do fro thy heart9 fro thy kidneys9 fro thy li,er9 fro thy HotherI ,iscera. 4. ). % +anish disease fro thy thighs9 fro thy knees9 fro thy heels9 toes9 fro thy loins9 fro thy +uttocks9 fro thy #ri,ate #arts.
1. 1. % +anish disease fro

fro fro

thy thy

en9 and fro thy

5. /. % +anish disease fro

thy urethra9 fro

thy +ladder9 fro

thy hair9 fro

thy

nails9 fro thy whole #erson. 6. 0. % +anish disease fro each li +9 fro each hair9 fro each 7oint where it is generated9 fro thy whole #erson. !nough has +een e"tracted fro the Vedas to show that they contain nothing that can +e said to +e s#iritually or orally ele,ating. Neither the su+7ect atter nor contents of the Vedas 7ustify the infalli+ility with which they ha,e +een in,ested. *hy then did the Brah ins struggle so hard to clothe the with sanctity and infalli+ility . RIDDLE NO. 0 THE TURN O THE TIDE OR HO# DID THE 'RAH(INS DECEARE THE %EDAS TO 'E LO#ER THAN THE LO#EST O THEIR SHASTRASThe religious literature of the Hindus includes H1I The Vedas9 H2I The Brah anas9 H'I The $ranyakas9 H)I K#anishads9 H/I (utras9 H0I %tihas9 H1I ( ritis and H2I 8uranas. $s has +een #ointed out there was a ti e when they occu#ied the sa e status. There was no distinction of su#erior or inferior9 sacred or #rofane9 falli+le or infalli+le. !ater on as we ha,e shown the Vedic Brah ins felt that they ust ake a distinction +etween the Vedas and other classes of their religious literature. They ade the Vedas not only su#erior to other classes of literature +ut they ade the sacred and infalli+le. %n e,ol,ing their dog a of the infalli+ility of the Vedas they ade a distinction and di,ided their sacred writings in two classes H1I (hruti and H2I Non@(hruti. %n the first di,ision they #laced only two of the eight classes of literature s#oken of a+o,e na ely@H1I (a hitas and H2I the Brah anas. The rest they declared as Non@(hruti. %% *hen this distinction was first ade it is not #ossi+le to say. The ore i #ortant -uestion9 howe,er9 is on what +asis was this di,ision ade. *hy were %tihas and 8uranas e"cluded. *hy were $ranyakas and K#anishads e"cluded. *hy were the (utras e"cluded. One can well understand why %tihas and 8uranas were e"cluded fro (hruti. $t the ti e when the di,ision took #lace they were too ele entary and too unde,elo#ed and in all #ro+a+ility included in the Brah anas. (i ilarly one can well understand why the $ranyakas are not This is a 21-page typed MS originally entitled ' The Supersession of the Vedas ', with several corrections and modifications by the author himself This chapter seems complete as the last para of this chapter is concluded in the handwriting of the author !Ed. s#ecifically entioned as a #art of the (hruti. They are a #art of the Brah anas and for that reason it was #ro+a+ly unnecessary to say e"#ressly that they are #art

of the (hruti. The -uestion of the K#anishads and the (utras re ains a #uBBle. *hy were they e"cluded fro the (hruti . The -uestion regarding the K#anishads is the su+7ect atter of another cha#ter. Here it is #ro#osed to deal with the -uestion of the (utras. Because the reasons for the e"clusion of the (utras it is not #ossi+le to co #rehend. %f there were good reasons for including the Brah anas in the category of (hruti the sa e reasons could not fail to 7ustify the inclusion of the (utras. $s 8rof. :a" :uller o+ser,es: D*e can understand how a nation ight +e led to ascri+e a su#erhu an origin to their ancient national #oetry9 #articularly if that #oetry consisted chiefly of #rayers and hy ns addressed to their gods. But it is different with the #rose co #ositions of the Brah ans. The reasons why the Brah anas which are e,idently so uch ore odern than the :antras9 were allowed to #artici#ate in the na e of (ruti9 could only ha,e +een +ecause it was fro these theological co #ositions9 and not fro the si #le old #oetry of the hy ns9 that a su##osed di,ine authority could +e deri,ed for the greater nu +er of the a +itious clai s of the Brah anas. But9 although we need not ascri+e any weight to the argu ents +y which the Brah anas endea,oured to esta+lish the conte #oraneous origin of the :antras and Brah anas there see s to +e no reason why we should re7ect as e-ually worthless the general o#inion with regard to the ore ancient date of +oth the Brah anas and :antras9 if contrasted with the (utras and the #rofane literature of %ndia. %t ay easily ha##en9 where there is a canon of sacred +ooks9 that later co #ositions +eco e incor#orated together with ore ancient works9 as was the case with the Brah anas. But we can hardly i agine that old and genuine #arts should e,er ha,e +een e"cluded fro a +ody of sacred writings9 and a ore odern date ascri+ed to the 9 unless it +e in the interest of a #arty to deny the authority of certain doctrines contained in these re7ected docu ents. There is nothing in the later literature of the (utras to warrant a su##osition of this kind. *e can find no reason why the (utras should not ha,e +een ranked as (ruti9 e"ce#t the lateness of their date9 if co #ared with the Brah anas9 and still ore with the :antras. *hether the Brah anas the sel,es were aware that ages ust ha,e ela#sed +etween the #eriod during which ost of the #oe s of their Rishis were co #osed9 and the ti es which ga,e rise to the Braha anas9 is a -uestion which we need hardly hesitate to answer in the affir ati,e. But the recklessness with which %ndian theologians clai for these Brah anas the sa e title and the sa e age as for the :antras9 shows that the reason ust ha,e +een #eculiarly strong which deterred the fro clai ing the sa e di,ine authority for the (utras.D The e"clusion of the (utras fro the category of (hruti is a riddle that calls for e"#lanation. There are other riddles which strike the student who cares to in,estigate into the su+7ect. They relate to the changes in the content of the literature co #rised in the

ter (hruti and their relati,e authority. One such riddle relates to the class of literature called the Brah anas. $t one ti e the Brah anas were included in the ter (hruti. But later on they see to ha,e lost this #osition. 5or :anuEFf20G see s to e"clude the D Braha anas D fro the category of (hruti as ay +e seen fro the following e"tract fro his ( riti: DBy (hruti is eant the Veda9 and +y ( riti the institutes of lawC the contents of these are not to +e -uestioned +y reason9 since fro the Ha knowledge ofI duty has shown forth. The Brah an who9 relying on rationalistic treatises9 shall conde n these two #ri ary sources of knowledge ust +e e"co unicated +y the ,irtuous as a sce#tic and re,iler of the Vedas.... To those who are seeking a knowledge of duty9 the (ruti is the su#re e authority.D *hy were the Brah anas e"cluded fro (hruti. III *e ay now turn to the class of literature called the ( ritis9 the ost i #ortant of which are the :anu ( riti and the Ja7na,alkya ( riti. The nu +er of (rnritis was e,er on the increase and the co #osing of ( ritis went on u# to the ad,ent of the British. :itra istra refers to /1 ( ritis9 Nilakanta to 31 and =a alakar to 1'1. The ( riti literature is +igger than any other class of religious literature regarded as sacred +y the Hindus. There are se,eral #oints regarding the relation of the ( ritis to the Vedas. The first is that the ( riti was not recogniBed as #art of the Ahar a (hastra literature re#resented +y the Ahar a (utras such as that of Baudhayana9 6auta a or $#asta +ha. $ ( ruti originally dealt with social custo s and con,entions that were a##ro,ed of and reco ended +y the learned leaders of society. $s 8rof. $ltekar o+ser,es: D%n the +eginning9 ( ritis were identical in nature and contents with Sadacara and were +ased u#on it. *hen ( ritis ca e into e"istence the sco#e of (adacara +eca e naturally reduced9 as uch of it was codified +y ( ritis. %t +egan to denote those old #ractices which ha##ened not to +e codified in ( ritis9 or those new ones9 which had ac-uired social a##ro,al at a #eriod su+se-uent to the codification of the early Ahar asastras or ( ritis.D The second #oint to note is that the ( ritis were treated as -uite different fro the Vedas or the (rutis. (o far as their sanction and their authority were concerned they stood on a+solutely different footing. The sanction +ehind the (ruti was di,ine. The sanction +ehind the ( riti was social. %n the atter of their authority the 8ur,a :i arnsa lays down two rules. The first rule is that if there is a conflict +etween two te"ts of (ruti then +oth are authoritati,e and the #resu #tion will +e that the Vedas ha,e gi,en an o#tion to follow one or the other. The second rule is that the te"t of a ( riti should +e su arily re7ected if it was o##osed to the te"t of the (ruti. These rules were rigorously a##lied with the result that the ( ritis could not ac-uire either the status or the authority of the Vedas.
Ff21G

(ur#rising as it ay a##ear a ti e ca e when Brah ins took a su ersault and ga,e the ( ritis a status su#erior to that of the Vedas. $s 8rof. $ltekar #oints out: DThe ( ritis ha,e actually o,erruled so e of the s#ecific dicta of (rutis that were not in consonance with the s#irit of the age9 or were co ing into direct conflict with it. The Vedic #ractice was to #erfor dai,a 1ar a in the orning and the pitr 1ar a in the afternoon. %n later ti es the odern pitr tarpana ca e into ,ogue and it +egan lo +e offered in the orning9 as the orning +ath +eca e the order of the day. Now this #rocedure is in direct conflict with the Vedic #ractice #rescri+ed in the a+o,e@ entioned rule. Ae,a a+hatta. the author ol the S rticandri1a$ howe,er says that there is nothing wrong in this: the (ruti rule ust +e #resu ed to +e referring to #itr 1ar an other than tarpana. The (ruti literature shows that Vis,a itra ado#ted (unasse#a9 though he had a hundred sons li,ing: this would thus #er it a #erson to ado#t a son e,en when he had a nu +er ol his own sons li,ing. But :itra isra says that such a deduction would he wrong: we shall ha,e to assu e that the ( riti #ractice is also +ased u#on a (ruti te"t. which is not now a,aila+le +ut the e"istence of which will ha,e to +e assu ed.D DThe Vedic #assage9 na seso *gne* nyajata asti certainly disa##ro,es of the #ractice of the ado#tion of a son9 which is clearly reco ended in later ti es +y the ( riti literature. This is a clear e"a #le of a (ruti +eing thrown o,er+oard +y a (rnriti. But :itra isra says that there is nothing wrong a+out the #rocedure. The (ruti #assage is a ere arthavada4 it does not lay down any in7unction. The ( ritis on the other hand #rescri+e ado#tion so that ho as etc. should +e #ro#erly #erfor ed. +rthavada Sruti is thus +eing fittingly o,erruled +y a (rnriti te"t9 which has a vidhi for its #ur#ort.D DThe custo of the (ati of the later age is in direct conflict with the ,edic in7unction #rohi+iting suicide. $#ararka9 howe,er9 argues that the conflict with (ruti should not in,alidate the custo . 5or the (ruti #assage lays down a general #rinci#le disa##ro,ing suicide9 while the ( ritis lay down a s#ecial e"ce#tion in the case of a widow.D *hether the custo s of a (ati and ado#tion are good or not is a different -uestion. (o ehow or other society had co e to a##ro,e of the . ( ritis ga,e canonical9 sanction to the and sought to defend the e,en against the authority of the Vedas. The -uestion is why did the Brah ins after ha,ing struggled so hard for esta+lishing the su#re acy of the Vedas degrade the Vedas and in,est the ( ritis with authority su#erior to that of the Vedas. They did so uch to raise the authority of the Vedas a+o,e the di,ine. *hy did they drag the +elow the ( ritis which had nothing +ut social sanction. The ste#s they ado#ted were so ingenious and artificial that one cannot hel# feeling that there ust ha,e +een so e definite oti,e which led the Brah ins to gi,e the ( ritis a status su#erior to that of the Vedas. To gi,e so e idea as to how artificial9 ingenious and des#arate these argu ents

were it ight +e useful to gi,e 7ust a +rief outline of the . $s an illustration of an artificial argu ent9 one ay refer to the ,iew #ro#ounded +y Brahas#ati. $ccording to hi 9 (ruti and (rnriti are the two eyes of the Brah ana9 if he is ,oid of one of the he +eco es a one@eyed #erson. $s an illustration of an ingenious argu ent one ay refer to the argu ent of =u arila Bhatt. His argu ent is founded on the theory of lost (ruti. %t was argued on +ehalf of the ( ritis that their ,iews cannot +e set aside e,en when they are in direct conflict with the (rutis for they ay -uite #ossi+ly ha,e +een +ased u#on a lost te"t of (ruti9 and so the conflict is not a conflict +etween a te"t of (ruti and that of a ( riti. %t is really a conflict +etween an e"isting and lost te"t of (ruti. ( riti therefore ca e to +e re#resented as lost (ruti. There is a third eans ado#ted +y the Brah ins to ake the ( ritis e-ual if not su#erior to the Vedas. %t is to +e found in the $tri ( riti. $tri says that those who do not res#ect the ( ritis will +e su+7ect to curse. $tri?s argu ent is that 2rah anya arises only as a result of a 7oint study of the (ruti and ( riti and if a #erson studies the Vedas only +ut holds the ( riti in conte #t he would +e i ediately conde ned to +e +orn as a +east for 21 generations. *hy did the Brah ins ado#t such des#arate eans to #lace the ( ritis on the sa e footing as the (ruti. *hat was their #ur#ose. *hat was their oti,e. 8rof. $ltekar?s argu ent that the ( ritis were gi,en su#re acy o,er the Vedas +ecause they ga,e legal 7ustification to custo ary law which was of later growth9 cannot +e acce#ted as ade-uate. %f the case was that9 there was law in the Vedic #eriod and custo had grown later onC and if there was a conflict +etween the two9 one could ha,e understood the argu ent that the ( ritis were gi,en #redo inance +ecause they set right the conflict +y recogniBing the #rogressi,e doctrines of the custo . This is not the case. There was no such thing as law in the Vedas. $s 8rofessor =ane #oints out: D$ll law was custo ary and there was no necessity to gi,e recognition to the custo s +ecause they were recogniBed +y the #eo#le. (econdly the ( ritis cannot +e said to +e ore #rogressi,e than the Vedas. Barring the &hatur,arna doctrine which e,ery+ody knows the Vedas e"ce#t in the atter of for s of worshi# left (ociety -uite free to de,elo#. *hat the ( ritis ha,e done is9 take out the un#rogressi,e ele ent in the Vedas na ely the &hatur,arna theory and to #ro#agandiBe it and ha er it into the heads of the #eo#le.D Therefore there ust +e so e other reason why the Brah ins ga,e su#re acy to the ( ritis o,er the Vedas. The Brah ins were not content with their first acro+atics. They #erfor ed another. The ( ritis were followed in #oint of ti e +y the 8uranas. There are 12 8uranas and 12 K#@8uranas altogether '0. %n one sense the su+7ect atter of the 8uranas is the sa e. They deal with the creation9 #reser,ation and destruction of the world. But

in the rest of their contents they differ altogether. (o e #ro#agate the cult of Brah a9 so e the cult of (hi,a9 so e the cult of Vishnu9 so e the cult of Vayu9 so e the cult of $gni9 so e the cult of (urya and so e the cult of 6oddesses and other deities. $s has +een noted there was a ti e when the 8uranas were not included in the (hruti. %n later ti es howe,er a striking change see s to ha,e taken #lace. The 8uranas which were considered as too #rofane to +e included in the (hruti were gi,en a su#eriority o,er the Vedas. The Vayu 8urana says : D5irst9 of all the (hastras9 the 8urana was uttered +y Brah a. (u+se-uently the Vedas issued fro his outh.D The :atsya 8urana not only clai s #riority of creation for the 8uranas as against the Vedas9 +ut also the -ualities of eternity and identity with sound9 which was once #redicated of the Vedas alone. %t says : D 8ita aha HBrah aI9 first of all the i ortals9 took sha#eC then the Vedas with their $ngas and K#angas Ha##endages and inor a##endagesI9 and the ,arious odes of their te"tual arrange ents9 were anifested. The 8urana9 eternal9 for ed of sound9 #ure9 e"tending to the length of a hundred crores of ,erses9 was the first of the (astras which Brah a uttered C and afterwards the Vedas9 issued fro his outhC and also the :i ansa and the Nyaya with its eightfold syste of #roofs. The Bhagawat 8urana clai s e-uality of authority with the Vedas. %t says : DHBra haratraI declared the 8urana called the Bhaga,ata9 which stands on an e-uality with the Veda.D The Brah a@Vai,artta 8urana has the audacity to clai su#eriority o,er the Vedas. %t says : DThat a+out which ,enera+le sage9 you ha,e in-uired9 and which you desire9 is all known to e9 the essence of the 8uranas9 the #ree inent Brah a@Vai,artta9 which refutes the errors of the 8uranas and K#a@#uranas9 and the Vedas.D This is the second acro+atic #erfor ed +y the Brah ins in assigning #riority9 #recedence9 and authority to their sacred +ooks. This does not co #lete the story of the su##ression of the Vedas. The worse is yet to co e. The 8uranas were followed +y another class of literature called the Tantras. Ff'2G Their nu +er is also -uite for ida+le. (hankaracharya refers to 0) Tantras. There ight +e any ore. Traditionally the authorshi# of these works is attri+uted to Aattatreya9 who was an incarnation of the Hindu trinity9 Brah a9 Vishnu and (hi,a. They are therefore to +e regarded as e-ually the re,elation of the three su#re e di,inities. %n for 9 howe,er9 they are de#endent on (hi,a alone9 who in dialogue with his wife Aurga9 or =ali9 re,eals the ystical doctrines and o+ser,ances which are to +e recei,ed and #ractised +y his worshi##ers. This authoritati,e or ?higher tradition? is further said to ha,e +een deli,ered fro his central or fifth outh. $s such it is #re@e inently sacred and secret and ay not +e re,ealed to the uninitiated. They are also called +y the na e $ga as9 and as such are so eti es distinguished fro Niga a9 the
Ff22G Ff23G Ff'4G Ff'1G

te"t of the Vedas9 Ahar ashastras9 and other sacred +ooks. The Tantras are regarded s#ecially as the religious te"t@+ooks of the (aktas and of their ,arious sects. There are different Tantrik schools9 with ,ariant traditions9 the distinctions +etween which are little understood outside of their i ediate circle of adherents. The ritual of the Tantras of the Aaksinacharins9 howe,er9 is said to +e #ure and in har ony with the Vedas9 while that of the Va acharins is intended only for (hudras. The teaching of the Tantras9 as of the 8uranas is essentially +ased on the Bhakti@ :arga which is regarded +y the as su#erior to the =ar a@:arga and <nana@:arga of the Brah anas and K#anishads. $doration of a #ersonal deity is inculcated9 es#ecially of the wife of (hi,a9 who is worshi##ed as the source of all regenerati,e #ower. %n all these writings the fe ale #rinci#le is #ersonified and ade #ro inent9 to the al ost total e"clusion of the ale. *hat is the relation of the Tantras to the Vedas. =alluka Bhatta the well known co entator of :anu ( riti has no hesitation in asserting that (hruti is two@fold@ Vaidi1 and Tantri1;which eans that the Vedas and the Tantras stand on e-ual footing. *hile the Vaidik Brah ins like =alluka Bhatta ad itted the e-uality of the Tantras to the Vedas9 the authors of the Tantras went uch +eyond. They clai ed that the Vedas9 the (hastras9 and the 8uranas are alike a co on wo an9 +ut the Tantras are like a high+orn wo an con,eying there+y that the Tantras are su#erior to the Vedas. 5ro this sur,ey one thing is clear. The Brah ins ha,e not +een ,ery steadfast in their +elief regarding the sacred character of what they called their +ooks of religion. They fought to aintain the thesis that the Vedas were not only sacred +ut that they were infalli+le. Not only they aintained that the Vedas were infalli+le +ut they s#ent their ingenuity to in,ent strange argu ents to su##ort the doctrine of infalli+ility. Jet they had not the slightest co #unction to o,erthrow the #osition of the Vedas and to su+ordinate the first to the ( ritis9 then to the 8uranas and lastly to the Tantras. The -uestion of all -uestions is what ade the Brah ins degrade the Vedas and su#ersede the +y ( ritis9 8uranas and the Tantras if they regarded their Vedas as the ost sacred. RIDDLE NO. 1 HO# THE UPANISHADS DECLARED #AR ON THE %EDAS*hat is the #osition of the K#anishads in relation to the Vedas. $re the two co #li entary to each other or are they antagonistic. Of course9 no Hindu would ad it that the Vedas and K#anishads are re#ugnant to each other. On the contrary9 it is the co on +elief of all Hindus that there is no antagonis +etween the and that +oth for #art and #arcel of the sa e single syste of thought. %s this +elief

well@founded. The #rinci#al reason for the rise of such a +elief is to +e found in the fact that the K#anishads are also known +y another na e which is called Vedanta. The word Vedanta has got two eanings. %n one sense9 it eans the last #arts of the Vedas. %n the second sense9 it eans the essence of the Vedas. The word Vedanta +eing another na e for the K#anishads9 the K#anishads the sel,es ha,e co e to ac-uire these eanings. %t is these eanings which are res#onsi+le for the co on +elief that there is no antagonis +etween the Vedas and the K#anishads. To what e"tent are these eanings of the word K#anishads 7ustified +y facts. %n the first #lace9 it is well to note the eaning of the word Vedanta. *hat was the original eaning of the word Vedanta. Aoes it ean the last +ook of the Vedas. $s o+ser,ed +y 8rof. :a" :ullerEFf''G: DVedanta is a technical ter and did not ean originally the last #ortions of the Veda9 or cha#ters #laced9 as it were9 at the end of a ,olu e of Vedic literature9 +ut the end i.e.9 the o+7ect9 the highest #ur#ose of the Veda. There are9 of course9 #assages9 like the one in the Taittiriya@aranyaka Hed@Ra7endra :itra #. 224I9 which ha,e +een isunderstood +oth +y nati,e and !uro#ean scholars9 and where Vedanta eans si #ly the end of the Veda: yo vedadu svarah """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" This 1/@#age ty#ed :( with odifications in the handwriting of the author was originally entitled ? Vedas ,ersus K#anishads ?. &oncluding two #aragra#hs are added +y the author in his own handwriting.@!d. """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" pro1to vedante 1a pratishthitah$ * the O which is #ronounced at the +eginning of the Veda9 and has its #lace also at the end of the Veda.? Here Vedanta stands si #ly in o##osition to Vedadu9 it is i #ossi+le to translate it9 as (ayana does9 +y Vedanta or K#anishad. Vedanta9 in the sense of #hiloso#hy9 occurs in the Taittiriya@ aranyaka #. 2119 in a ,erse of the Narayania@u#anishad re#eated in the :undak@ u#anishad %%% 29 0 and elsewhere vedantavigna unis1itarah$ ?those who ha,e well understood the o+7ect of the knowledge arising fro the Vedanta ? not fro the last +ooks of the Veda and Svetasvatara/up V%@229 vedante para a guthya $ ?the highest ystery in the Vedanta?. $fterwards it is used in the #lural also9 e.g.9 =shuriko#anishad9 14 H+i+l. %nd. #. 214I pundari1eti Vedanteshu nigadyate$ * it is called #undarika in the VedantasD i.e.9 in the =handogya and other K#anishads9 as the co entator says9 +ut not in the last +ooks of each Veda.D? :ore direct e,idence on the #oint is that which is contained in the 6auta a Ahar a (utras. %n &ha#ter N%N ,erse 12 6auta a s#eaks of #urification and says: DThe #urificatory Hte"ts areI9 the K#anishads9 the Vedantas9 the (a hita@te"t of all the VedasD and so on. 5ro this it is clear that at the date of 6auta a the

K#anishads were distinguished fro Vedantas and were not acknowledged as a #art of the Vedic literature. Hardatta in his co entaries says Dthose #arts of the $ranyakas which are not. HK#anishadsI are called VedantasD. This is uni #eacha+le #roof that the K#anishads did not co e within the range of the Vedic literature and were outside the canons. This ,iew is also su##orted +y the use of the Veda in the Bhagwat 6ita. The word Veda is used in the Bhagwat 6ita at se,eral #laces. $nd according to :r. Bhat the word is used in a sense which shows that the author did not include the K#anishads in the ter . The su+7ect atter of the ><#anishads is not the sa e as that of the Vedas. This is also another reason why the K#anishads are not a #art of the Vedas. *hat is the origin of the word K#anishad. The #oint is so ewhat o+scure. :ost !uro#ean scholars are agreed in deri,ing K#anishad fro the root sad$ to sit down9 #receded +y the two #re#ositions ni down and upa near9 so that it would e"#ress the idea of session or asse +ly of #u+lic sitting down near their teacher to listen to his instructions. This is +ecause in the Trikandasesha9 the word K#anishad is e"#lained +y Sa ipasadana as sitting down near a #erson. But as 8rof. :a" :uller #oints out there are two o+7ections to the acce#tance of this deri,ation. 5irstly such a word9 it would see 9 would ha,e +een a##lica+le to any other #ortion of the Veda as well as to the cha#ters called K#anishad9 and it has ne,er +een e"#lained how its eaning ca e thus to +e restricted. (econdly9 the word K#anishad9 in the sense of session or asse +ly has ne,er +een et with. *hene,er the word occurs9 it has the eaning of doctrine9 secret doctrine9 or is si #ly used as the title of the #hiloso#hic treatises which contain the secret doctrine. There is another e"#lanation #ro#osed +y (ankara in his co entary on the Taittiriya@K#anishad %%9 39 noted +y 8rof. :a" :uller. $ccording to it the highest +liss is contained in the K#anishad (para sreyo *sya nishanna .. That is why it is called K#anishad. Regarding this9 8rof. :a" :uller says: DThe $ranyakas a+ound in such ety ologies which #ro+a+ly were ne,er intended as real as #lays on words9 hel#ing9 to account so ehow for their eaning.D 8rof. :a" :uller howe,er fa,ours a deri,ation of the word ? K#anishad ? fro the root sad to destroy9 and eant knowledge which destroys ignorance9 the cause of (a sara9 +y re,ealing the knowledge of Brah ana as a eans of sal,ation. 8rof. :a" :uller #oints out that this is the eaning which the nati,e scholars ha,e unani ously gi,en to the word K#anishad. %f it +e granted that the true deri,ation of the word ? K#anishad ? is what is suggested +y 8rof. :a" :uller9 then it would +e one #iece of e,idence to show that the co on +elief of the Hindus is wrong and that the su+7ect atter of the Vedas and the K#anishads are not co #li entary +ut antagonistic. That the syste of thought e +odied in the K#anishads is re#ugnant to that of the Vedas is +eyond
Ff')G

dou+t. $ few citations fro so e of the K#anishads will suffice to show their o##osition to the Vedas. The :undaka K#anishad says: D Bra ha was #roduced the first a ong the gods9 aker of the uni,erse9 the #reser,er of the world. He re,ealed to his eldest son $thar,a9 the science of Brah a the +asis of all knowledge. H2I $thar,an of old declared to $ngis this science9 which Brah a had unfolded to hi C and $ngis9 in turn9 e"#lained it to (atya,aha9 descendant of Bharad,a7a9 who deli,ered this traditional lore9 in succession9 to $ngiras. H'I :ahasala (aunaka9 a##roaching $ngiras with the #ro#er for alities9 in-uired9 ?*hat is that9 4 ,enera+le sage9 through the knowledge of which all this Huni,erseI +eco es known. H)I H$ngirasI answered9 ?Two sciences are to +e known this is what the sages ,ersed in sacred knowledge declarethe su#erior and the inferior. H/I The inferior Hconsists ofI the Rig Veda9 the Ja7ur@Veda9 the (a a@Veda9 the $thar,a@Veda9 accentuation9 ritual gra ar9 co entary9 #rosody and astrono y. The su#erior science is that +y which the i #erisha+le is a##rehended.D +y which of course he eans the K#anishads. The &hhandogya K#anishad says: DH1I Narada a##roached (anatku ara9 saying9 D%nstruct e9 ,enera+le sage. He recei,ed for answer ? $##roach e with Htell eI that which thou knowestC and % will declare to thee whate,er ore is to +e learnt.? H2I Narada re#lied9 ?% a instructed9 ,enera+le sage9 in the Rig@,eda9 the (a a@,eda9 the Ja7ur@,eda9 the $thar,ana Hwhich isI the fourth9 the %tihasas and 8urana Hwhich areI the fifth Veda of the Vedas9 the rites of the #itris9 arith etic99 the knowledge of #ortents and of great #eriods9 the art of reasoning9 ethics9 the science of the gods9 the knowledge of (cri#ture9 de onology9 the science of war9 the knowledge of the stars9 the sciences of ser#ents and deities: this is what % ha,e studied. H'I %9 ,enera+le an9 know only the hy ns H antrasIC while % a ignorant of soul. But % ha,e heard fro re,erend sages like thyself that ?the an who is ac-uainted with soul o,er#asses grief ?. Now %9 ,enera+le an9 a afflictedC +ut do thou trans#ort e o,er y grief. (anatku ara answered9 ? That which thou hast studied is nothing +ut na e. H)I The Rig@,eda is na e: and so are the Ja7ur@,eda9 the (a a@,eda9 the $thar,ana9 which is the fourth9 and the %tihasas and 8uranas9 the fifth Veda of the Vedas9 etc.9 Hall the other +ranches of knowledge are here enu erated 7ust as a+o,eI9all these are +ut na es: worshi# na e. H/I He who worshi#s na e Hwith the #ersuasion that it isI Brah a9 ranges as it were at will o,er all which that na e co #rehends: such is the #rerogati,e of hi who worshi#s na e Hwith the #ersuasion that it isI Brah a9 ? %s there anything9 ,enera+le an? asked Narada9 ?which is ore than na e.? ?There is9? re#lied9 ?so ething which is ore than na e?. ?Tell it to e?9 re7oined Narada.D The Brahadaranyaka K#anishad says: D %n that Hcondition of #rofound slu +erI a father is no father9 a other is no other9 the worlds are no worlds9 the gods are no gods9 and the Vedas are no

Vedas9 sacrifices are no sacrifices. %n that condition a thief is no thief9 a urderer of e +ryos is no urderer of e +ryos9 a 8ulkasa no 8aulakasa9 a &handala no &handala9 a (ra ana no (ra ana9 a de,otee no de,oteeC the saint has then no relation9 either of ad,antage or disad,antage9 to erit or to sinC for he then crosses o,er all griefs of the heart.D This is what the =atha K#anishad has to say: DThis soul is not to +e attained +y instruction9 nor +y understanding9 nor +y uch scri#ture. He is attaina+le +y hi who he chooses. The soul chooses that an?s +ody as his own a+ode D. D$lthough this soul is difficult to know9 still it ay easily +e known +y the use of #ro#er eans. This is what Hthe authorI #roceeds to say. This soul is not to +e attained9 known9 +y instruction9 +y the acknowledge ent of any VedasC nor +y. understanding9 +y the #ower of recollecting the contents of +ooksC nor +y uch scri#ture alone. By what9 then9 is it to +e attained. This he declares D. How great was the re#ugnance to the V#anishads and the #hiloso#hy contained in the will +e realiBed if one takes note of the origin of the words $nulo a and 8ratilo a which are usually a##lied to the arriage tie a ong the Hindus. (#eaking of their origin :r. =ane9 #oints out that : DThese two words $nulo a and 8ratilo a Has a##lied to arriage or #rogenyI hardly e,er occur in the Vedic literature. %n the Br. K#. H%%. 1./I and =ausitaki Br. K#. %V. 2. the word ? 8ratilo a ? is a##lied to the #rocedure ado#ted +y a Brah ana of going to a =shatriya for knowledge a+out ? 2rah an *. $nulo a eans according to the heir that is in the natural order of things9 8ratilo a eans against the heir that is contrary to the natural order. Reading the o+ser,ations of :r. =ane in the light of the definition of the word 8ratilo a it is o+,ious that the K#anishads far fro +eing acknowledged as #art of the Vedic literature were if not des#ised9 held in low estee +y the Vedic Brah ins. This is anadditional #iece of e,idence which shows that there was a ti e when the relation +etween the Vedas and the K#anishads was of antagonis . $nother illustration of the attitude of the Vaidik Brah ins towards Brah ins who had studied the K#anishads ay +e gi,en. %t is to +e found in the te"ts of the Ahar a (utras of Baudhayana. Baudhayana in his Ahar a (utras Hii. 2.'I says that at a (hradha cere ony a Rahasya,id is to +e in,ited only if other Brah ins are not a,aila+le. $ Rahasya,id of course eans a Brah in ,ersed in the K#anishads. The +elief that the Vedas and the K#anishads are co #li entary ca e into +eing is really a riddle.
Ff'/G

R%AA>! NO. 3 HO* TH! K8$N%(H$A( &$:! TO B! :$A! (KBORA%N$T! TO TH! V!A$(.

%n the #receding cha#ter it was shown that originally the K#anishads were not a #art of the Vedas and that the two in the atter of doctrine were o##osed to each other. %t is instructi,e to co #are the later relations +etween the Vedas and the K#anishads. The later relations +etween the are +est illustrated +y the contro,ersy +etween two #hiloso#hers9 <ai ini and Badarayana. <ai ini is the author of a work called the :i a sa (utras while Badarayana is the author of Brah a (utras. <ai ini is an u#holder of the Vedas and Badarayana is an u#holder of the K#anishads. The #oint of dis#ute was%s it necessary to #erfor sacrifices . The Vedas say ? yes ? and the K#anishads say ? no ?. The #osition of <ai ini is stated +y Badarayana in his (utras 2@19 and e"#lained +y (hankaracharya in his co entary. <ai ini contends that EFf'0G: D No one undertakes a sacrificial act unless he is conscious of the fact that he is different fro the +ody and that after death he will go to hea,en9 where he will en7oy the result of his sacrifices. The Te"ts dealing with self@knowledge ser,e erely to enlighten the agent and so are su+ordinate to sacrificial acts.D %n short <ai ini says that all that Vedanta teaches is that self is different fro the +ody and outli,e the +ody. (uch a knowledge is not enough. The self ust ha,e the as#iration to go to hea,en. But it can?t go to hea,en unless it #erfor s Vedic sacrifices which is what his =ar akand teaches. Therefore his =ar akand is the only (al,ation and that the <nankand fro that #oint of ,iew is -uite useless. 5or this <ai ini relies on the conduct of en who ha,e +elie,ed in Vedanta : ____________________________________________ '#aimini versus $adarayana ' was the title given to this chapter which was later scored out This is a %-page typed MS with modifications in the first two pages by the author !Ed.
Ff'1G

D<anaka9 e #eror of Videha #erfor ed a sacrifice in which gifts were freely distri+uted HBrih. '.1.1I. % a going to #erfor a sacrifice sirs H&hh. /.11./I. Now +oth <anaka and $s,a#ati were knowers of the (elf. %f +y this knowledge of the (elf they had attained >i+eration9 there was no need for the to #erfor sacrifices. But the two te"ts -uoted show that they did #erfor sacrifices. This #ro,es that it is through sacrificial acts alone that one attains >i+eration and not through the knowledge of the (elf as the Vedantins hold.D <ai ini akes a #ositi,e assertion that the scri#tures un istaka+ly declare Dthat knowledge of the (elf stands in a su+ordinate relation to sacrificial acts D. <ai ini 7ustifies it +ecause he says D the two Hknowledge and workI go together Hwith the de#arting soul to #roduce the resultsI.D <ai ini refuses to gi,e an inde#endent #osition to Badarayana?s ?nana1anda. He takes his stand on two grounds. 5irst : D =nowledge of the (elf does not inde#endently #roduce any result.D
Ff'2G Ff'3G Ff)4G

(econd : $ccording to the authority of the Vedas D=nowledge Hof (elfI stands in a su+ordinate relation to work.D This is the #osition of <ai ini towards Badarayana?s ?nana1anda. *hat is the #osition of Badarayana towards <ai ini and his 0ar a 0anda@ This is e"#lained +y Badarayana in (utras 2 to 11. The first #osition taken u# +y Badarayana is that the (elf s#oken of +y <ai ini is the li ited self i.e.9 the soul is to +e distinguished fro the (u#re e soul and that the (u#re e soul is recogniBed +y the (cri#tures. The second #osition taken u# +y Badarayana is that the Vedas su##ort +oth knowledge of (elf as well as sacrifices. The third #osition taken u# +y Badarayana is that only those who +elie,e in the Vedas are re-uired to #erfor sacrifices. But those who follow the K#anishads are not +ound +y that in7unction. $s (hankaracharya e"#lains: D Those who ha,e read the Vedas and known a+out the sacrifices are entitled to #erfor work HsacrificesI.? No work HsacrificeI is #rescri+ed for those who ha,e knowledge of the (elf fro the K#anishads. (uch a knowledge is inco #ati+le with work.D The fourth #osition taken u# +y Badarayana is that 0ar a1anda is o#tional to those who ha,e attained Bra hanand. $s (hankaracharya e"#lains: DThat so e ha,e of their own accord gi,en u# all work. The #oint is that after knowledge so e ay choose to work to set an e"a #le to others9 while others ay gi,e u# all work. There is no +inding on the knowers of the (elf as regards work.D His last and final #osition is that: D =nowledge of the (elf is antagonistic to all work and so cannot #ossi+ly +e su+sidiary to workD $nd as e,idence in su##ort of it he relies on the scri#tures which recogniBes (annyas as the fourth $shra and relie,es the (annyasi fro #erfor ing sacrifices #rescri+ed +y the 0ar a1anda. :any such (utras can +e found in Badarayana indicating the attitude of the two scholars of thought towards each other. But the one gi,en a+o,e is enough as it is so ,ery ty#ical. %f one sto#s to consider the atter the #osition wears a strange a##earance. <ai ini denounces Vedanta as a false (hastra9 a snare and a delusion9 so ething su#erficial9 unnecessary and unsu+stantial. *hat does Badarayana do in the face of this attack . Aoes he denounce the 0ar a1anda of <ai ini as a false (hastra9 a snare and a delusion9 so ething su#erficial9 unnecessary and unsu+stantial as the K#anishads the sel,es did. No. He only defends his own Vedanta (hastra. But one would e"#ect hi to do ore. One would e"#ect fro Badarayana a denunciation of the 0ar a1anda of <ai ini as a false religion. Badarayana shows no courage. On the contrary he is ,ery a#ologetic. He concedes that <ai ini?s 0ar a1anda is +ased on the scri#tures and the scri#tures ha,e
Ff)1G Ff)2G Ff)'G Ff))G Ff)/G Ff)0G Ff)1G

authority and sanctity which cannot +e re#udiated. $ll that he insists on is that his Vedanta doctrine is also true +ecause it has also the su##ort of the scri#tures. This is not all. *hat Badarayana does is to use the ter Vedanta to co,er two senses. He uses it so as to e #hasiBe that the K#anishads do for a #art of the Vedic literature. He uses it also to e #hasiBe that Vedanta or the ?nyana1anda of the K#anishads is not o##osed to the 0ar a1anda of the Vedas that the two are co #li entary. %ndeed this is the foundation on which Badarayana has raised the whole structure of his Vedanta (utras. This thesis of Badarayanawhich underlies his Vedanta (utras and according to which the K#anishads are a #art of the Veda and there is no antagonis +etween the Vedas and K#anishadsis -uite contrary to the tenor of the K#anishads and their relation to the Vedas. Badarayana?s attitude is not easy to understand. But it is -uite o+,ious that Badarayana?s is a -ueer and a #athetic case of an o##onent who +egins his +attle +y ad itting the ,alidity of the #re ises of his ad,ersary. *hy did Badarayana concede to <ai ini on the -uestion of infalli+ility of the Vedas which were o##osed to the K#anishads. *hy did he not stand for truth9 the whole truth and nothing +ut the truth as e"#ounded +y the K#anishads. The Badarayana has in his Vedanta (utras +etrayed the K#anishads. *hy did he do so. RIDDLE NO. 12 #H! DID THE 'RAH(INS (A"E THE HINDU GODS IGHT AGAINST ONE ANOTHERThe Hindu theology regarding the world is +ased u#on the doctrine of Tri urti. $ccording to this doctrine the world undergoes three stages. %t is created9 #reser,ed and destroyed. %t is endless series of cycles which goes on without sto##age. The three functions which co #rise the cycle are discharged +y three 6ods9 Brah a9 Vishnu and :ahesh. Brah a creates the world9 Vishnu @#reser,es and :ahesh destroys it for the #ur#ose of creation. These gods are s#oken of as for ing what is called Tri urti. The doctrine of Tri urti #ostulates that three gods are co@e-ual in status and are engaged in functions which are conte #orary and not co #etiti,e. They are friends and not ri,als. They are allies of one another and not ene ies. *hen9 howe,er9 one studies the literature which de#icts the deeds of these three gods one finds a co #lete difference +etween the theory and the #ractice. The 6ods far fro +eing friends a##ear to +e worse ene ies of one another9 co #eting for su#re acy and so,ereignty a ong the sel,es. $ few illustrations fro the 8uranas will ake the atter clear. $t one ti e Brah a a##ears to +e the ost su#re e god as co #ared to (hi,a and Vishnu. Brah a is said to +e the creator of the uni,ersethe first 8ra7a#ati. He is the #rogenitor of (hi,a9 EFf)2G and the aster of Vishnu +ecause if Vishnu +eca e

the #reser,er of the uni,erse it was +ecause Brah a co anded hi to do it. (o su#re e was Brah a that he was the ar+itrator in the conflicts that took #lace +etween Rudra and Narayan and +etween =rishna and (hi,a. !-ually certain is the fact that at a su+se-uent stage Brah a ca e into conflict with (hi,a and Vishnu and strangely enough lost his #osition and su#re acy to his ri,als. Two illustrations of his conflict with Vishnu ay +e gi,en . __________________________________________________________ The original title was ' &ods at 'ar ' This is a 2(-page typed and corrected MS which includes three concluding pages handwritten by the author ! Ed. """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" The first ay well +e the story of the $,atars. On the issue of the $,atars there is a ri,alry +etween Brah a and Vishnu. The theory of $,atars or incarnation assu ed +y 6od to sa,e hu anity fro a cala ity +egan with Brah a. He was said to ha,e assu ed two $,atars H1I Boar and H2I 5ish. But the followers of Vishnu refused to allow this. They asserted that these $,atars were not the $,atars of Brah a +ut that they were the $,atars of Vishnu. Not only did they a##ro#riate these $,atars of Vishnu they ga,e to Vishnu any ore $,atars. The 8uranas ha,e run riot with the +vatars of Vishnu and different 8uranas ha,e gi,en different lists of $,atars as will +e seen fro the following: $V$T$R( O5 V%(HNK
(r. $ccording No. to Hari Va sa $ccordi ng to Narayani $khyan 1. Varaha 2. Narasinha '. Va an ). 8arshura /. Ra a 0. =rishna 1. ra 2. 3. 14. Ra a =rishna =alkin =rishna Buddha =alkin $ndhak arh Ah,a7a Varta 8rithi :atsya Rasha+ha Hansa =ur a :atsya Varaha Narasin ha Va an a 8arshu Ra a Tri#urari <adna 8arshur $di,aka Aatlatraya $ccordi ng to Varaha 8urana =ur a :atsya Varaha Narasin ha Va an (angra Narasin ha Va an Varaha =ur a Nara@ Narayan =a#ila r Boar (anatku a $ccordin g to Vayu 8urana $ccording to Bhagwat 8urana

11. 12. 1'. 1). 1/. 10. 11. %(. 13. 24. 21 22.

Halahal =olhahal ri

=ur a Ahanwanta :ohini Narasinha Va an 8arshura Ved Vyas Naradeo Ra a =rishna Buddha =alkin

The second story ay well +e the issue of the first +orn. %t is related in the (kanda 8urana. The story says that at one ti e Vishnu lay aslee# on the +oso of Ae,i9 a lotus arose fro his na,el9 and its ascending flower soon reached the surface of the flood. Brah a s#rang fro flower9 and looking round without any creature on the +oundless e"#anse9 i agined hi self to +e first +orn9 and entitled to rank a+o,e all future +eingsC yet resol,ed to in,estigate dee# and to ascertain whether any +eing e"isted in its uni,erse who could contro,ert his #ree inence9 he glided down the stock of the lotus and finding Vishnu aslee#9 asked loudly who he was ?% a the first +orn? answered VishnuC and when Brah a denied his #re#rogeniture9 they engaged in +attle9 till :ahadeo #ressed +etween the in great wrath9 saying ? %t is % who a truly the first +orn ?. But % will resign y #lace to either of you9 who shall +e a+le to reach and +ehind the su it of y head9 or the soles of y foot. Brah a instantly ascended +ut ha,ing fatigued hi self to no #ur#ose in the regions of i ensity yet loath to a+andon his clai 9 returned to :ahadeo declaring that he had attained and seen the crown of his head9 and called as his witness the first +orn cow. 5or this union of #ride and falsehood9 the angry 6od (hi,a ordained that no sacred rites should +e #erfor ed to Brah a and that the outh of cow should +e defiled. *hen Vishnu returned9 he acknowledged that he had not +een a+le to see the feet of :ahadeo who then told hi that he was the first +orn a ong the 6ods9 and should +e raised a+o,e all. %t was after this :ahadeo cut off the fifth head of Brah a who thus suffered the loss of his #ride9 his #ower and his influence. $ccording to this story Brah a?s clai to +e the first +orn was false. He was #unished +y (hi,a for aking it. Vishnu gets the right to call hi self the first +orn. But that is allowed to hi +y the grace of (hi,a. The followers of Brah a had their re,enge on Vishnu for stealing.what rightfully +elonged to hi with the hel# of (hi,a. (o they anufactured another legend according to which Vishnu e anated fro Brah a?s nostrils in the sha#e of a #ig and grew naturally into a +oara ,ery ean

e"#lanation of Vishnu?s $,atar as a +oar. $fter this Brah a tried to create en ity +etween (hi,a and Vishnu e,idently to +etter his own #osition. This story is told in the Ra ayana. %t says: D*hen =ing Aasaratha was returning to his ca#ital9 after taking lea,e of <anaka9 the king of :ithila9 whose daughter (ita had 7ust +een arried to Ra a9 he was alar ed +y the ill@o ened sounds uttered +y certain +irds9 which howe,er were counteracted9 as the sage Vasishtha assured the king9 +y the aus#icious sign of his +eing #era +ulated +y the wild ani als of the forest. The alar ing e,ent indicated was the arri,al of 8arasura a9 #receded +y a hurricane which shook the earth and #rostrated the trees9 and +y thick darkness which ,eiled the sun. He was fearful to +ehold9 +rilliant as fire9 and +ore the a"e and a +ow on his shoulder. Being recei,ed with honour9 which he acce#ted9 he #roceeded to say to Ra a9 the son of Aasaratha that he had heard of his #rowess in +reaking the +ow #roduced +y <anaka and had +rought another which he asked Ra a to +end9 and to fit an arrow on the stringC and if he succeeded in doing so9 he H8arasura aI would offer to engage with hi in single co +at. Aasaratha is rendered an"ious +y this s#eech9 and ado#ts a su##liant tone towards 8arasura a9 +ut the latter again addresses Ra a9 and says that the +ow he had +roken was (i,a?s9 +ut the one he hi self had now +rought was Vishnu?s. Two celestial +ows9 he #roceeds9 were ade +y Vis,akar a of which one was gi,en +y. the gods to :ahade,a9 the other to VishnuD. The narrati,e then #roceeds: DThe gods then all ade a re-uest to Brah a desiring to find out the strength and weakness of (itikantha H:ahade,aI and Vishnu. Brah a9 ost e"cellent of the three learning the #ur#ose of the gods9 created en ity +etween the two. %n this state of en ity a great and terri+le fight ensued +etween (itikantha and Vishnu each of who was eager to con-uer the other. (i,a?s +ow of dreadful #ower was then rela"ed and the three@eyed :ahade,a was arrested +y a uttering. These two e inent deities +eing entreated +y the asse +led gods9 rishis9 and &haranas then +eca e #acified. (eeing that the +ow of (i,a had +een rela"ed +y the #rowess of Vishnu9 the gods and rishis estee ed Vishnu to +e su#erior.D Thus Brah a anaged to a,enge the wrong done to hi +y :ahadeo. !,en this stratage did not a,ail Brah a to aintain his #osition against Vishnu. Brah a lost his #osition so co #letely to Vishnu that Vishnu who at one ti e was at the co and of Brah a +eca e the creator Of Brah a. %n his contest with (hi,a for su#re acy Brah a suffered e-ual defeat. Here again9 the #osition +eca e co #letely in,erted. %nstead of +eing created +y Brah a9 (hi,a +eca e the creator of Bra ha. Brah a lost the #ower of gi,ing sal,ation. The god who could gi,e sal,ation was (hi,a and Brah a +eca e no ore than a co on de,otee worshi##ing (hi,a and his >inga in the ho#e of getting sal,ation. He was
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reduced to the #osition of a ser,ant of (hi,a doing the work of charioteer of (hi,a. Klti ately Brah a was knocked out of the field of worshi# on a charge of ha,ing co itted adultery with his own daughter. The charge is set out in the Bhagwat 8urana in the following ter s: D*e ha,e heard9 O =shatriya9 that (waya +hu HBrah aI had a #assion for Vach9 his slender and enchanting daughter9 who had no #assion for hi . The :unis9 his sons9 headed +y :arichi9 seeing their father +ent u#on wickedness9 ad onished hi with affectionC ?This is such a thing as has not +een done +y those +efore you9 nor will those after you do it9 that you9 +eing the lord9 should se"ually a##roach your daughter9 not restraining your #assion. This9 4 #rece#tor of the world9 is not a lauda+le deed e,en in glorious #ersonages9 through li itation of whose actions en attain felicity. 6lory to that di,ine +eing HVishnuI who +y his own lustre re,ealed this Huni,erseI which a+ides in hi self9 he ust aintain ? righteousness ?. (eeing his sons9 the 8ra7a#atis9 thus s#eaking +efore hi the lord of the 8ra7a#atis HBra haI was asha ed9 and a+andoned his +ody. This dreadful +ody the regions recei,ed and it is known as foggy darkness.D The result of this degrading and defa atory attacks on Brah a was to da n hi co #letely. No wonder that his cult disa##eared fro the face of %ndia lea,ing hi a no inal and theoretical e +er of the Tri urti. $fter Brah a was dri,en out of the field there re ained in the field (hi,a and Vishnu. The two howe,er were ne,er at #eace. The ri,alry and antagonis +etween the two is continuous. The 8uranas are full of #ro#aganda and counter@#ro#aganda carried on +y the Brah ins9 #rotagonists of (hi,a and Vishnu. How well atched the #ro#aganda and counter@#ro#aganda was9 can +e seen fro the following few illustrations: Vishnu is connected with the Vedic 6od (un. The worshi##ers of (hi,a connect hi with $gni. The oti,e was that if Vishnu has a Vedic origin (hi,a ust also ha,e Vedic origin as well. One cannot +e inferior to the other in the atter of no+ility of origin. (hi,a ust +e greater than Vishnu and Vishnu ust not +e less than (hi,a. Vishnu has thousand na es. (o (hi,a ust ha,e thousand na es and he has the . Vishnu has his e +le s . They are four. (o (hi,a ust ha,e the and he has the . They are H1I flowing gauges9 H2I &handra H oonI9 H'I (hesh HsnakeI and H)I ?ata Hwalled hairI. The only #oint on which (hi,a did not co #ete with Vishnu was the atter of +vatars. The reason is not that there was no desire to co #ete +ut that #hiloso#hically there was an i #edi ent in the way of (hi,a taking $,atars. The (ai,as and Vaisna,as differed funda entally in their conce#tions of i ortal +liss. $s has +een #ointed out +y :r. $yyer: DTo the (ai,a the goal to +e reached was final li+eration fro all fetters9 +odily and
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ental9 +y their total annihilation. Hence he concei,ed of Rudra as the ine"tinguisha+le9 one who could ne,er +e destroyed9 +ut who e"tinguished or destroyed e,erything else. That was why Rudra ca e to +e called the Aestroyer. %n the final stage of the s#iritual de,elo# ent of an indi,idual9 there ought to +e no se#arateness at all fro the su#re e (hi,a. He ought to transcend his +ody and ind9 #leasure and #ain9 and all o##osites or dualities. He should attain union or (ayu7ya with (hi,a in which condition he would not +e a+le to regard hi self as se#arate fro (hi,a. Till he reached that stage9 he was i #erfect9 howe,er #ure he ight +e9 howe,er eligi+le he ight +e9 for the highest state of (ayu7ya: for9 those who were eligi+le had attained only the su+ordinate stages of (alokya9 (a i#ya and (aru#ya. That was also the reason why the doctrine of $,atars did not a##eal to the (ai,a. 6od as an $,atar was only a li ited +eing9 one who had the ca#acity #erha#s9 of releasing hi self fro his fetters +ut not one without letters. The Vaisna,a +elie,ed differently. He had also an e-ually clear conce#tion of the highest state that could +e reached9 and that ought to he reached. But there was9 according to hi 9 nothing a##ealing in the idea of losing one?s own indi,iduality totally. One should +e united with the su#re e9 and yet +e conscious of the union. He should +e united with the uni,erse which again should +e regarded as the other as#ect of the su#re e i #erisha+le +eing. He was not9 in other words9 for the e"tinction of the uni,erse as if it were so ething se#arate and distinct fro the (u#re e 8urusha. He was rather in fa,our of the #reser,ation of the uni,erse which was neither ore nor less than the anifestation of the 8urusha so anifested. That was the reason why Vishnu was gi,en the na e of the 8reser,er. $fter all9 it is +ut a difference in the way in which the truth is #ercei,ed or ,iewed. The (ai,a ,iewed the uni,erse as an o+7ect of #ain and iseryas 3asha or fetters Hand one +ound +y it to +e 3asu. which had to +e +roken and destroyed. The Vaisna,a regarded it as e,idencing the greatness of the 8urusa and so to +e #reser,ed. The (ai,a9 with his su#erior #essi is Hif it could +e so calledI was not likely to res#ect the. Ahar a (hastras9 the $rtha (hastras and other scri#tures all of which were fra ed with the #ur#ose of esta+lishing orderliness in the world9 ine,ita+le for its welfare. He was +ound to +e a non@confor ist9 disdaining rules and con,entions. %deas of caste rigidity would +e re#ugnant to the highly@e,ol,ed (ai,a who would at +est tolerate such notions in others who had not reached his own stage of de,elo# ent. He would #ay res#ect to and culti,ate the society of only such #eo#le9 to whate,er caste they ight +elong9 as were eligi+le for (a i#ya9 (alokya9 (aru#ya and (ayu7ya9 with (i,a. The Vaisna,a9 on the other hand9 was ore concerned with the #reser,ation of all rules and regulations which would ha,e the effect of #ro oting #eace and ha##iness in the world. %f * Ahar a ?#erished9 the world would #erish too9 and since the world ought not to #erish9 for it was a anifestation of the glory of the cos ic 8urusa9 his duty consisted in doing e,erything he could for #reser,ing the Ahar a. %f

things went +eyond his control he was sure Vishnu would take the atter u# hi selfC for he would co e into the world as an $,atar. But when Vishnu did co e u#on the earth9 it would +e to destroy the wicked9 that is9 all those who were instru ental in u#setting the Ahar a9 and so it was necessary that one should +e careful not to deser,e that terri+le #unish ent fro Vishnu. Hence9 the $ga as or rules laid down for the guidance of (i,a +haktas did not e #hasise caste9 and were concerned only with the duties of bha1tas in general9 the #ro#er fulfil ent of which would render the fit to gain 6od ,ision9 and ulti ately union with (i,a. These were regarded as i #ure +y the others +ecause they were su+,ersi,e of caste ideas9 and as stated +efore9 they were not alluded to in the orthodo" scri#tures.D %n the #erfor ance of deeds of glory the #ro#aganda in fa,our of (hi,a is fully9 atched +y counter@#ro#aganda in fa,our of Vishnu. One illustration of this is the story regarding the origin of the holy ri,er 6anges. The de,otees of (hi,a attri+ute its origin to (hi,a. They take its origin fro (hi,a?s hair. But the Vaishna,as will not allow it. They ha,e anufactured another legend. $ccording to the Vaishna,ite legend the +lessed and the +lessing ri,er flowed originally out of Vaikunth Hthe a+ode of VishnuI fro the foot of Vishnu9 and descending u#on =ailasa fell on the head of (hi,a. There is a two@fold suggestion in the legend. %n the first #lace (hi,a is not the source of the 6anges. %n the second #lace (hi,a is lower than Vishnu and recei,es on his head water which flows fro the foot of Vishnu. $nother illustration is furnished +y the story which relates to the churning of the oceans +y the Ae,as and the $suras. They used the :andara ountain as the churning rod and ighty ser#ant (hesha as a ro#e to whirl the ountain. The earth +egan to shake and #eo#le +eca e afraid that the world was co ing to an end. Vishnu took the $,atar of =ur a HTortoiseI and held the earth on his +ack and #re,ented the earth fro shaking while the churning was going on. This story is told in glorification of Vishnu. To this the (hai,ites add a su##le ent. $ccording to this su##le ent the churning +rought out fourteen articles fro the de#th of the ocean which are called fourteen 7ewels. $ ong these fourteen a deadly #oison was one. This deadly #oison would ha,e destroyed the earth unless so e+ody was #re#ared to drink it. (hi,a was the only #erson who ca e forward to drink it. The suggestion is that Vishnu?s act was foolish in allowing the ri,als the 6ods and Ae onsto +ring out this deadly #oison. 6lory to (hi,a for he drank it and sa,ed the world fro the e,il conse-uences of the folly of Vishnu. Third illustration is an atte #t to show that Vishnu is a fool and that it is (hi,a who with his greater wisdo and greater #ower sa,es Vishnu fro his folly. %t is the story of $krurasura . $krur was a de on with the face of a +ear9 who9 ne,ertheless9 was continuously reading the Vedas and #erfor ing acts of de,otion. Vishnu was greatly #leased and #ro ised hi any +oon that he would care to ask. $krurasura re-uested that no creature9 then e"isting in three worlds9 ight ha,e #ower to
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de#ri,e hi of life9 and Vishnu co #lied with his re-uestC +ut the de on +eca e so insolent that the Ae,atas9 who he o##ressed9 were o+liged to conceal the sel,es9 and he assu ed the do inion of the world C Vishnu was then sitting on a +ank of the =ali9 greatly dis-uieted +y the alignant ingratitude of the de onC and his wrath +eing kindled9 a sha#e9 which ne,er +efore had e"isted9 s#rang fro his eyes. %t was :ahade,a9 in his destructi,e character9 who dis#elled in a o ent the an"iety of the Vishnu. This is countered +y the story of Bhas asura intended to show that (hi,a was a fool and Vishnu sa,ed hi fro his folly. Bhas asura ha,ing #ro#itiated (hi,a asked for a +oon. The +oon was to +e the #ower to +urn any one on whose head Bhas asura laid his hands. (hi,a granted the +oon. Bhas asura tried to use his +oon #ower against (hi,a hi self. (hi,a +eca e terrified and ran to Vishnu for hel#. Vishnu #ro ised to hel# hi . Vishnu took the for of a +eautiful wo an and went to Bhas asura who +eca e co #letely ena oured of her. Vishnu asked Bhas asura to agree to o+ey hi in e,erything as a condition of surrender. Bhas asura agreed. Vishnu then asked hi to #lace his hands on his own head which Bhas asura did with the result that Bhas asura died and Vishnu got the credit of sa,ing (hi,a fro the conse-uences of his folly. D%s %sa H:ahade,aI the &ause of causes for any other reasons. *e ha,e not heard that the linga H ale organI of any other #erson is worshi##ed +y the gods. Aeclare9 if thou hast heard9 what other +eing?s linga e"ce#t that of :ahes,ara is now worshi##ed9 or has for erly +een worshi##ed9 +y the gods. He whose linga Brah a and Vishnu9 and thou H%ndraI9 with the deities9 continually worshi#9 is therefore then ost e inent. (ince children +ear neither the ark of the lotus HBrah a?sI9 nor of the discus HVishnu?sI9 nor of the thunder+olt H%ndra?sI9 +ut are arked with the ale and the fe ale organs9therefore offs#ring is deri,ed fro :ahes,ara. $ll wo en #roduced fro the nature of Ae,i as their cause9 are arked with the fe ale organ9 and all ales are anifestly arked with the linga of Hara. He who asserts any other cause than ls,ara H:ahade,aI or Haffir sI that there is any Hfe aleI not arked +y Ae,i in the three worlds9 including all things o,a+le or i o,a+le9 let that fool +e thrust out. =now e,erything which is ale to +e %sara. and all that is fe ale to +e K a: for this whole world9 o,a+le and i o,a+le9 is #er,aded +y HtheseI two +odies.D The 6reek 8hiloso#her ;eno#hanes insists that #olytheis or #lurality of 6ods is inconcei,a+le and contradictory. That the only true doctrine was onotheis . &onsidered fro a #hiloso#hical #oint of ,iew9 ;eno#hanes ight +e right. But fro the historical #oint of ,iew +oth are natural. :onotheis is natural where society is a single co unity. *here society is a federation of any co unities #olytheis is +oth natural and ine,ita+le. Because e,ery ancient co unity consisted not erely of en +ut of en and its 6ods it was i #ossi+le for the ,arious co unities to

erge and coalesce e"ce#t on one condition that its 6od is also acce#ted +y the rest. This is how #olytheis has grown. &onse-uently the e"istence of any 6ods a ong the Hindus is -uite understanda+le +ecause the Hindu (ociety has +een for ed +y the conglo eration of any tri+es and any co unities each of who had their own se#arate 6ods. *hat strikes one as a strange #heno enon is the sight of the Hindu 6ods. struggling one against the other9 their co +ats and feuds and the ascri#tions +y one 6od to the other9 all things that arc a sha e and disgrace to co on ortals. This is what re-uires e"#lanation. RIDDLE NO. 11 #H! DID THE 'RAH(INS (A"E THE HINDU GODS SU ALL-

ER TO RISE AND

The Hindus are accused of idolatry. But there is nothing wrong in idolatry. :aking an idol is nothing ore than ha,ing a #hotogra#h of the deity and if there can +e no o+7ection to kee#ing a #hotogra#h what o+7ection can there +e to ha,ing an i age. Real o+7ection to Hindu idolatry is that it is not ere #hotogra#hy9 not ere #roduction of an i age. %t is ore than that. The Hindu idol is a li,ing +eing and is endowed with all the functions of a hu an +eing. $ Hindu idol is gi,en life +y eans of a cere ony called 8rana#ratishtha. The Buddhists also are idolatrous in as uch as they too worshi# Buddha?s idol. But the idol they worshi# is only a #hotogra#h9 a ere i age. There is no soul in it. *hy the Brah ins endowed the Hindu 6ods with souls and ade the li,ing +eings o#ens out an in-uiry which is +ound to +e re,ealing. But this in-uiry is outside the sco#e of this &ha#ter. The second charge generally le,elled against the Hindus is that they are #olytheists i.e.9 they worshi# any 6ods. Here again the Hindus are not the only #eo#le who are guilty of the #ractice of 8olytheis . Other co unities ha,e also +een known to ha,e #ractised #olytheis . To ention only two. The Ro ans and the 6reeks were essentially #olytheists. They too worshi##ed any 6ods. There is therefore no force in this charge. The real charge which can +e le,elled against the Hindus ost #eo#le see to ha,e issed. That charge is that the Hindus are ne,er steadfast in their de,otion to their 6ods. There is no such thing as This is a )*-page typed MS having corrections and modifications in the handwriting of the author The concluding para, however, is written in pen by the author himself The original title on the +hapter was ' The ,ise and -all of the &ods ' This title was scored out in blue pencil, which was normally used by the author for scoring out the matter !Ed.

loyalty or attach ent or faith in one 6od. %n the history of Hindu 6ods one finds it a ,ery co on e"#erience that so e 6ods ha,e +een worshi##ed for a ti e and su+se-uently their worshi# has +een a+andoned and the 6ods the sel,es ha,e +een thrown on the scra#@hea#. Luite new 6ods are ado#ted and their worshi# goes with an intensity of de,otion which is full and o,erflowing. $gain the new 6ods are a+andoned and are re#laced +y a fresh cro# of new 6ods. (o the cycle goes on. %n this way the Hindu 6ods are always undergoing rise and falla #heno enon which is unknown in the history of any other co unity in the world. The state ent that the Hindus treat their 6ods with such le,ity ay not +e acce#ted without de ur. (o e e,idence on this #oint is therefore necessary. 5ortunately there is a+undance of it. $t #resent the Hindus worshi# four 6ods H1I (hi,a9 H2I Vishnu9 H'I Ra a and H)I =rishna. The -uestion that one has to consider is: are these the only 6ods the Hindus ha,e worshi##ed fro the +eginning. The Hindu 8antheon has the largest nu +er of in ates. The 8antheon of no religion can ri,al it in #oint of #o#ulation. $t the ti e of the Rig@Veda the nu +er of its in ates was colossal. $t two #laces the Rig@Veda s#eaks of three thousand three hundred and nine 6ods. 5or so e reasons9 which it is not #ossi+le for us now to know9 this nu +er ca e to +e reduced to thirty@three . This is a considera+le reduction. Ne,ertheless with thirty three9 the Hindu 8antheon re ains the largest. The co #osition of this grou# of thirty@three 6ods is e"#lained +y the (ata#atha Brah ana as ade u# of 2 Vasus9 11 Rudras and 12 $dityas9 together with Ayasus and 8rith,i Hhea,en and earthI. Of greater i #ortance than the -uestion of nu +ers is the -uestion of their relati,e rank. *as their any distinction +etween the '' 6ods in #oint of their rank . There is a ,erse in the Rig@Veda which see s to suggest that these thirty@three 6ods were di,ided for #ur#oses of honours and #recedence into two classes9 one +eing great and s all and the other +eing young and old. This ,iew see s to +e against an earlier ,iew also contained in the Rig@Veda. The old rule says: D None of you OM 6odsM is s all or young: Jou are all great D. This is also the conclusion of 8rof. :a" :uller: D*hen these indi,idual gods are in,oked9 they are not concei,ed as li ited +y the #ower of others9 as su#erior or inferior in rank. !ach god is to the ind of the su##licants as good as all the gods. He is felt9 at the ti e9 as a real di,inity9 as su#re e and a+solute9 in s#ite of the necessary li itations which9 to our ind9 a #lurality of gods ust entail on e,ery single god. $ll the rest disa##ear for a o ent fro the ,ision of the #oet9 and he only9 who is to fulfil their desires stands in full light +efore the eyes of the worshi##ersD DNowhere is any of the 6ods re#resented as the sla,e of othersD. This is of course true only for a ti e. $ change see s to ha,e co e in the old angle of ,ision towards the 6ods. 5or one finds nu erous hy ns of the Veda in
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which so e gods are re#resented as su#re e and a+solute. %n the first hy n of the second :andala9 $gni is called the ruler of the Kni,erse9 the >ord of en9 the wise king9 the father9 the +rother9 the son9 the friend of enC nay9 all the #owers and na es of the others are distinctly ascri+ed to $gni. Then a second god ca e to +e ele,ated a+o,e $gni. He is %ndra. %ndra is s#oken of as the strongest god in the hy ns as well as in the Brah anas9 and the +urden of one of the songs of the Tenth Book is: Visvas ad &ndra Bttarah ?%ndra is greater than all?. Then a third god is raised to the highest le,el. He is (o a. Of (o a9 it is said that he was +orn great and that he con-uers e,ery one. He is called the king of the world9 he has the #ower to #rolong the life of en9 and in one ,erse he is called the aker of hea,en9 and earth9 of $gni9 of (urya9 of %ndra and of Vishnu. Then (o a was forgotten and a fourth 6od was ele,ated. He is Varuna. Varuna was ade the highest of all 6ods. 5or what ore could hu an language do than to e"#ress the idea of a di,ine and su#re e #ower9 than what the Vedic #oet says of VarunaC ? Thou art >ord of all9 of hea,en9 and earth ? or9 as is said in another hy n Hii. 219 14I9 ?Thou art the king of allC of those who are gods9 and of those who are en.D 5ro this e,idence it is clear that out of the '' Vedic 6ods four 6ods9 $gni9 %ndra9 (o a and Varuna had e erged as the #rinci#al 6ods. Not that other gods had ceased to +e gods. But these four had +eco e ele,ated a+o,e the rest. $t a later stage a change see s to ha,e taken #lace at the ti e of the (ata#atha Brah ana in the relati,e #osition of the different gods. (o a and Varuna had lost their #laces as the #rinci#al gods while $gni and %ndra had retained their #ositions. $ new god has e erged. He is (urya. The result is that instead of $gni9 %ndra9 (o a and VarunaC $gni9 %ndra and (urya +eca e the #rinci#al gods. This is e,ident fro the (ata#atha Brah ana which says: DOriginally the gods were all alike9 all #ure. Of the +eing all alike9 all #ure9 three desired9 ?:ay we +eco e su#erior? ,iB.9 $gni9 %ndra and (urya Hthe sunI. D2. ...... D'. Originally there was not in $gni the sa e fla e9 as this fla e which is HnowI in hi . He desired : ? :ay this fla e +e in e ?.He saw this grahs9 he took it: and hence there +eca e this fla e in hi . ). Originally there was not in %ndra the sa e ,igour9 etc. Has in #ara 'I. /. Originally there was not in (urya the sa e lustre etc.D 5or how long these three 6ods continued to hold their #laces of su#eriority o,er the rest it is difficult to say. But that at a later stage a change in the scene has taken #lace is +eyond dou+t. This is e,ident +y a reference to the &hula@Niddessa. The &hula Niddessa is a treatise which +elongs to the Buddhist literature. %ts a##ro"i ate date is.... Cleft inco plete.. The &hula@Niddessa gi,es a list of sects which were then #re,alent in %ndia. &lassified on the +asis of creeds and cults. They ay +e listed as follows: 1.

&R!!A( (r. Na e of the (ect No. 1. $7i,ika (hra,aka $7i,ika 2. Nigatta (hra,akas Nigantha '. <atil (hra,akas <atila ). 8ari,ra7aka (hra,akas 8ari,ra7aka /. $,arudha (hra,akas $,arudhaka OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO II. CULTS
Ff/3G Ff04G Ff01G Ff02G Ff0'G

The deity which is worshi##ed 1. Hasti Vratikas Hasti 2. $sh,a Vratikas $sh,a '. 6o Vratikas 6o ). =ukur Vratikas =ukku /. =aka Vratikas =aka 0. Vosudeo Vratikas Vasudeo 1. Baldeo Vratikas Baldeo 2. 8u a Bhadra Vratikas 8u a Bhadra 3. :ani Bhadra Vratikas :ani Bhadra 14. +gni Vratikas $gni 11. Naga Vratikas Naga 12. (u#arna Vratikas (u#arna 1'. Jaksha Vratikas Jaksha 1). $sura Vratikas $sura 1/. 6andhar,a Vratikas 6andhar,a 10. :ahara7a Vratikas :ahara7a 11. &handra Vratikas &handra 12. Surya Vratikas (urya 13. lndra Vratikas %ndra 24. 2rah a Vratikas Brah a 21. Ae,a Vratikas Ae,a 22. Aeesha Vratikas Aeesha &o #aring the #osition as it stood at the ti e of the (ata#atha Brah ana with that arising fro the &hula@Niddessa the following #ro#ositions ay +e said to +e well@ esta+lished: H1I 5irstly9 that the worshi# of $gni9 (urya and %ndra continued u# to the ti e of the &hula Niddessa. H2I (econdly9 the &ults of $gni9 (urya and %ndra although they had not ceased9 had lost their #laces of su#re acy. Others and -uite
Ff0)G Ff0/G Ff00G Ff01G Ff02G Ff03G

(r. Na e of the (ect No.

a nu +er of cults had co e into +eing as ri,als and had won the affection of the #eo#le. H'I Thirdly9 of the new cults there are two which later on +eca e ,ery #ro inent. They are the cults of Vasudeo Hi.e. =rishnaI and Brah a and H)I 5ourthly the cults of Vishnu9 (hi,a and Ra a had not co e into +eing. *hat is the #resent #osition as co #ared with that found in the &hula@Niddessa. Here again9 three #ro#ositions are well@esta+lished. =irst : the cults of $gni9 %ndra9 Brah a and (urya ha,e disa##eared. SecondD =rishna has retained his #osition. ThreeD The cults of Vishnu9 (hi,a and Ra a are new cults which ha,e co e into e"istence since the ti e of the &hula@Niddessa. 6i,en this situation it raises three -uestions for considerations: One is why ha,e the old cults of $gni9 %ndra9 Brah a and (urya disa##eared . *hy was the worshi# of these 6ods a+andoned . Second is what are the circu stances that ga,e rise to the new cults of =rishna9 Ra a9 (hi,a and Vishnu. Third what is the relati,e #osition of these new 6ods9 =rishna9 Ra a9 (hi,a and Vishnu . 5or the first -uestion we can find no answer. The Brah anic literature gi,es us no clue whatsoe,er as to why the Brah ins a+andoned the worshi# of $gni9 %ndra9 (urya and Brah a. There is so e e"#lanation as to why the cult of Brah a disa##eared. %t rests in a charge which is found to +e le,elled in the Brah anic literature against Brah a. The charge is that he co itted ra#e on his own daughter and here+y ade hi self unworthy of worshi# and de,otion. *hate,er +e the truth in the charge it could not +e regarded as sufficient to account for the a+andon ent of Brah a and for two reasons. %n the first #lace9 in that age such conduct was not unusual. %n the second #lace9 =rishna was guilty of greater i oralities than were charged to Brah a and yet they continued to worshi# hi . *hile there is so ething to s#eculate a+out the a+andon ent of Brah a there is nothing to account for the a+andon ent of the others. The disa##earance of $gni9 %ndra9 (urya and Brah a is thus a ystery. This is no #lace to sol,e this ystery. %t is enough to say that the Eods of the Hindus had ceased to +e 6odsa terri+le thing. The second -uestion is also en,elo#ed in ystery. Brah anic literature9 to account for the i #ortance of the cults of these new 6ods9 =rishna9 Vishnu9 (hi,a and Ra a9 is full and o,erflowing. But there is nothing in the Brah anic literature to account for the rise of these new 6ods. *hy these new 6ods were +rought into action is thus a ystery. The ystery howe,er dee#ens when one finds that so e of the new 6ods were definitely anti@Vedic. >et us take the case of (hi,a.That (hi,a was originally an $nti@Vedic 6od is a+undently clear. The following two incidents recorded in the Bhag,ata 8urana Hand also in the :aha+harataI throw a flood of light on the su+7ect. The first incident shows how en ity arose +etween (hi,a and his father@in@law Aaksha. %t a##ears that the 6ods and Rishis were asse +led at a sacrifice cele+rated +y the 8ra7a#atis. On the entrance of Aaksha9 all the

#ersonages who were #resent9 rose to salute hi 9 e"ce#t Brah a and (hi,a. Aaksha9 after aking his o+eisance to Brah a9 sat down +y his co andC +ut was offended at the treat ent he recei,ed fro (hi,a. This is how he addressed (hi,a : D Beholding :rida H(hi,aI #re,iously seated9 Aaksha did not +rook his want of res#ectC and looking at hi o+li-uely with his eyes9 as if consu ing hi 9 thus s#ake: ? Hear e9 ye Brah an rishis9 with the 6ods and the $gnis9 *hile %9 neither fro ignorane nor fro #assion9 descri+e what is the #ractice of ,irtuous #ersons. But this sha eless +eing H(i,aI detracts fro the re#utation of the guardians of the world9 he +y who 9 stu++orn as he is9 the course #ursued +y the good is transgressed. He assu ed the #osition of y disci#le9 inas uchas9 like a ,irtuous #erson9 in the face of Brah ans and of fire9 he took the hand of y daughter9 who rese +led (a,itri. This onkey@eyed HgodI9 after ha,ing taken of H yI fawn@eyed HdaughterI9 has not e,en +y word shown suita+le res#ect to e who he ought to ha,e risen and saluted. Though unwilling9 % yet ga,e y daughter to this i #ure and #roud a+olisher of rites and de olisher of +arriers9 like the word of the Veda to a (udra. He roa s a+out in dreadful ce eteries9 attended +y hosts of ghosts and s#irits9 like a ad an9 naked9 with dishe,elled hair9 laughing9 wee#ing9 +athed in the ashes of funeral #iles9 wearing a garland of dead en?s HskullsI9 and orna ents of hu an +ones9 #retending to +e (i,a Haus#iciousI +ut in reality $si,a Hin@aus#iciousI9 insane9 +elo,ed +y the insane the lord of 8ra athas and Bhutas Hs#iritsI9 +eings whose nature is essentially darkness. To this wicked@hearted lord of the infuriate9 whose #urity has #erished. % ha,e9 alas M gi,en y ,irtuous daughter9 at the instigation of Brah a?. Ha,ing thus re,iled 6irisa H(i,aI9 who did not o##ose hi 9 Aaksha ha,ing then touched water9 incensed9 +egan to curse hi HthusI: ?>et this Bha,a H(i,aI9 lowest of the gods9 ne,er9 at the worshi# of the gods9 recei,e any #ortion along with the gods %ndra9 K#endra HVishnuI9 and others.? Ha,ing deli,ered his alediction9 Aaksha de#arted.D The en ity +etween the father@in@law and son@in@law continues. Aaksha +eing ele,ated +y Brah a to the rank of the &hief of the 8ra7a#atis decided to #erfor a great (acrifice called Vrihas#atisa,a. (eeing the other 6ods with their wi,es going to this (acrifice9 8ar,ati #ressed her hus+and9 (hi,a9 to acco #any her thither. He refers to the insults which he had recei,ed fro her father9 and ad,ises her not to go. (he9 howe,er Hsect. )I9 +eing an"ious to see her relati,es9 disregards his warning and goes: +ut +eing sighted +y her father9 Aaksha9 she re#roaches hi for his hostility to her hus+and9 and threatens to a+andon the cor#oreal fra e +y which she was connected with her #arent. (he then ,oluntarily gi,es u# the ghost. (eeing this9 (hi,a?s attendants9 who had followed her9 rush on Aaksha to kill hi . Bhrigu9 howe,er9 throws an o+lation into the southern fire9 #ronouncing a Ja7us te"t suited to destroy the destroyers of sacrifice (yajna/ghnena yajusha da1shinagnau juhavaha.. $ troo# of Ri+hus in conse-uence s#ring u#9 who #ut (hi,a?s followers to flight. (hi,a is filled with wrath when he hears of the death of (ati Hsect. /I. 5ro a
Ff14G

lock of his hair9 which he tore out9 a gigantic de on arose9 who he co ended to destroy Aaksha and his sacrifice. This de on #roceeds with a troo# of (hi,a?s followers9 and they all e"ecute the andate. How they e"ecuted the andate is descri+ed in the Bhag,at 8urana in the following ter s: D? (o e +roke the sacrificial ,essels9 others destroyed the fires9 others ade water in the #onds9 others cut the +oundary@cords of the sacrificial ground: others assaulted the :unis9 others re,iled their wi,es: others seiBed the gods who were near9 and those who had fled. . . . 13. The di,ine Bha,a H(i,aI #lucked out the +eard of Bhrigu9 who was offering o+lations with a ladle in his hand. and who had laughed in the asse +ly9 showing his +eard. He also tore out the eyes of Bhaga9 who in his wrath he had felled to the ground9 and who9 when in the asse +ly9 had ade a sign to HAaksha whenI cursing H(i,aI He oreo,er knocked out the teeth of 8ushan Has Bala did the king of =alinga?sI. who H8ushanI had laughed9 showing his teeth9 when the great god was +eing cursed. Trya +aka H(i,a9 or Vira+hadra9 according to the co entatorI then cuts off the head of Aaksha9 +ut not without so e difficulty. The gods re#ort all that had #assed to (,aya +hu HBrah aI9 who9 with Vishnu9 had not +een #resent Hsect. 0I. Brah a ad,ises the gods to #ro#itiate (i,a9 who they had wrongfully e"cluded fro a share in the sacrifice. The deities9 headed +y $7a HBrah aI9 accordingly #roceed to =ailasa. when they see (i,a D +earing the linga desired +y de,otees9 ashes a staff9 a tuft of hair. an antelo#e?s skin. and a digit of the oon9 his +ody shining like an e,ening cloud D. Brah a addresses :ahade,a Das the eternal Brah a9 the lord of (akti and (i,a9 who are res#ecti,ely the wo + and the seed of the uni,erse9 who. in s#ort9 like a s#ider9 for s all things fro (akti and (i,a9 who are consu+stantial with hi self9 and #reser,es and rea+sor+s the D H$ si ilar su#re acy is ascri+ed to Vishnu in section 1I. Brah a adds that it was this great +eing who had instituted sacrifice9 and all the regulations which Brah ans de,outly o+ser,e and entreat hi . who is +eyond all illusion9 to ha,e ercy on those who9 o,erco e +y its influence9 had wrongly attached i #ortance to cere onial works9 and to restore the sacrifice of Aaksha9 at which a share had +een refused to hi +y e,il #riests. :ahade,a #artly relents Hsect. 1ID There can +e no +etter e,idence to #ro,e that (hi,a was an anti@,edic 6od than his destruction of Aaksha?s Ja7na. Now let us take =rishna. There are four #ersons who go +y the na e 0rishna. One =rishna is the son of (atya,ati and father of Ahratarashtra9 8andu and Vidur. (econd =rishna is the +rother of (u+hadra and friend of $r7una. Third =rishna is the son of Vasude,a and Ae,aki and was resident of :athura. 5ourth =rishna is the one +rought u# +y Nanda and Jeshoda at 6okul and it was he who killed (hishu#al. %f the =rishna of the =rishna cult is the sa e as the =rishna son of Ae,aki there can +e no dou+t that =rishna originally also was anti@Vedic. 5ro the &hhandogya K#anishad it a##ears
Ff11G

that he was a #u#il of 6hora $ngiras. *hat did 6hora $ngiras teach hi . This is what the &hhandogya K#anishad says on the su+7ect: D6hora9 the descendant of $ngiras9 ha,ing declared this Hthe #receding ystical loreI to =rishna the son of Ae,aki9 said to hi that Hwhich9 when he heardI he +eca e free fro thirst Hi.e. desireI9 ,iB.9 ? let a an at the ti e of his death ha,e recourse to these three te"ts9 ? Thou art the undecaying9 thou art the i #erisha+le9 thou art the su+tle #rinci#le of +reath ?. The co entator on this te"t of the K#anishad e"#lains: D$ #erson9 6hora +y na e9 and an $ngirasa +y fa ily9 ha,ing declared this doctrine of sacrifice to =rishna the son of Ae,aki9 his #u#il9 then said etc. The conne"ion of the last word ?said?9 is with the words which occur so e way +elow9 ?these three etc.. $nd ha,ing heard this doctrine he +eca e free fro desire for any Dkinds of knowledge. %n this anner he #raises this knowledge of the 8urusha@ sacrifice +y saying that it was so distinguished that it destroyed all thirst in =rishna9 the son of Ae,aki9 for any other knowledge. He now tells us that 6hora $ngirasa said after declaring this knowledge to =rishna. %t was this: ?>et hi who knows the aforesaid sacrifice9 at the ti e of his death ha,e recourse to9 utter9 these three te"ts9 pranasa sita eans9 ?thou art the ,ery inute9 and su+tle #rinci#le of +reath.D O+,iously the doctrine taught +y 6hora $ngiras to =rishna was o##osed to the Vedas and the Vedic sacrifices as a eans of s#iritual sal,ation. On the contrary Vishnu is a Vedic 6od. Jet his cult is esta+lished uch later than that of (hi,a. *hy there has +een so uch neglect of Vishnu it is difficult to understand. (i ilarly Ra a though not anti@,edic is unknown to the Vedas. *hat was the necessity of starting his cult and that too at so late a stage in the history of the country. *e ay now take u# the third -uestionna ely what is the relati,e #osition of these new 6ods to the old 8auranic 6ods. The rise and fall of Bra ha9 Vishnu and (hi,a has already +een told in a #re,ious cha#ter called Eods at War. *hate,er ha##ened9 the struggle for #lace and #ower was confined to these three 6ods. They were not dragged +elow any other. But a ti e ca e when they were #laced +elow the Ae,i +y na e (hri. How this ha##ened is told in the Ae,i Bhagwat . The Ae,i Bhagwat says that a Ae,i +y na e Shri created the whole world and that it is this 6oddess who created Bra ha9 Vishnu and (hi,aM The Ae,i Bhagwat goes on to state that the Ae,i desired to ru+ her #al s. The ru++ing of #al s #roduced a +lister. Out of this +lister was +orn Bra ha. *hen Bra ha was +orn the Ae,i asked hi to arry her. Bra ha refused saying she was his other. The Ae,i got angry and +urned Bra ha ali,e +y her wrath and Bra ha was reduced to ashes then and there. Ae,i ru++ed her #al s a second ti e and had a second +lister. Out of this second +lister a second son was +orn. This was Vishnu.
Ff12G

The Ae,i asked Vishnu to arry her. Vishnu declined saying that she was his other. Ae,i got angry and +urned down Vishnu to ashes. Ae,i ru++ed her #al s a third ti e and had a third +lister. Out of this third +lister was +orn a third son. He was (hi,a. The Ae,i asked (hi,a to arry her. (hi,a re#lied: ? % will9 #ro,ided you assu e another +ody ?. Ae,i agreed. <ust then (hi,a?s eyes fell on the two #iles of ashes. Ae,i re#lied ? they are the ashes of his two +rothers and that she +urnt the +ecause they refused to arry her. ? On this (hi,a said9 ? How can % alone arry. Jou create two other wo en so that we all three can arry ?. The de,i did as she was told and the three 6ods were arried to the Ae,i and her fe ale creations. There are two #oints in the story. One is that e,en in doing e,il (hi,a did not wish to a##ear ore sinning than Bra ha and Vishnu for fear that he ay a##ear ore degraded than his other two co #etitors. The ore i #ortant #oint howe,er is that Bra ha9 Vishnu and (hi,a had fallen in rank and had +eco e the creatures of the Ae,i. Ha,ing dealt with the rise and fall of Bra ha9 Vishnu and (hi,a9 there re ains the ,icissitudes in the cults of the two new 6ods9 =rishna and Ra a. O+,iously there is a certain a ount of artificiality in the cult of =rishna as co #ared with the cult of Brah a9 Vishnu and (hi,a. Bra ha9 Vishnu and :ahesh were +orn gods. =rishna was a an who was raised to godhood. %t is #ro+a+ly to confer godhood on hi that the theory was in,ented that he was the incarnation of Vishnu. But e,en then his godhood re ained i #erfect +ecause he was regarded to +e only a #artial a,atar of Vishnu largely +ecause of his de+aucheries with the gopis which would ha,e +een ine"cusa+le if he had +een a full and #erfect avatar of Vishnu. Notwithstanding this hu +le +eginning =rishna +eca e ele,ated to the #osition of a su#re e 6od a+o,e all others. How great a 6od he +eca e can +e seen +y a reference to &ha#ter N and N%V of the Bhag,at 6eeta. %n these &ha#ters =rishna says: D*ell then9 O +est of the =aura,as % will state to you y own di,ine e anationsC +ut HonlyI the chief HonesI for there is no end to the e"tent of y He anationsI. % a the self. O 6udakesa seated in the hearts of all +eingsC % a the +eginning and the iddle and the end also of all +eings. % a Vishnu a ong the $dityas9 the +ea ing (un a ong the shining H+odiesIC % a :arichi a ong the :aruts9 and the :oon a ong the lunar ansions. $ ong the Vedas9 % a the (a a@,eda. % a %ndra a ong the 6ods. $nd % a ind a ong the senses. % a consciousness in Hli,ingI +eings. $nd % a (hankara a ong the Rudras9 the >ord of *ealth a ong Jakshas and Rakshasas. $nd % a fire a ong the Vasus9 and :eru a ong the high@to##ed H ountainsI. $nd know e9 O $r7una to +e Brihas#ati9 the chief a ong do estic #riests. % a (kanda a ong generals. % a the ocean a ong reser,oirs of water. % a Bhrigu a ong the great sages. % a the (ingle sylla+le HO I a ong words.
Ff1'G

$ ong sacrifices % a the Eapa sacrificeC the Hi alaya a ong the fir ly fi"ed H ountainsIC the $s,attha a ong all trees9 and Narada a ong di,ine sagesC &hitraratha a ong the hea,enly choristers$ the sage =a#ila a ong the (iddhas. $ ong horses know e to +e Kchhaissra,as9 +rought forth +y Hthe la+our forI the nectarC and $ira,ata a ong the great ele#hants9 and the ruler of en a ong en. % a the thunder+olt a ong wea#ons9 the wish@gi,ing HcowI a ong cows. $nd % a lo,e which generates. $ ong ser#ents % a Vasuki. $ ong Naga snakes % a $nantaC % a Varuna a ong a-uatic +eings. $nd % a $rya an a ong the anes9 and Ja a a ong rulers. $ ong de ons9 too9 % a 8ralhada. % a the king of death Hkala9 ti eI a ong those that count. D$ ong +easts % a the lord of +easts9 and the son of Vinata a ong +irds. % a the wind a ong those that +low. % a Ra a a ong those that wield wea#ons. $ ong fishes % a :akara9 and a ong strea s the <anha,i. Of created things % a the +eginning and the end and the iddle also. 4 $r7una9 a ong sciences9 % a the science of the $dhyat a9 and % a the argu ent of contro,ersialists. $ ong letters % a the letter $9 and a ong the grou# of co #ounds the co#ulati,e co #ound. % yself a ti e ine"hausti+le and % the creator whose faces are in all directions. % a death who seiBes all9 and the source of what is to +e. $nd a ong fe ales9 fa e9 fortune9 s#eech9 e ory9 intellect9 courage9 forgi,eness. >ikewise a ong (a an hy ns9 % a the Brihat@sa an9 and % the 6ayatri a ong etres. % a :argasirsha a ong the onths9 the s#ring a ong the seasons9 of cheats9 % a the ga e of diceC % a the glory of the gloriousC % a ,ictory. % a industry9 % a the goodness of the good. % a Vasude,a a ong the descendants of Vrishni and $r7una a ong the 8and,as. $ ong sages also9 % a VyasaC and a ong the discerning ones9 % a the discerning Ksanas. % a the rod of those that restrain9 and the #olicy of those that desire ,ictory. % a silence res#ecting secrets. % a the knowledge of those that ha,e knowledge. $nd 4 $r7unaM % a also that which is the seed of all things. There is nothing o,a+le or i o,a+le which can e"ist without e.D D =now that glory Hto +eI ine which9 dwelling in the (un9 lights u# the whole world9 or in the oon or fire. !ntering the earth9 % +y y #ower su##ort all thingsC and +eco ing the 7uicy oon9 % nourish all her+s. % +eco ing the fire9 and dwelling in the +odies of HallI creatures9 and united with the u#ward and downward life@+reaths cause digestion of the four@fold food. $nd % a #laced in the heart of all.D D 5ro e Hco eI e ory9 knowledge9 and their re o,alC % alone a to +e learnt fro all the VedasC % a the author of the VedantasC and % alone know the Vedas. There are these two +eings in the world9 the destructi+le and the indestructi+le. The destructi+le HincludesI all things. The unconcerned one is Hwhat isI called the indestructi+le. But the +eing su#re e is yet another9 called the highest self9 who as the ine"hausti+le lord9 #er,ading the three worlds9 su##orts Hthe I. $nd since % transcend the destructi+le9 and since % a higher also than the indestructi+le

therefore a % cele+rated in the world and in the Vedas as the +est of things.D %t is therefore clear that so far as the 6ita is concerned there is no 6od greater than =rishna. He is9 $lla ho $k+ar. He is greater than all other 6ods. >et us now turn to the :aha+harata. *hat do we find . *e find a change in the #osition of =rishna. There is a rise and fall in his #osition. %n the first #lace we find =rishna ele,ated a+o,e (hi,a. Not only that9 (hi,a is ade to ad it and acknowledge the greatness of =rishna. $long with this we also find =rishna degraded to a rank +elow that of (hi,a and is ade to acknowledge the greatness of (hi,a. $s a #iece of e,idence in su##ort of the ele,ation of =rishna a+o,e (hi,a the following #assage fro the +nusasana/3arvan is ,ery illu inating: D(u#erior e,en to 8ita aha HBra haI is Hari9 the eternal 8urusha9 =rishna9 +rilliant as gold9 like the sun risen in a cloudless sky9 ten@ar ed9 of ighty force9 slayer of the foes of the gods9 arked with the srivatsa$ Hrishikesa9 adored +y all the gods. Bra ha is s#rung fro his +elly and % H:ahade,aI fro his head9 the lu inaries fro the hair of his head9 the gods9 and $suras fro the hairs of his +ody9 and the rishis as well as e,erlasting worlds9 ha,e +een #roduced fro his +ody. He is the anifest a+ode of 8ita aha9 and of all the deities. He is the creator of this entire earth9 the lord of the three worlds9 and the destroyer of creatures9 of the stationary and the o,ea+le. He is anifestly the ost e inent of the gods9 the lord of the deities9 the ,e"er of his foes. He is o niscient9 inti ately united Hwith all thingsI9 o ni#resent facing in e,ery direction9 the su#re e s#irit9 Hrishikesa all@#er,ading9 the ighty >ord. There is none su#erior to hi in the three worlds. The slayer of :adhu is eternal9 renowned as 6o,inda. He9 the conferer of honour9 +orn to fulfil the #ur#oses of the gods9 and assu ing a hu an +ody9 will slay all the kings in +attle. 5or all the hosts of the gods9 destitute of Tri,ikra a Hthe god who strode thriceI9 are una+le to effect the #ur#oses of the gods9 de,oid of a leader. He is the leader of all creatures9 and worshi##ed +y all creatures. D Of this lord of the gods9 de,oted to the #ur#oses of the gods9 who is Brah a9 and is the constant refuge of gods and rishis9 Brah a dwells within the +ody9 a+iding in his face9 and all the gods are easily sheltered in his +ody. This god is lotus@eyed9 the #roducer of (ri9 dwelling together with (ri . . . 5or the welfare of the gods9 6o,inda shall arise in the fa ily of the great :anu9 #ossessed of e inent intelligence and HwalkingI in the e"cellent #ath of the 8ra7a#ati :anu9 characteriBed +y righteousness H6o,inda?s ancestors are then detailedI. %n this fa ily9 estee ed +y Brah ans9 of en renowned for ,alour9 distinguished +y good conduct and e"cellent -ualities9 #riests9 ost #ure9 this sura9 the ost e inent of =shatriya heroic9 renewed9 conferring honour9 shall +eget a son $nakadundu+hi9 the #rolonger of his race9 known as Vasude, to hi shall +e +orn a four@ar ed son9 Vasude,a9 li+eral9 a +enefactor of Brah ans9 one with? ?Brah a9 a lo,er of Brah ans.D
Ff1)G

D Jou the gods9 should9 as is fit9 worshi# this deity9 like the eternal Brah a9 a##roaching hi with re,erential and e"cellent garlands of #raise. 5or the di,ine and glorious Vasude, should +e +eheld +y hi who desires to see e and Brah a and 8arent. %n regard to this9 % ha,e no hesitation9 that when he is seen % a seen9 or the 8arent HBrah aI9 the lord of the gods: know this ye whose wealth is austerity.D *e shall now see how =rishna after ha,ing +een ele,ated to the #osition +eing highest a ong the 6ods is +eing degraded. The :aha+harata is so full of incidents and occasions which de onstrate =rishna?s inferiority to (hi,a that it is difficult to recite the whole of the . One ust +e content with a few. The first incident relates to the ,iew taken +y $r7una to slay <ayadratha on the following day. $fter the ,ow9 $r7una +eca e ,ery de7ected thinking that <ayadratha?s friends would do their ut ost to sa,e hi and that unless he had sure wea#ons he would not +e a+le to fulfil his ,ow. $r7una goes to =rishna for ad,ice. =rishna suggests to $r7una that he should su##licate to :ahade,a for the 8asu#ata wea#on with which :ahade, hi self had for erly destroyed all the Aaityas and which9 if he o+tained it9 he would +e sure to kill <ayadrath. The Arone@8ar,an which relates the story #roceeds to say: DThe righteous Vasude,a H=rishnaI then9 together with the son of 8ritha H$r7unaI9 reciting the eternal Veda9 +owed his head to the ground9 +eholding hi the source of the worlds9 the aker of the uni,erse9 the un+orn9 the i #erisha+le lord9 the su#re e source of ind9 the sky9 the wind9 the a+ode of the lu inaries9 the creator of the oceans9 the su#re e su+stance of the earth9 the fra er of gods9 Aana,as9 Jakshas and en9 the su#re e Brah a of editati,e syste s9 the satisfied9 the treasure of those who know Brah a9 the creator of the world and also its destroyer9 the great i #ersonated destructi,e *rath9 the original of the attri+utes of %ndra and (urya. =rishna then re,erenced hi with ,oice9 ind9 understanding and act. Those two HheroesI had recourse to Bha,a H:ahade,aI as their refuge9to hi who the wise9 desiring the su+tle s#iritual a+ode9 attain9@to hi the un+orn cause. $r7una9 too9 again and again re,erenced that deity9 knowing hi to +e the +eginning of all +eings9 the source of the #ast9 the future9 and the #resent. Beholding those two9 Nara and Narayana9 arri,ed (ar,a H:ahade,aI9 then greatly gratified9 said9 as if s iling: ?*elco e9 ost e inent of en9 rise u# freed fro fatigue9 and tell e -uickly9 heroes9 what your ind desires. (hall % acco #lish for you the o+7ect for which you ha,e co e. &hoose what is ost for your welfare. % will gi,e you all.D =rishna and $r7una then recite a hy n in honour of :ahade,a9 in the course of which he is designated as the soul of all things9 the creator of all things9 and the #er,ader of all things. $r7una now9 after re,erencing +oth =rishna and :ahade,a9 asks the latter for the celestial wea#on. They are thereu#on sent +y :ahade,a to a lake where he says he had for erly de#osited his +ow and arrows. They

there saw two ser#ents9 one of which was ,o iting fla es9 and a##roached the 9 +owing to :ahade,a and uttering (atarudriya. Through the #ower of :ahade,a9 the ser#ents change their sha#e and +eco e a +ow and arrow9 which =rishna and $r7una +ring to :ahade,a. !,entually $r7una recei,es as a +oon fro :ahade,a the 8asu#ata wea#on9 with the #ower of fulfilling his engage ent to slay <ayadratha after which they +oth return to their ca #.D The $nusasana@8ar,an of the :aha+harata contains a dialogue +etween Judhishthira and Bhish a. Judhishthira asks Bhish a to tell hi the attri+utes of :ahade,a. This is what Bhish a says in re#ly: D % a una+le to declare the attri+utes of the wise :ahade,a9 who is an all@ #er,ading god9 yet is nowhere seen9 who is the creator and the lord of Brah a9 Vishnu and %ndra9 who the gods9 fro Brah a to the 8isachas9 worshi#9 who transcends aterial natures as well as s#irit H8urushaI9 who is editated u#on +y rishis ,ersed in conte #lation HyogaI9 and #ossesing an insight into truth9 who is the su#re e9 i #erisha+le Brah a9 that which is +oth non@e"istent9 and at once e"istent and non@e"istent. Ha,ing agitated atter and s#irit +y his #ower9 this god of gods and lord of creatures H8ra7a#atiI thence created Bra ha. *hat hu an +eing like e9 who has +een su+7ect to gestation in the wo +9 and to +irth9 and is lia+le to decay and death9 can declare the attri+utes of Bha,a9 the su#re e lord Hwho can do thisI e"ce#t Narayana9 the +earer of the shell9 the discus9 and the cu+. This Vishnu9 wise9 e inent9 in -ualities9 ,ery hard to o,erco e9 with di,ine insight9 of ighty #ower9 +eholds Hhi I with the eye of conte #lation. Through his de,otion to Rudra9 the world is #er,aded +y the ighty =rishna. Ha,ing then #ro#itiated that deity H:ahade,aI at Badari9 he H=rishnaI o+tained fro the golden@eyed :ahes,ara the -uality of +eing in all worlds ore dear than wealth. This :adha,a H=rishnaI #erfor ed austerity for a full thousand years9 #ro#itiating (i,a9 the god who +estows +oons9 and the #rece#tor of the world. But in e,ery undane #eriod HyugaI :ahes,ara has +een #ro#itiated +y =rishna and has +een gratified +y the e inent de,otion Of that great #ersonage. This unshaken Hari H=rishnaI when seeking9 for offs#ring9 has +eheld distinctly of what character is the glory of that great #arent of the world. Than hi % +ehold none higher. This large@ar ed H=rishnaI is a+le to recount fully the na es of the god of gods9 to descri+e the -ualities of the di,ine H+eingI and the real ight of :ahes,ara in all its e"tentD. This dialogue +etween Judhishthira and Bhish a took #lace in the #resence of =rishna. 5or i ediately after his re#ly Bhish a calls u#on =rishna to cele+rate the greatness of :ahade,a. $nd this su#re e &lod =rishna #roceeds to do so without feeling any offence and says: DThe course of the deeds of. %sa H:ahade,aI cannot he really known. He whose essence neither the gods headed +y Hiranyagarhha. nor the great rishis with %ndra9 nor the $dityas. the #ercei,ers ol the inutest o+7ects9 understand9@how can he.

the refuge of saints he known +y any ere an. % shall declare to you e"actly so e of the attri+utes of that di,ine slayer of the $suras of the lord ol religious cere onies.D Here not only do we find that =rishna acknowledges his inferiority to (hi,a +ut we also find (hi,a conscious of the fact that =rishna has +een +eaten down and is no longer his su#erior9 indeed is not e,en his e-ual. This is e,ident fro (au#tika@ #ar,an where :ahade,a says to $s,atha an EFf1/G: D % ha,e +een duly worshi##ed +y =rishna9 the energetic in action. with truth9 #urity9 honesty9 li+erality9 austerity9 cere onies. #atience9 wisdo 9 self@control9 understanding and words: *herefore no one is dearer to e than =rishna D. =risnna fro +eing a+o,e (hi,a9 a+o,e e,ery 6od. indeed a 8ar eshwar is reduced to the #osition of +eing a ere follower of (hi,a +egging for #etty +oons. This does not co #lete the story of the degradation of =rishna. He is ade to undergo further hu iliation. =rishna not only acce#ted a #osition of inferiority ,is@a@ ,is (hi,a hut he is sunk so low that he +eca e a disci#le of K#a anyu who was a great de,otee of (hi,a and took Aiksha fro hi in (hai,is . =rishna hi self says: DOn the 2th day % was %nitiated +y that Braha ana Hl<#a anyuI according to the (hastras. Ha,ing sha,ed y entire head.anointing yself with ghee9 and taking the staff and kusa grass in y ar s % dressed yself in +ark fastened with the ekhala Hthe waist stringI.D =rishna then #erfor s #enance and has a sight9 of :ahadeo. &an there +e a ore glaring instance of so great a rise and so uch of a fall in the status of a 6od. =rishna who was a 8ar eshwar as co #ared to (hi,a who was only an %shwar does not e,en re ain an %shwar. He actually +eco es a de,otee of (hi,a and seeks initiation in the (hai,a (hastras fro a co on Brah in like K#a anyu. The case of Ra a as a 6od is uch ore artificial than that of =rishna. Ra a hi self was unware of the fact that he was a 6od. $fter reco,ering (ita on the defeat and death of Ra,ana9 (ita was sus#ected of unchastity9 Ra a felt ,ery de7ected on hearing the words of those who thus s#oke a+out (ita. The Ra ayana says: DThen =ing =u,era9 and Ja a with the 8itris and %ndra. >ord of the gods9 and Varuna9 lord of the waters9 and the glorious three@eyed :ahade,a9 whose ensign is a +ull9 and Bra ha9 the creator of the whole world9 the ost e inent of the knowers of the Veda: Hand that =ing Aasaratha9 o,ing in the air on a celestial car9 arri,ed in that region9 e-ual in lustre to the king of the godsIC these all ha,ing co e on cars +rilliant as the (un9 and arri,ed in the city of >anka9 ca e near to Ragha,a HRa aI. Then these ost e inent gods9 holding the large ar s of Ra a9 adorned with ar lets9 addressed hi as he stood with 7oined hands: How dost thou9 the aker of the whole Kni,erse9 the ost e inent of the wise9 the #er,ading9 disregard (ita?s throwing herself into the fire. How dost thou not #ercei,e thyself to +e the chief of the host of the gods . HThou wastI for erly the Vasu Ritadha an9 and the 8ra7a#ati

of the Vasus. Thou art the #ri al aker of the three worlds9 the self de#endent lord9 the eighth Rudra of the Rudras9 and the fifth of the (adhyas. The $s,ins are thine ears9 the :oon and (un thine eyes.D DThou9 ,e"er of thy foes9 art seen in the end and at the +eginning of created +eings. $nd yet thou disregardest (ita like a co on an D. On +eing thus addressed +y these 6ods9 Ra a +eca e sur#riBed and re#lied: D% regard yself as a an9 Ra a9 son of AasharathC do you9 di,ine +eing tell e who and whence % a D. On this9 Brah a re#lying to Ra a said: DHear y true word9 4 +eing of genuine #ower. Thou art the god9 the glorious lord9 Narayana9 ar ed with the discus. Thou art the one@horned +oar9 the con-ueror of thy foes9 #ast and future9 the true9 i #erisha+le Brah a9 +oth in the iddle and end. Thou art the su#re e righteousness of the worlds9 Vish,aksena9 the four@ar ed C the +earer of the +ow9 (aranga9 Hrishikesa Hlord of the sensesI. 8urusha Hthe aleI9 the highest of 8urushas9 the uncon-uered9 sword@wielding9 Vishnu9 and =rishna of ighty force9 the general9 the leader the true. Thou art intelligence9 thou art #atience9 and self@restraint. Thou art the source of +eing and cause of destruction9 K#endra Hthe younger %ndraI9 the :adhusudana. Thou art :ahendra Hthe elder %ndraI fulfilling the function of %ndra9 he fro whose na,el s#rings a lotus9 the ender of +attles. The great di,ine rishis call thee the refuge9 the resort of su##liants. Thou art the hundred@horned9 co #osed of the Veda9 the thousand@headed the ighty. Thou art the #ri al aker of the three worlds9 the self@de#endent lord9 and the refuge of the (iddhas and (ahyas9 4 thou #ri e,ally +orn. Thou art sacrifice9 thou art the ,ashatkara9 and the o kara9 higher than the highest. :en know not who thou art9 the source of +eing9 or the destroyer. Thou art seen in all creatures9 in Brah ans and in cows9 in all the regions9 in the ountains and ri,ers9 thousand@footed9 glorious9 hundred@headed9 thousand@eyed. Thou sustainest creatures9 and the earth with its ountainsC thou art seen Ra a. at the e"tre ity of the earth9 in the waters9 a ighty ser#ent su##orting the three worlds9 gods9 6andhar,as9 and Aana,as. % a thy heart9 Ra a9 the goddess (aras,ati is thy tongue. The gods ha,e +een ade +y Brah a the hairs on thy li +s. The night is called the closing9 and the day the o#ening9 of thine eyes. The Vedas are thy thoughts. This Huni,erseI e"ists not without thee. The whole world is thy +odyC the earth is thy sta+ility. $gni is thine anger9 (o a is thy #leasure9 O thou whose ark is the (ri,atsa. By thee the three worlds were tra,ersed of yore with thy three #aces. and :ahendra was ade king after thou hadst +ound the terri+le Bali. That which is known as the chiefest light9 that which is known as the chiefest darkness9 that which is the higher than the highest@thou art called the highest (oul. %t is thou who art hy ned as that which is called the highest9 and is the highest. :en call thee the highest source of continuance9 #roduction and destruction.D O+,iously9 there is the sa e degree of artificiality in the cult of Ra a. >ike =rishna he was a an who was ade 6od.

Knlike Brah a9 Vishnu and :ahesh9 he was not one who was +orn 6od. %t is #ro+a+ly to ake his 6odhood #erfect that the theory was in,ented that he was the incarnation of Vishnu and that (ita his wife was the incarnation of >aksh i the wife of Vishnu. %n another res#ect9 Ra a was fortunate. He did not ha,e to suffer degradation to other 6ods as did Brah a9 Vishnu and =rishna. There was howe,er an atte #t to degrade hi +elow 8arasura a the hero of the Brah ins. The story is told in the Ra ayana which says: D*hen =ing Aasaratha was returning to his ca#ital9 after taking lea,e of <anaka. the =ing of :ithila9 whose daughter (ita had 7ust +een arried to Ra a he was alar ed +y the ill@o ened sounds +y certain +irds9 which howe,er were counteracted9 as the sage Vasishta assured the king +y the aus#icious sign of his +eing #era +ulated +y the wild ani als of the forest. The alar ing e,ent indicated was the arri,al of 8arasura a9 #receded +y hurricane which shook the earth and #rostrated the trees9 and +ythick darkness which ,eiled the (un. He was fearful to +ehold9 D+rilliant as fire9 and +ore his a"e and a +ow on his shoulder. Being recei,ed with honour9 which he acce#ted9 he #roceeded to say to Ra a9 the son of Aasaratha that he has heard of his #rowess in +reaking the +ow #roduced +y <anak and had +rought another which he asked Ra a to +end9 and to fit an arrow on the stringC and if he succeeded in doing so9 he H8arasura aI would offer to engage with hi in single co +at.D D Ra a re#lied that though his warlike -ualities are conde ned +y his ri,al9 he will gi,e hi a #roof of his #owers. He. then snatches9 in anger9 the +ow fro the hand of 8arasura a9 +ends it9 fits an arrow on the stringC and tells his challenger that he will not shoot at hi +ecause he is a Brah an9 and for the sake of his kins an Vis,a itraC +ut will either destory his su#erhu an ca#acity of o,e ent9 or de#ri,e hi of the +lessed a+odes he has ac-uired +y austerity. The gods now arri,e to +e witnesses of the scene. 8arasura a +eco es disheartened and #owerless and hu +ly entreats that he ay not +e de#ri,ed of his faculty of o,e ent lest he should +e inca#acitated fro fulfilling his #ro ise to =asya##a ? to lea,e the earth e,ery night +ut consents that his +lissful a+odes ay +e destroyed.D *ith this e"ce#tion Ra a had no ri,alry with any of the other 6ods. He anaged to +e where he was. *ith regards to other 6ods there is a different story to tell. 8oor creatures they +eca e nothing ore than ere toys in the hands of the Brah ins. *hy did the Brah ins treat the 6ods with so scant a res#ect. R%AA>! NO. 12 *HJ A%A TH! BR$H:%N( A!THRON! TH! 6OA( $NA !NTHRON! TH! 6OAA!((!(.

The worshi# of 6ods is a thing co on to all. But the worshi# of 6oddesses is -uite unco on. The reason is that 6ods are generally un arried and ha,e no wi,es who can +e ele,ated to the #osition of 6oddesses. How re#ugnant is the idea of a 6od +eing arried is well illustrated +y the difficulties which early &hristians had in #ersuading the <ews to acce#t <esus as the son of 6od. The <ews retorted saying 6od is not arried and how can <esus +e the son of 6od. *ith the Hindus the #osition is -uite otherwise. They not only worshi# 6ods they also worshi# 6oddesses. This is so fro the ,ery +eginning. %n the Rig@Veda se,eral 6oddesses are entioned such as 3rithvi$ +dili$ Aiti$ #ishtigri$ &ndrani$ 3risni$ Bsha$ Surya$ +gnayi$ Varunani$ "odasi$ "a1a$ Sinivali$ Sradha$ +ra ati$ +psaras and Sarasvati. 8rith,i is a ,ery ancient $ryan 6oddess. (he is re#resented either as wife of Ayaus hea,en or of 3arjanya. 8rith,i is an i #ortant 6oddess +ecause she is said to +e the other of any 6ods. $diti is chronologically one of the older Vedic 6oddesses. (he is descri+ed as the ighty other of the 6ods. The 6ods9 -itra$ +rya an and Varuna are her sons. To who $diti was arried does not a##ear fro the Rig@Veda. *e do not know uch a+out Aiti e"ce#t that she is entioned as a goddess along with and in contrast to +diti and that the Aaityas who were regarded in later %ndian ythology as the ene ies of the Ae,as were her sons. The original title of the +hapter was ' Vedic and non- Vedic &oddesses ' -rom the sub.ect dealt with in this chapter and from the concluding para, we have placed this at ,iddle /o 12 in accordance with the sub.ect mentioned in the Table of +ontents This is a 21-page typed copy having some modifications and also concluding para in the handwriting of the author ! Ed. The goddess #ishtigri is the other of %ndra and the goddess &ndrani is the wife of %ndra. 8risni is the other of :aruts. Bsha is descri+ed as the daughter of the sky9 the sister of 2haga and the kinswo an of Varuna and the wife of (urya. The goddess Surya is the daughter of Surya and the wife of the 6ods +svins or So a. The goddesses +gnayi$ Varunani and "odasi are the wi,es of +gni$ Varuna and "udra res#ecti,ely. Of the rest of the goddesses are ere #ersonifications of ri,ers or are entioned without any details. 5ro this sur,ey two things are clear. One is that a Hindu 6od can enter a arried state and neither the 6od nor his worshi##er need feel any e +arrass ent on account of the 6od acting as though he was no +etter than a co on an. The second is that the 6od?s wife auto atically +eco es a goddess worthy of worshi# +y the followers of the 6od. >ea,ing the Vedic ti es and co ing to the 8auranic ti es we co e across the na es of ,arious 6oddesses such as Aevi$ B a$ Sati$ + bi1a$ 3arvati$ Fai avati$

Eauri$ 0ali$ #irriti$ 'handi and 0atyayini$ Aurga$ Aassbhuja. Singhavahini$ -ahishasura ardini$ ?agaddhatri$ -u1ta1esi$ Tara$ 'hinna usta1a$ ?agadgauri$ 3ratyangira$ +nnapurna$ Eaneshjanani$ 0rishna1rora and 9a1sh i. %t is ,ery difficult to construct a who is who of these 6oddesses. %n the first #lace it is difficult to say whether each na e stands for a distinct and se#arate 6oddess or they are the na es of one 6oddess. %t is e-ually difficult to +e sure of their #arentage. Nor can any one say with certainty as to who their hus+ands are. $ccording to one account V a$ Aevi$ Sati$ 3arvati$ Eauri and + bi1a are different na es of the sa e 6oddess. On the other hand Aevi is said +y so e to +e the daughter of Aaksha9 + bi1a to +e the sister of Rudra. Regarding 3arvati the Varaha 8urana in descri+ing her. origin says : DBrah a when on a ,isit to (i,a on :ount =ailasa is thus addressed +y hi : D (ay9 -uickly9 49 Brah a9 what has induced you to co e to e.? Brah a re#lies9 ?There is a ighty $sura na ed $ndhaka HAarknessI9 +y who all the gods9 ha,ing +een distressed9 ca e for #rotection9 and % ha,e hastened to infor you of their co #laints?. Brah a then looked intently at (i,a9 who +ythought su oned Vishnu into their #resence. $s the three deities looked at each other9 ?fro their three refulgent glances s#rang into +eing a ,irgin of celestial lo,eliness9 of hue cerulean9 like the #etals of a +lue lotus9 and adorned with ge s9 who hashfully +owed +efore Brah a9 Vishnu and (i,a. On their asking her who she was9 and why she was distinguished +y the three colours +lack9 white and red9 she said9 ? 5ro your glances was % #roduced: do you not know your own o ni#otent energies.? Brah a then #raising her said9 ?Thou shalt +e na ed the goddess of three ti es H#ast9 #resent and futureI9 the #reser,er of the uni,erse9 and under ,arious a##ellations shalt thou +e worshi##ed9 as thou shalt +e the cause of acco #lishing the desires of thy ,otaries. But9 4 goddess9 di,ide thyself into three for s9 according to the colours +y which thou art distinguished. (he then9 as Brah a had re-uested9 di,ided herself into three #arts: one white9 one red9 and one +lack. The white was ? (araswati of a lo,ely9 felicitious for 9 and the co@o#erator with Brah a increation: the red was >aksh i9 the +elo,ed of Vishnu9 who with hi #reser,es the uni,erseC the +lack was 8ar,ati endowed with any -ualities and energy of (i,a. D Here is an atte #t to suggest that Saraswati$ 9a1sh i and 3arvati are different for s of one and the sa e di,inity. *hen one re e +ers that Sarasvati is the wife of Brah a9 >aksh i is the wife of Vishnu and 8ar,ati is the wife of (hi,a9 and also that Brah a. Vishnu and (hi,a were at war9 this e"#lanation gi,en +y the Varah 8uran see s ,ery odd. *ho is 6auri. The 8urana says that 6auri is another na e for 8ar,ati. The reason how 8ar,ati was called 6auri is that when (hi,a and 8ar,ati li,ed on ount =ailasa9 occasionally there were -uarrels +etween the 9 and on one occasion (hi,a re#roached her for the +lackness of her skin. This taunt so grie,ed her that she left
Ff10G Ff11G

hi for a ti e. and9 re#airing to a dee# forest9 #erfor ed a ost se,ere course of austerities9 until Brah a granted her as a +oon that her co #le"ion should +e golden and for this circu stance she is known as 6auri. Taking the other 6oddesses it is not -uite certain whether they are different na es for one and the sa e 6oddess or whether they are different 6oddesses. %n the :aha+harata there is a hy n sung +y $r7una to Aurga in which he says : DRe,erence +e to thee9 (iddha@(enani Hgeneralaless of the (iddhasI9 the no+le9 the dweller on :andara9 =u ari H8rincessI9 =ali9 =a#ali9 =a#ila9 =rishna@#ingala. Re,erence to thee9 BhadrakaliC re,erence to thee9 :aha =ali9 &handi9 &handa9 Tarini Hdeli,eressI9 Vara,arini H+eautiful@colouredI. O fortunate =alyani9 O =arali9 O Vi7aya9 O <aya H,ictoryI younger sister of the chief of cowherds H=rishnaI9 delighting always in :ahisha?s +lood?. O K a9 (aka +hari9 thou white one9 thou +lack one9 4 destroyer of =aitha+haM Of science9 thou art the science of Brah a Hor of the VedasI9 the great slee# of e +odied +eings. 4 other of (kanda H=artikeyaI9 di,ine Aurga9 dweller in wildernesses?. Thou9 great goddess9 art #raised with a #ure heart. By thy fa,our let e e,er +e ,ictorious in +attle.D 5ro this hy n it does a##ear that so e of the 6oddesses listed a+o,e are si #ly different na es of Aurga. (i ilarly9 Aasa+hu7a9 (ingha,ahini9 :ahisha ardini9 <agaddhatri9 &hinna ustaka9 <agadgauri9 8ratyangiri9 $nna#urna are the sa e as Aurga or different for s of Aurga. There are thus two #rinci#al 6oddesses. One is 3arvati and the other is Aurga. The rest are ere na es. 8ar,ati is the daughter of Aaksha 8ra7a#ati and the wife of (hi,a and Aurga is the sister of =rishna and the wife of (hi,a. The relationshi# of Aurga and 0ali is not -uite clear. $ccording to the hy n sung +y $r7una9 Aurga and =ali would a##ear to +e one and the sa e. But the >inga 8urana see s to suggest a different ,iew. $ccording to it . =ali is distinct fro Aurga. $ co #arison +etween the Vedic 6oddesses and the 8uranic 6oddesses cannot +e a,oided +y a student whose +usiness it is not erely to write history +ut to inter#ret history. On one #oint there is a striking contrast9 +etween the two. The worshi# of the Vedic 6oddesses was worshi# +y courtesy. They were worshi##ed only +ecause they were the wi,es of 6ods. The worshi# of the 8uranic 6oddesses stand on a different footing. They clai worshi# in their own right and not +ecause they are wi,es of 6ods. This difference arises +ecause the Vedic 6oddesses ne,er went to the +attle@field and ne,er #erfor ed any heroic deed. The 8uranic 6oddesses on the other hand went to the +attlefield and #erfor ed great heroic deeds. Their worshi# was not +y courtesy. %t was +ased u#on their heroic and thundering deeds. There was agreat +attle9 it is said9 +etween Aurga and the two asuras which +rought renown to Aurga. The story is told in the :arkandeya 8urana in full details. %t saysEFf24G:
Ff12G Ff13G

$t the close of the Treta $ge9 two giants9 na ed (u +ha and Nishu +ha #erfor ed religious austerities for 149444 years9 the erit of which +rought (hi,a fro hea,en9 who disco,ered that +y this e"traordinary de,otion9 they sought to o+tain the +lessing of i ortality. He reasoned long with the 9 and ,ainly endea,oured to #ersuade the to ask for any other gift. Being denied what they s#ecially wanted9 they entered u#on still ore se,ere austerities for another thousand years9 when (hi,a again a##eared9 +ut still refused to grant what they asked. They now sus#ended the sel,es with their heads downwards o,er a slow fire9 till the +lood strea ed fro their necksC they continued thus for 244 years. The 6ods +egan to tre +le9 lest9 +y #erfor ing such rigid act of holiness9 these de ons should su##lant the on their thrones. The king of the 6ods thereu#on called a council9 and i #arted to the his fears. They ad itted that there was ground for an"iety9 +ut asked what was the re edy. $cting u#on the ad,ice of %ndra9 =andar#a Hthe 6od of lo,eI9 with Ra +ha and Tilota a9 the ost +eautiful of the celestial ny #hs9 were sent to fill the inds of the giants with sensual desires. =andar#a with his arrow wounded +othC u#on which9 awaking fro their a+sor#tion9 and seeing two +eautiful wo en9 they were taken in the snare9 and a+andoned their de,otions. *ith these wo en they li,ed for /444 yearsC after which they saw the folly of renouncing their ho#es of i ortality for the sake of sensual gratifications. They sus#ected this snare ust ha,e +een a contri,ance of %ndraC so9 dri,ing +ack the ny #hs to hea,en9 they renewed their de,otions9 cutting the flesh off their +ones9 and aking +urnt offerings of it to (hi,a. They continued in this way for 1444 years till at last they +eca e ere skeletonsC (hi,a again a##eared and +estowed u#on the his +lessingthat in riches and strength they should e"cel the 6ods. Being e"alted a+o,e the 6ods9 they +egan to ake war u#on the . $fter,arious successes on +oth sides9 the giants +eca e e,erywhere ,ictoriousC when %ndra and the 6ods9 reduced to a ost de#lora+le state of wretchedness9 solicited the interference of Brah a and Vishnu. They referred the to (hi,a9 who declared that he could do nothing for the . *hen9 howe,er9 they re inded hi that it was through his +lessing they had +een ruined9 he ad,ised the to #erfor religious austerities to Aurga. They did so: and after so e ti e the goddessC a##eared9 and ga,e the her +lessingC then disguising herself as a co on fe ale carrying a #itcher of water9 she #assed through the asse +ly of the gods. (he9 then assu ed her #ro#er for 9 and said9 ?They are cele+rating y #raise ?. ?This new goddess now ascended :ount Hi alaya where &handa and :anda9 two of (u +ha and Nisu +ha?s essangers resided. $s these de ons wandered o,er the ountain9 they saw the goddessC and +eing e"ceedingly struck with her char s9 which they descri+ed to their asters9 ad,ised the to engage her affections9 e,en if they ga,e her all the glorious things which they had o+tained in

#lundering the hea,ens of the gods. (u +ha sent (ugri,a as essenger to the goddess9 to infor her that the riches of the three worlds were in his #alaceC that all the offerings which used to +e #resented to the gods were now offered to hi C and that all these offerings9 riches9 etc.9 would +e hers9 if she would co e to hi . The goddess re#lied that the offer was ,ery li+eral9 +ut that she had resol,ed that the #erson she arried ust first con-uer her in war9 and destroy her #ride. (ugri,a9 unwilling9 to return unsuccessful9 #ressed for a fa,oura+le answer9 #ro ising that he would con-uer her in war9 and su+due her #rideC and asked in an authoritati,e strainC ? Aid she know his aster9 +efore who none of the inha+itants of the worlds had +een a+le to stand9 whether gods9 de ons9 or en. How then could she9 a fe ale think of resisting his offers . %f his aster had ordered hi 9 he would ha,e co #elled her to go into his #resence i ediately. (he agreed that this was ,ery correct9 +ut that she had taken her resolution9 and e"horted hi 9 therefore to #ersuade his aster to co e and try his strength with her. The essenger went and related what he had heard. On hearing his account9 (u +ha was filled with rage9 and9 without aking any re#ly9 called for Ahu lochana his co ander@in@chief and ga,e hi orders to go to Hi alaya and seiBe the goddess and +ring her to hi . and9 if any atte #ted a rescue9 utterly to destroy the . The co ander went to Hi alaya9 and ac-uainted the goddess with his aster?s orders. (he9 s iling9 in,ited hi to e"ecute the . On the a##roach of this hero9 she set u# a dreadful roar9 +y which he was reduced to ashes. $fter which she destroyed the ar y of the giant lea,ing only a few fugiti,es to co unicate the tidings. (u +ha and Nisu +ha9 infuriated9 sent &handa and :anda9 who on ascending the ountain9 #ercei,ed afe ale sitting on an ass9 laughing. On seeing the she +eca e enraged9 and drew to her ten9 twenty9 or thirty of their ar y at a ti e9 de,ouring the like fruit. (he ne"t seiBed :anda +y the hair9 cut off his head and holding it o,er her outh9 drank the +lood. &handa9 on seeing the other co ander slain in this anner9 hi self ca e to close -uarters with the goddess. But she9 ounted on a lion9 s#rang on hi 9 and9 des#atching hi as she had done :anda9 de,oured #art of his ar y9 and drank the +lood of the slain. The giants no sooner heard this alar ing news than they resol,ed to go the sel,es9 and collecting their forces9 an infinite nu +er of giants9 arched to Hi alaya. The gods looked down with astonish ent on this ,ast ar y9 and the goddesses descended to hel# :aharnaya HAurgaI9 who9 howe,er9 soon destroyed her foes9 Rakta,i7a9 the #rinci#al co ander under (u +ha and Nishu +ha9 seeing all his en destroyed encountered the goddess in #erson. But though she co,ered hi with wounds9 fro e,ery dro# of +lood which fell to the ground a thousand giants9 arose e-ual in strength to Rakta,i7a hi self. Hence innu era+le

ene ies surrounded Aurga9 and the gods were filled with alar at the a aBing sight. $t length &handi9 a goddess9 who had assisted =ali HAurgaI in the engage ent9 #ro ised that if she would drink the giant?s +lood +efore it fell to the ground9 she H&handiI would engage hi and destroy the whole of his strangely for ed offs#ring. =ali consented9 and the co ander and his ar y were soon des#atched. (u +ha and Nishu +ha9 in a state of des#eration9 ne"t engaged the goddess in single co +at9 (u +ha aking the first onset. The +attle was inconcei,a+ly dreadful on +oth sides9 till at last +oth the giants were slain9 and =ali sat down to feed on the carnage she had ade. The gods and the goddesses chanted the #raises of the celestial heroine9 who in return +estowed a +lessing on each.D The :arkandeya 8urana also gi,es a short account of the ,alorous deeds of Aurga done in the ,arious for s it took. %t says: D $s Aurga she recei,ed the essage of the giantsC $s Aasa+hu7a Hthe ten@ar edI she slew #art of their ar yC $s (ingha,ahini Hseated on a lionI she fought with Rakta,i7aC $s :ahisha ardini Hdestroyer of a +uffaloI she slew (u +ha in the for of a +uffaloC $s <agaddhatri Hthe other of the worldI she o,erca e the ar y of the giantsC $s =ali Hthe +lack wo anI she slew Rakta,i7aC $s :uktakesi Hwith flowing hairI she o,erca e another of the ar ies of the giantsC $s Tara Hthe sa,iourI she slew (u +ha in his own #ro#er sha#eC $s &hinna astaka Hthe headlessI she killed Nisu +haC $s <agadgauri Hthe golden@coloured lady renowned through the worldI she recei,ed the #raises and thanks of the gods.D $ co #arison +etween the Vedic and 8uranic 6oddesses raises so e interesting -uestions. One of the is -uite o+,ious. Vedic literature is full of references to wars against the $suras. The literature known as Brah anas re#lete with the . But all these wars against the $suras are fought +y the Vedic 6ods. The Vedic 6oddesses ne,er took #art in the . *ith the 8uranic 6oddesses the situation has undergone a co #lete change. %n the 8uranic ti es there are wars with the $suras as there were in the Vedic ti es. The difference is that while in the Vedic ti es the wars with the $suras are left to +e fought +y the 6ods in the 8uranic ti es they are left to +e fought +y the 6oddess. *hy is that 8uranic 6oddesses had to do what the 6ods in Vedic ti es did. %t cannot +e that there were no 6ods in 8uranic ti es. There were Brah a9 Vishnu and (hi,a gods who ruled in the 8uranic ti es. *hen they were there to fight the $suras why were the 6oddesses enrolled for this #ur#ose. This is a riddle which re-uires e"#lanation. The second -uestion is what is the source of this #ower which the 8uranic 6oddesses #ossessed and which the Vedic 6oddesses ne,er had. The answer gi,en +y the 8uranic writers is that this #ower was the #ower of the 6ods which dwelt in the 6oddesses. The general theory was that e,ery 6od had energy or

#ower which was technically called Sa1ti and that the Sa1ti of e,ery 6od resided in his wife the 6oddess. This had +eco e such an acce#ted doctrine that e,ery goddess is called a Sa1ti and those who worshi# the 6oddess only are called Sa1tas. *ith regard to this doctrine there are one or. two -uestions that call for a re#ly. 5irst is this. *e ay now take it that notwithstanding the any na es of the 6oddesses as we find in the 8uranas we ha,e really fi,e 8uranic 6oddesses +efore usna ely9 Sarasvati$ 9a1sh i$ 3arvati$ Aurga and 0ali. (aras,ati and >aksh i are the wi,es of Brah a and Vishnu who along with (hi,a are recogniBed as the 8uranic 6ods. 8ar,ati9 Aurga and =ali are the wi,es of (hi,a. Now Sarasvati and 9a1sh i ha,e killed no $sura and ha,e in fact done no deed of ,alour. Luestion is why. Brah a and Vishnu had Sa1ti which in confor ity with the theory ust ha,e dwelt in their wi,es. *hy then did Sarasvati and 9a1sh i not take #art in the +attle with the $suras. This #art is only reser,ed for the wi,es of (hi,a. !,en here 8ar,ati?s role is -uite different fro that of Aurga. 8ar,ati is re#resented as a si #le wo an. (he has no heroic deeds to her credit like the ones clai ed for Aurga. >ike Aurga9 8ar,ati is also the (akti of (hi,a. *hy was (hi,a?s (akti dwelling in 8ar,ati so dull9 so dor ant9 and so inacti,e as to +e non@e"istent . The second #oint is that though this doctrine ay +e a good 7ustification for starting the worshi# of 6oddesses inde#endently of 6ods9 it is difficult to acce#t either the logical or historical +asis of the doctrine. >ooking at it #urely fro the #oint of ,iew of logic if e,ery 6od has Sa1ti then e,en the Vedic 6ods ust ha,e had it. *hy then was this doctrine not a##lied to the wi,es of the Vedic 6ods. >ooking at it fro the #oint of ,iew of history9 there is no 7ustification for saying that the 8uranic 6ods had Sa1ti in the . 5urther the Brah ins do not see to ha,e realiBed that +y aking Aurga the heroine who alone was ca#a+le of destroying the $suras9 they were aking their own 6ods a set of isera+le cowards. %t see s that the 6ods could not defend the sel,es against the $suras and had to +eg of their wi,es to co e to their rescue. One illustration fro the :arkandeya 8urana is enough to #ro,e how i +ecile the 8uranic 6ods were shown +y the Brah ins against the $suras. (ays the :arkandeya 8urana.: D:ahisha9 king of the giants at one ti e o,erca e the gods in war. and reduced the to such a state of want that they wandered through the earth as +eggars. %ndra first conducted the to Brah a9 and then to (i,aC +ut as these gods could render no assistance9 they turned to Vishnu9 who was so grie,ed at the sight of their wretchedness9 that strea s of glory issued fro his face. whence ca e a fe ale figure na ed :aha aya Hanother na e of AurgaI. (trea s of glory issued fro the faces of the other gods also. which in like anner entered :aha aya: in conse-uence of which she +eca e a +ody of glory9 like a ountain of fire. The gods

then handed their wea#ons to this dreadful +eing9 who with a frightful screa ascended into the air9 slew the giant and ga,e redress to the gods.D How can such cowardly 6ods ha,e any #rowess. %f they had none9 how can they gi,e it to their wi,es. To say that 6oddesses ust +e worshi##ed +ecause they ha,e Sa1ti is not erely a riddle +ut an a+surdity. %t re-uires e"#lanation why this doctrine of (akti was in,ented. *as it to #ut it a new co odity on the arket that the Brah ins started the worshi# of the 6oddesses and degraded the 6ods.. RIDDLE NO. 1) THE RIDDLE O THE AHI(SA $ny one who co #ares the ha+its and social #ractices of the latter@day Hindus with those of the $ncient $ryans he will find a tre endous change al ost a ounting to a social re,olution. The $ryans were a race of ga +lers. 6a +ling was de,elo#ed to science in ,ery early days of the $ryan &i,iliBation so uch so that they had e,en de,ised certain technical ter s. The Hindus used the words =rita9 Treta9 Awa#ara and =ali as the na es of the four Jugas or #eriods into which historical ti es are di,ided. $s a atter of fact originally these are the na es of the dices used +y the $ryans at ga +ling . The luckiest dice was called =rita and the unluckiest was called =ali. Treta and Awa#ara were inter ediate +etween the . Not only was ga +ling well de,elo#ed a ong the ancient $ryans +ut the stakes were ,ery high. 6a +ling with high oney stakes ha,e +een known elsewhere. But they are nothing as co #ared with those which are known to ha,e +een offered +y the $ryans. =ingdo s and e,en their wi,es were offered +y the as stakes at ga +ling. =ing Nala staked his kingdo and lost it. The 8anda,as went uch +eyond. They not only staked their kingdo they also staked their wife Arau#adi and lost +oth. $ ong the $ryans ga +ling was not the ga e of the rich. %t was a ,ice of the any. (o wides#read was ga +ling a ong the $ncient $ryans that the +urden of all the writers of the Ahar a (utras H(hastras.I was to i #ress u#on the =ing the urgency of controlling it +y (tate $uthorities under stringent laws. The original Table of +ontents shows ,iddle /o 1* as ' 0ow the $rahmins who were once cow-1illers became the worshippers of the +ow2' This chapter is not found in the papers 0owever, few pages entitled ',iddle of 3himsa' have been found The ,iddle has been placed here as it seems to deal with the same topic This chapter consisting of 14 typed pages is obviously incomplele as the remaining te5t is missing Ed. The relation of the se"es a ong the $ryans were of a loose sort. There was a ti e

when they did not know arriage as a #er anent tie +etween a an and a wo an. This is e,ident fro the :aha+harata where =unti the wife of 8andu refers to this in her re#ly to 8andu?s e"hortation to go to #roduce children fro so e one else. There was a ti e when the $ryans did not o+ser,e the rule of #rohi+ited degrees in their se" relations. There are cases a ong the of +rother coha+iting with sister9 son with other9 father with daughter and grand@father with grand@daughter. There was a co unis in wo en. %t was a si #le co unis where any en shared a wo an and no one had a #ri,ate #ro#erty in or e"clusi,e right o,er a wo an. %n such a co unis the wo an was called 6anika9 +elonging to any. There was also a regulated for of co unis in wo en a ong the $ryans. %n this the wo an was shared a ong a grou# of en +ut the day of each was fi"ed and the wo an was called Warangana one whose days are fi"ed. 8rostitution flourished and has taken the worst for . Nowhere else ha,e #rostitutes consented to su+ it to se"ual intercourse in #u+lic. But the #ractice e"isted a ong the $ncient $ryans. Bestiality also #re,ailed a ong the $ncient $ryans and a ong those who were guilty of it are to +e reckoned so e of the ost re,erend Rishis. The $ncient $ryans were also a race of drunkards. *ine for ed a ost essential #art of their religion. The Vedic 6ods drank wine. The di,ine wine was called (o a. (ince the 6ods of the $ryans drank wine the $ryans had no scru#les in the atter of drinking. %ndeed to drink it was a #art of an $ryan?s religious duty. There were so any (o a sacrifices a ong the $ncient $ryans that there were hardly any days when (o a was not drunk. (o a was restricted to only the three u##er classes9 na ely the Brah ins9 the =shatriyas and the Vaishas. That does not ean the (hudras were a+stainers. *ho were denied (o a drank (ura which was ordinary9 unconsecrated wine sold in the arket. Not only the ale $ryans were addicted to drinking +ut the fe ales also indulged in drinking. The =aushitaki 6rihya (utra %. 11@ 12 ad,ises that four or eight wo en who are not widowed after ha,ing +een regaled with wine and food should +e called to dance for four ti es on the night #re,ious to the wedding cere ony. This ha+it of drinking into"icating li-uor was not confined to the Non@Brah in wo en. !,en Brah in wo en were addicted to it. That drinking was not regarded as a sinC it was not e,en a ,ice9 it was -uite a res#ecta+le #ractice. The Rig@Veda says: D*orshi##ing the sun +efore drinking adira HwineID. The Ja7ur@Veda says: DOh9 Ae,a (o aM +eing strengthened and in,igorated +y (ura HwineI9 +y thy #ure s#irit9 #lease the Ae,asC gi,e 7uicy food to the sacrificer and ,igour to Brah anas and =shatriyas.D The :antra Brah ana says: DBy which wo en ha,e +een ade en7oya+le +y en9 and +y which water has +een transfor ed into wine Hfor the en7oy ent of enI9 D etc. That Ra a and (ita +oth drank wine is ad itted +y the Ra ayana. Kttar =hand says: D>ike %ndra in the case Hof his wifeI (hachi9 Ra achandra saw that (ita drank

#urified honey called wine. (er,ants +rought for Ra ahandra eat and sweet fruit (o did =rishna and $r7una. The Kdyoga 8ar,a of the :aha+harata says: D$r7una and (hrikrishna drinking wine ade fro honey and +eing sweet@scented and garlanded9 wearing s#lendid clothes and orna ents9 sat on a golden throne studded with ,arious 7ewels. % saw (hrikrishna?s feet on $r7una?s la#9 and $r7una?s feet on Arau#adi and (atya+ha a?s la#.D The greatest change that has taken #lace is in the diet. The #resent day Hindus are ,ery #articular a+out their diet. There are twofold li itations on co ensality. $ Hindu will not eat food cooked +y a Non@Hindu. $ Hindu will not eat food cooked e,en +y a Hindu unless he is a Brah in or a an of his caste. The Hindu is not only #articular on the -uestion of whose food he should eat9 he is also #articular to what he should eat. 5ro the #oint of ,iew of diet Hindus ay +e di,ided into two ain classes. H1I Those who are ,egetarians. H2I Those who are non@,egetarians. The non@,egetarians again fall into se,eral su+@di,isions: Those who will eat all kinds of flesh and fish. Those who will eat only fish. Those who will eat flesh are su+@di,ided into following categories: HiI Those who will eat the flesh of any ani al e"ce#t the cow. HiiI Those who will eat the flesh of any ani al including that of the cow. HiiiI Those who will eat flesh +ut not of a cow Hwhether dead or slaughteredI nor of chicken. &lassifying the Hindu 8o#ulation fro the #oint of ,iew of its diet the Brah ins are di,ided into two classes H1I 8ancha 6auda and H2I 8anch Ara,ida. Of these 8anch Ara,ida are co #letely ,egetarian. The 8anch 6auda?s with the e"ce#tion of one section na ely 6auda (araswatas are also co #letely ,egetarian. The Kntoucha+les who are at the other end of the Hindu (ociety are non@,egetarian. They eat eat9 not erely of goats and fowls +ut also of the cow irres#ecti,e whether it is dead or slaughtered. The Non@Brah ins who are idway +etween the Brah ins and the Kntoucha+les ha,e different ways. (o e like the Brah ins are Vegetarians. The rest unlike the Brah ins are non@,egetarians. $ll of the are alike in one thing na ely that all of the are o##osed to eating the cow?s flesh. There is one other as#ect of the -uestion which needs to +e entioned. %t is the -uestion of killing an ani al for #ur#oses of food. On this the Hindu ind is ore or less united. No Hindu will kill an ani al not e,en for food. !"ce#t for a s all caste known as =hatiks there are no +utchers a ong the Hindus. !,en the Kntoucha+les will not kill. He eats the flesh of a dead cow. But he will not kill a cow. %n %ndia today the +utcher is a :usal an and any Hindu who wants to kill an ani al for his food has to seek the ser,ices of a :usal an. !,ery Hindu +elie,es in $hi sa. (ince when did ,egetarianis co e into %ndia. *hen did $hi sa +eco e an

esta+lished +elief. There are Hindus who do not understand the #ro#riety of this -uestion. They hold that ,egetarianis and $hi sa are not new things in %ndia. The e,idence in su##ort of the contention that the ancient $ryans the ancestors of #resent@day Hindus were not only eat@eaters +ut +eef@eaters is really o,erwhel ing. $s e,idences in su##ort of this ,iew it is enough to draw attention to the following facts: They are -uite indis#uta+le. Take the case of :adhu#arka. $ ong the ancient $ryans there was well esta+lished #rocedure of rece#tion to +e gi,en to a guest which is known as :adhu#arka the detailed descri#tions regarding which will +e found in the ,arious 6rihya (utras. $ccording to ost of the 6rihya (utras there are si" #ersons who deser,e :adhu#arka. Na ely H1I Rit,i7 or the Brah in called to #erfor a sacrifice9 H2I $charya9 the teacher9 H'I the Bridegroo 9 H)I The =ing9 H/I The (natak9 the student who has 7ust finished his studies at the 6urukul and H0I $ny #erson who is dear to the host. (o e add $tithi to this list. !"ce#t in the case of the Rit,i79 =ing and $charya9 :adhu#arka is to +e offered to the rest once in a year. To the Rit,i79 =ing and $charya it is to +e offered each ti e they co e. The #rocedure consisted first in washing +y the host the feet of his guest9 then the offer of the :adhu#arka and the drinking of it +y the -uest acco #anied +y certain :antras. *hat were the co #onents of the :adhu#arka . :adhu#arka literally eans a cere ony in which honey is shed or #oured on the hand of a #erson. This is what :adhu#arka was in its +eginning. But in course its ingredients grew and included uch ore than honey. $t one ti e it included three ingredientscurds9 honey9 and +utter. There was a ti e when it was ade of fi,e things9 curds9 honey9 ghee9 ya,a and +arley. Then it ca e to +e a i"ture of nine ite s. The =ausika (utra s#eaks of nine kinds of i"tures9 ,iB. 2rah a Hhoney and curdsI9 +indra Hof payasa.$ Sau ya Hcurds and gheeI9 -ausala Hsaine and ghee9 this +eing used only in Sautra ani and "ajasuya sacrificesI9 Varuna Hwater and gheeI9 Sravana Hsesa e oil and gheeI9 3arivraja1a Hsesa e oil and oil cakeI. Then we co e to the ti e of the :ana,a 6rahya (utra which says that the Veda declares that the :adhu#arka ust not +e without flesh and so it reco ends that if the cow is let loose9 goat?s eat or payasa Hrice cooked in ilkI ay +e offered C The Fir gr. i. 1'.1) says that other eat should +e offered : 2aud. gr. says H1.2./1@/)I that when the cow is let off9 the flesh of a goat or ra ay +e offered or so e forest flesh Hof a deer P c.9I ay +e offered9as there can +e. no :adhu#arka without flesh or if one is una+le to offer flesh one ay cook ground grains. But in the final stage flesh +eca e the ost essential #art of :adhu#arka. %n fact so e of the 6rihya (utras go to the length of saying that there can +e no :adhu#arka without flesh. This they +ase u#on an e"#ress in7unction contained in the Rig@Veda HV%%%. 141./I which saysD >et the :adhu#arka not +e without flesh D. 5lesh eating was thus -uite co on. 5ro the Brah ins to the (hudras

e,ery+ody ate eat. %n the Ahar asutras nu erous rules are gi,en a+out the flesh of +easts and +irds and a+out fishes. 6aut. 11.21@'19 $#.Ah.(. 1./.11.'/Vas.Ah.(. 1).'3@)4. Ja7. 1. 1119 Vishnu Ah.(. /1.09 (ankha H-uoted +y $#ararka #. 1101I9 Ra ayana H=iskindha 11.'3I9 :arkendey 8urana H'/.2@)I #rescri+e that one should a,oid the flesh of all li,e@nailed ani als e"ce#t of#orcu#ine9hare9s,a,idhHa +oar of hedgehogI9 iguana9 rhinoceros and tortoise Hso e of these works o it the rhinocerosI. 6auta a adds that one should also a,oid the flesh of all ani als with two rows of teeth in the two 7aws9 of hairy ani als9 of hairless ani als Hlike snakesI9 of ,illage cocks and hogs and of cows and +ulls. $#. Ah. (. 1./.11. 23@'1 first for+ids the flesh of ani als with one hoof only9 of ca els9 of ga,aya H6ayalI9 of the ,illage hog9 of the sara+ha and of cows9 +ut adds the e"ce#tion that the flesh of ilch cows and of +ulls ay +e eaten as the Va7asaneyaka declares the flesh of these to +e #ure. $#. Ah. (. H11.2./.1/I for+ids the use of flesh to a teacher of the Veda in the H%N&O:8>!T!. 5KRTH!R T!NT :%((%N6I

RIDDLE NO. 13 RO( AHI(SA 'AC" TO HI(SA D5ro Hi sa to $hi saD is only a #art of the story of $hi sa. There is another #art of the story which can only +e descri+ed9 under the heading D 5ro $hi sa +ack to Hirnsa D. The second #art of the story will +e clear if only one were to note the religious #ractices of the Tantras and Tantrais to which a reference has already +een ade. The essentials of Tantrik worshi# are the fi,e :akars. These fi,e :akars consists of: 1. The drinking of wine and li-uors of ,arious kinds . . . H:adyaI: 2. The eating of eat ........................... H:ansaIC '. The eating of fish ............................. H:atsyaIC ). The eating of #arched or fried grain ........... H:udraIC /. The se"ual union ........................... H:aithunaI. %t is unnecessary to say at this stage anything a+out :aithuna or (e"ual intercourse ha,ing +een ade an ele ent of religious worshi#. %t is sufficient to take note of :adya and :ansa. *ith regard to the first four of these acts the Tantras #rescri+e twel,e sorts of li-uors9 three sorts of wine9 and three sorts of eat. 8ulastya9 one of the ancient sages who is the su##osed author of certain law@+ooks9 also enu erates twel,e kinds of li-uors9 as follows: D 1. >i-uor e"tracted fro the +read fruit H#anasaI9 called <ack@li-uorC 2. 5ro gra#es HdrakshaIC

'. 5ro date@#al Hkhar7uriIC ). 5ro co on #al HtaliI9 or toddyC /. 5ro coconut HnarikelaIC 0. 5ro sugarcane HikshuIC 1. 5ro :adha,ika #lantC The chapter seems to be a continuation of the previous chapter on ' 3himsa ' There are si5 typed pages with few corrections and having the title written by the author himself !Ed. 2. >ong@#e##er li-uor HsairaIC 3. (oa#@+erry li-uor HarishtaIC 14. Honey@li-uor H adhukaIC 11. $ kind of ru or li-uor #re#ared fro olasess9 etc. Hcalled 6audi9 or so eti es :aireyaIC 12. $rrack9 or li-uor #re#ared fro rice and other grain Hsura or Varuni9 or #aishtiI. Besides the a+o,e twel,e kinds of s#irituous drink others are fre-uently entioned9 for e"a #le9 Tan1a$ ade fro wood@a##le9 =oli9 ade fro the 7u7+eC and 0ada bari4 the last +eing the fa,ourite +e,erage of Bala@Ra a. The eat ay +e that of +irds9 +easts9 or fish. The #arched grain is eaten9 like dry +iscuit9 as a relish with the wine and s#irituous li-uors. The drinking of each kind of drink is su##osed to +e attended with its own #eculiar erit and ad,antage. Thus one li-uor gi,es sal,ation9 another learning9 another #ower9 another wealth9 another destroys ene ies9 another cures diseases9 another re o,es sin9 another #urifies the soul.D The Tantrik worshi# had gone dee# into Bengal. Referring to his own e"#erience Ra7endra >al :itra says : D % knew a highly res#ecta+le widow lady9 connected with one of the ost distinguished fa ilies in &alcutta9 who +elonged to the =aula sect9 and had sur,i,ed the 1/th +irthday9 who ne,er said her #rayers Hand she did so regularly e,ery orning and e,eningI without touching the #oint of her tongue with a tooth@#ick di##ed in a #hial of arrack9 and s#rinkling a few dro#s of the li-uor on the flowers which she offered to her god. % dou+t ,ery uch if she had e,er drunk a wine@ glassful of arrack at once in all her life9 and certain it is that she ne,er had any idea of the #leasures of drinking: +ut9 as a faithful =aula9 she felt herself in duty@+ound to o+ser,e the andates of her religion with the greatest scru#ulousness. That thousands of others do so9 % ha,e e,ery reason to +elie,e. %n so e #arts of Bengal9 where arrack is not easily accessi+le9 such fe ale ,otaries #re#are a su+stitute +y dro##ing the ilk of a coconut in a +ell@ etal #ot9 or ilk in a co##er ,essel9 and drink a few dro#s of the sa e. :en are9 howe,er9 not so a+ste ious9 and the Tantras ordain a daily allowance of fi,e cu#sful9 the cu# +eing so ade as to contain fi,e tolas9 or two ounces9 i.e. they are #er itted to take ten ounces or a+out a #int of
Ff21G

arrack dailyD. This Tantrik worshi# was not confined to the s all corner of Bengal. $s is #ointed out +y :aha aho#adhyaya <ada,eshwara Tarkaratna : D<ust as the Bengalis of the higher castes are di,ided into (haktas9 Vaishna,as9 and (hai,as. so it is with the #eo#les of =a aru#a9 :ithila9 Ktkala9 and =alinga9 and the =ash irian #andits. The (hakti :antra9 (hi,a :antra. and Vishnu :antra. are each Tantrik. $ ongst Aakshinatyas9 :aha aho#adhyaya (u+ra anya (hastri9 and any others9 are (haktas. The late :aha aho#adhyaya Ra a :ishra (hastri. Bhaga,atacharya. and any others9 were and are Vaishna,as. :aha aho#adhyaya (hi,aku ara (hastri9 and a nu +er of others are (hai,as. %n Vrinda,ana there are any (haktas as well as Vaishna,a Brah anas. though a ongst the higher castes in :aharashtra and other (outhern %ndian countries. (hai,as and Vaishna,as are ore nu erous than (haktas. 5ollowers of the 8ashu#ata and <anga a cults are (hai,as whereas those of :adha,acharya and Ra anu7acharya are Vaishna,as. :any in the North@*est are initiated in the Ra a@ :antra. which is to +e found only in the Tantra. %t is still ore re arka+le that. according to this author9 the #andas of (hri 8urushotta a are all (haktas9 and the #riests of =a akhya Ae,i are all Vaishna,as.D $lthough it is not #ossi+le to gi,e the e"act date when the Tantras and Tantra worshi# ca e into e"istence there is no dou+t that their date is after :anu. This fact akes the rise of the Tantra worshi# a atter of great sur#riBe. The Tantras not only lifted the #rohi+ition enacted +y :anu against wine and flesh +ut they ade drinking and flesh eating articles of faith. The sur#rising thing is the #art that the Brah ins ha,e #layed in furthering the Tantra and Tantra worshi#. The Tantras had no res#ect for the Vedas. The Tantrikas said that the Vedas were like a co on wo an o#en to all +ut that the Tantra was like a high@+orn wo an ke#t secluded. The Tantra was ne,er re#udiated +y the Brah ins. On the other hand they recogniBed it as a fifth Veda. (o orthodo" a Brah in as =ulluka@Bhatt the cele+rated &o entator on :anu ( riti says that (hruti is of two kinds9 Vaidik and Tantrik. Not only did the Brah ins not re#udiate the Tantras +ut actually #ro oted the Tantrik worshi#. The :atrika Bheda Tantra akes (hi,a address his wife 8ar,ati as follows EFf2'G: DO sweet s#eaking goddess9 the sal,ation of Brah anas de#ends on drinking wine. % i #art to you a great truth9 O ountain +orn9 when % say that the Brah an who de,otes hi self to drinking and its acco #ani ents9 forthwith +eco es a (i,a. !,en as water i"es with water9 and etal +lends with etal C e,en as the confined s#ace in a #itcher erges into the great +ody of the confining ,essel9 and air ingles with air9 so does a Brah an elt into Brah a9 the uni,ersal soul D. DThere is not the least dou+t a+out this. >ikeness to the di,inity and other for s of +eatitude are designed for =shatriyas and othersC +ut true knowledge can ne,er +e ac-uired without drinking s#irituous li-uorC therefore should Brah ans always drink.
Ff22G

No one +eco es a Brah an +y re#eating the 6ayatri9 the other of the Vedas: he is called a Brah an only when he has knowledge of Brah a. The a +rosia of the gods is their Brah a9 and on earth it is arrack Hor li-uor distilled fro riceIC and +ecause one attains through it the condition of a god Hsurat,aI9 therefore is that li-uor called sura.D *hy did the Brah ins re#udiate father :anu and start again drinking li-uor and flesh eating which :anu had sto##ed. This is a riddle.

RIDDLE NO. 14 HO# DID THE 'RAH(INS #ED AN AHI(SA" GOD TO A 'LOODTHIRST! GODDESSHa,ing started drinking and flesh eating the Brah ins did not hesitate to write #uranas ad,ocating ani al sacrifices. One such 8urana re-uires a s#ecial ention. %t is called the =ali 8urana. This 8urana is written with the e"#ress #ur#ose of #ro#agating the worshi# of the goddess =ali. %n this 8urana there is an adhhyaya called Rudhir $dhhyaya which eans the +loody cha#ter. % gi,e +elow a su ary of the Rudhir $dhhyaya. %n this cha#terEFf2)G the 6od (hi,a addresses his three sons Betal9 Bhairawar9 and Bhaira,a in the following ter s: D% will relate you9 y sons9 the cere onies and rules to +e o+ser,ed in sacrifices which +eing duly attended to are #roducti,e of the di,ine fa,our. DThe for s laid down in the Vaishnai,i Tantra9 are to +e followed on all occasions and ay +e o+ser,ed +y sacrifices to all Aeities.D D Birds9 tortoise9 allegators9 fish9 nine s#ecies of wild ani als9 +uffaloes9 +ulls9 he@ goats9 inchneu ons9 wild +oars9 rhinoceroses9 antelo#es9 guanas9 reindeer9 lions9 tigers9 en and +lood drawn fro the offerer?s own +ody9 are looked u#on as #ro#er o+lations to the 6oddess &handica9 the Bhaira,as Pc.D D %t is through sacrifices that #rinces o+tain +liss9 hea,en9 and ,ictory o,er their ene ies.D DThe #leasure which the 6oddess recei,es fro an o+lation of the fish and tortoises is of one onth?s duration9 and three fro that of a crocodile. By the +lood of the nine s#ecifies of wild ani als the 6oddess is satisfied nine onths9 and for that s#ace of ti e This is a 16-page typed MS having modifications by the author himself 3ll the pages are numbered serially and the treatment of the sub.ect seems complete !Ed.

continues #ro#itious to the offerer?s welfare. The +lood of the wild +ull and 6uana gi,e #leasure for one year9 and that of the antelo#e and wild +oar for twel,e years. The (ara+has +lood satisfies the 6oddess for twenty@fi,e years9 and +uffalo?s and rhinoceros?s +lood for a hundred9 and that of the tiger an e-ual nu +er.That of the lion9 reindeer9 and the hu an s#ecies #roduces #leasure9 which lasts a thousand years. The flesh of these9 se,erally9 gi,es the #leasure for the sa e duration of ti e as their +lood. Now attend to the different fruits attending an offering of the flesh of a rhinoceros or antelo#e9 as also of the fish called Rohita.D DThe flesh of the antelo#e and rhinoceros #leases the 6oddess fi,e hundred years and the Rohita fish and 2ardhrinasa gi,e y +elo,ed Hi.e. the 6oddess &aliI delight for three hundred years.D D$ s#otless goat9 who drinks only twice in twenty@four hours9 whose li +s are slender9 and who is the #ri e a ong a herd9 is called 2ardhrinasa$ and is reckoned as the +est of Ha,yas Hi.e. offerings to the AeitiesI and &a,yas9 Hi.e. offerings to the deceased #rogenitorsI.D D The +ird whose throat is +lue and head red and legs +lack with white feathers9 is called also 2arshrinasa$ and is king of the +irds9 and the fa,ourite of e and Vishnu.D DBy a hu an sacrifice attended +y the for s laid down9 Ae,i is #leased one thousand years and +y sacrifice of three en9 one hundred thousand years. By hu an flesh9 &a achya9 &handica9 and Bhaira,a who assu es y sha#e9 are #leased one thousand years. $n o+lation of +lood which has +een rendered #ure +y holy te"ts9 is e-ual to a +rosiaC the head also afford uch delight to the 6oddess &handica. >et therefore the learned when #aying adoration to the 6oddess9 offer +lood and the head9 and when #erfor ing the sacrifices to fire9 ake o+lations of flesh.D D >et the #erfor er of the sacrifice +e cautious ne,er to offer +ad flesh9 as the head and +lood are looked u#on +y the sel,es e-ual to a +rosia.D DThe gourd9 sugar cane9 s#irituous li-uors9 and fer ented li-uors are looked u#on as e-ui,alent to other offerings9 and #lease the 6oddess for the sa e duration of ti e as the sacrifice of a goat.D DThe #erfor ance of the sacrifice9 with a &handrahasa9 or 6atri9 Htwo wea#ons of the kingI is reckoned the +est ode9 and with a hetcher or knife9 or a sangeul9 the second +est9 and the +eheadings with a hoe a Bhallac Han instru ent of the s#ade kindI the inferior ode.D D!"clusi,e of these wea#ons no others of the s#ear of arrow kind ought e,er to +e used in #erfor ing a sacrifice9 as the offering is not acce#ted +y the 6oddess9 and the gi,er of it dies. He who9 with his hands9 tears off the head of the consecrated ani al. or +ird9 shall +e considered e-ually guilty with hi who has slain a Brah an9 and shall undergo great sufferings. D >et not the learned use the a"e9 +efore they ha,e in,oked it +y holy te"ts9 which

ha,e +een entioned heretofore9 and fra ed +y the learned for the occasionC let those % now tell you9 +e 7oined to the and the a"e in,oked9 and #articuarly so9 where the sacrifice is to +e ade to the 6oddesses Aurga and &a achya.D D >et the sacrificer re#eat the word =ali twice9 then the words ? Aevi 2ajreswari$ the 9awha Aandayai$ #a ah G " which words ay +e rendered ? FailG 'ali$ 'aliG FailG AeviG goddess of thunder$ Fail &ron sceptered Eoddess M? >et hi then take the a"e in his hand9 and again in,oke the fla e +y the &alratriya te"t as follows: D >et the sacrificer say: ? Frang Fring. 'ali$ 'ali. * 4 horrid toothed 6oddess: eat9 cut9 destroy all the alignant9 cut with this a"e9 +indC seiBe9 seiBe: drink +loodC spheng secure9 secure. (alutations to &ali.D Thus ends the &alratriya :antra.D DThe &harge Hthe a"eI +eing in,oked +y this te"t called the &alratriya :antra9 &alratri Hthe 6oddess of darknessI herself #resides o,er the a"e u#lifted for the destruction of the sacrificer?s ene ies.D DThe sacrificers ust ake use of all the te"ts directed #re,ious to the sacrifice9 and also of the following9 addressing hi self to the ,icti .D D Beasts were created +y the self e"isting9 hi self to +e i olated at sacrifices. % therefore i olate thee9 without incurring any sin in de#ri,ing thee of life.D D >et the sacrificer then na e the Aeity to who the sacrifice is ade9 and the #ur#ose for which it is #erfor edC and +y the a+o,e te"t i olate the ,icti 9 whose face is to +e towards the north9 or else let the sacrificer turn his own face to the north9 and the ,icti ?s to the east: Ha,ing i olated the ,icti 9 let hi without fail i" salt Pc.9 as +efore entioned with the +lood.D DThe ,essel in which the +lood is to +e #resented9 is to +e according to the circu stances of the offerer9 of gold9 sil,er9 co##er9 +rass9 or lea,es sewed together9 or of earth9 or of tutenague$ or of any of the s#ecies of wood used in sacrifices.D D >et it not +e #resented in an iron ,essel9 nor in one ade of the hide of an ani al9 or the +ark of treeC nor in a #ewter9 tin9 or leaden ,essel. >et not the +lood +e re#resented in the holy ,essel na ed (ru+ and (ruch9 nor on the ground. >et it not +e #resented in the 6hata Hi.e. an earthern@7ar always used in other religious cere oniesI. >et it not +e #resented +y #ouring it on the ground9 or into any of the ,essels used at other ti es for offering food to the Aeity9 >et not the good an who wishes for #ros#erity9 offer the +lood in any of these ,essels. Hu an +lood ust always +e #resented in a etalic or earthern ,esselC and ne,er on any account in a ,essel ade of lea,es9 or si ilar su+stance. DThe offering of a horse9 e"ce#t at the $swa edha sacrifice9 is wrong9 as also offering an ele#hant9 e"ce#t at the 6a7a :edhaC >et therefore the ruler of en o+ser,e ne,er to offer the e"ce#t on those occasions. $nd on no account whatsoe,er let hi offer the to the 6oddess Ae,i9 using the wild +ull called &hanrara as a su+stitute for the horse9 when the occasion re-uired one.D

D >et not the Brah an e,er offer a lion or a tiger9 or his own +lood9 or s#irituous li-uors to the 6oddess Ae,i. %f a Brah en sacrifices either a lion9 a tiger9 or a an9 he goes to hell9 and #asses +ut a short ti e in this world attended with isery and isfortune.D D %f a Brah an offers his own +lood9 his guilt is e-ual to that of the slayers of a Brah anC and if he offers s#irituous li-uors he is no longer a Brah an.D D >et not a &shectree offer an entelo#eC if he does9 he incurs the guilt of a Brah in slayer where the sacrifice of lions9 or tigers9 or of the hu an s#ecies is re-uired9 let the three first classes act thusC ha,ing for ed the i age of the lion9 tiger9 or hu an sha#e with +utter9 #aste9 or +arley eal9 let the sacrifice the sa e as if a li,ing ,icti 9 the a"e +eing first in,oked +y the te"t No o9 Pc. D *here the sacrifice of a nu +er of ani als is to take #lace it is sufficient to +ring and #resent two or three to the Aeity9 which ser,es as a consecration of the whole. % ha,e now related to you9 4 Bhaira,a9 in general ter s9 the cere onies and for s of sacrifices attend now to the different te"ts to +e used on the se,eral different occasions.D D *hen a +uffalo is #resented to Ae,i9 Bhaira,ee9 or Bhaira,a let the sacrificer use the following :antra in in,oking the ,icti .D D %n the anner that thou destroyest. Horses9 in the anner that thou carriest &handica9 destroy y ene ies9 and +ear #ros#erity to e9 O BuffaloMD D4 steed of death9 of e"-uisite and un#erisha+le for 9 #roduce e long life and fa e. (alutation to thee9 o +uffaloM D DNow attend to the #articulars relati,e to the offering of hu an +lood.D D>et a hu an ,icti +e sacrificed at a #lace of holy worshi#9 or at a ce etery where dead +odies are +urried. >et the o+lation +e #erfor ed in the #art of the ce etery called Heruca9 which has +een already descri+ed9 or at a te #le of &a achya9 or on a ountain. Now attend to the ode.D DThe ce etery re#resents e9 and is called Bhaira,a9 it has also a #art called TantarangeC the ce etery ust +e di,ided into these two di,ision9 and a third called Heruca.D DThe hu an ,icti is to +e i olated in the east di,ision which is sacred to Bhaira,a9 the head is to +e #resented in the south di,ision9 which is looked u#on as the #lace sculls sacred to Bhaira,i9 and the +lood is to +e #resented in the west di,ision9 which is deno inated Heruca.D D Ha,ing i olated a hu an ,icti 9 with all the re-uisite cere onies at a ce etery or holy #lace9 let the sacrificer +e cautious not to cast eyes u#on the ,icti .D D On other occasion also9 let not the sacrificer9 cast eyes u#on the ,icti i olated9 +ut #resent the head with eyes a,erted.D DThe ,icti ust +e a #erson of good a##earance9 and +e #re#ared +y a+lutions9

and re-uisite cere onies9 such as eating consecrated food the day +efore9 and +y a+stinance fro flesh and ,enery: and ust +e adorned with cha#lets of flowers and +es eared with sandal wood. D DThen causing the ,icti to face the north9 let the sacrificer worshi# the se,eral deities #residing o,er the different #arts of the ,icti s +ody: let the worshi# +e then #aid to the ,icti hi self +y his na e.D D Thus let the sacrificer worshi# the ,icti 9 adding whate,er other te"ts are a##lica+le to the occasion9 and ha,e +een +efore entioned. D>et not the fe ale9 whether -uadru#ed or +ird9 or a wo an +e e,er sacrificedC the sacrificer of either will indu+ita+ly fall into hell9 where the ,icti of either the +easts or +irds creation9 are ,ery nu erous9 the i olation of a fe ale is e"cusa+leC +ut this rule does not hold good9 as to the hu an s#ecies.D D >et not a Brah an or a &handala +e sacrificedC nor a #rinceC nor that which has already +een #resented to a Brah en9 or a deityC nor the offs#ring of a #rince9 nor who has con-uered in +attleC nor the offs#ring of a Brah an9 or of a &shettreeC nor a childless +rother9 nor a father9 nor a learned #erson9 nor one who is unwilling9 nor the aternal uncle of the sacrificer. Those not here na ed9 and ani als9 and +irds of unknown s#ecies are unfit. %f these na ed are not forth co ing9 let their #lace +e su##lied +y a ale ass or ca el. %f other ani als are forth co ing9 the sacrifice of a tiger9 ca el9 or ass ust +e a,oided.D D Ha,ing first worshi##ed the ,icti 9 whether hu an9 +east9 or +ird9 as directed9 let the sacrificer9 i olate hi uttering the :antra directed for the occasion9 and address the deity with the te"t laid down +efore.D D >et the head and +lood of a hu an ,icti +e #resented on the right side of Ae,i9 and the sacrificer address her standing in front. >et the head and +lood of +irds +e #resented on the left and the +lood of a #erson?s own +ody in front. >et the a +rosia #roceeding fro the heads of carni,orous ani als and +irds +e #resented on the left hand. as also the +lood of all a-uatic ani als.D D >et the antelo#e?s head and +lood9 and that of the tortoise9 rhinoceros and hare and crocodile9 and fish +e #resented in front.D D >et a lion?s head and +lood9 +e #resented on the right hand9 and the rhinoceros?s also: let not9 on any account9 the head or +lood of a ,icti e,er +e #resented +ehind the Aeity9 +ut on the right9 left and in front.D D >et the consecrated la #9 +e #laced either on the right hand9 or in front +ut on no account9 on the left. >et incense +e +urnt on the left9 and in front9 +ut not on the right hand. >et #erfu es9 flowers and orna ents9 +e #resented in frontC with res#ect to the different #arts of the circle9 where to #resent the offerings9 the ode already laid down ay +e o+ser,ed. >et :adira Hs#irituous li-uorI +e #resented +ehind other li-uids on the left.D D*here it is a+solutely necessary to offer s#irits9 let the three first classes of en

su##ly their #lace9 +y coconut 7uice in a +rass ,essel9 or honey in a co##er one. !,en in a ti e of cala ity9 let not a an of the three first classes9 offer s#irituous li-uor9 e"ce#t that ade fro flowers9 or stewed dishes. >et #rinces9 inisters of state9 counsellors9 and ,endors of s#irituous li-uors9 ake hu an sacrifices9 for the #ur#ose of attaining #ros#erity and wealth.D D %f a hu an sacrifice is #erfor ed9 without the consent of the #rince9 the #erfor er incurs sin. %n cases of i inent danger or war9 sacrifices ay +e #erfor ed at #leasure9 +y #rinces the sel,es and their inisters9 +ut +y none else.D D The day #re,ious to a hu an sacrifice9 let the ,icti +e #re#ared +y the te"t :anastac9 and three Ae,i 6andha (ucthas9 and the te"ts *adrangC and +y touching his head with the a"e9 and +es earing the a"e with sandal Pc.9 #erfu es9 and then taking so e of the sandal9 Pc.9 fro off the a"e9 and +es earing the ,icti ?s neck therewith.D DThen let the te"t $ +e $ +ica9 Pc.9 and the Towdra and Bhaira,a te"ts +e used9 and Ae,i herself will guard the ,icti who9 when thus #urified9 alady does not a##roach hi 9 nor does his ind suffer any derange ent fro grief and si ilar causes9 nor does the death or +irth of a kins an render hi i #ure.D E E E E E D Ha,ing secured the ,icti with cords9 and also with H:antrasI let hi strike off the head9 and #resent it to Ae,i9 with due care. >et hi ake these sacrifices in #ro#ortion to the increase or decrease of his ene ies9 cho##ing off the heads of ,icti s for the #ur#ose of +ringing destruction on his foes9 infusing9 +y holy te"ts9 the soul of the ene y into the +ody of the ,icti 9 which will when i olated9 de#ri,e the foe of life also.D DThe +lood ust +e drawn for the e"#ress #ur#ose of an o+lation9 and fro a an #ure in +ody and ind9 and free fro fearC it ust +e caught in the #etal of lotus and #resented. %t ay +e #resented in a gold9 sil,er9 +rass or iron ,essle9 with the due fro 9 the te"ts recited.D DThe +lood9 if drawn +y incision ade with a knife9 a"e or sangeul9 gi,es #leasure9 in #ro#ortion to the siBe of the wea#on.D DThe sacrificer ay #resent one fourth of the -uantity which a lotus #etal will contain9 +ut he ust not gi,e ore on any accountC nor cut his +ody ore than is necessary. He who willingly offers the +lood of his +ody and his own flesh9 the siBe of a grain of linseed9 :asha9 tila9 or udya9 with Beal and fer,ency9 o+tains what he desires in the course of si" onths.D He who #erfor s sacrifices according to these rules9 o+tains9 his wishes to the ut ost e"tent.D E E E E E

This is the Ahar a which the =ali 8urana #reaches. $fter centuries of $hi sa ordained +y :anu here is Hi sa in full +last sanctioned +y the Tantras in its worst and all inclusi,e for ani al and hu an Hi sa. These Hi sa #ractices #reached in the sanguinary cha#ter of =ali 8urana had +eco e -uite wides#read. $s to the re,i,al of ani al sacrifice what ha##ens at the =ali Te #le in &alcutta furnishes un istaka+le #roof. That this te #le should ha,e +eco e a #erfect slaughter house where daily hundreds of goats are sacrificed to a##ease the 6oddess =ali can only +e e"#lained +y the teachings of the =ali 8urana. Today hu an +eings are not sacrificed to the 6oddess =ali. But it does not ean that it ne,er ha##ened. On the contrary there is a+undant e,idence to show that hu an sacrifice like ani al sacrifice was #ractised as taught +y the =ali 8urana. Ar. Ra7endralal :itra says : D The fact is well known that for a long ti e the rite Hof Hu an (acrificeI was co on all o,er HindustanC and #ersons are not wanting who sus#ect that there are still nooks and corners in %ndia9 where hu an ,icti s are occasionally slaughtered for the gratification of the Ae,i. %n old fa ilies which +elong to the sect of the Va acharis9 and whose ancestors for erly offered hu an ,icti s at the Aurga and the =ali 8u7as9 a #ractice still o+tains of sacrificing an effigy9 in lieu of a li,ing an. The effigy9 a foot long9 is ade of dried ilk HkhiraI9 and sacrified according to the for ula laid down in the =alika 8urana the only addition +eing a few antras designed ty#ically to ,i,ify the i age. $ friend of ine9 Ba+u He achandra =er9 Ae#uty :agistrate of twenty four 8ergunnahs and author of an e"cellent work on the culture of <ute in Bengal infor s e that in the eastern districts of Bengal this sacrifice is fre-uently #erfor edC +ut the i age instead of +eing slaughtered +y a single indi,idual9 is cut u# si ultaneously +y all the grown u# e +ers of the fa ily9 either with se#arate kni,es9 or with a single knife held 7ointly +y all. This is known +y the na e of (atru+all or D sacrifice of any ene y D. The sacrifice9 +oth in the case of Nara Bali and the (atru Bali is #erfor ed secretly9 generally at idnight. The (atru+ali9 howe,er9 is a distinct rite9 a#art fro the Nara+ali of the =alika 8urana9 and authority for it occurs in the Vrihannila Tantra$ in which it is said9 after #erfor ing certain other rites therein descri+ed9 Da king should sacrifice his ene y Hin an effigyI ade with dried ilk HkhiraI. He should slaughter it hi self9 looking at it with a fiery glance9 striking dee#9 and di,iding it into two with a single stroke. This should +e done after infusing life into it +y the rite of 8rana 8ratishtha9 and re#eating the na e of the #erson to +e destroyed. O consort of :ahesa9 he dou+tless destroys there+y his ene ies.D Now the i #ortant #oint to note in this connection is that =ali is the wife of (hi,a. The -uestion that arises is does (hi,a acce#t ani al sacrifice . The answer to this -uestion is that at one ti e (hi,a did li,e on ani al sacrifice. This state ent ay co e as a sur#rise to the #resent day worshi##ers of (hi,a. But it is a fact and those who need any e,idence in su##ort of it9 ha,e only to refer to the $sh,alayan
Ff2/G

6rihya@(utra which gi,es a ost ela+orate descri#tion of a +ull@sacrifice for the a##ease ent of (hi,a. % gi,e +elow the actual te"t fro the $sha,alayan 6rihya (utra . This is what it says: 1. Now the s#it@o" Hsacrificed to RudraI. 2. %n autu n or in s#ring9 under the HNakshatraI $rdra. '. The ,est of his herd. ). H$n o"I which is neither le#rous nor s#eckled. /. One with +lack s#ots9 according to so e. 0. %f he likes9 a +lack one9 if its colour incline to co##er@colour. 1. He s#rinkles it with water9 into which he has thrown rice and +arley. 2. 5ro head to tail. 3. *ith Hthe for ulaI9 D6row u#9 agreea+le to Rudra the great god?. 14. He should let it grow u#. *hen it has cut its teeth9 or when it has +eco e a +ull. 11. To a -uarter Hof the horiBonI which is sacrificially #ure. 12. $t a #lace which cannot +e seen fro the ,illage. 1'. $fter idnight. 1). $ccording to so e9 after sunrise. 1/. Ha,ing caused a Brah an who is ,ersed in learning and knows the #ractice Hof this sacrificeI9 to sit down9 ha,ing dri,en a fresh +ranch with lea,es into the ground as a sacrificial #ost9 Hha,ing takenI two cree#ing #lants or two kusa ro#es as two girdles9 and ha,ing wound the one round the sacrificial #ost9 and tied the other round the iddle of the ani al?s head9 he +inds it to the sacrificial #ost or to the girdle Hwhich he had tied to that #ostI with Hthe for ulaI9 ? $greea+le to hi to who adoration His +roughtI9 % +ind thee ?. 10. The s#rinkling with water and what follows is the sa e as at the ani al sacrifice. 11. *e shall state what is different. 12. >et hi sacrifice the o entu with the 8atri or with a leaf@thus it is understood Hin the (rutiI.
Ff20G

13. *ith Hthe for ulaI9 ? To Hara9 :rida9 (ar,a9 (i,a9 Bha,a9 :ahadc,a9 Kgra9 Bhi a9 8asu@#ati9 Rudra9 (ankara9 %sanas,aha?M 24. Or with the last si" H#arts of that for ulaI. 21. Or with Hthe for ulaI. ?To Rudra s,aha?M 22. >et hi ake Bali offerings towards the four -uarters Hof the horiBon9 to each on four rings of =usa net@work9 with the for ulasI9 DThe hosts9 Rudra9 which thou hast towards the estern direction9 to the this Hoffering is +roughtI. $doration to theeM Ao no har to e M ? %n this way the assigning Hof the offerings is #erfor edI according to the different

-uarters Hof the horiBonI. 2'. *ith the following four hy ns he should worshi# the four -uarters9 ,iB.9 ?what shall we do Rudra9D ?These #rayers to Rudra9? ?To thee9 4 father9 DThese songs to Rudra with the strong +ow. ?HRig@Veda 19 )'9 1 1)C %%9C''C V%%9 )0I. 2). HThisI worshi# to the -uarters Hof the horiBon His #erfor edI at all sacrifices to Rudra. 2/. The husks and chaff Hof the riceI9 the tail9 the skin9 the head9 the feet Hof the sacrificial ani alI he should throw into the fire. 20. He should turn the skin to so e use according to (a ,atya. 21. To the north of the fire9 on rows of Aar+ha grass9 or on rings of =usa network9 he should #our out the +lood Hof the sacrificial ani alI with Hthe for ulaI ?Hissing onesM Noisy onesM (earching ones M (eiBing ones M (er#ents M *hat here +elongs to you9 take that.? 22. Then9 turning to the north Hhe assigns itI to the ser#ents Hin the wordsI ?Hissing onesM *hat here +elongs to you take that?. Then the ser#ents take whate,er has flowed down there of +lood or of the contents of (to ach and entrails. 23. $ll na es9 all hosts9 all e"altations +elong to hi to a sacrificer who knows that9 he gi,es 7oy. '4. !,en to a an who only with words sets forth Hso e #artI of that Hcere onyI9 he will do no har : thus it is understood Hin the (rutiI. '1. He should not #artake of that HsacrificeI. '2. They should not take anything +elonging to it into the ,illage. 5or this 6od will do har to Hhu anI creatures. ''. He should kee# away his #eo#le fro the ,icinity Hof the #lace where he has sacrificedI. '). On an e"#ress in7unction9 howe,er9 he should #artake Hof that sacrificial foodI for it will +ring luck. '/. This s#lit@o" sacrifice #rocures wealth9 Ho#enI s#ace9 #urity9 sons9 cattle9 long life9 s#lendour. '0. $fter he has sacrificed9 he should let loose another Hani alI. '1. He should not +e without such an ani al. '2. Then he will not +e without cattlethus it is understood Hin the (rutiI. '3. :uttering the (antatiya hy n9 he should go to his house. )4. %f disease +efalls his cattle9 he should sacrifice to that sa e 6od in the idst of his cow@sta+le. )1. $ ess of cooked food9 which he sacrificed in its entirety. )2. Ha,ing thrown the sacrificial grass and the $gya into the fire9 he should lead his cows through the s oke.

)'. :ur uring the (antatiya hy n9 he should go in the idst of his cattle. )). $doration to (aunaka C $doration to (aunakaM D Today (hi,a does not acce#t ani al sacrifice. This change in the for of worshi# of (hi,a is the result of the acce#tance +y the #rinci#le of $hi sa. Ha,ing changed fro hirnsa to +hi sathe Brah ans changed (hi,a fro a Fi sa1 6od to an +hi sa1 6od. The cult of =ali has co e into +eing long after (hi,a had +eco e an $hi sak 6od. Ne,er the less =ali his wife was ade an hi sak 6oddess. The result is that we ha,e a cruel contrast of a +loodless god ha,ing a +lood@thirsty 6oddess as his wife. %sn?t it a riddle. *hy did the Brah ins do such a thing. APPENDIX

Riddle In Hinduism ______________________________________________

Contents PART I APPENDIX $##endi" % : The Riddle of the Vedas $##endi" %% : The Riddle of the Vedanta $##endi" %%% : The Riddle of the Tri urti $##endi" %V : %% ( arth Ahar a $##endi" V : The %nfalli+ility of the Vedas APPENDIX I THE RIDDLE O THE %EDAS The Vedas are the sacred Books of the Hindus. There are se,eral -uestions that arise in connection with the . *hat is their origin9 who is their author9 what is their authority9 these are so e of the H-uestionsI. To +egin with the first. $ccording to the Hindus they are (anatana which eans that they are Deternally #re@e"istingD. There is no 7ustification for this ,iew unless it +e +ased u#on a state ent which occurs in the $thar,a@Veda. %t saysEFf1G: D5ro Ti e the Rig ,erses s#rangC the Ja7us s#rang fro Ti eD. But there are other ,iews -uite o##osed to this. (tarting fro the $thar,a@Veda it ust +e noted that +esides this ,iew there are two other ,iews #ro#ounded in that Veda. The first of these is not ,ery intelligent and ay +e gi,en in its own language which runs as

followsFf2G: DAeclare who that (ka +ha Hsu##orting #rinci#leI is in who the #ri e,al rishis9 the rich9 sa an9 and ya7ush9 the earth9 and the one rishi9 are sustained. . . . . 24. Aeclare who is that (ka +ha fro who they cut off the rich ,erses9 fro who they scra#ed off the ya7ush9 of who the sa an ,erses are the hairs and the ,erses of $thar,an and $ngiras the outhD. The second e"#lanation gi,en in the $thar,a@Veda is that the Vedas s#rang fro %ndraFf'G. !"#lanation of the Rig@Veda is to +e found in the 8urusha@(ukta. $ccording to it there was a uni,ersal sacrifice in which the ,icti was the ystical +eing called 8urusha and it is out of the sacrifice of this This is a consolidated cha#ter on the Riddle of the Vedas dealing with ost of the su+7ects discussed +y the author in the earlier cha#ter Nos. 2 to 0 of this +ook. %n all there are 01 ty#ed #ages +earing no corrections at all. This co#y is a ty#ed car+on co#y.!d. 8urusha that the three Vedas na ely Rig9 (a an and Ja7ur ca e into +eing. The (a @Veda and the Ja7ur@Veda ake no reference to the origin of the Vedas. 8roceeding to the writings called Brah anas we find atte #ts to e"#lain the origin of the Vedas in the (ata#atha Brah ana9 the Taitteriya Brah ana9 $itareya Brah ana and =aushitaki Brah ana. The (ata#atha Brah ana has a ,ariety of e"#lanations. %t attri+utes the origin of the Vedas to 8ra7a#ati. $ccording to it 8ra7a#ati +y his austerity created three worlds !arth9 $ir and (ky. He infused war th into these three worlds. 5ro the 9 thus heated9 three lights were #roduced9$gni H5ireI9 Vayu HwindI and (urya Hthe sunI. 5ro the so heated the three Vedas were #roduced9the Rig@Veda fro $gni9 the Ja7ur@Veda fro Vayu and (a @Veda fro the (un. This is also the e"#lanation gi,en +y the $itereya and the =aushitaki Brah ana. The (ata#atha Brah ana gi,es another ,ariantFf)G of this e"#lanation of the origin of the Veda fro 8ra7a#ati. The e"#lanation is that 8ra7a#ati created the Vedas fro waters. (ays the (ata#atha Brah ana DThis :ale 8ra7a#ati9 desired9 ?:ay % ulti#ly9 ay % +e #ro#agated ?. He toiled in de,otion he #ractised austere@fer,our. Ha,ing done so he first of all created sacred knowledge9 the tri#le Vedic science. This +eca e a +asis for hi . *herefore en say9 ?sacred knowledge is the +asis of this uni,erse.? Hence after studying the Veda a an has a standing groundC for sacred knowledge is his foundation. Resting on this +asis he H8ra7a#atiI #ractised austere fer,our. 3. He created the waters fro Vach Hs#eechI9 as their world. Vach was hisC she was created. (he #er,aded all this whate,er e"ists. $s she #er,aded Ha#notI9 waters were called ?a#ah?. $s she

co,ered Ha,rinotI all9 water was called ?,ar?. 14. He desired9 ?:ay % +e #ro#agated fro these waters.D $long with this tri#le Vedic science he entered the waters. Thence s#rang an egg. He ga,e it an i #ulse: and said9 let there +e9 let there +e9 let there +e again ?. Thence was first created sacred knowledge9 the tri#le Vedic science. *herefore en say9 ?(acred knowledge is the first@+orn thing in this uni,erse. :oreo,er9 it was sacred knowledge which was created fro that :ale in front9 wherefore it was created as his outh. Hence they say of a an learned in the Veda9 ? He is like $gniC for the sacred knowledge is $gni?s outh.D. D$s fro a fire ade of oist wood ,arious odifications of s oke #roceed9 so is the +reathing of this great +eingC the Rig@Veda9 the Ja7ur@,eda9 the (a a@,eda9 the $thar,@angirases9 the %tihasas9 8uranas9 science9 the K#anishads9 ,erses HslokasI9 a#horis s9 co ents of different kingsall these are his +reathingsD. There is a third e"#lanationFf/G gi,en in the (ata#atha Brah ana: D % settle thee in the ocean as they seat D :ind is the ocean. 5ro the ind@ocean with s#eech for a sho,el the gods dug out the tri#le Vedic science. Hence this ,erse has +een uttered: ? :ay the +rilliant deity to@day know where they #laced that offering which the gods dug out with shar# sho,els. :ind is the oceanC s#eech is the shar# sho,elC the tri#le Vedic science is the offering. %n reference to this the ,erse has +een uttered. He settles it in :indD. The Taitteriya@Brah ana has three e"#lanations to offer. %t s#eaks of the Vedas as +eing deri,ed fro 8ra7a#ati. %t also says 8ra7a#ati created =ing (o a and after hi the three Vedas were createdFf0G. This Brah ana has another e"#lanationFf1G -uite unconnected with 8ra7a#ati. $ccording to it: DVach Hs#eechI is an i #erisha+le thing9 and the first@+orn of the cere onial9 the other of the Vedas9 and the centre@#oint of i ortality. Aelighting in us9 she ca e to the sacrifice. :ay the #rotecting goddess +e ready to listen to y in,ocation9 she who the wise rishis9 the co #osers of hy ns9 the gods9 sought +y austere@fer,our9 and +y la+orious de,otion.D To crown all this the Taitteriya Brah ana offers a third e"#lanation. %t says that the Vedas ca e fro the +eard of 8ra7a#ati. >egends regarding the origin of the Vedas are also to +e found in the K#nishads. The legend recorded in the &hhandogya K#anishad is the sa e as that found in the (ata#atha Brah anana ely that the Rig@Veda originated fro $gni9 Ja7us fro Vayu and (a fro the (un. The Brahad $ranyaka K#anishad which is a #art of the (ata#atha Brah ana9 records -uite a different legend. %t says: D 8ra7a#ati Hidentified with Aeath9 or the Ae,ourerI is said to ha,e #roduced Vach Hs#eechI9 and through her9 together with soul9 to ha,e created all things9 including the Vedas.D D By that s#eech and that soul he created all things whatsoe,er9 rich9 ya7ush9 and

sa an te"ts9 etres9 sacrifices9 creatures9 and ani als. The three Vedas are Hidentifia+le withI these three things Hs#eech9 ind and +reathI. (#eech is the Rig@ ,eda9 ind the Ja7ur@,eda9 and +reath the (a a@,eda.D &o ing to the ( ritis there are two theories as to the origin of the Vedas to +e found in the :anu ( riti. %n one #lace it is said that the Vedas were created +y Brah a: D He HBrah aI in the +eginning fashioned fro the worlds of the Veda the se,eral na es9 functions and se#arate conditions of all HcreaturesI. That >ord also created the su+tle host of acti,e and li,ing deities9 and of (adhyas9 and eternal sacrifice9 he drew forth fro $gni9 fro Vayu9 and fro (urya9 the tri#le eternal Veda9 distinguished as Rich9 Ja7ush9 and (a an.D %n another #lace he see s to acce#t the story of 8ra7a#ati +eing the originator of the Vedas as would +e e,ident fro the following?: D 8ra7a#ati also ilked out of the three Vedas the letters a9 u and 9 together with @the words +huh9 +hu,ah and s,ar. The sa e su#re e 8ra7a#ati also ilked fro each of the three Vedas one of the HthreeI #ortions of the te"t called sa,itri Hor gayatriI9 +eginning with the word tat....... The three great i #erisha+le #articles H+huh9 +hu,ah9 s,arI #receded +y o 9 and the gayatri of three lines9 are to +e regarded as the outh of Brah a D. %t is also interesting to note what the 8uranas ha,e to say a+out the origin of the Vedas. The Vishnu 8urana says: D 5ro his eastern outh Brah a for ed the gayatri9 the rich ,erses9 the tri,rit9 the sa arathantara9 and of sacrifices9 the agnishto a. 5ro his southern outh he created the ya7ush ,erses the trishtu+h etre9 the #anchadasa sto e9 the ,rihat@ sa an and the ukthya. 5ro his western outh he for ed the sa an ,erses9 the 7agati etre9 the sa#tadasa@sto e9 the ,airu#a9 and the atiratra. 5ro his northern outh he fra ed the eka,insa9 the athar,an9 the a#torya an9 with the annushtu+h and +ira7 etresD The Bhag,at 8urana says: DOnce the Vedas s#rang fro the four@faced creator9 as he was editating ? how shall % create the aggregate world as +efore.?. . . . . . He for ed fro his eastern and other ouths the Vedas called rich9 ya7ush9 sa an9 and athar,an9 together with #raise9 sacrifice9 hy ns9 and e"#iration D. The :arkandeya 8urana says: D 5ro the eastern outh of Brah a9 who s#rang +y an i #erce#ti+le +irth fro that di,ided egg9 there suddently issued first of all the Rich ,erses9 2. rese +ling &hina roses9 +rilliant in a##earance9 internally united9 though se#arated fro each other9 and characteriBed +y the -uality of #assion Hra7asI. '. 5ro his southern outh ca e9 unrestrained9 the Ja7ush ,erses of the colour of gold9 and disunited. ). 5ro the western outh of the su#re e Brah a a##eared the (a an ,erses and the etres. / and 0. 5ro the northern

outh of the Vedas HBrah aI was anifested the entire $thar,ana of the colour of +lack +ees and collyriu 9 ha,ing a character at once terri+le and not terri+le9 ca#a+le of neutralising the arts of enchanter #leasant9 characteriBed +y the -ualities +oth of #urity and darkness9 and +oth +eautiful and the contrary. 1. The ,erses of the Rich are distinguished +y the -uality of #assion Hra7asI9 those of the Ja7ush +y #urity Hsat,aI9 those of the (a an +y darkness Hta asI9 and those of the $thar,an +y +oth darkness and #urity.D The Hari,a sa su##orts +oth theories that of Brah a and 8ra7a#ati: D5or the e anci#ation of the world9 Brah a9 sunk in conte #lation9 issuing in a lu inous for fro the region of the oon9 #enetrated into the heart of 6ayatri9 entering +etween her eyes. 5ro her there was then #roduced a -uadru#le +eing in the for of a :ale9 lustrous as Brah a9 undefined9 eternal9 undecaying de,oid of +odily senses or -ualities9 distinguished +y the attri+ute of +rilliancy9 #ure as the rays of the oon9 radiant9 and e +oidied in letters. The god fashioned the Rig,eda9 with the Ja7ush fro his eyes9 the (a a@,eda fro the ti# of his tongue9 and the $thar,an fro his head. These Vedas9 as soon as they are +orn9 find a +ody HkshetraI. Hence they o+tain their character of Vedas9 +ecause they find H,indantiI that a+ode. These Vedas then create the #re@e"istent eternal +rah a Hsacred scienceI9 a :ale of celestial for 9 with their own ind@+orn -ualities D. %t also acce#ts 8ra7a#ati as the origin. %t says that when the (u#re e +eing was intent on creating the Kni,erse9 Hiranyagar+ha9 or 8ra7a#ati9 issued fro his outh9 and was desired to di,ide hi selfa #rocess which he was in great dou+t how he should effectC the Hari,arnsa #roceeds: D *hile he was thus reflecting9 the sound ? o ? issued fro hi 9 and resounded through the earth9 air9 and sky. *hile the god of gods was again and again re#eating this9 the essence of ind9 the ,ashatkara #roceeded fro his heart. Ne"t9 the sacred and transcendent ,yahritis9 H+huh9 +hu,ah9 s,arI9 for ed of the great s iriti9 in the for of sound9 were #roduced fro earth9 air9 and sky. Then a##eared the goddess9 the ost e"cellent of etres9 with twenty@four sylla+les Hthe gayatriI. Reflecting on the di,ine te"t H+eginning withI DtatD9 the >ord for ed the sa,itri. He then #roduced all the Vedas9 the Rich9 (a an9 $thar,an9 and Ja7ush9 with their #rayers and rites.D Here we ha,e ele,en different e"#lanations regarding the origin of the VedasH1I as originating fro the ystical sacrifice of 8urusha9 H2I as resting on (ka +ha H'I as cut of scra##ed off fro hi 9 as +eing his hair9 and his outh9 H)I as s#ringing fro %ndra9 H/I as #roduced fro Ti e9 H0I as #roduced fro $gni9 Vayu and (urya9 H1I as s#ringing fro 8ra7a#ati9 and the *aters9 H2I as +eing the +reath of Brah a9 H3I as +eing dug +y the 6ods out of the ind@ocean9 H14I as +eing the hair of 8ra7a#ati?s +eard and H%%I as +eing the Offs#ring of Vach. This +ewildering ulti#licity of answers to a si #le -uestion is a riddle. The writers who ha,e co e forward to furnish these answers are all Brah ins. They +elong to

the sa e Vaidic (chool of thought. They alone were the guardians of the ancient religious lore. *hy should such a coherent +ody of scholars should ha,e gi,en such incoherent and chaotic answers to a ,ery si #le -uestion. %% *ho is the author of the Vedas . The +elief of the Hindus is that the Vedas are su#ernatural #roductions. To use the technical ter the Vedas are $#aurusheya i.e. ade +y a non@hu an agency. *hat is the e,idence in su##ort of this dog a. $ ong the $ncient (anskrit literature there is a class of works called $nukra anis. They are syste atic indices to ,arious #ortions of the $ncient Vedic literature. !,ery Veda has an $nukra ani9 so eti es ore than one $nukra ani. (e,en $nukra anis for the Rig@Veda are known to +e in e"istence9 fi,e +y (haunaka9 one +y =atyayana and one +y an unknown author. 5or the Ja7ur@Veda there e"ist three $nukra anis9 one for each of the three (hakhas9 $treyi9 &harayaniyas9 and :adhyandina. 5or the (a @Veda there are two $nukra anis9 one is called $rsheya@Brah ana and the other is known +y the na e 8arishistas. One $nukra ani to the $thar,a@Veda is known to e"ist. %ts title is Brihat@(ar,anukra ani. The ost #erfect $nukra ani according to 8rof. :a"@:uller is =atyayana?s (ar,anukra ani to the Rig@Veda. %ts i #ortance lies in the fact that it gi,es H1I the first words of each hy n9 H2I the nu +er of ,erses9 H'I the na e and the fa ily of the Rishi who co #osed it9 H)I the na es of the deities and H/I the etres of e,ery ,erse. *hat e erges fro a reference to the (ar,anukra ani is that the Rishis are the $uthors of the hy ns which ake u# the Rig@Veda. The Rig@Veda therefore on the e,idence of the $nukra ani cannot +ut +e regarded as a an@ ade work. The sa e ust +e the conclusion regarding the other Vedas. That the $nukra anis are realistic is #ro,ed +y any #assages in the Rig@Veda in which the Rishis descri+e the sel,es as the co #osers of the hy ns. Below are gi,en a few of such #assages: DThe =an,as ake a #rayer to youC hear well their in,ocations.D Thus9 O %ndra9 yoker of steeds9 ha,e the 6ota as ade hy ns for thee efficaciously.D DThis hy n has efficaciously +een ade to you9 4 o#ulent $s,ins9 +y the :anas.D DThese agnifying #rayers9 HthisI hy n9 4 $s,ins9 the 6ritsa adas ha,e ade for you.D D$s#iring to hea,en9 the sage =usikas ha,e ade a hy n with #raises to thee9 4 %ndra.D DNodhas9 descendant of 6ota a9 fashioned this new hy n for HtheeI9 %ndra9 who art of old9 and who yokest thy steeds.D D Thus9 4 hero9 ha,e the 6ritsa adas9 desiring succour9 fashioned for thee a hy n9 as en ake works.D DThe sages generated an efficacious #roduction and a #rayer of %ndra.D

D These hy ns9 $gni9 generated for thee9 cele+rate thy +ounty in cows and horses.D D Our father hath disco,ered Hor in,entedI this great9 se,en@headed hy n9 +orn of sacred truthC $yasya9 friend of all en9 cele+rating %ndra9 has generated the fourth song of #raise.D D *e9 the Rahuganas9 ha,e uttered to $gni honied s#eechC we incessantly laud hi with eulogies.D DThus9 all ye $dityas9 $diti9 and ye ruling #owers9 has the wise son of 8lati agnified you. The celestial race has +een lauded +y the i ortal 6aya.D D He it is who they call a rishi9 a #riest9 a #ious sacrificer9 a chaunter of #rayers9 a reciter of hy nsC he it is who knows the three +odies of the +rilliant H$gniI9the an who is ost #ro inent in +estowing gifts.D $#art fro the e,idence of the $nukra anis there is another sort of e,idence which istakes against the theory of the Vedas +eing $#aurushya. The Rishis the sel,es ha,e treated the Vedas as a hu an and as a historical #roduct. The hy ns of Rig@Veda distinguish +etween ancient and odern Rishis. Here are a few of the : D$gni9 who is worthy to +e cele+rated +y for er9 as well as odern rishis9 will +ring the gods hither.D DThe for er rishis who in,oked thee for succour.D DHear the hy n of e this odern sage9 of this odern HsageI.D D %ndra9 as thou hast +een like a 7oy to for er worshi##ers who #raised thee9 like waters to the thirsty9 % in,oke thee again and again with this hy n.D DThe ancient rishis9 res#lendent and sage9 ha,e #laced in front of the HBrihas#atiI with gladdening tongueD. D Neither the ancients nor later en9 nor any odern an9 has attained to Hconcei,eI thy #rowess9 O :adha,an.D D$s H%ndra?sI for er worshi##ers were H ay we +eI +la eless9 irre#roacha+le9 and unhar ed.D D 5or now9 4 energetic god9 en are thy worshi##ers9 as the ancients +orn of old and the en of the iddle and later ages ha,e +een thy friends. $nd9 4 uch@ in,oked9 think of the ost recent of all D. Dto Hi H%ndraI our ancient fathers9 the se,en Na,ag,a sages9 desiring food9 HresortedI with their hy ns.D D6lorified +y our newest hy n9 do thou +ring to us wealth and food with #rogenyD $ close study of the Rig@Veda will show that the Rig@Veda itself akes a distinction +etween old hy ns and new hy ns. (o e of the are gi,en +elow: D6lorified +y our newest hy n9 do thou +ring to us wealth and food with #rogeny.D D $gni9 thou hast announced Hor do thou announceI a ong the gods this our offering9 our newest hy n D. DThrough our new hy ns9 do thou9 ,igorous in action9 destroyer of cities9 sustain

us with in,igorating +lessings.D D % +ring to $gni9 the son.of strength9 a new and energetic hy n9 a #roduction of thought uttered +y the ,oice H,achahI D. D% #resent to the ighty #rotector a ental #roduction9 a new utterance HnowI s#ringing u# D. D :ay the new #rayer i #el thee9 the heroic9 well@accounted9 the loud@thundering to succour us.D D % seek life9 the ancients9 to sti ulate thee the ancients9 with a new hy n.D D :ay the new hy ns ade to #raise you9 ay these #rayers gratify you.D D (ing9 O (o+hari9 with a new hy n to these youthful9 ,igorous9 and +rilliant HgodsI.D D %ndra9 slayer of Vrittra9 thunderer9 in,oked of any9 we HthyI nu erous Hworshi##ersI +ring to thee9 as thy hire9 hy ns which ne,er +efore e"isted.D D% will address to this ancient HdeityI y new #raised9 which he desiresC ay he listen to us.D D Aesiring horses9 cattle and wealth9 we in,oke thee to a##roach us.D 6i,en this a+undance of e,idence to #ro,e the hu an origin of the Vedas it is a riddle to find that the Brah ins should so strenuously #ro#agate so e"tra,agent ,iew that the Vedas are of su#ernatural origin. *hat ade the Brah ins #ro#agate such a ,iew. %ll *hat is the authority of the Vedas . *ith regard to this there #re,ail two distinct dog as a ongst the Hindus. The first is that the Vedas are eternal. (to##ing to e"a ine this dog a the -uestion is what 7ustification is there for such a ,iew. %f the Hindus +elie,ed that the Vedas were the ost ancient works in the world no one can ha,e any -uarrel with the . But there is nothing to 7ustify the e"traordinary #ro#osition that they are eternal in the sense that they had no +eginning in ti e. Once it is esta+lished that the Rishis are the akers of the Vedas it needs no additional #roof to esta+lish that the Vedas ha,e a +eginning in ti e which ust coincide with the e"istence of the Rishis. 6i,en that the Rishis are the authors of the Vedas the dog a as to their eternal character is an a+surdity. The dog a is sought to +e sustained +y a series of reasoning which is no less a+surd. %n the first #lace let it +e noted that this dog a does not rest on the ground that the Vedas are created +y 6od. That was the ,iew of one school of #hiloso#hers called Naiyayiks. But strange as it ay a##ear <ai ini the author of the 8ur,a :i ansa whose ,iews on this su+7ect ha,e +eco e the dog as of the Hindus was not #re#ared to acce#t this ground. The following -uotation fro the :i ansakas is worthy of note:

DBut Hasks the :i ansakaI how can the Veda ha,e +een uttered +y the incor#oreal 8ara es,ara H6odI9 who has no #alate or other organs of s#eech9 and therefore cannot +e concei,ed to ha,e #ronounced the letters Hof which it is co #osedI. This o+7ect Hanswers the NaiyayikaI is not ha##y9 +ecause9 though 8ara esh,ara is +y nature incor#oreal9 he can yet9 +y way of s#ort9 assu e a +ody9 in order to show kindness to his de,oted worshi##ers. &onse-uently the argu ents in fa,our of the doctrine that the Veda had no #ersonal author are inconduci,e. D % shall now Hsays the :i ansakaI clear u# all these difficulties. *hat is eant +y this 8aurusheyat,a H?deri,ation fro a #ersonal author?I which it is sought to #ro,e. %s it H1I ere #rocession fro a #erson H#urushaI like the #rocession of the Veda fro #ersons such as oursel,es9 when we daily utter it. or H2I is it the arrange ent with a ,iew to its anifestationof knowledge ac-uired +y other odes of #roof9 in the sense in which #ersons like oursel,es co #ose a treatise. %f the first eaning +e intended9 there will +e no dis#ute. %f the second sense +e eant9 % ask whether the Veda is #ro,ed Hto +e authoritati,eI in ,irtue HaI of its +eing founded on inference9 or H+I of its +eing founded on su#ernatural infor ation. The for er alternati,e HaI Hi.e. That the Veda deri,es its authority fro +eing founded on inferenceI cannot +e correct9 since this theory +reaks down9 if it +e a##lied to the sentences of the :alati :adha,a or any other secular #oe Hwhich ay contain inferences destitute of authorityI. %f9 on the other hand9 you say H+I that the contents of the Veda are distinguished fro those of other +ooks ha,ing authority9 this e"#lanation also will fail to satisfy a #hiloso#her. 5or the word of the Veda is Hdefined to +eI a word which #ro,es things that are not #ro,a+le +y any other e,idence. Now if it could +e esta+lished that this Vedic word did nothing ore than #ro,e things that are #ro,a+le +y other e,idence9 we should +e in,ol,ed in the sa e sort of contradiction as if a an were to say that his other was a +arren wo an. $nd e,en if a an were conceded that Hin that caseI he should #ercei,e things +eyond the reach of the senses9 fro the want of any eans of a##rehending o+7ects re o,ed fro hi in #lace9 in ti e9 and in nature. Nor is it to +e thought that his eyes and other senses alone would ha,e the #ower of #roducing such knowledge since en can only attain to conce#tions9 corres#onding with what they ha,e #ercei,ed. This is what has +een said +y the 6uru H8ra+hakaraI when he refutes Hthis su##osition ofI an o niscient author: ?*hene,er any o+7ect is #ercei,ed H+y the organ of sightI in its ost #erfect e"ercise9 such #erce#tion can only ha,e reference to the ,ision of so ething ,ery distant or ,ery inute9 since no organ can go +eyond its own #ro#er o+7ects9 as e.g. the ear can ne,er +eco e cogniBant of for . Hence the authority of the Veda does not arise in ,irtue of any su#ernatural infor ation Hac-uired +y the AeityI in a cor#oreal sha#e.D *hat is then the reasoning on which this dog a of the eternity of the Veda is

founded. The reasoning can +e +est a##reciated if % gi,e it in the ,ery words of <ai ini?s 8ur,a :i ansa. D %n the #receding a#horis it was declared that the connection of words and their eanings is eternal. Aesiring now to #ro,e that this Heternity of connectionI is de#endent on the eternity of words Hor soundI9 he +egins +y setting forth the first side of the -uestion9 ,iB.9 the doctrine of those who aintain that sound is not eternal.D D (o e9 i.e. the followers of the Nyaya #hiloso#hy9 say that sound is a #roduct9 +ecause we see that it is the result of effort9 which it would not +e if it were eternal.D DThat it is not eternal9 on account of its transitoriness9 i.e. +ecause after a o ent it ceases to +e #ercei,ed.D DBecause9 we e #loy in reference to it the e"#ression ? aking?9 i.e. we s#eak of ? aking ? a sound D. DBecause it is #ercei,ed +y different #ersons at once9 and is conse-uently in i ediate contact with the organs of sense of those +oth far and near9 which it could not +e if it were one and eternal D. D Because sounds ha,e +oth an original and a odified for C as e.g. in the case of dadhi atra9 which is changed into dadhya atra9 the original letter +eing altered into +y the rules of #er utation. Now9 no su+stance which undergoes a change is eternal. Because sound is aug ented +y the nu +er of those who ake it. &onse-uently the o#inion of the :i ansaka9 who say that sound is erely anifested9 and not created9 +y hu an effort9 is wrong9 since e,en a thousand anifesters do not increase the o+7ect which they anifest9 as a 7ar is not ade larger +y a thousand la #s.D These o+7ections against the :i ansaka theory that sound is anifested9 and not created9 +y those who utter it9 are answered in the following (utras: DBut9 according to +oth schools9 ,iB.9 that which holds sound to +e created9 and that which regards it as erely anifested9 the #erce#tion of it is alike o entary. But of these two ,iews9 the theory of anifestation is shown in the ne"t a#horis to +e the correct one.D The non@#erce#tion at any #articular ti e9 of sound9 which9 in reality9 #er#etually e"ists9 arises fro the fact that the utterer of sound has not co e into contact with his o+7ect9 i.e. sound. (ound is eternal9 +ecause we recognise the letter k9 for instance9 to +e the sa e sound which we ha,e always heard9 and +ecause it is the si #lest ethod of accounting for the #heno enon to su##ose that it is the sa e. The still at os#here which interferes with the #erce#tion of sound9 is re o,ed +y the con7unctions and dis7unctions of air issuing fro a s#eaker?s outh9 and thus sound Hwhich always e"ists though un#ercei,edI +eco es #erce#ti+le. This is the re#ly to the o+7ection of its ?transitoriness?.D D The word ? aking ? sounds9 erely eans i #lying or uttering the D. D One sound is si ultaneously heard +y different #ersons9 7ust as one (un is seen +y the at one and the sa e ti e. (ound9 like the (un9 is a ,ast9 and not a inute

o+7ect9 and thus ay +e #erce#ti+le +y different #ersons9 though re ote fro one another.D D The letter y9 which is su+stituted for i in the instance referred to under (utra 149 is not a odification of i9 +ut a distinct letter. &onse-uently sound is not odified.D D %t is an increase of ? noise ?9 not of sound9 that is occasioned +y a ultitude of s#eakers. The word ? noise ? refers to the ? con7unctions ? and ?dis7unctions? of the air which enter si ultaneously into the hearer?s ear fro different -uartersC and it is of these that an increase takes #lace D. D (ound ust +e eternal9 +ecause its utterance is fitted to con,ey a eaning to other #ersons. %f it were not eternal Hor a+idingI9 it would not continue till the hearer had learned its sense9 and thus he would not learn the sense9 +ecause the cause had ceased to e"ist.D D(ound is eternal9 +ecause it is in e,ery case correctly and unifor ly recogniBed +y any #ersons si ultaneouslyC and it is inconcei,a+le that they should all at once fall into a istake D. D*hen the word go HcowI has +een re#eated ten ti es9 the hearers will say that the word 6o has +een ten ti es #ronounced9 not that ten words ha,ing the sound of 6o ha,e +een utteredC and this fact also is adduced as a #roof of the eternity of sound in (utra 24D. DBecause each sound is not nu erically different fro itself re#eated. D D (ound is eternal9 +ecause we ha,e no ground for antici#ating its destruction.D D But it ay +e urged that sound is a odification of air9 since it arises fro its con7unctions9 and +ecause the (iksha Hor Vedanga treating of #ronunciationI says that ?air arri,es at the condition of sound ? and as it is thus #roduced fro air9 it cannot +e eternal D. $ re#ly to this difficulty is gi,en in (utra 22 D(ound is not a odification of air9 +ecause9 if it were9 the organ of hearing would ha,e no a##ro#riate o+7ect which it could #ercei,e. No odification of air Hheld +y the Naiyayikas to +e tangi+leI could +e #ercei,ed +y the organ of hearing9 which deals only with intangi+le soundD. D$nd the eternity of sound is esta+lished +y the argu ent disco,era+le in the ,edic te"t9 ?wilh an eternal ,oice9 O Viru#a?. Now9 though this sentence had another o+7ect in ,iew9 it9 ne,ertheless9 declares the eternity of language9 and hence sound is eternalD. Reduced to si #le syllogis the sound is eternal9 the words of the Vedas are sound9 therefore words of the Vedas are eternal. $+surdity in reasoning cannot go further. The riddle is why did the Brah ins #ro#ound this doctrine of the eternity of the Vedas. *hy did the Brah ins ado#t such an a+surd reasoning in su##ort of their doctrine. *hy did the Brah ins refuse to acce#t the ,iew that the Vedas were the word of 6od. The second dog a relating to the authority of the Vedas is that they are not only

sacred +ut they are also infalli+le. %t is difficult to understand why the Brah ins endea,oured to in,est the Vedas with infalli+ility. There is no law in the Vedas in the strict sense of the ter law. The Vedas do not #reach Ahar a in the sense of orality. The three following e"tracts fro the Vedas can hardly +e said to +e consonant with orality. DHJa i s#eaksI. % in,ite y friend to friendshi#9 ha,ing co e o?er the ,ast and desert ocean9 ay Vedhas9 after reflecting9 #lace in the earth the offs#ring Hof theeI the father9 endowed with e"cellent -ualities D. DHJa a s#eaksI. Thy friend desires not this friendshi#9 for although of one origin9 she is of a different for C the hero sons of the great $sura HareI the u#holders of hea,en en7oying ,ast renown.D DHJa i s#eaksI. The i ortals take #leasure in Ha unionI like this which is for+idden to e,ery ortalC let thy ind then concur with ine9 and as the #rogenitor Hof allI was the hus+and Hof his daughterI9 do thou en7oy y #erson D DHJa a@s#eaksI. *e ha,e not done what was done for erlyC for how can we who s#eak truth9 utter now that which is untrue. 6andhar,a Hthe (unI was in the watery Hfir a entI9 and the water was his +ride. (he is our co on #arent9 hence our near affinity.D DHJa i s#eaksI. The di,ine o nifor generator Twashtri9 the #rogenitor9 ade us two9 hus+and and wife9 e,en in the wo +C none frustrate his undertakingC earth and hea,en are conscious of this our HunionI.D DHJa a s#eaksI. *ho knows anything of this HhisI first day Hof e"istenceI. *ho has +eheld it. *ho has here re,ealed it. The dwelling of :itra and of Varuna is ,ast. *hat saysest thou9 who #unishest en with hell.D DHJa i s#eaksI. The desire of Ja a hath a##roached e Ja i9 to lie with hi in the sa e +edC % will a+andon y #erson as a wife to her hus+andC let us e"ert oursel,es in union like the two wheels of a waggon.D DHJa a s#eaksI. The s#ies of the 6ods9 which wander u#on earth9 ne,er sto#9 ne,er close their eyes. $ssociate -uickly9 destructress9 with so e other than with e9 and e"ert yoursel,es in union9 like the two wheels of a waggon.? DHJa i s#eaksI. To hi HJa aI let e,ery worshi##er sacrifice +oth day and night9 on hi let the eye of the (un re#eatedly riseC Hfor hi ayI the kindred #air Hday and night uniteI with hea,en and earth. Ja i will adhere to the non@affinity of Ja aD. D HJa a s#eaksI. The su+se-uent ages will co e9 when sisters will choose one who is not a +rother Has a hus+andIC therefore9 aus#icious one9 choose another hus+and that e9 and ake thine ar a #illow for thy ate.D DHJa i s#eaksI. %s he a +rother whose sister has no lord. %s she a sister Hwhose +rotherI isfortune a##roaches . O,erco e +y desire9 % strongly urge this one re-uestC unite thy #erson with ine.D

DHJa a s#eaksI. % will not unite y #erson with thineC they call hi who a##roaches a sister9 a sinner. !n7oy #leasure with so e other than eC thy +rother9 aus#icious one9 has no such desire.D DHJa i s#eaksI. $las9 Ja a9 thou art fee+leC we understand not thy ind or thy heart. (o e other fe ale e +races thee as a girth a horse9 or as a cree#er a tree.D DHJa a s#eaksI. Ao thou9 Ja i9 e +race anotherC and let another e +race thee as a cree#er a treeC seek his affection9 let hi seek thineC and ake a ha##y unionD. D:ay $gni9 the destroyer of the Rakshasas consenting to our #rayer9 dri,e hence Hthe e,il s#iritI who Hin the for of I sickness assails thine e +ryo9 who9 as the disease durna an9 assails thy wo +.D D :ay $gni9 concurring in our #rayer9 destroy the canni+al who is sickness9 assails thine e +ryo9 who as the disease durna an9 assails thy wo +.D D :ay we e"ter inate fro hence Hthe e,il s#iritI who destroys the i #regnating energy9 the ger as it settles9 the o,ing e +ryo9 who seeks to destroy Hthe +a+eI when +orn.D D:ay we e"ter inate fro hence Hthe e,il s#iritI who se#arate thy thighs9 who lies +etween hus+and and wife9 who9 entering thy. wo +9 de,ours Hthe seedI.D D :ay we e"ter inate fro hence Hthe e,il s#iritI9 who in the for of +rother9 hus+and9 or #ara our9 a##roaches thee9 and seeks to destroy thy offs#ring.D D :ay we e"ter inate fro hence Hthe e,il s#iritI who9 ha,ing +eguiled thee +y slee# or darkness9 a##roaches thee9 and seeks to destroy thy offs#ring.D The Vedas contain two things. %n the first #lace they contain the ho#es and wishes of the $ryans as e"#ressed +y the Rishis. $s o+ser,ed +y :r. :uir: DThe whole character of these co #ositions9 and the circu stances under which9 fro internal e,idence9 they a##ear to ha,e arisen9 are in har ony with the su##osition that they were nothing ore than the natural e"#ression of the #ersonal ho#es and feelings of those ancient +ards +y who they were first recited. %n these songs the $ryan sages cele+rated the #raises of their ancestral gods Hwhile at the sa e ti e they sought to conciliate their goodwill +y a ,ariety of o+lations su##osed to +e acce#ta+le to the I9 and +esought of the all the +lessings which en in general desire health9 wealth9 long life9 cattle9 offs#ring9 ,ictory o,er their ene ies9 forgi,eness of sin9 and in so e cases also celestial felicity.D This is also the ,iew of Jaska the author of Nirukta who says: H4f the four kinds of ,erses s#ecified in the #receding sectionI HaI those which address a god as a+sent9 H+I those which address hi as #resent9 and HcI those which address the worshi##ers as #resent and the god as a+sent9 are the ost nu erous9 while those HdI which refer to the s#eaker hi self are rare. %t ha##ens also that a god is #raised without any +lessing +eing in,oked9 as in the hy n HR. V. i. '2I. ? % declare the heroic deeds of %ndra ?9 etc. $gain +lessings are in,oked without any #raise +eing offered9 as in the words9 ?:ay % see well with y eyes9 +e

res#lendent in y face9 and hear well with y ears ?. This fre-uently occurs in the $dh,arya,a HJa7urI9 and in the sacrificial for ula. Then again we find oaths and curses as in the words HR. V. ,ii. 14)9 1/I9 ?:ay % die to@day9 if % a a Jatudhana9? etc. 5urther9 we o+ser,e the desire to descri+e so e #articular state of things9 as in the ,erse HR. V. ". 1239 2I9 ? Aeath was not then9 nor i ortality9? etc. Then there is la entation9 arising out of a certain state of things9 as in the ,erse HR9 V. ". 3/9 1)I9 ?The +eautiful god will disa##ear and ne,er return9 ? etc. $gain9 we ha,e +la e and #raise9 as in the words HR. V. ". 11190I9 ?The an who eats alone9 sins alone9 etc. (o9 too9 in the hy n to dice HR. V. ". ')9 1'I there is a censure u#on dice9 and a co endation of agriculture. Thus the o+7ects for which the hy ns were seen +y the rishis were ,ery ,arious.D The deity is the cure of 8hthisisC the Rishi is Vi,rihan9 the son of =asya#aC the etre is $nushtu+h. 1. % +anish disease fro thine eyes9 fro thy head9 fro thy nose9 fro thy ears9 fro thy chin9 fro thy +rain9 fro thy tongue. 2. % +anish disease fro thy neck9 fro thy sinews9 fro thy +ones9 fro thy 7oints9 fro thy u##er ar s9 fro thy shoulders9 and fro thy fore@ar s. '. % +anish disease fro thine entrails9 fro thy anus9 fro thine a+do en9 and fro thy heart9 fro thy kidneys9 fro thy li,er9 fro thy Hother ,isceraI. ). % +anish disease fro thy thighs9 fro thy knees9 fro thy heels9 fro thy toes9 fro thy loins9 fro thy +uttocks9 fro thy #ri,ate #arts. /. % +anish disease fro @thy urethra9 fro thy +ladder9 fro thy hair9 fro thy nails9 fro thy whole #erson. 0. % +anish disease fro each li +9 fro each hair9 fro each 7oint where it is generated9 fro thy whole #erson. $s 8rof. *ilson o+ser,es there is in the Rig@Veda Hwhich is the stock VedaI scarcely any indication of doctrinal or #hiloso#hical s#eculation9 no allusion to the later notions of the se,eral schools9 nor is there any hint of ete #sychosis9 or of the doctrine inti ately allied to it9 of the re#eated reno,ation of the world. The Vedas ay +e useful as a source of infor ation regarding the social life of the $ryans. $s a #icture of #ri iti,e life it is full of curiosity +ut there is nothing ele,ating. There are ore ,ices and a few ,irtues. 6i,en the nature and su+stance of the contents of the Vedas it is a riddle why the Brah ins clai ed infalli+ility for such su#erstitious writings as the Vedas. There would ha,e +een so e 7ustification for this doctrine of infalli+ility if the Rishis who ade the hy ns had clai ed it for the sel,es. But it is -uite clear that the Rishis ha,e ade no such #retentious. On the contrary they ha,e occasionally confessed their ignorance of atters in which they had interest and curiosity. &o #are the following utterances of the Rishis as gi,en in the Rig@Veda: D %gnorant9 not knowing in y ind9 % en-uire after these hidden a+odes of the

godsC the sages ha,e stretched out se,en threads for a hoof o,er the yearling calf Hor o,er the sun9 the a+ode of all thingsI. 0. Not co #rehending9 % ask those sages who co #rehend this atterC unknowing H% askI that % ay knowC what is the one thing9 in the for of the uncreated one9 who has u#held these si" worlds . '1. % do not recogniBe if % a like thisC % go on #er#le"ed and +ound in ind. *hen the first +orn sons of sacrifice Hor truthI co e to e9 then % en7oy a share of that word.D D *hat was the forest9 what the tree9 out of which they fashioned hea,en and earth9 which continue to e"ist undecaying9 whilst days9 and any dawns ha,e #assed away. D *hich of these two HHea,en and !arthI is the first . *hich is the last. How were they #roduced. *ho9 o sages9 knows.D D How any fires are there . How any suns . how any dawns . How any waters . % do not9 fathers9 say this to you in 7estC % really ask you9 sages9 in order that % ay know D /. D There ray Hor cordI9 o+li-uely e"tended9 was it +elow9 or was it a+o,e. There were generati,e sources9 and there were great #owers9 s,adha Ha self@su##orting #rinci#leI +elow9 and effort a+o,e. 0. *ho knows9 who hath here declared9 whence this creation was #roduced9 whence Hit ca eI . The gods were su+se-uent to the creation of this uni,erseC who then knows whence it s#rang. 1. *hen this creation s#rang9 whether any one for ed it or not9 he who9 in the highest hea,ens9 is the o,erseer of this uni,erse9 he indeed knows or he does not know.D There are other #oints with regard to this dog a of infalli+ility which are noteworthy. %V The first #oint is9 is this dog a original or is this a new contention raised at so eti e later in the history of %ndia. The general ,iew is that it is the original doctrine. $ reference to the Ahar a (utras which are the earliest law +ooks which deal with this su+7ect go to show that this is not a correct ,iew. The 6auta a Ahar a (utra lays down the following rule on the -uestion of the infalli+ility of the ,edas. DThe Veda is the source of the sacred lawD. %.%. D $nd the tradition and #ractice of those who know the HVedaI D 1.2. D%f HauthoritiesI of e-ual force are conflicting Heither ay +e followed atI #leasureD 1.). The Vashishta Ahar a (urta #ro#ounds the following ,iew: DThe (acred law has +een settled +y the re,ealed te"ts and +y the tradition of the sages D 1.). D On the failure of Hrules gi,en inI these Htwo sourcesI the #ractice of (histas has authority.D %.s. DHe whose heart is free fro desire His calledI a shistaD 1.0. The ,iews of Baudhayana are gi,en +elow: 8rasna 19 $dhyaya 19 =andika 1.

1. The sacred law is taught in each Veda. 2. *e will e"#lain HitI in accordance with that. '. HThe sacred lawI9 taught in the Tradition H( riti9 standsI second. ). The #ractice of the (ishtas HstandsI third. /. (ishtas9 forsooth9 Hare thoseI who are free fro en,y9 free fro #ride9 contented with a store of grain sufficient for ten days9 free fro co,etousness9 and free fro hy#ocrisy9 arrogance9 greed9 #er#le"ity9 and anger. 0. ? HThose are calledI (ishtas who9 in accordance with the sacred law9 ha,e studied the Veda together with its a##endages9 know how to draw references fro that9 HandI are a+o,e to adduce #roofs #erce#ti+le +y the senses fro the re,ealed te"ts?. 1. On failure of the 9 an asse +ly consisting at least of ten e +ers Hshall decide dis#uted #oints of lawI. 2. Now they -uote also Hthe following ,ersesI: ? 5our en9 who each know one of the four Vedas9 a :i ansaka9 one who knows the $ngas9 one who recites Hthe works onI the sacred law9 and three +raha anas +elonging to Hthree differentI order9 HconstituteI an asse +ly consisting9 at least of ten e +ers?. 3. ? There ay +e fi,e9 or there ay +e three9 or there ay +e one +la eless an9 who decides H-uestions regardingI the sacred law. But a thousand fools HcanI not Hdo itI. ? 14. ?$s an ele#hant ade of wood9 as an antelo#e ade of leather9 such an unlearned Brah anaC those three ha,ing nothing +ut the na e Hof their kindI?. The ,iew taken +y the $#asta +a Ahar a (utra is clear fro the following e"tract fro that (utra: DNow9 therefore9 we will declare the acts #roducti,e of erit which for #art of the custo s of daily lifeD 1. 1. DThe authority Hfor these dutiesI is the agree ent Hsa ayaI of these who know the lawD. 1. 2. D$nd Hthe authorities for the latter areI the Vedas aloneD. 1. '. $ re,iew of the Ahar a (utras show how this dog a of the infalli+ility of the Veda is a historical #roduct. %t shows that the H1I Veda9 H2I Tradition H( ritiI9 H'I 8ractice of (ishta and H)I $gree ent in an $sse +ly were the four different authorities a+out which the contro,ersy as to which of these should +e regarded as infalli+le. %t also shows that there was a ti e when the Vedas were not the sole infalli+le authorities. That was the ti e re#resented +y the Ahar a (utras of Vasistha and Baudhayana. %t is only in the ti e of 6auta a that the Vedas ca e to +e regarded as the only authority. There was a ti e when an agreed decision of the $sse +ly was ad itted as one source of authority. That is the #eriod re#resented +y Baudhayana. >astly the re,iew shows that there was a ti e when the Veda was not at all regarded as a +ook of authority and when the only recogniBed source of authority was an agree ent arri,ed at in an asse +ly of the

learned. That is the #eriod when $#asta +aFf2G wrote his Ahar a (utras i.e. so ewhere +etween 044 and 244 B.&. Ff3G %t is thus o+,ious that there was a deli+erate atte #t to in,est the Vedas with an infalli+le authority which they did not at one ti e #ossess and the -uestion is what were the circu stances and the oti,es which led the Brah ins to #ro#agate the sole and final authority of the Vedas. The second #oint connected with this su+7ect of infalli+ility of the Vedas relates to the discri ination ade +y the Brah ins in li iting the ,irtue of infalli+ility to certain Vedic writings only and not e"tending it to the whole range of the . To understand this #oint it is necessary to know what is eant +y the #hrase Vedic literature. The #hrase Vedic literature can +e used in two senses. %n its li ited sense it includes H1I The (a hita9 H2I The Brah anas9 H'I $ranyakas9 H)I K#anishads and H/I (utras. *hen used in an e"tended sense it includes two other heads H0I %tihasas and H1I 8uranas. The first thing to note is that there was a ti e when all these writings were classed in the sa e category9 and no distinction was ade +etween the on the +asis of re,ealed and #rofane or on the +asis of su#ernatural and hu an or on the +asis of authoritati,e and non@authoritati,e. This is clear fro the ,iew e"#ressed in the (ata#atha Brah ana which says: DThis :ale9 8ra7a#ati9 desired9 ?:ay % ulti#ly9 ay % +e #ro#agated.? He toiled in de,otionC he #ractised austere@fer,our. Ha,ing done. so he first of all created sacred knowledge the tri#le Vedic science. This +eca e a +asis for hi . *herefore en say9 sacred knowledge is the +asis of this uni,erse.? Hence after studying the ,eda a an has a standing groundC for sacred knowledge is his foundation. Resting on this +asis he H8ra7a#atiI #ractised austere@fer,our. H3I He created the waters fro Vach Hs#eechI as their world. Vach was his: (he was created. (he #er,aded all this whate,er e"ists. $s she #er,aded Ha#notI waters were called Da#ah D. $s she co,ered Ha,rinotI all9 water was called ?,ar?. H14I He desired9 :ay % +e #ro#agated fro these waters. $long with this tri#le Vedic science he entered the waters. Thence s#rang an egg. He ga,e it an i #ulseC and said9 D>et there +e9 let there +e9 let there +e again.? Thence was first created sacred knowledge9 the tri#le Vedic science. *herefore en9 say9 ?(acred knowledge is the first@+orn thing in this uni,erse. :oreo,er9 it was sacred knowledge which was created fro that :ale in front9 wherefore it was created as his outh. Hence they say of a an learned in the Veda9 ? He is like $gniC for sacred knowledge is $gni?s :outh ?. D D $s fro a fire ade of oist wood ,arious odifications of s oke #roceed9 so is the +reathing of this great +eing. The Rig@Veda9 the Ja7ur@,eda9 the (a a@,eda9 the $thar,an@girases9 the %tihasas9 8uranas9 science9 the K#anishads9 ,erses HslokasI9 a#hori s9 co ents of different kindsall these are his +reathings.D But when the Brah ans sought to esta+lish their dog a of infalli+ility they ade a

distinction and di,ided the Vedic writings in two classes H1I (hruti and H2I Non@ (hruti. %n the first di,ision they #laced only two of the H1I (anhitas and H2I the Brah anas and in,ested the with infalli+ility. The rest they declared as non@(hruti therefore of no authority. *hen this distinction9 was first ade it is not #ossi+le to say. One can well understand why the last two categories were e"cluded fro the (hruti #art di,ision of the Vedic literature. They were too ele entary and too unde,elo#ed and in all #ro+a+ility included in the Brah anas. One can well understand why the $ranyakas are not s#ecifically entioned as a #art of the (hruti. They are #art of the (hruti and ust +e for the si #le reason that they are a #art of the Brah anas. The #osition of the K#anishads is not clear. But if they are not included in the (hruti one can well understand why they were e"cluded. But the case of the (utras stands on a different footing. They are definitely e"cluded fro the category of (hruti and for reasons which it is not #ossi+le to co #rehend. %f there were good reasons for including the Brah anas in the category of (hruti the sa e reasons could not fail to 7ustify the inclusion of the (utras. $s 8rof. :a" :uller o+ser,es: D*e can understand how a nation ight +e led to ascri+e a su#erhu an origin to their ancient national #oetry9 #articularly if that #oetry consisted chiefly of #rayers and hy ns addressed to their gods. But it is different with the #rose co #ositions of the Braha anas. The reason why the Brah anas9 which are e,idently so uch ore odern than the :antras9 were allowed to #artici#ate in the na e of (ruti9 could only ha,e +een +ecause it was fro these theological co #ositions9 and not fro the si #le old #oetry of the hy ns9 that a su##osed di,ine authority could +e deri,ed for the greater nu +er of the a +itious clai s of the Brah ans. But9 although we need not ascri+e any weight to the argu ents +y which the Brah ans endea,oured to esta+lish the conte #oraneous origin of the :antras and Brah anas there see s to +e no reason why we should re7ect as e-ually worthless the general o#inion with regard to the ore ancient date of +oth the Brah anas and :antras9 if contrasted with the (utras and the #rofane literature of %ndia. %t ay easily ha##en9 where there is a cannon of sacred +ooks9 that later co #ositions +eco e incor#orated together with ore ancient works9 as was the case with the Brah anas. But we can hardly i agine that old and genuine #arts should e,er ha,e +een e"cluded fro a +ody of sacred writings9 and a ore odern date ascri+ed to the 9 unless it +e in the interest of a #arty to deny the authority of certain doctrines contained in these re7ected docu ents. There is nothing in the later literature of the (utras to warrant a su##osition of this kind. *e can find no reason why the (utras should not ha,e +een ranked as (ruti9 e"ce#t the lateness of their date9 if co #ared with the Brah anas9 and still ore with the :antras. *hether the Brah anas the sel,es were aware that ages ust ha,e ela#sed +etween the #eriod during which ost of the #oe s of their rishis were co #osed9 and the ti es which ga,e

rise to the Brah anas9 is a -uestion which we need hardly hesitate to answer in the affir ati,e. But the recklessness with which %ndian theologians clai for these Brah anas the sa e title and the sa e age as for the :antras9 shows that the reasons ust ha,e +een #eculiarly strong which deterred the fro clai ing the sa e di,ine authority for the (utras.D The third #oint relates to the changes that took #lace in the sco#e of the ter (hruti and in their infalli+ility. :anu e"cludesFf14G the D Braha anas D fro the category of (hruti as ay +e seen fro the following e"tract fro his ( riti: D By (ruti is eant the Veda9 and +y ( riti the institutes of lawC the contents of these are not to +e -uestioned +y reason9 since fro the Ha knowledge ofI duty has shown forth. The Brah an who9 relying on rationalistic treatises9 shall conte n these two #ri ary sources of knowledge ust +e e"co unicated +y the ,irtuous as a sce#tic and re,iler of the Vedas.. . . . 1'. To those who are seeking a knowledge of duty9 the (ruti is the su#re e authority.D The fourth #oint relates to the clai #ut forth in the 8uranas for #recedence o,er the Vedas in the order of creation. The Vayu 8urana saysFf11G: D5irst of all the (hastras9 the 8urana was uttered +y Brah a. (u+se-uently the ,edas issued fro his outhD. The :atsya 8urana not only clai s #riority of creation for the 8uranas as against the Vedas9 +ut also the -ualities of eternity and identity with sound9 which was once #redicated of the Vedas alone. %t saysFf12G: D 8ita aha HBrah aI9 first of all the i ortals9 took sha#eC then the Vedas with their $ngas and K#angas Ha##endages and inor a##endagesI9 and the ,arious odes of their te"tual arrange ent9 were anifested. H'I The 8urana9 eternal9 for ed of sound9 #ure9 e"tending to the length of a hundred crores of ,erses9 was the first of the (astras which Brah a utteredC and afterwards the Vedas9 issued fro his outhC and also the :i ansa and the Nyaya with its eightfold syste of #roofs. H/I 5ro hi HBrah aI9 who was de,oted to the study of the Vedas9 and desirous of offs#ring9 s#rang ind@+orn sons9 so called +ecause they were at first created +y his ind.D The Bhagwat 8urana clai s e-uality of authority with the Vedas. %t says: D HBra haratraI declared the 8urana called the Bhaga,ata9 which stands on an e-uality with the Veda.D The Brah a@Vai,artta 8urana has the audacity to clai su#eriority o,er the Vedas. %t says: DThat a+out which ,enera+le sage9 you ha,e in-uired9 and which you desire9 is all known to e9 the essence of the 8uranas9 the #ree inent Brah a@Vai,arta9 which refutes the errors of the 8uranas and K#a#uranas9 and the Vedas.D This sur,ey discloses a nu +er of riddles in regard to the Vedas. %n addition to the three riddles na ely why did the Brah ins insist that the Vedas were eternally #re@ e"isting9 that they were non@ an9 non@6od ade9 that they were infalli+le. There are

other riddles regarding the Vedas which are e-ually #uBBlingThe Vedas at one ti e did not ha,e any #recedence or infalli+ility. *hy did the Brah ins feel it necessary to gi,e the Vedas this infalli+ility9 why did the Brah ins e"clude the (utras fro the ter (ruti and why did the Brah ins gi,e u# the infalli+ility of the Vedas and sought to gi,e infalli+ility to the 8uranas.

APPENDIX II THE RIDDLE O THE %EDANTA Of the si" schools of #hiloso#hy which were e"#ounded +y the ancient #hiloso#hers of %ndia the ost fa ous is of course the Vedanta #hiloso#hy. Not only has it the na e +ut it has also a hold on the Hindus which none of its ri,als has e,er had. !,ery follower of the Vedas is #roud of the Vedanta. He not only owns it +ut regards it as the ost ,alua+le contri+ution which %ndia has ade to the #hiloso#hic thought of the world. He regards Vedanta #hiloso#hy as e +odying the end or ai of the teachings of the Vedas9 a sort of cul ination or flowering of the teachings of the Veda. He ne,er sus#ects that there was any ti e in the history of %ndia when the Vedanta 8hiloso#hy was regarded as re#ugnant and hostile to the Vedas. He would ne,er +elie,e that there was a ti e when the word Vedanta had a totally different eaning than the eaning which is now current and according to which the word Vedanta far fro +eing used in the sense of cul ination of Vedic thought was used to designate a +ody of thought contained in a +ody which was outside the range of the cannonical #art of the Vedic literature. Jet that was in fact the case. %t is true that this re#ugnance +etween the Vedas and the Vedanta does not +eco e anifest fro the word K#anishad which is the generic na e of the literature on which the Vedanta #hiloso#hy ca e to +e +uilt u# and a+out the ety ology of which there is a considera+le difference of o#inion. :ost !uro#ean scholars are agreed in deri,ing K#anishad fro the root sad9 to sit down9 #receded +y the two #re#ositions ni9 down9 and u#a9 near9 so that it would e"#ress the idea of session9 or asse +ly of #u+lic sitting down near a #erson. $s 8rof. :a" :uller #oints out there are two o+7ections to the acce#tance of this deri,ation. 5irstly such a word9 it would see 9 would ha,e +een a##lica+le to any other This is a 21@#age ty#ed first co#y entitled ? The Riddle of the Vedanta : The cha#ter see s co #lete and does not contain any odofications +y the author.!d. #ortion of the Veda as well as to the cha#ters called K#anishad9 and it has ne,er +een e"#lained how its eaning ca e thus to +e restricted. (econdly the word K#anishad9 in the sense of session or asse +ly has ne,er +een et with. *hene,er

the word occurs9 it has the eaning of doctrine9 secret doctrine9 or is si #ly used as the title of the #hiloso#hic treatises which contains the secret doctrine. There is a third e"#lanation noted +y 8rof. :a" :uller #ro#osed +y (ankara in his co entary on the Taittiriya@K#anishad %%9 39 is that the highest +liss is contained in the K#anishad H#ara sreyo?sya nishanna I. Regarding this 8rof. :a"@:uller says: DThe $ranyakas a+ound in such ety ologies9 which #ro+a+ly were ne,er intended as real as #lays on words9 hel#ing to account so ehow for their eaning.D 8rof. :a" :uller howe,er fa,ours a deri,ation of the word K#anishad fro the root sad to destroy and eant knowledge which destroys ignorance9 the cause of (a sara9 +y re,ealing the knowledge of Brah a as a eans of sal,ation. 8rof. :a" :uller #oints out that this is the eaning which the nati,e scholars ha,e unani ously gi,en to the word K#anishad. %f it +e granted that this is the true deri,ation of the word K#anishad it would +e one #iece of e,idence in su##ort of the thesis that there was a ti e in the history of %ndia when Vedanta was regarded as a syste of thought which was re#ugnant to the Vedas. But it is not necessary to de#end u#on the hel# of ety ology to su##ort the thesis. There are other e,idences +etter and ore direct. %n the first #lace the word Vedanta was ne,er used to denote D the last +ooks of the Vedas D which they are. $s o+ser,ed +y 8rof. :a" :ullerFf1'G: DVedanta as a technical ter 9 did not ean originally the last #ortions of the Veda9 or cha#ters #laced9 as it were9 at the end of a ,olu e of Vedic literature9 +ut the end9 i.e. the o+7ect9 the highest #ur#ose of the Veda. There are9 of course9 #assages9 like the one in the Taittirya@$ranyaka Hed. Ra7endra :itra #. 224I9 which ha,e +een isunderstood +oth +y nati,e and !uro#ean scholars9 and where Vedanta eans si #ly the end of the Veda: yo ,edadu s,arah #rokto ,edante ka #ratishthitah9 ? the 4 which is #ronounced at the +eginning of the Veda9 and has its #lace also at the end of the VedaD. Here Vedanta stands si #ly in o##osition to Vadadu9 it is i #ossi+le to translate it9 as (ayana does9 +y Vedanta or K#anishad. Vedanta9 in the sense of #hiloso#hy9 occurs in the Taittiriya@$ranyaka H#. 211I9 in a ,erse of the Narayania@K#anishad9 re#eated in the :undak@K#anishad %%%9 29 0 and elsewhere Vedanta,ignansuniskitarhah9 ?those who ha,e well understood the o+7ect of the knowledge arising fro the Vedanta9 ?9 not ?fro the last +ooks of the Veda?9 and (,etas,atara@u#. V%9 229 ,edante #ara a guhya 9 ? the highest ystery in the Vedanta ?. $fterwards it is used in the #lural also9 e.g.=shuriko#anishad9 14 H+i+l. %nd. #. 214I #undariketi ,edanteshu nigadyate9 ?it is called #undarika in the Vedantas ?9 i.e. in Hhe =handogya and other K#anishads9 as the co entator says9 +ut not in the last +ooks of each Veda.D :ore direct e,idence on the #oint is that which is contained in the 6auta a Ahar a (utras. %n &ha#ter N%N ,erse 12 s#eaks of #urification and says Ff1)G: DThe #urificatory Hte"ts areI9 the K#anishads9 the Vedantas9 the (a hita te"t of all

the VedasD and so on. 5ro this it is clear that at the date of 6auta a the K#anishads were distinguished fro Vedantas and were not acknowledged as a #art of the Vedic literature. Hardatta in his co entaries says Dthose #arts of the $ranyakas which are not HK#anishadsI are called Vedantas D. This is uni #eacha+le #roof that the K#anishads did not co e within the range of the Vedic literature and were outside the cannon. This ,iew is also su##orted +y the use of the Veda in the Bhagwat 6ita. The word Veda is used in the Bhagwat 6ita at se,eral #laces. $nd according to :r. Bhat2 the word is used in a sense which shows that the author did not include the K#anishads in the ter . That the K#anishads were e"cluded fro the cannonical literature of the Vedas is #ro,ided +y the o##osition of the K#anishads to the ,iews #reached in the Vedas that the religious o+ser,ances and sacrifices were the only eans of sal,ation. $ few citation fro so e of the K#anishadas will suffice to show their o##osition to the Vedas. The :undaka K#anishad says: D Brah a was #roduced the first a ong the gods9 aker of the uni,erse9 the #reser,er of the world. He re,ealed to his eldest son $thar,a9 the science of Brah a9 the +asis of all knowledge. H2I $thar,an of old declared to $ngis this science9 which Brah a had unfolded to hi C and $ngis9 in turn9 e"#lained it to (atya,aha9 descendent of Bharad,a7a9 who deli,ered this traditional lore9 in succession9 to $ngiras. H'I :ahasala (aunaka9 a##roaching $ngiras with the #ro#er for alities9 in-uired9 ?*hat is that9 4 ,enera+le sage9 through the knowledge of which all this Huni,erseI +eco es known.? H)I H$ngirasI answered9 ?Two sciences are to +e known this is what the sages ,ersed in sacred knowledge declaredthe su#erior and the inferior. H/I The inferior Hconsists ofI the Rig@,eda the Ja7ur@,eda9 the (a a@,eda9 the $thar,a@,eda9 accentuation9 ritual9 gra ar9 co entary9 #rosody9 and astrono y. The su#erior science is that +y which the i #erisha+le is a##rehended.D The &hhandoyaga K#anishad says: DH1I Narada a##roached (anatku ara9 saying9 ?%nstruct e9 ,enera+le sage?. He recei,ed for answer9 ?$##roach e with Htell eI that which thou knowestC and % will declare to thee whate,er ore is to +e learnt.? H2I Narada re#lied9 ? % a instructed9 ,enera+le sage9 in the Rig@,eda9 the (a a@Veda9 the Ja7ur@,eda9 the $thar,a@,eda Hwhich isI the fourth9 the %tihasas and 8uranas Hwhich areI the fifth Veda of the Vedas9 the rites of the #itris9 arith etic9 the knowledge of #ortents9 and of great #eriods9 the art of reasoning9 ethics9 the science of the gods9 the knowledge of scri#ture9 de onology9 the science of war9 the knowledge of the stars9 the science of ser#ents and deitiesC this is what % ha,e studied. H'I %9 ,enera+le an9 know only the hy ns H antrasI9 while % a ignorant of soul. But % ha,e heard fro re,erend sages like thyself that ? the an who is ac-uainted with soul o,er#asses grief. Now9 %

,enera+le an9 a afflictedC +ut do thou trans#ort e o,er y grief. (anatku ara answered9 ?That which thou hast studied is nothing +ut na e. H)I The Rig@,eda is na eC and so are the Ja7ur@,eda9 the (a a@,eda9 the $thar,ana9 which is the fourth and the %tihasas and 8uranas9 the fifth Veda of the Vedas9 etc. Hall the other +ranches of knowledge are here enu erated 7ust as a+o,eI9 all these are +ut na esC worshi# na e. H/I He who worshi#s na e Hwith the #ersuasion that it isI Brah a9 ranges as it were at will o,er all which that na e co #rehendsCsuch is the #rerogati,e of hi who worshi#s na e Hwith the #ersuation that it isI Brah a9 %s there anything ,enera+le an? asked Narada9 ?*hich is ore than na e.?9 ?There is9? re#lied H(anatku araI9 ?so ething which is ore than na e?. ?Tell it to e?9 re7oined Narada.D The Brahadarnyaka K#anishad says: D%n that Hcondition of #rofound slu +er9I a father is no father9 a other is no other9 the words are no words9 the gods are no gods9 and the Vedas are no Vedas9 sacrifices are no sacrifices. %n that condition a thief is no thief9 a urderer of e +ryos is no urderer of e +ryos9 a 8aulakasa no 8aulakasa9 a &handala no &handala9 a (ra ana no (ra ana9 a de,otee no de,oteeC the saint has then no relation9 either of ad,antage or disad,antage9 to erit or to sinC for he then crosses o,er all griefs of the heart.D This is what the =atha K#anishad has to say: DThis soul is not to +e attained +y instruction9 nor +y understanding9 nor +y uch scri#ture. He is attaina+le +y hi who he chooses. The soul chooses that an?s +ody as his own a+ode D. D$lthough this soul is difficult to know9 still it ay easily +e known +y the use of #ro#er eans. This is what Hthe authorI #roceeds to say. This soul is not to +e attained9 known +y instruction9 +y the acknowledge ent of any VedasC nor +y understanding9 +y the #ower of recollecting the contents of +ooksC nor +y uch scri#ture alone. By what9 then9 is it to +e attained. This he declares D. How great was the re#ugnance to the K#anishadas and the #hiloso#hy contained in the will +e realiBed if one takes note of the origin of the words $nulo a and 8ratilo a which are usually a##lied to the arriage tie a ong the Hindus. (#eaking of their origin :r. =ane #oints out that Ff1/G: DThese two words $nulo a and 8ratilo a Has a##lied to arriage or #rogenyI hardly e,er occur in the Vedic literature. %n the Br. K#. H%%. 1.1/I and =ausitaki Br. K#. %V. 12 the word ? 8ratilo a ? is a##lied to the #rocedure ado#ted +y a Brah ana of going to a =shatriya for knowledge a+out D Brah an D. $nulo a eans according to the heir that is in the natural order of things. 8ratilo a eans against the heir that is contrary to the natural order. Reading the o+ser,ations of :r. =ane in the light of the definition of the word 8ratilo a it is o+,ious that the K#anishads far fro +eing acknowledged as #art of the Vedic literature were if not des#ised9 held in low estee

+y the Vedic Brah ins. %t is a riddle to find that the Brah ins who were o##onents of the Vedanta should +eco e su+se-uently the su##orters and u#holders of the Vedanta. %% This is one riddle of the Vedanta. There is another. The Vedantists were not the only o##onents of the Vedas and its doctrine of ritualis as a eans of sal,ations. :adha,a $charya the author of the (ar,a Aarshana (angraha entions two other o##onents of the Vaidikas9 &har,aka and Brahas#ati. Their attack on the Vaidikas was -uite for ida+le in its logic and its..... The o##osition of &har,aka can +e seen fro the following -uotation which re#roduces his line of argu ent against the Vaidikas Ff10G : D %f you o+7ect that9 if there +e no such thing as ha##iness in a future world9 then how should en of e"#erienced wisdo engage in the agnihotra and other sacrifices9 which can only +e #erfor ed with great e"#enditure of oney and +odily fatigue. Jour o+7ection cannot +e acce#ted as any #roof to the contrary9 since the agnihotra9 PcQ are only useful as eans of li,elihood9 for the Veda is tainted +y three faults of un@truth9 self@ contradiction9 and tautologyC then again the i #ostors who call the sel,es Vedic #undits are utually destructi,e as the authority of the <nan@kanda is o,erthrown +y those who aintain authority of the <nan@kanda re7ect that of the =ar akandaC and lastly9 the three Vedas the sel,es are only the incoherent rha#sodes of kna,es9 and to this effect runs the #o#ular saying: ?The $gnihotra9 the three Vedas9 the ascetic?s three sta,es9 and s earing oneself with ashes9 Brihas#ati says9 these are +ut eans of li,elihood for those who ha,e no anliness nor sense?. rahas#ati was far ore +old and ilitant in his o##osition to Vaidis . $s re#orted +y :adha,a $charya Brihas#ati arguedFf11G : D There is no hea,en9 no final li+eration9 nor any soul in another world9 Nor do the actions of the four castes9 orders PcQ #roduce any real effect. The $gnihotra9 the three Vedas9 the ascetic?s three sta,es and s earing one self with ashes9 *ere ade +y Nature as the li,elihood of those destitute of knowledge and anliness. %f a +east slain in the <yotishto a rite will itself go to hea,en9 *hy then does not the sacrificer forthwith offer his own father. %f the (raddha #roduces gratification to +eings who are dead9 Then here9 too9 in the case of tra,ellers when they start9 it is needless to gi,e #ro,isions for the 7ourney. *hile life re ains let a an li,e ha##ily9 let hi feed on ghee e,en though he runs in de+t. *hen once the +ody +eco es ashes9 how can it e,er return again . %f he who de#arts fro the +ody goes to another world9 How is that he co es not +ack again9 restless for lo,e of his kindred. Hence it is only as a eans of li,elihood that Brah ans !sta+lished here.$ll these cere onies for the dead 9 There is no other fruit anywhere. The three authors of ,eda were +uffoons9 kna,es and de ons.

$ll these cere onies for the dead9there is no other fruit anywhere. The three $uthors of the Vedas were +uffoons9 kna,es. $ll the well@known for ulas of the 8andits9 7ar#hari9 tur#hari9 $nd all the o+scene rites for the -ueen co anded in the $swa edha. These were in,ented +y +uffoons9 and so all the ,arious kinds of #resents to the #riests9 *hile the eating of flesh was si ilarly co ended +y night #rowling de ons.D *hy did the Vedic Brah ans co #ro ise with the Vedantists +ut did not co #ro ise with &har,ak and Brihas#ati. %t is a riddle that awaits e"#lanation. %ll $ third riddle re ains to +e entioned. This is its ost a##ro#riate #lace for it has reference to the Vedas and Vedantas9 not in their crude for +ut in the #hiloso#hical gar+ which was gi,en to the +y two asters of the art of syste atiBation whose na es are -uite well known in the history of (anskrit >iterature na ely <ai ini and Badarayana9 the for er as the author of :i ansa and the latter as the author of Brah a (utras. To the and to their work a reference has already +een ade in the earlier #ages and so e idea has +een gi,en of their #lace in the for ulation of the Vedik +eliefs and Vedantik s#eculations. *hat re ains to +e done is to co #are and contrast the attitude which one has@towards the #hiloso#hy of the other. (tarting on this in-uiry one is struck +y the #arallelis +etween <ai ini and Badarayana in the #resentation of the su+7ect atter. $s 8rof. Bel,alkar #oints out the Vedant (utras are ,ery closely odelled u#on the =ar a (utras. %n the atter of ethodology and ter inology Badarayana ,ery carefully follows <ai ini. He acce#ts <ai ini rules of inter#reting the te"t of the (hruti. He uses <ai ini?s technical ter s in the sense in which they ha,e +een used +y <ai ini. He uses the ,ery illustrations which are e #loyed +y <ai ini. The #arallelis shows that Badarayana ust ha,e felt that he was the e"#onent of a ri,al #hiloso#hy which was +eing attacked +y <ai ini and that in re#lying to the attack he ust follow <ai ini?s techni-ue. Luestion is did Badarayana take the stand of an o##onent of <ai ini. . That <ai ini was his o##onent Badarayana hi self ad its9 the attitude of <ai ini towards Vedanta. %t is stated +y Badarayana in his (utras 2@1 and e"#lained +y (hankaracharya in his co entary. <ai ini contends that: D No one undertakes a sacrificial act unless he is conscious of the fact that he is different fro the +ody and that after death he will go to hea,en9 where he will en7oy the results of his sacrifices. The Te"ts dealing with self@knowledge ser,e erely to enlighten the agent and so are su+ordinate to sacrificial acts.D %n short <ai ini says that all that Vedanta teaches is that self is different fro the +ody and outli,es the +ody. (uch a knowledge is not enough. The (elf ust ha,e the as#iration to go to Hea,en. But it can?t go to hea,en unless it #erfor s Vedic

sacrifices which is what his =ar akand teaches. Therefore his =ar akand is the only way of (al,ation and that the <nankand fro that #oint of ,iew is -uite useless. 5or this <ai ini relies on the conduct of en who ha,e +elie,ed in Vedanta Ff12G : D <anaka9 e #eror of Videha #erfor ed a sacrifice in which gifts were freely distri+utedD HBrih. '.1.1IC D% a going to #erfor a sacrifice9 sirsD H&h. /.11./I. Now +oth <anaka and $s,a#ati were knowers of the (elf. %f +y this knowledge of the (elf they had attained >i+eration9 there was no need for the to #erfor sacrifices. But the two te"ts -uoted show that they did #erfor sacrifices. This #ro,es that it is through sacrificial acts alone that one attains >i+eration9 and not through the knowledge of the (elf as the Vedantins hold.D <ai ini akes a #ositi,e assertion that the scri#tures un istaka+ly declare Ff13G D that knowledge of the (elf stands in a su+ordinate relation to sacrificial acts.D <ai ini 7ustifies it +ecause he saysEFf24G Dthe two Hknowledge and workI go together Hwith the de#arting soul to #roduce the results.ID <ai ini refuses to gi,e an inde#endent #osition to Badarayana?s <nana kanda. He takes his stands on two grounds. 5irstFf21G D=nowledge of the (elf does not inde#endently #roduce any result.D (econdFf22G according to the authority of the Vedas D =nowledge Hof (elfI stands in a su+ordinate relation to work.D This is the #osition of <ai ini towards Badaryana?s <nanakanda. *hat is the #osition of Badarayana towards <ai ini and his =ar a =anda. This is e"#lained +y Badarayana in (utras 2 to 11. The first #ositionFf2'G taken u# +y Badarayana is that the (elf s#oken of +y <ai ini is the li ited self i.e. the soul and is to +e distinguished fro the su#re e soul and that the su#re e soul is recogniBed +y the (cri#tures. The secondFf2)G #osition taken +y Badarayana is that the Vedas su##ort +oth knowledge of (elf as well as (acrifices. The thirdFf2/G #osition taken u# +y Badarayana is that only those who +elie,e in the Vedas are re-uired to #erfor (acrifices. But those who follow the K#anishadas are not +ound +y that in7unction. $s (hankaracharya e"#lains: DThose who ha,e read the Vedas and known a+out the sacrifices are entitled to #erfor work HsacrificeI. No work HsacrificeI is #rescri+ed for those who ha,e knowledge of the (elf fro the K#anishadas. (uch a knowledge is inco #ati+le with work.D The fourthFf20G #osition taken u# +y Badarayana is that =ar akanda is o#tional to those who ha,e attained Bra hadnan. $s (hankaracharya e"#lains: DThat so e ha,e of their own accord gi,en u# all work. The #oint is that after knowledge so e ay choose to work to set an e"a #le to others9 while others ay gi,e u# all work. There is no +inding on the knowers of the (elf as regards work D. His last and finalFf21G #osition is that: D =nowledge of the (elf is antagonistic to all work and so cannot #ossi+ly +e su+sidiary to work.D

$nd as e,idence in su##ort of it he relies Ff22G on the scri#tures which recogniBes (annyasa the fourth $shra and relie,es the (annyasi fro #erfor ing sacrifices #rescri+ed +y the =ar a =and. :any such (utras can +e found in Badarayana indicating the attitude of the two schools of thought towards each other. But the one gi,en a+o,e is enough as it is so ,ery ty#ical. %f one sto#s to consider the atter the #osition wears a strange a##earance. <ai ini denounces Vedanta as a false (hastra9 a snare and a delusion9 so ething su#erficial9 unnecessary and unsu+stantial. *hat does Badarayana do in the face of this attack. Aoes he denounce the =ar akanda of <ai ini as a false (hastra9 a snare and a delusion9 so ething su#erficial unnecessary and insu+stantial. No. He only defends his own Vedanta (hastra. But one would e"#ect hi to do ore. One would e"#ect fro Badarayana a denunciation of the =ar akanda of <ai ini as a false religion. Badarayana shows no such courage. On the contrary he is ,ery a#ologetic. He concedes that <ai ini?s =ar akanda +ased on the scri#tures and the scri#tures ha,e authority and sanctity which cannot +e re#udiated. $ll that he insists on is that his Vedanta doctrine is also true +ecause it has also the su##ort of the scri#tures. This is not all. *hat Badarayana does is to use the ter Vedanta to co,er these senses. He uses it so as to e #hasiBe that the K#anishads do for a #art of the Vedic literature. He used it also to e #hasiBe what Vedanta or the Anyanakanda of the K#anishads is not o##osed to the =ar akanda of the Vedas that the two are co #li entary. %ndeed this is the foundation on which Badarayana has raised the whole structure of his Vedanta (utras. This thesis of Badarayanawhich underlies his Vedanta (utras and according to which the K#anishadas are a #art of the Veda and there is no antagonis +etween the Vedas and K#anishadsis -uite contrary to the tenor of the K#anishads and their relation to the Vedas. Badarayana?s attitude is not easy to understand. But it is -uite o+,ious that Badarayana?s is a -ueer and a #athetic case of an o##onent who +egins his +attle +y ad itting the ,alidity of the #re ises of his ad,ersary. *hy did Badarayana concede to <ai ini on the -uestion of infalli+ility of the Vedas which were o##osed to the K#anishads. *hy did he not stand for truth the whole truth and nothing +ut the truth. This is a riddle that re-uires e"#lanation.

APPENDIX III THE RIDDLE O THE TRI(URTI To say that Hindu Religion is ade u# of sects is no less true than to say that Hindu (ociety is ade u# of castes. But not half the attention #aid to the study of castes has +een #aid to the study of sects. This is as unfortunate as it is strange.

(ects ha,e #layed as great a #art in %ndia?s history as castes ha,e done. %ndeed so e sects 7ust as so e castes ha,e ade the history of %ndia what it is. The sects which ake u# the Hindu Religion are of course legion. %t is i #ossi+le to e"#lore the origin of all and co #are and contrast their cults within the co #ass of a cha#ter. $ll that can +e done is to take the ost i #ortant ones and to #resent so e of #ro+le s connected with the . The ost i #ortant of these sects in the history of %ndia ha,e +een three9 one +elie,ing in the cult of 6od Brah a9 second +elie,ing in the cult of Vishnu and the third +elie,ing in the cult of (hi,a or :ahesha. The following arc so e of the -uestions9 which cannot +ut #uBBle the student who has studied the origin and history of these cults. The &hula@Niddessa a Buddhist treatiBe refers to ,arious sects which were at one ti e #re,alent in %ndia. &lassified on the +asis of creeds and cults they ay +e listed as follows: % &R!!A( (erial Na e of the (ect. !ssence of the creed No.

1 $7i,ika (hra,akaFf23G . $7i,ikaFf'4G 2 Nigatta (hra,akas . . NigauthaFf'1G This Riddle ay +e read along with the Riddle No. 11 which deals with The Rise and 5all of 6ods. This title ? The Riddle of the Tri urti ? howe,er does not find #lace in the original Ta+le of &ontents9 nor was it a,aila+le in the :( recei,ed +y the 6o,t. This co#y has +een s#ared +y (hri (. (. Rege!d. $NA (8!!&H!( % &R!!A( contd. (erial Na e of the (ect. !ssence of the creed No. ' <atil (hra,akas . <atilaEFf'2G ) 8ari,ra7aka (hra,akas / . 8ari,ra7akaFf''G . $,arudha (hra,akas $,arudhaka 11 &K>T( (erial Na e of the (ect No. The deity which is . worshi##ed 1 Hasti VratikasFf')G . HastiFf'/G 2 $sh,a Vratikas . $sh,aFf'0G ' 6o Vratikas . 6oFf'1G ) =ukur Vratikas . =ukkuFf'2G / =aka Vratikas . =akaFf'3G 0 Vasudeo Vratikas . Vasudeo 1 Baldeo Vratikas . Baldeo

2 8u a Bhadra Vratikas 3 :ani Bhadra Vratikas 14 $gni Vratikas 11 Naga Vratikas 12 (u#arna Vratikas 1' Jaksha Vratikas 1) $sura Vratikas 1/ 6andhar,a Vratikas 10 :ahara7a Vratikas 11 &handra Vratikas 12 (urya Vratikas 13 %ndra Vratikas 24 Brah a Vratikas 21 Ae,a Vratikas 22 Aeesha Vratikas

. 8u a Bhadra . :ani Bhadra R $gni . Naga . (u#arna . Jaksha . $sura . 6andhar,a . :ahara7a . &handra . (urya . %ndra . Brah a . Ae,a . Aeesha

&o #aring the cults of the three 6ods with the cults of the ,arious 6ods entioned in the list9 two conclusions are o+,ious. One conclusion is that the cults of Vishnu and :ahesha are new fa+rications9 later in origin than those entioned in the &hula Niddessa. The second conclusion is that all the old cults ha,e disa##eared. (earching for the causes of this strange #heno enon it is -uite clear that New &ults could not ha,e co e into +eing unless the Brah ins had taken u# the cause of #ro#agating these new cults. (i ilarly old cults could not ha,e disa##eared if the Brah ins had not ceased to #ro#agate the . The -uestion that #uBBles the student of history is why did the Brah ins fa+ricate these new cults. *hy did they gi,e u# the old cults . The -uestion not only #uBBles +ut staggers the student when the 6od that has ,anished in this re,olution is no other than %ndra. %ndra is a Vedic 6od. He is the greatest of the Vedic 6ods. The Brah ins worshi##ed %ndra and #raised hi as the su#re e 6od for hundreds if not thousands of years. *hat ade the Brah ins gi,e u# %ndra and +eco e the de,otees of Brah a9 Vishnu and :ahesh. *ere the reasons for transfer of loyalties +y the Brah ins s#iritual or co ercial. *ho is this (hi,a who the Brah ins ado#ted as their 6od in #reference to %ndra. The story of Aaksha 8ra7a#ati?s Ja7na and the #art #layed +y (hi,a throws great light on (hi,a. The story is that so ewhere in the Hi alayas king Aaksha was #erfor ing an Ja7na. This Ja7na was attended +y all Ae,as9 Aana,as9 8ishachas9 Nagas9 Rakshasas and Rishis. But (hi,a a+sented as Aaksha did not gi,e hi in,itations. Aadhichi one of the Rishis scolded Aaksha for his failure to in,ite (hi,a and to #erfor his #u7a. Aaksha refused to call (hi,a and said D% ha,e seen any of your Rudras. 6o away9 % don?t recogniBe your (hi,a.D Aadhichi re#lied D Jou ha,e all cons#ired against (hi,a9 take care9 your Ja7na will ne,er reach a successful finis.D :ahadeo co ing to know of this created a Rakshas fro his outh and this

Rakshas destroyed the Ja7na started +y Aaksha. This shows that there was a ti e when Brah ins refused to recogniBe (hi,a as the 6od to +e worshi##ed or it shows that (hi,a was against the Ja7na syste of the Brah anas. The difference +etween the $ryans and the Non@$ryans was cultural and not racial. The cultural difference centred round two #oints. The $ryans +elie,ed in &hatur,arna. The Non@$ryans were o##osed to it. The $ryans +elie,ed in the #erfor ance of Ja7na as the essence of their religion. The Non@$ryans were o##osed to Ja7na. !"a ining the story of Aaksha?s Ja7na in the light of these facts it is -uite o+,ious that (hi,a was a Non@Vedic and a Non@$ryan 6od. The -uestion is why did the Brah ins9 the #illars of Vedic culture9 ado#t (hi,a as their 6od. The third -uestion that #uBBles the student is the refor ation and transfor ation which the Brah ins ha,e ade in the original for at of (hi,a and Vishnu. The Hindus are not aware that (hi,a is a non@Vedic9 non@$ryan 6od. They identify hi with 6od Rudra entioned in the Vedas. (o that to the Hindus Rudra is the sa e as (hi,a. Now in the Taiteriya (a hita of the Ja7ur@Veda there is a hy n in #raise of Rudra. %n this hy n Rudra i.e. (hi,a is descri+ed as the lord of thie,es9 ro++ers9 dacoits9 as the =ing of the degraded9 of #otters and +lacks iths. The -uestion is how did the Brah ins ,enture to acce#t this king of thie,es and ro++ers as their su#re e 6od. There is another refor ation in the character of Rudra which the Brah ins ha,e ade while acce#ting hi as their 6od (hi,a. %n the $sh,alayan 6rihya (utra the #ro#er way of worshi##ing Rudra is #rescri+ed. $ccording to it the worshi# of Rudra was to +e the sacrifice of a +ull. The (utra gi,es details of the season9 and the Nakshatra for #erfor ing this sacrifice. %t tells the householder to select the +est +ull fro the sta+le. %t #rescri+es its colour. %t reco ends that it should +e fat. %t should +e consecrated with rice water or +arley water. Then it should +e slaughtered and offered to the Rudra addressing hi +y all his na es and his tail9 hide9 head and feet should +e thrown into the fire. !,idently Rudra was a ? hi sak ? 6od to who ani al sacrifice was necessary. (hi,a on the other hand has +een an $hi saka 6od. He is not offered ani al sacrifice. Luestion is what co #elled the Brah ins to ake (hi,a gi,e u# his eat diet and +e a ,egetarian. Hindus all o,er %ndia acce#t without sha e or re orse the ,irtue of >inga 8u7a 8hallus worshi#. This #hallus worshi# is associated with (hi,a and it is co only held that the true way of worshi##ing (hi,a is to worshi# the (hi,a >inga. *as >inga #u7a always associated with (hi,a. (o e ,ery interesting facts are +rought to light +y 8rof. Aandekar in his essay on D Vishnu in the Veda D. (ays 8rof. Aandekar: DThe ost significant word in this connection is (i#i,ista9 which is e"clusi,ely e #loyed in the Veda with reference to Vishnu. The #assages where the word occurs in RV HV%%. 33.1C V%%. 144. /@0I see s to ha,e +een ke#t o+scure with a #ur#ose. The Vedic #oets e,idently sought to ake a guarded and casual reference

to that as#ect of Vishnu?s #ersonality which was indicated +y the word9 (i#i,ista. :any atte #ts ha,e +een ade to e"#lain the word9 +ut few satisfy the re-uire ents of #hiloso#hy and none +rings out the true nature of Vishnu. %t is not #ossi+le to se#arate #hilologically the word (e#a H8enisI fro si#i. Other si ilar idg. for s are (i#ha Ha root #kt. che#a9 lat. oi##us9 sei#io HstaffI etc. !,en Nirukta HV. 1I see s to +e ,aguely su##orting this ,iew though its further e"#lanation is not clear. $dded to that word is a for fro the root ,iB.9 thus aking the whole word ean ?the changing #hallusC the swelling and di inishing #enis ?. *e ay now easily understand why the Vedic #oets s#eak in such guarded and o+scure way a+out this for of Vishnu. %n this connection it is ,ery significant to note what Nirukta HV. 2@3I says of this na e of Vishnu: The word si#i,ista has thus un istaka+ly #reser,ed Vishnu?s ancient #hallic nature. There are also any other incidental references to Vishnu in the Vedic hy ns and ritual9 which clearly associate hi with the notion of fertility9 #roducti,ity and self life.D D One of the o+scure features of the Vedic (hraddha@ritual is that the $ngustha9 without nail9 is to +e di##ed into the offering intended for the #itars. This action is acco #anied +y an in,ocation to Vishnu. The $ngustha is undou+tedly a sy +ol of the #hallus. Vishnu is9 in this rite9 clearly connected with the #hallic as#ect of the Vedic ritual. %n later literature we find Vishnu actually identified with the thu +. %n the %. (. #assage HV%. 2.).2I we find another #iece of e,idence in this regard. Vishnu?s entering into the other earth is a sy +olical descri#tion of a fertility rite. The words9 Tan,ardhanah9 used with reference to Vishnu?s HV%%. 33.1C V%%%. 144.2I ay further +e understood to +e9 indicati,e9 of his #hallic nature. Vishnu is significantly identified9 in later literature9 with Hiranyagar+ha9 and Narayana. Vishnu?s close connection with (ini,ali H$V. V%%. )0.'I9 the ?+road@hi##ed? di,inity #rotecting the fe inine se"@functions9 throws considera+le light on this as#ect of Visnu?s #ersonality. $ccording to the (ankhyana@grahyasutra H% 22.1'I9 the :antra HN. 12).1I acco #anies the gar+ha@cere ony9 thus suggesting that Vishnu is the efficacious #rotector of the e +ryos. %n $V HV%%. 11.)I9 Vishnu is clearly connected with se"@functions. The two e#hithets of Vishnu Nisikta#a HV%%. '0.3I ?#rotector of the se en?9 and (u a77ani H1. 1/0.2I ?facilitating easy +irth? s#eak for the sel,es. The word9 8au sya ? anly ,igour? is (ignificantly used with reference to Vishnu in RV H!. 1//.'@)I. %n the Vrsaka#i@hy n HN. 20I9 %ndra is said to ha,e +een e"hausted9 when a +old9 lasci,ious onkey ad inistered to hi so e edicine9 through which %ndra regained his anly #ower. This Vrsaka#i is identified9 in later literature9 with Visnu9 the word +eing also entioned as one of his na es in the Visnusahasranarna.D On the e,idence #roduced +y 8rof. Aandekar #hallus worshi# was in its origin connected with Vishnu. %n the 8uranas we do not find the 8hallus worshi# associated with Vishnu. %n the 8uranas it is associated with (hi,a. This is a ost

astounding transfor ation. Vishnu who was fro the +eginning associated with the >inga worshi# was dissociated fro it and (hi,a who had no association with the >inga worshi# has co e to +e identified with it. Luestion is what ade the Brah ins dissociate Vishnu fro >inga worshi# and fasten it on to (hi,a. There re ains the last and the i #ortant -uestion. %t relates to the inter@relations of Brah a9 Vishnu and :ahesha. Nothing #ro+a+ly su s u# so well the inter@relations +etween Brah a9 Vishnu and :ahesha as does the story of the +irth of the 6od Aattatraya. Briefly the story is that one afternoon when (aras,ati9 >a" i and 8ar,ati9 the wi,es of the three 6ods were sitting together chit@chatting9 Narada9 the sage on eternal tour9 ca e to ,isit the . %n the course of the con,ersation a -uestion arose as who was the ost chaste wo an in the land. Narada held out that $nusuya the wife of Rishi +y na e $trias the #urest and ost chaste wo an. This was ,iolently dis#uted +y the three9 each one of who clai ed to ha,e that title. Narada dis#ro,ed their clai +y recounting the any acts of adultery which one of the was guilty of. They were silenced +ut they +eca e ,ery angry. They wanted to retrie,e their #osition ,is@a@,is $nusuya. %n their wisdo they decided that the only way +y which this could +e done was to ha,e $nusuya seduced to illicit intercourse. Ha,ing decided u#on their #lan of action the three wo en told to their hus+ands when they returned in the e,ening what Narada said a+out the in the afternoon and scolded the +y saying that they were the cause of their wi,es hu iliation. 5or if they had co itted adultery with $nusuya she and they would ha,e +een on the sa e le,el and Narada would not ha,e found cause to hu iliate the . They asked their hus+ands whether they cared for their wi,es and if they did were they not in duty +ound to #roceed forthwith to in,ade the chastity of $nusuya and to #ull her down fro the high #edestle of #urity and chastity on which Narada had #laced her. The 6ods were con,inced that what was suggested +y their wi,es was their duty and that they could not shirk the task. The three 6ods started on an e"#edition to ro+ $nusuya of her honour and arched on to the hut ent of $tri. The three 6ods disguised the sel,es as three Brah in :endicants. *hen they arri,ed $tri was away. But $nusuya welco ed the and #re#ared food for the . *hen the eal was ready she asked the to sit and #artake of the eal. The three 6ods re#lied that they would take food at her house only if she agreed to ser,e the food in a naked condition. The rule of hos#itality in ancient %ndia was that Brah in guest ust not de#art dissatisfied. !,erything he asked ust +e gi,en to hi . %n o+edience to this rule $nusuya agreed to ser,e the naked. *hile she was ser,ing food to the in this naked condition $tri arri,ed. On seeing $tri the three 6ods who were taking food with $nusuya standing naked took the for of new +orn +a+es. The three 6ods in the for of +a+es were #laced +y $tri in a craddle. %n the craddle their +odies ha,ing +eco e integrated into one and their heads ha,ing re ained se#arate there arose the 6od Aattatraya who

has one +ody and three heads re#resenting the three 6ods9 Brah a9 Vishnu and :ahesha. The story has a stink of i orality in it and the close of it ay ha,e +een deli+erately designed so as to co,er u# the actual fact of Brah a9 Vishnu and :ahesha ha,ing outraged $nusuya to lower her down to the le,el of their wi,es. Be that as it ay the story illustrates the ,iew once #re,alent a ong the Hindus that three 6ods Brah a9 Vishnu and :ahesha were co@e-ual in status and their functions are co #li entary and not co #etiti,e. They were s#oken of as for ing Tri urtithree in one and one in three9 all sustaining the world9 Brah a +y creating it9 Vishnu +y #reser,ing it and (hi,a +y destroying it. This state of har ony did not last long. The Brah ins who were the #ro#agandists of these three 6ods di,ided the sel,es into three ca #s each +eco ing de,oted to one to the e"clusion of the other two. The result of this was a syste atic ca #aign of ,illification and degradation +y the Brah ins de,oted to one 6od of the other 6ods. %t is interesting as well as instructi,e to note what the Brah ins ha,e done to Brah a. There was a ti e when the Brah ins raised Brah a to the highest #innacle of #ower and glory. They #resented hi as the creator of the Kni,ersethe first 8ra7a#ati. He was their sole su#re e 6od. The Brah ins had de,elo#ed the theory of $,atar which holds that 6od when necessary incarnates into different for s9 hu an or ani al. This they use for twofold #ur#ose9 firstly to ele,ate the su#re acy of a 6od in who they are interested and secondly to reconcile the conflict +etween 6ods as different #ersonalities. The Brah ins ha,e run riot with this theory of $,atar and different 8uranas ha,e gi,en different lists of $,atars as will +e seen fro the following:
$ccording to Hari Va sha $ccording to Narayani $khyan 1 2 ' ) / 0 Varaha Narasinha Va an 8arshura Ra a =rishna Hansa =ur a :atsya Varaha Narasinha Va an $ccordi ng to Varaha 8urana =ur a :atsya Varaha Narasin ha Va an 8arshur a (angra $di,aka $ccordin g to Vayu 8urana Narasin ha Va an Varaha =ur a Nara@ Narayan =a#ila Aattatraya (anatku a r Boar $ccording to Bhagwat 8urana

1 2 3 1 4 1 1 1 2 1 ' 1 ) 1 / 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 2 4 2 1 2 2

8arshura Ra a =rishna =alkin

Ra a =rishna Buddha =alkin

Tri#urari $ndhaka rh Ah,a7a Varta Halahal =olhahal

<adna Rasha+ha 8rithi :atsya =ur a Ahanwantri :ohini Narasinha Va an 8arshura Ved Vyas Naradeo Ra a =rishna Buddha =alkin

These $,atars are all said +y these 8uranas to +e the $,atars of Vishnu. But to +egin9 with when the $,atars had +egun to +e coined the story of the two $,atars@ of the BoarFf)4G and the 5ishFf)1Gwhich in later ti es gi,en to Vishnu was gi,en +y the Brah ins to Brah a. $gain e,en when the Brah ins ad itted (hi,a and Vishnu as co@e-ual with Brah a they aintained the su#re acy of Brah a o,er (hi,a and Vishnu. The Brah ins ade hi the #rogenitor of (hi,aFf)2G and #ro#agated the ,iew that if VishnuFf)'G +eca e the #reser,er of the world it was +ecause of the co and of the Brah a. *ith the #lurality of 6ods9 conflicts +etween the were always #resent and so e 6od to act as $r+itrator and settler of dis#utes was

necessary. 8uranas are full of such conflicts9 e,en wars a ong 6ods. There were conflicts +etween Rudra and NarayanaFf))G9 +etween =rishna and (hi,aFf)/G. %n these conflicts the Brah ins ha,e ade Brah a the $r+itrator. The sa e Brah ins who ele,ated Brah a to such #re@e inence turned against hi 9 started degrading hi and ud@slinging hi . They started #ro#agating the ,iew that Brah a was really inferior to Vishnu and (hi,a. &ontrary to their #re,ious utterances the Brah ins said that Brah a was +orn fro (hi,aFf)0G and so e said that he was +orn fro VishnuFf)1G The Brah ins co #letely in,erted the relation +etween (hi,a and Brah a. Brah a was no longer the 6od who could gi,e sal,ation. The 6od who could gi,e sal,ation was (hi,a and they reduced Brah a to the #osition of a co on de,otee worshi##ing (hi,a and >inga in the ho#e of getting sal,ationFf)2G. They reduced hi to the #osition of ser,ant of (hi,a +y aking hi the charioteer of (hi,aFf)3G. The Brah ins did not sto# with degrading Brah a. They ,illified hi in the worst anner #ossi+le. They +roadcast the story of his ha,ing co itted ra#e on his own daughter (aras,ati which is re#eated in the Bhagwat 8uranaFf/4G: D*e ha,e heard9 O =shatriya9 that (,aya +hu HBrah aI had a #assion for Vach9 his slender and enchanting daughter9 who had no #assion for hi . The :unis9 his sons9 headed +y :arichi9 seeing their father +ent u#on wickedness9 ad onished hi with affection: ?This is such a thing as has ne,er +een done +y those +efore you9 nor will those after you do it9@ that you9 +eing the lord9 should se"ually a##roach your daughter9 not restraining your #assion. This9 4 #rece#tor of the world9 is not a lauda+le deed e,en in glorious #ersonages9 through i itation of whose actions en attain felicity. 6lory to that di,ine +eing HVishnuI who +y his own lustre re,ealed this Huni,erseI which a+ides in hi self9he ust aintain righteousness ?. (eeing his sons9 the 8ra7a#atis9 thus s#eaking +efore hi 9 the lord of the 8ra7a#atis HBrah aI was asha ed9 and a+andoned his +ody. This dreadful +ody the regions recei,ed9 and it is known as foggy darkness.D? The result of this degrading and defa atory attacks on Brah a was to da n hi co #letely. No wonder that his cult disa##eared fro the face of %ndia lea,ing hi a no inal and theoretical e +er of the Tri urti. $fter Brah a was dri,en out of the field there re ained two #arties of Brah anas9 one engaged in fa,our of (hi,a and the other engaged in fa,our of Vishnu. >et us see what they did as #rotagonists of their ri,al deities. Neither #arty succeeded in dri,ing out the cult of its ri,al 6od. The cult of (hi,a and the cult of Vishnu ha,e continued to e"ist and flourish. Notwithstanding the any cults that ha,e su+se-uently co e into e"istence they ha,e not +een ecli#sed. This is largely due to the #ro#aganda and counter@#ro#aganda carried on +y the Brah in #rotagonists of (hi,a and Vishnu. How well atched the #ro#aganda and counter #ro#aganda was9

can +e seen fro the following few illustrations. Vishnu is connected with the Vedic 6od (un. The worshi##ers of (hi,a connect hi with $gni. %f one has Vedic origin the other ust ha,e Vedic origin as well. One cannot +e inferior to the other in the atter of no+ility of origin. (hi,a ust +e greater than Vishnu and Vishna ust not +e less than (hi,a. Vishnu has thousand na esFf/1G. (o (hi,a ust ha,e thousand na es and he has the Ff/2G. Vishnu has his e +le sFf/'G. (o ust ha,e (hi,a and he has the Ff/)G. %n the #erfor ance of deeds of glory the #ro#aganda in fa,our of one is fully atched +y counter@#ro#aganda in fa,our of the other. One illustration of this is the story regarding the origin of the holy ri,er 6angesFf//G. The de,otees of (hi,a attri+ute its origin to (hi,a. They ake it take its origin fro (hi,a?s hair. But the Vaishna,as will not allow it. They ha,e anufactured another legend. $ccording to the Vaishna,ite legend the +lessed and the +lessing ri,er flowed originally out of Vaikunth Hthe a+ode of VishnuI fro the foot of Vishnu9 and descending u#on =ailasa fell on the head of (hi,a. There is a two@fold suggestion in the legend. %n the first #lace (hi,a is not the source of the 6anges. %n the second #lace (hi,a is lower than Vishnu and recei,es on his head water which flows fro the foot of Vishnu. $nother illustration is furnished +y the story which relates to the churning of the oceans +y the Ae,as and the $suras. They used the :andara ountain as the churning rod and huge ser#ent (hesha as a ro#e to whirl the ountain. The earth +egan to shake and #eo#le +eca e afraid that the world was co ing to an end. Vishnu took the $,atar of =ur a HtortoiseI and held the earth on his +ack and #re,ented the earth fro shaking while the churning was going on. This story is told in glorification of Vishnu. To this the (hai,ites add a su##le ent. $ccording to this su##le ent the churning +rought out fourteen articles fro the de#th of the ocean which are called fourteen 7ewels. $ ong these fourteen a deadly #oison was one. This deadly #oison would ha,e destroyed the earth unless so e+ody drank it. (hi,a was the only #erson who ca e to drink it. The suggetion is that Vishnu?s act was foolish in allowing the ri,als the 6ods and Ae ons to +ring out this deadly #oison. 6lory to (hi,a for he drank it and sa,ed the world fro the e,il conse-uences of the folly of Vishnu. Third illustration is an atte #t to show that Vishnu is a fool and that it is (hi,a who with his greater wisdo and greater #ower sa,es Vishnu fro his folly. %t is the story of $krurasuraFf/0G. $krur was a de on with the face of a +ear9 who9 ne,ertheless9 was continuously reading the Vedas and #erfor ing acts of de,otion. Vishnu was greatly #leased and #ro ised hi any +oon that he would care to ask. $krurasura re-uested that no creatureC then e"isting in the three worlds9 ight ha,e #ower to de#ri,e hi of life9 and Vishnu co #lied with his re-uestC +ut the de on +eca e so insolent that the Ae,atas9 who he o##ressed9 were o+liged to conceal the sel,es9 and he assu ed the do inion of the world C Vishnu was then sitting on a +ank of the

=ali9 greatly dis-uieted +y the alignant ingratitude of the de onC and his wrath +eing kindled9 a sha#e9 which ne,er +efore had e"isted9 s#rang fro his eyes. %t was :ahade,a9 in his destructi,e character9 who dis#elled in a o ent the an"iety of the Vishnu. This is countered +y the story of Bhas asura intended to show that (hi,a was a fool and Vishnu sa,ed hi fro his folly. Bhas asura ha,ing #ro#itiated (hi,a asked for a +oon. The +oon was to +e the #ower to +urn any one on whose head Bhas asura laid his hands. (hi,a granted the +oon. Bhas asura tried to use his +oon #ower against (hi,a hi self. (hi,a +eca e terrified and ran to Vishnu for hel#. Vishnu #ro ised to hel# hi . Vishnu took the for of a +eautiful wo an and went to Bhas asura who +eca e co #letely ena oured of her. Vishnu asked Bhas asura to agree to o+ey hi in e,erything as a condition of surrender. Bhas asura agreed. Vishnu then asked hi to #lace his hands on his own head which Bhas asura did with the result that Bhas asur died and Vishnu got the credit of sa,ing (hi,a fro the conse-uences of his folly. The ri,alry and the conse-uent en ity a ong these 6ods is +est illustrated +y the legend as to which of the is the first +orn. The story as related in the (kand 8uranaFf/1G says that one ti e Vishnu lay e"tended aslee# on the +oso of Ae,i9 a lotus arose fro his na,el9 and its ascending flower soon reached the surface of the flood9 Brah a s#rang fro that flower9 and looking round without any creature on the +oundless e"#anse9 i agined hi self to +e the first +orn9 and entitled to rank a+o,e all future +eingsC yet9 resol,ed to in,estigate dee# and to ascertain whether any +eing e"isted in its uni,erse who could contro,ert his #re@e inence9 he glided down the stock of the lotus and finding Vishnu aslee#9 asked loudly who he was . ? % a the first +orn ? answered VishnuC and when Brah a denied his #ri ogeniture9 they had an o+stinate +attle9 till :ahadeo #ressed +etween the in great wrath9 saying %t is % who a truly the first +orn. But % will resign y #lace to either of you9 who shall +e a+le to reach +ehind the su it of y head9 or the soles of y foot. Brah a instantly ascendedC +ut ha,ing fatigued hi self to no #ur#ose in the regions of i ensity9 yet loath to a+andon his clai 9 returned to :ahadeo9 declaring that he had attained and seen the crown of his head9 and called as his witness the first +orn cow. 5or this union of #ride and falsehood9 the angry 6od ordained9 that no sacred (hi,a rites should +e #erfor ed to Brah a and that the outh of cow should +e defiled. *hen Vishnu returned9 he acknowledged that he had not +een a+le to see the feet of :ahadeo9 who then told hi that he was the first +orn a ong the 6ods9 and should +e raised a+o,e all. %t was after this :ahadeo cut off the fifth head of Brah a who thus suffered the loss of his #ride9 his #ower and his influence. $ccording to this story Brah a?s clai to +e the first +orn was false. He was #unished +y (hi,a for aking it. Vishnu gets the right to call hi self the first +orn. But that is allowed to hi +y the grace of (hi,a. The followers of Brah a had their

re,enge on Vishnu for stealing what rightfully +elonged to hi with the hel# of (hi,a. (o they anufactured another legendFf/2G according to which Vishnu e anated fro Brah a?s nostrils in the sha#e of a #ig and grew naturally into a +oara ,ery ean e"#lanation of Vishnu?s a,atar as a +oar. The ri,alry a ong these 6ods had taken the sha#e of ri,alry a ong traders and results in indecent a+use of (hi,a +y Vishnu and of Vishnu +y (hi,a. (uch are the facts a+out the Trinity and its su+se-uent history. There is nothing new in the conce#tion of Trinity. The conce#tion of Trinity is an old one9 older than Jaska. To reduce the chaos of innu era+le 6ods the early Brah ins were engaged lo select so e 6ods and to ake the #re@e inent o,er the rest. The nu +er of such #re@e inent 6ods was fi"ed at three. Of these $gni and (urya were two. 5or the third #lace there was ri,alry +etween Vayu and %ndra. &onse-uently one finds the %rinity of $gni9 %ndra and (urya or $gni9 Vayu and (urya. The new trinity is identical in its conce#tion with the old though different in its #ersonnel. !,ery e +er of this Trinity is new. %t see s alter the first Trinity was dissol,ed no new Trinity e"isted for a considera+le ti e. %n the &hulla Nidessa there is ention only of Brah a Vratikas. There is no ention of Vishnu Vratikas or (hi,a Vratikas. This eans that at the ti e of the &hula Nidessa the cult of Vishnu and the cult of (hi,a had not co e into +eing. They were later on added to the cult of Brah a and constituted into a Trinity. (e,eral -uestions rise in one?s ind when one considers the #art #layed +y the Brah ins in the e,olution and confounding of the Trinity. The first that arises is the faithlessness of the Braha ins to their 6ods. the easy anner in which they a+andon one set of 6ods for another. %n this connection one is re inded of the <ewish #riests and Ne+uchad@NeB@;ar. DNe+@K@&had@NeB@;arFf/3G the king ade an i age of gold9 whose height was three score cu+its9 and the +readth thereof si" cu+its he set it u# in the #lain of Au@ ra9 in the #ro,ince of Ba+@y@lon. D2. Then Ne+@u@chad@neB@Bar the king sent to gather together the #rinces Hsatra#sI9 the go,ernors Hde#utiesI9 and the ca#tains Hgo,ernorsI9 the 7udges9 the treasurers9 the counsellors9 the sheriffs9 and all the rulers of the #ro,inces9 to co e to the dedication of the i age which Ne+@u@chad@neB@Bar the king had set u#. D'. Then the #rinces9 the go,ernors9 and the ca#tains9 the 7udges9 the treasurers9 the counsellors9 the sheriffs9 and all the rulers of the #ro,inces9 were gathered together unto the dedication of the i age that Ne+@u@chad@neB@Bar the king had set u#: and they stood +efore the i age that Ne+@u@chad@neB@Bar had set u#. ). DThen an herald cried aloud. To you it is co anded9 4 #eo#le9 nations9 and languages. /. That at what ti e ye hear the sound of the cornet9 flute9 har#9 sack+ut9 #saltery9 dulci er9 and all kinds of usick9 ye fall down and worshi# the golden i age that Ne+@u@chad@neB@Bar the king hath set u#C

0. $nd whoso falleth not down and worshi##eth shall the sa e hour +e cast into the idst of a +urning fiery furnace. 1. Therefore at that ti e9 when all the #eo#le heard9 the sound of the cornet9 flute9 har#9 sack+ut9 #saltery9 and all kinds of usick9 all the #eo#le9 the nations9 and the languages9 fell down and worshi##ed the golden i age that Ne+@u@chad@neB@Bar the king had set u#.D 2. *herefore at that ti e certain &hal@de@ans ca e near9 and accused the <ews. 3. They s#ake and said to the king Ne+@u@chad@neB@Bar9 D O =ing9 li,e for e,er.D 14. DThou9 4 =ing9 hast ade a decree9 that e,ery an that shall hear the sound of the cornet9 flute9 har#9 sack+ut9 #saltery9 and dulci er9 and all kinds of usick9 shall fall down and worshi# the golden i age.D 11. D$nd whoso falleth not down and worshi##eth9 that he should +e cast into the idst of a +urning fiery furnace.D 12. DThere are certain <ews who thou hast set o,er the affairs of the #ro,ince of Ba+@y@lon9 (ha@drach9 :e@shach and $@+ed@ne@goC these en9 4 king9 ha,e not regarded thee: they ser,e not thy gods9 nor worshi# the golden i age which thou hast set u#.D 1'. DThen Ne+@u@chad@neB@Bar in his rage and fury co anded to +ring (ha@ drach9 :e@shach9 and $@+ed@ne@go. Then they +rought these en +efore the king. 1). Ne+@u@chad@neB@Bar s#ake and said unto the 9 D%s it true9 4 (ha@drach9 :e@ shach9 and $@+ed@ne@go9 do not ye ser,e y gods9 nor worshi# the golden i age which % ha,e set u#.D 1/. DNow if ye +e ready that at what ti e ye hear the sound of the cornet9 flute9 har#9 sack+ut9 #saltery9 and dulci er9 and all kinds of usick9 ye fall down and worshi# the i age which % ha,e adeC wellC +ut if ye worshi# not9 ye shall +e cast the sa e hour into the idst of a +urning fiery furnaceC and who is that 6od that shall deli,er you out of y hands.D 10. (ha@drach9 :e@shach9 and $@+ed@ne@go9 answered and said to the king9 D O Ne+@u@chad@neB@Bar9 we are not careful to answer thee in this atter.D 11. D %f it +e so9 our 6od who we ser,e is a+le to deli,er us fro the +urning fiery furnace9 and he will deli,er us out of thine hand9 4 king.D 12. DBut if not9 +e it known unto thee9 4 king9 that we will not ser,e thy gods9 nor worshi# the golden i age which thou hast set u#.D 13. DThen was Ne+@u@chad@neB@Bar full of fury9 and the for of his ,isage was changed against (ha@drach9 :e@shach and $@+ed@ne@go C therefore he s#ake9 and co anded that they should heat the furnace one se,en ti es ore than it was wont to +e heated. 24. $nd he co anded the ost ighty en that were in his ar y to +ind (ha@ drach9 :e@shach9 and $@+ed@ne@go and to cast the into the +urning fiery furnace.

21. Then these en were +ound in their coats9 their hosen9 and their hats9 and their other gar ents9 and were cast into the idst of the +urning fiery furnace. 22. Therefore +ecause the king?s co and ent was urgent9 and the furnace e"ceeding hot9 the fla e of the fire slew those en that took u# (ha@drach9 :e@ shach9 and $@+ed@ne@go. 2'. $nd these three en9 (ha@drach9 :e@shach9 and $@+ed@ne@go9 fell +ound into the idst of the +urning fiery furnance.D *hy did the Brah ins gi,e u# the first Trinity. There is no indication that they were co #elled to foreswear those 6ods. *as it lo,e of gain or lucre. The second -uestion is why did the Brah ins who +eca e the ,otaries of the three 6ods follow the #rinci#le of li,e and let li,e . *hy was one sect +ent on destroying the other. There was no doctrinal difference +etween these sects worth the na e. Their theology9 cos ology and #hiloso#hy were all one and the sa e. The riddle +eco es all the great. *as this sectarian -uarrel #olitical. Aid the Brah ins ake religion a atter of #olitics. Otherwise what is the e"#lanation of this -uarrel.

APPENDIX I% II S(ARTH DHAR(A The (acred literature of ( arth Ahar a consists of the S ritis or the >aw Books. These law +ooks contain what ay +e called the &anon >aw. This &anon >aw as will +e seen later on is ,ast in its co #ass and treats of such su+7ects as law9 go,ern ent9 ci,ic rights and duties of the different classes in society9 #enances for sins and #unish ents for offences. The #urely secular #art of this Ahar a is not rele,ant for the #ur#ose in hand. *hat is rele,ant is that #art of it which is acce#ted as +elonging strictly to religion. The ( arth Ahar a i.e. Ahar a +ased on ( ritis is +ased on fi,e dog as. The first dog a of ( arth Ahar a is the +elief in Trinity of 6ods9 co #osed of three 6ods: Brah a9 Vishnu and :ahesh or (hi,a. %n this Trinity9 Brah a is the creator of the world9 Vishnu is the #reser,er and (hi,a is the destroyer. %nstead of the thirty@ three 6ods of the (rauta Ahar a9 ( arth Ahar a li its the #antheon to only three. The second dog a of the ( arth Ahar a is the recognition of the #urificatory cere onies which are called (anskaras or sacra ents. $ccording to the ( arth Ahar a e,ery householder ust #erfor certain cere onies. %f he does not he +eco es a patit i.e. one who is fallen fro grace and therefore..... (The above te,t is on a typed 3age #o. 2). =urther pages of this chapter are issing. The following te,t is fro the loose sheets enu erated in blue pencil fro page #o. // to %H only$ e,cept page #o. H%. +ll these pages have corrections and

instructions in the handwriting of the author..; !d. There are few loose pages on * S arth Ahar a and Tantri1 Ahar a *. S arth Ahar a is nu bered as 3art && while Tantri1 Ahar a is nu bered as 3art && ). &t see s that 3art & consisted of Srauta Ahar a. There is only one page of S arth Ahar a nu bered as 2). The Tantri1 Ahar a starts fro page // and ends at page %H e,cept page #o. H% with three ore handwritten pages added by the author.;!d. 8unish ents and 8enances occu#y ,ery #ro inent #lace in 8auranik Ahar a. %n the (rauta Ahar a Ja a has nothing to do with the future #unish ent of the wicked. The idea of #enal retri+ution after death for sins co itted during life is unknown. But the 8uranas ha,e considera+ly enlarged the 8owers of Ja a in this res#ect. D Ja a fulfils the office of 7udge of the dead9 as well as so,ereign of the da nedC all that die a##earing +efore hi 9 and +eing confronted with &hitragu#ta9 the recorder9 +y who their actions ha,e +een registered. The ,irtuous are thence con,eyed to (warga9 or !lysiu 9 whilst the wicked are dri,en to the different regions of Naraka9 or Tartarus D. D The dreadful &hitragu#ta with a ,oice like that issuing fro the clouds at the undane dissolution9 glea ing like a ountain of collyriu 9 terri+le with lightning like wea#ons9 ha,ing thirty@two ar s9 as +ig as three yo7ans9 red@eyed9 long@nosed9 his face furnished with grinders and #ro7ecting teeth9 his eyes rese +ling o+long #onds9 +earing death and diseases. D (in will +e #unished after death. (o also there is e"#iation for sin if the sinner wishes +y #erfor ing certain #enances for re o,ing sin. But what is sin. $ccording to the 8auranik Ahar a it does not ean the co ission of a oral wrong. %t eans the non@#erfor ance of the o+ser,ances #rescri+ed +y the 8uranas. (uch is 8auranik Ahar a. %%% T$NTR%= AH$R:$ *hat is known as the Tantrik Ahar a centres round the worshi# of Sha1ti. (hakti literally eans #ower or energy. But in Tantris it eans the fe ale #artner of a ale 6od. The literature of the Tantrik Ahar a is -uite ,ast and for s -uite a se#arate +ranch of the Hindu Religious literature. %t is necessary to o+ser,e that the (hakta for of Hinduis is e-ui##ed with a ,ast ythological #ersonnel of its own9 an i ense array of fe ale #ersonalities9 constituting a distinct di,ision of the Hindu 8antheon. %n its origin the Tantrik Ahar a is only an e"tension of the 8auranik Ahar a. %t is the 8uranas which first +egan with the recognition of the fe ale un arried goddesses or as o+7ects of worshi#. This was followed +y the recognition of arried

fe ales who were the wi,es of the 6ods. %t is in su##ort of their recognition of the right of the wi,es of the 6ods to +e worshi##ed as goddesses that the 8uranas set out the #rinci#le of (haktis . $ccording to the 8uranas a deity though single has a dual character. %n one it is -uiescent9 in the other acti,e. The acti,e nature of the deity is called his (hakti Hi.e. his #owerI. This Sha1ti of the deity is #ersonified +y the 8uranas as the wife of the deity. This is the foundation of what is called (haktis or the worshi# of the wife of certain deities. The essence of (haktis lies in the e"clusi,e worshi# of the fe ale deity in her ost co #rehensi,e character as the great #ower H(aktiI of Nature9 the one other of the Kni,erse H<agan@:ata9 <agad@$ +aIthe ighty ysterious 5orce whose function is to direct and control two -uite distinct o#erationsC na ely9 first9 the working of the natural a##etites and #assions9 whether for the su##ort of the +ody +y eating and drinking9 or for the #ro#agation of li,ing organis s through se"ual coha+itationC secondly9 the ac-uisition of su#ernatural faculties and agical #owers HsiddhiI9 whether for a an?s own indi,idual e"altation or for the annihilation of his o##onents. $nd here it is necessary to o+ser,e that the (akta for of Hinduis is e-ui##ed with a ,ast ythological 8ersonnel of its ownan i ense array of fe ale #ersonalities9 constituting a distinct di,ision of the Hindu 8antheon. Jet the whole array of the Tantrik fe ale 8antheon s#reading out as it does into countless ra ifications9 (haktis has its root in the wife of (hi,a. By co on consent she is held to +e the source or first #oint of de#arture of the entire fe ale ythological syste . (he also stands at its headC and it is re arka+le that in e,ery one of the ale 6od (hi,a?s characteristics9 his consort is not only his counter#art9 +ut a re#resentation of all his attri+utes intensified. *e ha,e already #ointed out how it ca e to #ass that the ale 6od gradually gathered under his own #ersonality the attri+utes and functions of all other di,inities9 and thus +eca e to his own s#ecial worshi##ers the great 6od H:ahade,ahI of Hinduis . (i ilarly and in a uch greater degree did his fe ale counter#art +eco e the one great goddess H:aha@ de,iI of the (akta hierarchy: re#resenting in her own #erson all other fe ale anifestations of Brah a9 Vishnu and (hi,a9 and a+sor+ing all their functions. 5or this reason e,en the wi,es of Brah a and Vishnu were said to +e her daughters. $s to the o##osite and contradictory -ualities attri+uted to her9 these are no source of difficulty to a Hindu ind. (he is si #ly in all res#ects a du#licate of her hus+and +ut a du#licate #ainted in dee#er or ore ,i,id colours. $nd 7ust as (hi,a is at one ti e white H(,eta9 (uklaI +oth in co #le"ion and character9 at another +lack H=alaIC so his fe ale nature also +eca e one half white Hwhence one of her na es 6auriI and the other half +lack Hwhence her na e =aliI. Then9 again9 each of these o##osite characters +eca e ,ariously odified and endlessly ulti#lied. The white or ild nature ra ified into the (aktis called K a9

6auri9 >aksh i9 (aras,ati9 etc.9 the +lack or fierce nature into those called =ali9 Aurga9 &andi9 &a unda9 etc. $nd 7ust as (hi,a has 1442 na es or e#ithets9 so his wife #ossesses a fe inine du#licate of nearly e,eryone of his designations. $t least one thousand distinct a##ellations are assigned to her9 so e e"#ressi,e of her +enignant9 so e of her ferocious character. Nota+ly it is declared in the Tantras that if any one re#eats eight of her na es containing the letter $ kings will +eco e his ser,ants9 all en will lo,e hi 9 and all his difficulties co e to a ha##y ter ination. %n short9 all the other (aktis ca e to +e included +y the (aktas under the Sa1ti or fe ale energy of (hi,a9 which e,entually de,elo#ed into innu era+le se#arate anifestations and #ersonifications. But it +egan in a rather odest way +y starting the worshi# of the Aurga along with (hi,a9 >a" i along with Vishnu9 Radha along with =rishna and (ita along with Ra a. The nu +er of (haktis was not defined. (o eti es only eight (aktis are enu erated and so eti es nine9 ,iB9 Vaishna,i9 Brah ani9 Raudri9 :ahes,ari9 Narasinhi9 Varahi9 %ndrani9 =arttiki9 and 8radhana. Others reckon fifty for s of the (akti of Vishnu9 +esides >a" iC and fifty of (i,a or Rudra9 +esides Aurga or 6auri. (aras,ati is na ed as a (akti of Vishnu and Rudra9 as well as Brah a. $ccording to the Vayu@#urana9 the fe ale nature of Rudra H(i,aI +eca e two@fold9 one half $sita or white9 and the other half (ita or +lack9 each of these again +eco ing anifold. The white or ild nature includes the (aktis K a9 6auri9 >a" i9 (aras,ati9 Pc.9 the +lack or fierce nature includes Aurga9 =ali9 &andi9 &a unda9 Pc. (oon howe,er all the (haktis were uni,ersaliBed under the (hakti or fe ale energy which e,entually de,elo#ed into innu era+le se#arate anifestations and #ersonifications. These #ersonifications9 following the analogy of so e of Vishnu?s incarnations9 are so eti es grou#ed according to a su##osed difference of #artici#ation in the di,ine energy9 such for e"a #le as the full energy (pu a sa1ti.$ the #artial (ansarupini. the still ore #artial (1ala/rupini.$ and the #artial of the #artial Hkalansa@ru#iniI9 this last including ortal wo en in ,arious degrees9 fro Brah an wo en downwards9 who are all worshi##ed as for s of the di,ine other anifesting herself u#on earthC for it ust not +e forgotten that in the (akta creed e,ery fe ale is a #resent di,inity. The ore usual classification9 howe,er9 +egins with the :aha,idyas. These are held to +e ten in nu +er9 that nu +er +eing #ro+a+ly selected to atch the ten chief incarnations of Vishnu. They are called :aha,idyas as sources of the goddess? highest knowledgeC that is to say9 of the knowledge which confers #reternatural #owers. They ha,e all different attri+utes9 and are thus designated: H1I =ali Hso eti es called (ya aI9 +lack in colour9 fierce and irasci+le in character. H2I Tara9 a ore +enign anifestation9 worshi##ed es#ecially in =ash ir. H'I (hodasi9 a +eautiful girl of si"teen Halso called Tri#ura worshi##ed in :ala+arI. H)I

Bhu,anes,ari. H/I Bhaira,i. H0I &hinna@ astaka9 a naked goddess holding in one hand a +lood@stained sci itar and in the other her own se,ered head9 which drinks the war +lood gushing fro her headless trunk. H1I Ahu a,ati9 in the for of s oke. H2I Vagala or Bagala9 ha,ing the face of crane. H3I :atangi9 a wo an of the Bhangi caste. H14I =a alat ika. Of these the first two are es#ecially :aha,idyas9 the ne"t fi,e ,idyas9 and the last three (iddha,idyas. The ne"t class of #ersonifications or. anifestations of the goddess are the :atris or :atrika Hor :aha@ atrisI9 the great others of the Kni,erse. These are ore i #ortant than the :aha,idyas in their conne"ion with the #re,alence of :other@ worshi#9 a for of religion which9 a ong the #easantry of %ndia9 often takes the #lace of e,ery other creed. This will +e ore fully e"#lained in the cha#ter on tutelary deities. The :atris or :others are: 1. Vaishna,i9 2. Brah i or Brah ani9 often re#resented with four faces or heads like the 6od Brah a9 '. =arttikeyi9 so eti es called :ayuri9 ). %ndrani9 /. Ja i9 0. Varahi9 connected with the +oar incarnation of Vishnu9 1. Ae,i or %sani9 re#resented with a trident in one hand as wife of (hi,a9 2. >a" i. !ach of these di,ine :others is re#resented with a child in her la#. &losely related to the :others is a class of fe ale #ersonifications called the eight Nayikas or istresses. These9 of course9 are not necessarily others. %n fact no other idea is connected with the than that of illegiti ate se"ual lo,e. They are called Balini9 =a es,ari9 Vi ala9 $runa9 :edini9 <ayini9 (ar,es,ari and =aulesi. $nother class of anifestations is that of the Joginis. These are so eti es re#resented as eight fairies or sorceresses created +y and attendant on Aurga9 so eti es as ere for s of that goddess9 si"ty or si"ty@fi,e in nu +er9 and ca#a+le of +eing ulti#lied to the nu +er of ten illions. Other classes not worth enu erating are the Aakinis and (akinis. These are si #ly fe ale friends or ogresses of ost re#ulsi,e ha+its9 and are not so uch anifestations of the goddess as i #ish ser,ants always attendant on her. But it is in the for =ali@the for under which the goddess is worshi#ed at &alcutta@that she is ost terri+le. The following is a free translation of two #assages in the Tantras descri#ti,e of =ali?s a##earance: D One should adore with li-uors and o+lations that =ali who has a terri+le ga#ing outh and unco +ed hairC who has four hands and a s#lendid garland for ed of the heads of the giants she has slain and whose +lood she has drunkC who holds a sword in her lotus@like handsC who is fearless and awards +lessingsC who is as +lack as the large clouds and has the whole sky for her clothesC who has string of skulls round her neck and a throat +es eared with +loodC who wears ear@rings Hconsisting of two dead +odiesI: who carries two dead +odies in her handsC who has terri+le teeth and s iling faceC whose for is awful and who dwells in +urning@grounds Hfor consu ing cor#sesIC who stands on the +reast of her hus+and :aha@de,a.D

(3age #os. %I/%J are issing. The script of 3age #o. %H only is given below along with the concluding para written in the handwriting ofthe author.. The Tantrik worshi# is altogether different fro (rauta or 8auranik worshi#. %t is in kee#ing with its central #hiloso#hy na ely the +est for of worshi# is the fullest satisfaction of the carnal desires of an. The Tantrik worshi# is su ed u# in what are called fi,e -a1aras. The fi,e :akaras are: HiI The drinking of -adya Hi.e. wine and li-uors of ,arious kindsI. HiiI The eating of -a a H eatI. HiiiI The eating of -alsya HfishI. Hi,I The eating of -udra H#arched or fried grainI. H,I The #erfor ance of -aithun Hse"ual intercourse with a wo anI. The Tantrik 8u7a consists in the #erfor ance of these acts. %t is not necessary to draw attention to the fact that whate,er is declared as nishidha H#rohi+itedI is allowed in the Tantrik worshi# e,en se"ual intercourse with a wo an +eing #rescri+ed as #art of the 8u7a. (uch is the growth of the Hindu Religion. On reading this history a student of true religion is forced to ask: *here is the #lace of orality in the Hindu Religion. Religion no dou+t started its career +y asking any -uestions: D *hat a %.DD *ho ade the Kni,erse.D D %f 6od ade it what is the relation of !go to 6od.D D*hat is the right way to #ro#itiate 6od .D D *hat is the relation +etween % and the Non@% i.e. +etween an and uni,erse.D D*hat constitutes good life or that will #lease 6od.D etc. :ost of these -uestions ha,e +een taken o,er +y theology9 eta#hysics9 #hiloso#hy and ethics9 into which religion has +eco e s#lit. But there is one -uestion that re ains with religion to #reach and #ro#agate na ely what constitutes good life. $ religion which does not do so is no religion at all. *hy ha,e the Brah ins ade the Hindu religion so nudeC so de,oid of orality. The Hindu religion is nothing +ut worshi##ing so any 6ods and 6oddesses9 worshi##ing so any trees9 ,isiting so any #laces of #ilgri age and aking offerings to the Brah ins. *as the religion for ulating for ena+ling the Brah ins to earn their li,ing. Aid they e,er think that orality is the foundation of society and that unless orality is i +edded in religion it Hhas no dri,ingIEFf04G force. These are -uestions which the Brah ins ust answer. APPENDIX % THE IN ALLI'ILIT! O THE %EDAS The Hindus are en7oined to study the Vedas e,ery day. the (ata#atha Brah ana e"#lains the reasons for it. %t says: DThere are only fi,e great sacrifices9 which are the great cere onies9 ,iB.9 the

offering to li,ing creatures9EFf01G the offering to en9 the offering to the fathers9 the offering to the gods9 and the Veda@offering HBrah a@ya7naI. 2. >et an o+lation +e daily #resented to li,ing creatures. Thus the offering to the is fulfilled. >et Hhos#italityI +e daily +estowed e,en down to the +owl of water. Thus is the offering to en fulfilled. >et the o+lation to the gods +e daily #resented Ff02G as far as the faggot of wood. Thus is the offering to the gods fulfilled. '. Ne"t is the Veda@offering. This eans #ri,ate studyFf0'G Hof the sacred +ooksI. %n this Veda@sacrifice s#eech is the 7uhu9 the soul the u#a+hrit9 the eye the dhru,a9 intelligence the sru,a9 Ff0)G truth the a+lution9 and #aradise the conclusion. He who9 knowing this9 daily studies the Veda9 con-uers an undecaying world ore than thrice as great as that which he ac-uires who +estows this whole earth filled with riches. *herefore the Veda should +e studied. ). Verses of the Rig@,eda are ilk@o+lations to the 6ods. He who9 knowing this9 daily reads these ,erses satisfies the gods with ilk@o+lationsC and they +eing satisfied9 satisfy hi with #ro#erty9 with +reath9 with generati,e #ower9 with co #lete +odily soundness9 with all e"cellent +lessings. (trea s of +utter9 strea s of honey flow as s,adha@o+lations to the fathers. /. Ja7ush@,erses are offerings of +utter to the gods. HThis is a si"@#age ty#ed co#y on ? The %nfalli+ility of the Vedas ?ha,ing no corrections or instructions +y the author. The latter #ortion of this cha#ter is not a,aila+le.!d.I He who9 knowing this9 daily reads these ,erses9 satisfies the gods with offerings of +utterC and they9 +eing satisfied9 satisfy hi 9 etc. Has in the #receding #aragra#hI. 0. (a an@,erses are so a@li+ations to the gods. He who9 knowing this9 daily reads these ,erses9 satisfies the gods with so a@li+ationsC and they +eing satisfied9 satisfy hi 9 etc. Has a+o,eI. 1. Verses of $thar,an and $ngiras Hathar,angirasah Ff0/GI are o+lations of fat to the gods. He who9 knowing this9 daily reads these ,erses9 satisfies the gods with o+lations of fatC and they etc. Has a+o,eI. 2. 8rescri#ti,e and scientific treatises9 dialogues9 traditions9 tales9 ,erses and eulogistic te"ts are o+lations of honey to the gods. He who9 knowing this9 daily reads these9 satisfies the gods with o+lations of honeyC and they etc. Has a+o,eI. 3. Of this Veda@sacrifice there are four Vashatkaras when the wind +lows9 when it lightens9 when it thunders9 when it crashesC wherefore when it +lows9 lightens9 thunders9 or crashes9 let the an9 who knows this9 read9 in order that these Vashatkaras ay not +e interru#ted Ff00G. He who does so is freed fro dying a second ti e9 and attains to an union with Brah a. !,en if he cannot read ,igorously9 let hi read one te"t relating to the gods. Thus he is not de#ri,ed of his li,ing creatures.D "i. /9 19 1 : D Now co es an enco iu u#on Vedic study. (tudy and teaching are lo,ed. He Hwho #ractises the I +eco es co #osed in ind. %nde#endent of others9 he daily attains his o+7ects9 slee#s #leasantly9 +eco es his own +est #hysician. &ontrol of his senses9 concentration of ind9 increase of intelligence9 renown9

ca#acity to educate ankind Fare the results of studyG. %ncreasing intelligence secures for the Brah an the four attri+utes of saintliness9 suita+le conduct9 renown9 and ca#acity for educating ankind. *hen so educated9 en guarantee to the Brah an the en7oy ent of the four #rerogati,es which are his due9 re,erence9 the recei#t of gifts9 freedo fro o##ression9 and fro death +y ,iolence. 2. Of all the odes of e"ertion9 which are known +etween hea,en and earth9 study of the Veda occu#ies the highest rank9 Hin the case of hi I who9 knowing this studies it. *herefore this study is to +e #ractised. '. On e,ery occasion when a an studies the Vedic hy ns he Hin factI #erfor s a co #lete cere onial of sacrifice9 i.e. whosoe,er9 knowing this9 so studies. *herefore this study9 etc.9 etc. ). $nd e,en when a an #erfu ed with unguents adorned with 7ewels9 satiated with food. and re#osing on a co forta+le couch9 studies the Veda he Hhas all the erit of one whoI #erfor s #enance HleftI to the ,ery ti#s of his nails Ff01G: Hsuch is the case with hi I who9 knowing this9 studies. *herefore etc. /. Rig@,eda@,erses are honey9 (a a@ ,erses +utter9 Ja7us@,erses nectar Ha ritaI. *hen a an reads dialogues H,ako,akyaI and legends these two sorts of co #osition are res#ecti,ely o+lations of cooked ilk and cooked flesh. 0. He who9 knowing this9 daily reads Rig@,eda ,erses9 satisfies the gods with honeyC and they9 when satisfied9 satisfy hi with all o+7ects of desire9 and with all en7oy ents. 1. He who9 knowing this9 daily reads (a a@,erses9 satisfies the gods with +utterC and they9 when satisfied9 etc. Has +eforeI. 2. He who9 knowing this9 daily reads Ja7us@,erses9 satisfies the gods with nectarC and they9 etc. Has +eforeI. 3. He who9 knowing this9 daily studies dialogues and the different classes of ancient stories9 satisfies the gods with ilkand flesh@ o+lationsC and they9 etc. Has +eforeI. 14. The waters o,e. The (un o,es. The :oon o,es. The constellations o,e. The Brah an who on any day does not study the Veda9 is on that day like what these o,ing +odies would +e if they ceased to o,e or act. *herefore such study is to +e #ractised. >et a an therefore #resent as his offering a ,erse of the Rig@,eda9 or the (a an9 or the Ja7ush9 or a 6atha9 or a =u ,ya9 in order that the course of his o+ser,ances ay not +e interru#ted.D :anu also su##orts the (ata#atha Brah ana. He says: D The Veda is the eternal eye of the fathers9 of 6ods9 and of enC it is +eyond hu an #ower and co #rehensionC this is a certain conclusion. *hate,er traditions are a#art fro the Veda9 and all heretical ,iews9 are fruitless in the ne"t world9 for they are declared to +e founded on darkness. $ll other H+ooksI e"ternal to the Veda9 which arise and #ass away9 are worthless and false fro their recentness of date. The syste of the four castes9 the three worlds9 the four states of life9 all that has +een9 now is9 or shall +e9 is ade anifest +y the Veda. The o+7ects of touch and taste9 sound9 for 9 and odour9 as the fifth9 are ade known +y the Veda9 together with their #roducts9 -ualities9 and the character of their action. The eternal Veda su##orts all +eingsC hence % regard it as the #rinci#le instru ent of well@+eing to this

creature9 an. &o and of ar ies9 royal authority9 the ad inistration of cri inal 7ustice9 and the so,ereignty of all worlds9 he alone deser,es who knows the Veda. $s fire9 when it has ac-uired force9 +urns u# e,en green trees9 so he who knows the Veda consu es the taint of his soul which has +een contracted fro works. He who co #rehends the essential eaning of the Veda9 in whate,er order of life he ay +e9 is #re#ared for a+sor#tion into Brah a9 e,en while a+iding in this lower world.D :anu howe,er is not satisfied with this. He goes uch +eyond and enunciates the following new doctrine D By (ruti is eant the Veda9 and +y ( riti the institutes of law: the contents of these are not to +e -uestioned +y reason9 since fro the Ha knowledge ofI duty has shone forth. The Brah an who9 relying on rationalistic treatises Ff02G9 shall conte n these two #ri ary sources of knowledge9 ust +e e"co unicated +y the ,irtuous as a sce#tic and re,iler of the Vedas. . . . . 1'. To those who are seeking a knowledge of duty9 the sruti is the su#re e authority.D

PART II

Riddle In Hinduism ________________________________________________

Contents PART II - SOCIAL Riddle no. 10 : The four ,arnas@are the +rah ins sure of their origin. Riddle no. 11 : The four ashra asthe why and how a+out the Riddle no.12 : :anu?s adness or the +rah anic e"#lanation of the origin of the i"ed castes Riddle no. 13 : The change fro #aternity to aternity. *hat did the +rah ins wish to gain +y it. Riddle no. 24 : =ali ,ar7ya or the +rah anic art of sus#ending the o#eration of sin without calling it sin $##endi" % : The riddle of the ,arnashra dhar a $##endi" %% : &o #ulsory atri ony PART II SOCIAL $ccording to the original Ta+le of &ontents +y the author 8art % and 8art %%% are

classified as Religious and 8olitical res#ecti,ely while 8art %% is not gi,en any classification. Howe,er9 this #art is classified as ?(ocial on one of the #ages fro Riddle No. 21. This 8art contained si" riddles including ? The Riddle of *o en entitled ? *hy did the Brah ins degrade the %ndian *o en . ?. This cha#ter has already +een included in Vol. No. ' of this series under the title ? Re,olution and &ounter@Re,olution ? ,ide &h. 11. Hence it is e"cluded fro this ,olu e. RIDDLE NO. 1+ THE OUR %ARNAS-ARE THE 'RAH(INS SURE O THEIR ORIGIN%t is the cardinal faith of e,ery Hindu that the Hindu (ocial Order is a Ai,ine Order. The #rescri#tions of this Ai,ine Order are three. =irst (ociety is #er anently di,ided into four classes na ely H1I Brah ins9 H2I =shatriyas9 H'I Vaishyas and H)I (hudras. Second the four classes in #oint of their utual status are linked together in an order of graded ine-uality. The Brah ins are at the head and a+o,e all others. The =shatriyas +elow the Brah ins +ut a+o,e the Vaishyas and the (hudras. The Vaishyas +elow the Brah ins and the =shatriyas +ut a+o,e the (hudras and the (hudras +elow all. Third the occu#ations of the four classes are fi"ed. The occu#ation of the Brah ins is to ac-uire learning and to teach. The occu#ation of the =shatriyas is to fight9 that of the Vaishyas to trade and that of the (hudras to ser,e as enials to the other three classes a+o,e hi . This is called +y the Hindus the Varna Ve,astha. %t is the ,ery soul of Hinduis . *ithout Varna Ve,astha there is nothing else in Hinduis to distinguish it fro other religions. That +eing so it is only #ro#er that an en-uiry should +e ade into the origin of this Varna syste . 5or an e"#lanation of its origin we ust ha,e recourse to what the ancient Hindu literature has to say on the su+7ect. %t would +e +etter to collect together in the first #lace the ,iews e"#ressed in the Vedas. This is a **-page typed script having all necessary corrections and additions incorporated by the author There are two concluding pages written by the author himself 3ll the pages of the chapter are loose sheets tagged together with a title page in the handwriting of the author !Ed. The su+7ect is referred to in the Rig@Veda in the 34th Hy n of the 14th Book. %t runs as follows: D 1. 8urusha has a thousand heads9 a thousand eyes9 a thousand feet. On e,ery side en,elo#ing the earth9 he o,er#assed HitI +y a s#ace of ten fingers. 2. 8urusha hi self is this whole Huni,erseI9 whate,er has +een and whate,er shall +e. He is also the lord of i ortality since Hor9 whenI +y food he e"#ands. '. (uch is his greatness9 and 8urusha is su#erior to this. $ll e"istences are a -uarter of hi C and three@fourths

of hi are that which is i ortal in the sky. ). *ith three -uarters 8urusha ounted u#wards. $ -uarter of hi was again #roduced here. He was then diffused e,erywhere o,er things which eat and things which do not eat. /. 5ro hi was +orn Vira79 and fro Vira79 8urusha. *hen +orn9 he e"tended +eyond the earth9 +oth +ehind and +efore. 0. *hen the 6ods #erfor ed a sacrifice with 8urusha as the o+lation9 the s#ring was its +utter9 the su er its fuel9 and the autu n its Hacco #anyingI offering. 1. This ,icti 8urusha9 +orn in the +eginning9 they i olated on the sacrificial grass. *ith hi the gods9 the (adhyas9 and the rishis sacrificed. 2. 5ro that uni,ersal sacrifice were #ro,ided curds and +utter. %t for ed those aerial HcreaturesI and ani als +oth wild and ta e. 3: 5ro the uni,ersal sacrifice s#rang the rich and sa an ,erses9 the etres and the yajush. 14. 5ro it s#rang horses9 and all ani als with two rows of teethC kine s#rang fro itC fro it goats and shee#. 11. *hen Hthe godsI di,ided 8urusha9 into how any #arts did they cut hi u#. *hat was his outh . *hat ar s Hhad heI . *hat Htwo o+7ectsI are said Hto ha,e +eenI his thighs and feet. 12. The Brah an was his outhC the Ra7anya was ade his ar sC the +eing HcalledI the Vaisya9 he was his thighsC the (udra s#rang fro his feet. 1'. The oon s#rang fro his soul H anasI9 the sun fro his eye9 %ndra and $gni fro his outh9 and Vayu fro his +reath. 1). 5ro his na,el arose the air9 fro his head the sky9 fro his feet the earth9 fro his ear the HfourI -uartersC in this anner Hthe godsI for ed the worlds. 1/. *hen the gods9 #erfor ing sacrifice9 +ound 8urusha as a ,icti 9 there were se,en sticks Hstruck u#I for it Haround the fireI9 and thrice se,en #ieces of fuel were ade. 10. *ith sacrifice the gods #erfor ed the sacrifice. These were the earliest rites. These great #owers ha,e sought the sky9 where are the for er (adhyas9 gods. D This hy n is known +y its general na e 8urusha (ukta and is su##osed to e +ody the official doctrine of Varna. How far do the other Vedas su##ort this theory. The (a a@Veda has not incor#orated the 8urusha (ukta a ong its hy ns. Nor does it gi,e any other e"#lanation of the Varna. The Ja7ur@Veda has two +ranchesthe White >ajur/Veda and the 2lac1 >ajur/ Veda. The Black Ja7ur@Veda is known to ha,e three (anhitas or collection of :antras9 the 0atha1a Sanhita$ the -aitriyani Sanhita and Taitterriya Sanhita. The *hite Ja7ur@Veda has only one (anhita which is known as Va7asaneya (anhita. The :aitriyani (anhita and the =athak (anhita of the Black Ja7ur@ Veda do not ake any reference to the 8urusha (ukta of the Rig@VedaC nor do they atte #t to gi,e any other e"#lanation of the origin of the Varna syste . %t is only Taitterriya (anhita of the Black Ja7ur@Veda and the Va7asaneya (anhita of the *hite Ja7ur@Veda that ha,e s#oken so ething relating to the Varna syste . The Va7asaneya (anhita contains one e"#lanation of the origin of the Varna (yste . The Taitterriya (anhita on the other hand contains two e"#lanations. There are two things to +e noted a+out these two e"#lanations contained in the Taitterriya (anhita.

The first is that these two do not agree with each other in the leastC they are -uite different. The second is that one of the agrees co #letely with that contained in the Va7asaneya (anhita of the *hite Ja7ur@Veda. The following is the te"t of the Taitterriya (anhita which ay +e taken as an inde#endent e"#lanation: D He Hthe VratyaI +eca e filled with #assions thence s#rang the Ra7anya D. D >et the king to whose house the Vratya who knows this9 co es as a guest9 cause hi to +e res#ected as su#erior to hi self. (o doing he does no in7ury to his royal rank9 or to his real . 5ro hi arose the Brah an HBrah anI and the =shattra H=shatriyaI.9 They said9 ?%nto who shall we enter9 etc.D The e"#lanation contained in the Va7asaneya (anhita which tallies with the second e"#lanation gi,en +y the Taitterriya (anhita reads as follows: DHe lauded with one. >i,ing +eings were for ed. 8ra7a#ati was the ruler. He lauded with three: the Brah an was created: : Brah anas#ati was the rule.. He lauded with fi,eC e"isting things were created : Braha anas#ati was the ruler. He lauded with se,enC the se,en rishis were createdC Ahatri was the ruler. He lauded with nineC the 5athers were created: $diti was the ruler. He lauded with ele,en: the seasons were created: the $rta,as were the rulers. He lauded with thirteen: the onths were created: the year was the ruler. He lauded with fifteen: the =shattra Hthe =shattriyaI was created: %ndra was the ruler. He lauded with se,enteen: ani als were created: Brihas#ati was the ruler. He lauded with nineteenC the (udra and the $rya HVaisyaI were created: day and night were the rulers. He lauded with twenty@one : ani als with undi,ided hoofs were created: Varuna was the ruler. He lauded with twenty@three: s all ani als were created: 8ushan was the ruler. He lauded with twenty@fi,eC wild ani als were created: Vayu was the ruler Hco #are R.V.". 349 2I. He lauded with twenty@se,en: hea,en and earth se#arated: Vasus9 Rudras9 and $dityas se#arated after the : they were the rulers. He lauded with twenty@nine: trees were created: (o a was the ruler. He lauded with thirty@one: li,ing +eings were created: The first and second hal,es of the onth were the rulers. He lauded with thirty@oneC e"isting things were tran-uiliBedC 8ra7a#ati 8ara eshthin was the ruler.D Here it should +e noted that not only there is no unani ity +etween the Rig@Veda and the Ja7ur@Veda +ut there is no agree ent +etween the two (a hitas of the Ja7ur@Veda on so i #ortant a su+7ect as the origin of the Varnas. >et us turn to the $thar,a@Veda. The $thar,a@Veda has also two e"#lanations to gi,e. %t incor#orates the 8urusha (ukta though the order of the ,erses ,aries fro the order in which they stand in the Rig@Veda. *hat is howe,er i #ortant to note is that the $thar,a@Veda is not content with the 8urusha (ukta. %t offers other e"#lanations also. One such e"#lanation reads as follows : DThe Brah an was +orn the first9 with ten heads and ten faces. He first drank the so aC he ade #oison #owerless D. DThe 6ods were afraid of the Ra7anya when he was in the wo +. They +ound hi
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with +onds when h.e was in the wo +. &onse-uently this Ra7anya is +orn +ound. %f he were un+orn un+ound he would go on slaying his ene ies. %n regard to whate,er Ra7anya any one desires that he should +orn un+ound9 and should go on slaying his ene ies9 let hi offer for hi this $indra@Birhas#atya o+lation. $ Ra7anya has the character of %ndra9 and a Brah an is Brihas#ati. %t is through the Brah an that any one releases the Ra7anya fro his +ond. The golden +ond9 a gift9 anifestly releases fro the +ond that fetters hi . D The other e"#lanation s#eaks of #eo#le +eing descended fro :anu and is to +e found referred to in the following #assages : D 8rayers and hy ns were for erly congregated in the %ndra9 in the cere ony which $thar,an9 father :anu9 and Aadhyanch cele+rated D. D *hate,er #ros#erity or succour father :anu o+tained +y sacrifices9 ay we gain all that under thy guidance9 4 Rudra.D D Those #ure re edies of yours9 4 :aruts9 those which are ost aus#icious9 ye ,igorous gods9 those which are +eneficient9 those which our father :anu chose9 those9 and the +lessing and succour of Rudra9 % desire.D D That ancient friend hath +een e-ui##ed with the #owers of the ighty HgodsI. 5ather :anu has #re#ared hy ns to hi 9 as #ortals of success to the gods.D D(acrifice is :anu9 our #rotecting father.D D Ao ye HgodsI deli,er9 #rotect9 and intercede for usC do not lead us far away fro the #aternal #ath of :anu.D D He H$gniI who a+ides a ong the offs#ring of :anu as the in,oker Hof the godsI9 is e,en the lord of these riches.D @ D$gni9 together with the gods9 and the children of :anush9 cele+rating a ultifor sacrifice with hy ns9 etc.D DJe gods9 Va7as9 and Ri+hukshans9 co e to our sacrifice +y the #ath tra,elled +y the gods9 that ye9 #leasing deities9 ay institute a sacrifice a ong these #eo#le of :anush on aus#icious days D. D The #eo#le of :anush #raise in the sacrifices $gni@ the in,oker.D D*hene,er $gni9 lord of the #eo#le9 kindled9 a+ides gratified a ong the #eo#le of :anush9 he re#els all Rakshasas.D (to##ing for a o ent to take stock so to say of the #osition it is -uite clear that there is no unani ity a ong the Vedas on the origin of the four Va as. None of the other Vedas agree with the Rig@Veda that the Braha in was created fro the outh of the 8ra7a#ati9 the =shatriyas fro his ar s9 the Vaishyas fro his thighs and the (hudras fro his feet. %% >et us now turn to the writings called the Brah anas and see what they ha,e to say on this -uestion. The e"#lanation gi,en +y the (ath#atha Brah ana is as follows : DHKtteringI ?bhuh*$ 8ra7a#ati generated this earth. HKtteringI ? bhuvah * he generated the air9 and HutteringI ? svah "$ he generated the sky. This uni,erse is co@e"tensi,e with these worlds. HThe fireI is #laced with the whole. (aying ? bhuh ?9 8ra7a#ati generated the Brah anC HsayingI **bhuvah* he generated the =shattraC Hand sayingI ? svah *$ he generated the Vis. The fire is #laced with the whole9 HsayingI *bhuh$ 8ra7a#ati generated
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hi selfC HsayingI ? bhuvah " he generated offs#ringC HsayingI ? svah ?9 he generated ani als. This world is so uch as self9 offs#ring9 and ani als. HThe fireI is #laced with the whole. D The (ath#atha Brah ana also gi,es another e"#lanation. %t reads as follows ?Ff/G: DBrah a Hhere9 according to the &o entator9 e"isting in the for of $gni9 and re#resenting the Brah an casteI was for erly this Huni,erseI9 one only. Being one9 it did not de,elo#. %t energetically created an e"cellent for 9 the =shattra9 ,iB.9 those a ong the gods who are #owers HkshattraniI9 %ndra9 Varuna9 (o a Rudra9 8ar7anya9 Ja a9 :rityu9 %sana. Hence nothing is su#erior to the =shattra. Therefore the Brah an sits +elow the =shattriya at the Ra7asuya@sacrificeC he confers that glory on the =shattra Hthe royal #owerI. This9 the Brah a9 is the source of the =shattraC hence9 although the king attains su#re acy9 he at the end resorts to the Brah a as his source. *hoe,er destroys hi Hthe Brah anI destroys his own source. He +eco es ost isera+le9 as one who has in7ured a su#erior. 2). He did not de,elo#. He created the Vis those classes of gods who are designated +y troo#s9 Vasus9 Rudras9 $dityas9 Vis,ade,as9 :aruts9 2/. He did not de,elo#. He created the (udra class9 8ushan. This earth is 8ushanC for she nourishes all that e"ists. 20. He did not de,elo#. He energetically created an e"cellent for . <ustice HAhar aI. This is the ruler HkshattraI of the ruler HkshattraI9 na ely 7ustice. Hence nothing is su#erior to 7ustice. Therefore the weaker seeks Hto o,erco eI the stronger +y 7ustice9 as +y a king. This 7ustice is truth. %n conse-uence they say of a an who s#eaks truth9 ? he s#eaks 7usticeC ? or of a an who .is uttering 7ustice9 ?he s#eaks truth.? 5or this is +oth of these. 21. This is the Brah a9 =shattra9 Vis9 and (udra. Through $gni it +eca e Brah a a ong the gods9 the Brah an a ong en9 through the Hdi,ineI =shatriya a Hhu anI =shattriya9 through the Hdi,ineI Vaisya a Hhu anI Vaisya9 through the Hdi,ineI (udra a Hhu anI (udra. *herefore it is in $gni a ong the gods and in a Brah an a ong en9 that they seek after an a+ode.D The Taittiriya Brah ana offers three e"#lanations. 5irst is in the following ter s : D This entire Huni,erseI has +een created +y Brah a. :en say that the Vaisya class was #roduced fro Rick@,erses. They say that the Ja7ur@Veda is the wo + fro which the =shattriya was +orn. The (a a@Veda is the source fro which the Brah ans s#rang. This word the ancients declared to the ancients.D The second says : D The Brah an caste is s#rung fro the godsC the (udra fro the $suras D. The third is as follows : D>et hi at his will ilk out with a wooden dish. But let not a (udra ilk it out. 5or this (udra has s#rung fro non@e"istence. They say that which a (udra ilks out is no o+lation. >et not a (udra ilk out the $gnihotra. 5or they do not #urify that. *hen that #asses +eyond the filter9 then it is an o+lation D. $gSin looking at the testi ony of the Brah anas how far do they su##ort the 8urusha (ukta. Not one of the do. %%%
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The ne"t thing would +e to see what the ( ritis ha,e to offer so e e"#lanation of the origin of the Varna syste . %t is worthwhile taking note of the . This is *hat :anu has to say on the su+7ect . DHe Hthe self@e"istentI ha,ing felt desire9 and willing to create ,arious li,ing +eings fro his own +ody9 first created the waters9 and threw into the a seed. 3. That seed +eca e a golden egg9 of lustre e-ual to the (unC in it he hi self was +orn as a Brah a9 the #arent of all the worlds. 14. The waters are called narah$ for they are s#rung fro NaraC and as they were his first s#here of otion he is therefore called Narayana. 11. 8roduced fro the i #erce#ti+le eternal9 e"istent and non@e"istent9 cause9 the ale H8urushaI is cele+rated in the world as Brah a. 12. $fter dwelling for a year in the egg9 the glorious +eing9 hi self9 +y his own conte #lation9 s#lit it in twain.D DThat the worlds ight +e #eo#led9 he caused the Brah an9 the =shattriya9 the Vaisya9 and the (udra to issue fro his outh9 his ar s9 his thighs9 and his feet. '2. Ha,ing di,ided his own +ody into two #arts9 the lord HBrah a +eca eI9 with the half of ale H#urushaI9 and with the half9 a fe aleC and in her he created Vira7. ''. =now9 4 ost e"cellent twice@+orn en9 that %9 who that ale9 H8urushaI Vira79 hi self a the creator of all this world. '). Aesiring to #roduce li,ing creatures9 % #erfor ed ,ery arduous de,otion and first created ten :aharshis9 6reat rishis9 lords of li,ing +eings9 '/. ,iB.9 :arichi9 $tri9 $ngiras9 8ulastya9 8ulaha9 =ratu9 8rachetas9 Vasishtha9 Bhrigu9 and Narada. '0. They9 endowed with great energy9 created other se,en :anus9 gods9 and a+odes of gods9 and :aharshis of +oundless ightC '1. Jakshas9 Rakshases9 8isachas9 6andhar,as9 $#saras9 $suras9 Nagas9 (er#ents9 great +irds9 and the different classes of #itrisC '2. >ightnings9 thunder+olts9 clouds9 #ortentous at os#heric sounds9 co ets9 and ,arious lu inariesC '3. =innars9 a#es9 fishes9 different sorts of +irds9 cattle9 deer9 en9 +easts with two rows of teethC )4. s all and large re#tiles outhsC lice9 flies9 fleas9 all gadflies9 and gnats9 and otionless things of different sorts. )1. Thus +y y a##oint ent9 and +y the force of de,otion9 was all this *orld +oth otionless and o,ing9 created +y those great +eings9 according to the H#re,iousI actions of each creature.D There is also another ,iew e"#ressed +y :anu in his ( riti as to the +asic reasons for di,iding en into four classes : D % shall now declare succinctly in order the states which the soul reaches +y eans of each of these -ualities. )4. (ouls endowed with the Sattva -uality attain to godheadC those ha,ing the ra7as -uality +eco e enC whilst those characteriBed +y ta as always +eco e +eastssuch is the threefold destination....... )'. !le#hants9 horses9 (udras and conte #ti+le :lenchhas9 lions9 tigers9 and +oars for the iddle dark condition...... )0. =ings9 =shattriyas9 a =ing?s #riests H#urohitahI9 and en whose chief occu#ation is the war of words9 co #ose the iddle condition of #assion.... )2. Ae,otees9 ascetics9 Brah ans9 the deities +orne on aerial cars9 constellations9 and Aaityas9 constitute the lowest condition of goodness. )3. (acrificing #riests9 rishis9 6ods9 the Vedas9 the celestial lu inaries9 years9 the fathers9 the (adhyas9 for the second condition of goodness. /4. Brah a9 the creators9
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righteousness9 the 6reat one ( ahat. the Kna##arent One (avya1ta. co #ose the highest condition of goodness. D :anu of course agrees with the Rig@Veda. But his ,iew is of no use for co #arison. %t is not original. He is erely re#eating the Rig@Veda. %V %t will +e interesting to co #are with these ,iews those contained in the Ra ayana and the :aha+harata. The Ra ayana says that the four Varnas are the offs#ring of :anu9 the daughter of Aaksha and the wife of =asya#a . D >isten while % declare to you fro the co ence ent all the 8ra7a#atis Hlord of creaturesI who ca e into e"istence in the earliest ti e. =arda a was the first9 then Vokrita9 (esha9 (a sraya9 the energetic Bahu#utra9 (thanu9 :arichi9 $tri9 the strong =ratu9 8ulastya9 $ngiras9 8rachetas9 8ulaha9 Aaksha9 then Vi,as,at9 $rishtane i9 and the glorious =asya#a9 who was the last. The 8ra7a#ati Aaksha is fa ed to ha,e had si"ty daughters. Of these =asya#a took in arriage eight elegant aidens9 $diti9 Aiti9 Aanu9 =alaka9 Ta ra9 =rodha,asa9 :anu and $nala. =asya#a #leased9 then said to these aids9 ?ye shall +ring forth sons like e9 #reser,ers of the three worlds. $diti9 Aiti9 Aanu and =alaka assentedC +ut the others did not agree. Thirty@three gods were +orn +y $diti9 the $dilyas9 Vasus9 Rudras9 and the two $s,ins. :anu HwifeI of =asya#a9 #roduced enBrah ans9 =shattriyas9 Vaisyas9 and (udras. ?Brah ans were +orn fro the outh9 =shattriyas fro the +reast9 Vaisyas fro the thighs9 and (udras fro the feet9 ? (o says the Veda. $nala ga,e +irth to all trees with #ure fruits.D (trange9 ,ery strange that Val iki should ha,e credited the creation of the four Varnas to =assya#a instead of to 8ra7a#ati. His knowledge was e,idently +ased only on hearsay. %t is clear he did not know what the Vedas had said. Now the :aha+harata gi,es four different e"#lanations in four different #laces. The first runs as follows: D Born all with s#lendour9 like that of great rishis9 the ten sons of 8rachetas9 re#uted to ha,e +een ,irtuous and holy C and +y the the glorious +eings were for erly +urnt u# +y fire s#ringing fro their ouths. 5ro the was +orn Aaksha 8rachetas9 and fro Aaksha9 the #arent9 of the world Hwere #roducedI9 these creatures. &oha+iting with Virini9 the :uni Aaksha +egot a thousand sons like hi self9 fa ous for their religious o+ser,ances9 to who Narada taught the doctrine of final li+eration9 the une-ualled knowledge of the (ankhya. Aesirous of creating offs#ring9 the 8ra7a#ati Aaksha ne"t for ed fifty daughters of who he ga,e ten to Ahar a9 thirteen to =asya#a9 and twenty@se,en9 de,oted to the regulation of ti e9 to %ndu H(o aI. . . . . on Aakshayani9 the ost e"cellent of his thirteen wi,es9 =asya#a9 the son of :arichi9 +egot the $dityas9 headed +y %ndra and distinguished +y their energy9 and also Vi,as,at. To Vi,as,at was +orn a son9 the ighty Ja a Vai,as,ata. To:artanda Hi.e. Vi,as,at9 the (unI was +orn the wise and ighty :anu9 and also the renowned Ja a9 his H:anu?sI younger +rother. Righteous was this wise :anu9 on who a race was
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founded. Hence this Hfa ilyI of en +eca e known as the race of :anu. Brah ans9 =shattriyas9 and other en s#rang fro this :anu. 5ro hi 4 =ing9 ca e the Brah an con7oined with the =shatriya.D The theory #ro#ounded here is ,ery uch the sa e as that contained in the Ra ayana with this difference9 na ely9 the :aha+harata akes :anu9 the #rogenitor of the four Varnas and secondly it does not say that the four Varnas were +orn fro the different #arts of :anu. The second e"#lanation gi,en +y the :aha+harata follows what is gi,en in the 8urusha (ukta of the Rig@Veda. %t reads thus: DThe =ing should a##oint to +e his royal #riest a an who will #rotect the good9 and restrain the wicked. On this su+7ect they relate this following ancient story of a con,ersation +etween 8urura,as the son of lla and :ataris,an HVayu9 the windgodI. 8urura,as said: DJou ust e"#lain to e whence the Brah an9 and whence the HotherI three castes were #roduced9 and whence the su#eriority Hof the firstI arises.D :ataris,an answered: DThe Brah an was created fro Brah a?s outh9 the =shatriya fro his ar s9 the Vaisya fro his thighs9 while for the #ur#ose of ser,ing these three castes was #roduced the fourth class9 the (udra9 fashioned fro his feet. The Brah an9 as soon as +orn9 +eco es the lord of all +eings u#on the earth9 for the #ur#ose of #rotecting the treasure of righteousness. Then Hthe creatorI constituted the =shattriya the controller of the earth9 a second Ja a to +ear the rod9 for the satisfaction of the #eo#le. $nd it was Brah a?s ordinance that the Vaisya should sustain these three classes with oney and grain9 and that the (udra should ser,e the .D The son of lla then en-uired: DTell e9 Vayu to who the earth9 with its wealth rightfully +elongs9 to the Brah an or the =shattriya . D Vayu re#lied: D $ll this9 whate,er e"ists in the world is the Brah an?s #ro#erty +y right of #ri ogenitureC this is known to those who are skilled in the laws of duty. %t is his own which the Brah an eats9 #uts on9 and +estows. He is the chief of all the castes9 the first@+orn and the ost e"cellent. <ust as a wo an when she has lost her HfirstI hus+and9 takes her +rother in law for a secondC so the Brah an is thy first resource in cala ityC afterwards another ay arise D. The third ,iew is e"#ounded in the (hanti#ar,a of the :aha+harata : Bhrigu re#lied: ? Brah a thus for erly created the 8ra7a#atis9 #enetrated +y his own energy9 and in s#lendour e-ualling the sun and fire. The lord then for ed truth9 righteousness austere fer,our9 and the eternal Veda Hor sacred scienceI9 ,irtuous #ractice9 and #urity for Hthe attain ent ofI hea,en. He also for ed the 6ods9 Aana,as9 6andhar,as9 Aaityas9 $suras9 :aharagas9 Jakshas9 Rakshasas9 Nagas9 8isachas9 and en9 Brah ans9 =shatriyas9 Vaisyas9 and (udras9 as well as all other classes H,arnaI of +eings. The colour H,arnaI of the Brah ans was whiteC that of the =shattriyas redC that of the Vaishyas yellow9 and that of the (udras +lack. ? Bharad,a7a here re7oins: ? %f the caste H,arnaI of the four classes is distinguished +y their colour H,arnaI9 then a confusion of all the castes is o+ser,a+le. Aesire9 anger9 fear9 cu#idity9
Ff12G Ff1'G

grief9 a##rehension9 hunger9 fatigue9 #re,ail o,er us all9 +y what then9 is caste discri inated. (weat9 urine9 e"cre ent9 #hleg 9 +ile and +lood Hare co on to allI the +odies of all decayC +y what then is caste discri inated . There are innu era+le kinds of things o,ing and stationary how is the class H,arnaI of these ,arious o+7ects to +e deter ined.? Bhrigu re#lies: DThere is no difference of castesD:D The fourth e"#lanation is also contained in the sa e (hanti#ar,a. %t says: D Bharad,a7a again en-uires: ? *hat is that in ,irtue of which a an is a Brah an9 a =shattriya9 a Vaisya9 or a (udraC tell e9 4 ost elo-uent Brah an rishi ?. Bhrigu re#lies: ? He who is #ure9 consecrated +y the natal and other cere onies9 who has co #letely studied the Veda9 li,es in the #ractice of the si" cere onies9 #erfor s #erfectly the rites of #urification9 who eats the re ains of o+lations9 is attached to his religious teacher9 is constant in religious o+ser,ances9 and de,oted to truth. is called a Brah an. He in who are seen truth9 li+erality inoffensi,eness9 har lessness9 odesty9 co #assion9 and austere fer,ouris declared to +e a Brah an. He who #ractises the duty arising out of the kingly office9 who is addicted to the study of the Veda9 and who delights in gi,ing and recei,ing9 is called a =shattriya. He who readily occu#ies hi self with cattle9 who is de,oted to agriculture and ac-uisition9 who is #ure9 and is #erfect in the study of the Veda9is deno inated a Vaisya. He who is ha+itually addicted to all kinds of food9 #erfor s all kinds of work9 who is unclean9 who has a+andoned the Veda9 and does not #ractise #ure o+ser,ances9is traditionally called a (udra. $nd this Hwhich % ha,e statedI is the ark of a (udra9 and it is not found in a Brah an: HsuchI a (udra will re ain a (udra9 while the Brah an Hwho so actsI will +e no Brah an. D !"ce#t in one #lace the :aha+harata gi,es no su##ort to the Rig@Vedic origin of the Varna (yste . V >et us in-uire what the 8uranas ha,e to say on the origin of the Varna (yste . To +egin with the Vishnu 8urana. There are three theories #ro#ounded in the Vishnu 8urana on the origin of the &hatur,arna. $ccording to one the origin is to +e ascri+ed to :anu. (ays the Vishnu 8urana : DBefore the undane egg e"isted the di,ine Brah a Hiranyagar+ha9 the eternal originator of all worlds9 who was the for of essence of Brah a9 who consists of the di,ine Vishnu9 who again is identical with Rik9 Ja7ush9 (a an and $thar,a Vedas. 5ro Brah a?s right thu + was +orn the 8ra7a#ati AakshaC Aaksha had a daughter $ditiC fro her was +orn Vi,as,atC and fro hi s#rang :anu. :anu had sons called %ksh,aku9 Nriga9 Ahrishta9 (aryati9 Narishanta9 8ra su9 Na+hagandishta9 =arusha and 8rishadhra. 5ro =arusha the =arushas9 =shattriyas of great #ower9 were descended. Na+haga9 the son of Nedishta9 +eca e a Vaisya. D This e"#lanation is inco #lete. %t only e"#lains the origin of =shatriyas and Vaishyas. %t does not e"#lain the origin of Brah anas and (udras. There is also another and a
Ff1)G

different ,ersion in the Vishnu 8urana. %t says: D Aesirous of a son9 :anu sacrificed to :itra and VarunaC +ut in conse-uence of a wrong in,ocation through an irregularity of the hotri H#riestI a daughter called %lla was +orn. Then through the fa,our of :itra and Varuna she +ore to :anu a son called (udyu na. But +eing again changed into a fe ale through the wrath of ls,ara H:ahade,aI she wandered near the her itage of Budha the son of (o a Hthe :oonIC who +eco ing ena oured of her had +y her a son called 8urura,as. $fter his +irth9 the 6od who is for ed of sacrifice of the Rik9 Ja7ush9 (a an9 and $thar,a Vedas9 of all things9 of ind9 of nothing9 he who is in the for of the sacrificial :ale9 was worshi##ed +y the rishis of infinite s#lendour who desired that (udyu na should reco,er his anhood. Through the fer,our of this 6od %la +eca e again (udhu na.D D $ccording to the Vishnu 8urana9 $tri was the son Of Brah a9 and the father of (o a Hthe :oonI9 who Brah a installed as the so,ereign of #lants9 Brah ans and stars. $fter cele+rating the Ra7asuya sacrifice9 (o a +eca e into"icated with #ride9 and carried u# Tara H(tarI9 the wife of Brihas#ati9 the #rece#tor of the gods9 who 9 although ad onished and entreated +y Brah a9 the gods9 and rishis9 he refused to restore. (o a?s #art was taken +y KsanasC and Rudra9 who had studied under $ngiras9 aided Brihas#ati. $ fiery conflict ensued +etween the two sides9 su##orted res#ecti,ely +y the gods and the Aaityas9 etc. Brah a inter#osed9 and co #elled (o a to restore Tara to her hus+and. (he had9 howe,er9 in the eanti e +eco e #regnant and +ore a son Budha Hthe #lanet :ercuryI9 of who 9 when strongly urged9 she acknowledged (o a to +e the father. 8urura,as9 as has +een already entioned9 was the son of this Budha +y %lla9 the daughter of :anu. D8urura,as had si" sons9 of who the eldest was $yus. $yus had fi,e sons: Nahusha9 =shattra@,riddha9 Ra +haC Ra7i9 and $nenas.D D=shattra,riddha had a son (unahotra9 who had three sons9 =asa9 >esa9 and 6ritsa ada. 5ro the last s#rang (aunaka9 who originated the syste of four castes. =asa had a son =asiraia9 of who again Airghata as was the son as Ahan,antari was Airghata as.D The third ,ersion ascri+es the origin to Brah a. %t says: D :aitreya says: ?Jou ha,e descri+ed to e the $r,aksrotas9 or hu an creationC declare to e9 O Brah an9 in detail the anner in which Brah a for ed it. Tell e how and with what -ualities9 he created the castes9 and what are traditionally re#uted to +e the functions of the Brah ans and others ?. 8arasara re#lies: '. *hen9 true to his design9 Brah a +eca e desirous to create the world9 creatures in who goodness (sattva. #re,ailed s#rang fro his outh: ). Others in who #assion (rajas. #redo inated ca e fro his +reastC other in who +oth #assion and darkness (ta as. were strong9 #roceeded fro his thighC /. Others he created fro his feet9 whose chief characteristic was darkness. Of these was co #osed the syste of four castes9 Brah ans9 =shatriyas9 Vaisyas9 and (udras9 who had res#ecti,ely issued fro his outh9 +reast9 thighs9 and feet.D Herein the Vishnu 8urana has gi,en the Rig@
Ff1/G Ff10G

Vedic theory su##orted +y the (ankhya 8hiloso#hy. %n the Hari,a sa are to +e found two theories. One u#holds the theory of the origin of the Varnas as +eing +orn fro one of the descendents of :anu as the stock of descent than the one entioned +y the Vishnu 8urana: DThe son of 6ritsa ada was (unaka9 fro who s#rang the (aunakas9 Brah anas9 =shattriyas9 Vaisyas9 and (udras. D DVitatha was the father of fi,e sons9 (uhotra9 (uhotri9 6aya9 6arga9 and the great =a#ila. (uhotra had two sons9 the e"alted =asaka9 and =ing 6ritsa ati. The sons of the latter were Brah ans9 =shattriyas and Vaisyas.D The other ,ersion s#eaks of their +eing for ed +y Vishnu who s#rang fro Brah a and had +eco e 8ra7a#ati Aaksha and is as follows ?Ff12G: D<an e7aya says: ?% ha,e heard9 O Brah an the Hdescri#tion of theI Brah a Juga9 the first of the ages. % desire also to +e accurately infor ed +oth su arily9 and in detail9 a+out the age of the =shattriyas9 with its nu erous o+ser,ances9 illustrated as it was +y sacrifice9 and descri+ed9 as it has +een +y en skilled in the art of narration.? Vaisa a#ayana re#lied. 1 shall descri+e to you that age re,ered for its sacrifices and distinguished for its ,arious works of li+erality9 as well as for its #eo#le. ! anci#ation9 #ractising uno+structed cere onies9 +oth in action and in a+stinence fro action constantly intent u#on Brah a9 united to Brah an as the highest o+7ect9Brah ans glorious and sanctified in their conduct9 leading a life of continence9 disci#lined +y the knowledge of Brah an9Brah ans co #lete in their o+ser,ances9 #erfect in knowledge9 and conte #lati,e9when at the end of a thousand yugas9 their a7esty was full9 these :unis +eca e in,ol,ed in the dissolution of the world. Then Vishnu9 s#rung fro Brah a9 re o,ed +eyond the s#here of sense9 a+sor+ed in conte #lation9 +eca e the 8ra7a#ati Aaksha9 and for ed nu erous creatures. The Brah ans9 +eautiful Hor9 dear to (o aI9 were for ed fro an i #erisha+le (a1shara.$ the =shattriyas fro a #erisha+le (1shara.$ ele ent9 the Vaisyas fro alteration9 the (udras fro a odification of s oke. *hile Vishnu was thinking u#on the castes (va an. Brah ans were for ed with white9 red9 yellow9 and +lue colour H,arnaihI. Hence in the world en ha,e +eco e di,ided into castes9 +eing of four descri#tions9 Brah ans9 =shattriyas9 Vaisyas9 and (udras9 one in for 9 distinct in their duties9 two@ footed9 ,ery wonderful9 full of energyH.I9 skilled in e"#edients in all their occu#ations. Rites are declared to +e #rescri+ed +y the Vedas for the three HhighestI castes. By that conte #lation #ractised +y the +eing s#rung fro Brah a+y that #ractised in his character as Vishnuthe >ord 8rachetasa HAakshaI9 i.e. Vishnu the great conte #lator HJoginI9 #assed through his wisdo and energy fro that state of editation into the s#here of works. Ne"t the (udras9 #roduced fro e"tinction9 are destitute of rites. Hence they are not entitled to +e ad itted to the #urificatory cere onies9 nor does sacred science +elong to the . <ust as the cloud of s oke which rises fro the fire on the friction of the fuel9 and is dissi#ated9 is of no ser,ice in
Ff11G Ff13G

the sacrificial rite9 so too the (udras wandering o,er the earth9 are altogether Huseless for #ur#oses of sacrificeI owing to their +irth9 their ode of life de,oid of #urity and their want of the o+ser,ances #rescri+ed in the Veda. D The Bhagwat 8urana has also an e"#lanation as to the origin of the Varnas9 %t says: D $t the end of any thousand years the li,ing soul which resides in ti e9 action9 and natural -uality ga,e life to that lifeless egg floating on the water. 8urusha then ha,ing +urst the egg9 issued fro it was a thousand thighs9 feet9 ar s9 eyes9 faces and heads. *ith his e +ers the sages fashion the worlds9 the se,en lower worlds with his loins etc.9 and the se,en u##er worlds with his groin9 etc. The Brah an was the outh of 8urusha9 the =shattriya his ar s9 the Vaishya was +orn fro the thighs9 the (udra fro the feet of the di,ine +eing. The earth was for ed fro his feet9 the air fro his na,elC the hea,en +y the heart9 and the ahaloka +y the +reast of the ighty one. D >astly the Vayu 8urana. *hat does it say. %t takes u# the theory of :anu as the originator of the Varna (yste . D The son of 6ritsa ada was (unaka9 fro who s#rang (aunaka. %n his fa ily were +orn Brah anas9 =shattriyas9 Vaisya9 and (udras9 twice@+orn en with ,arious functions.D V% *hat a chaos. *hy could the Brah ins not gi,e a unifor 9 and consistent e"#lanation of the origin of the four Varnas. On the issue of who created the 9 there is no unifor ity. The Rig@Veda says the four Varnas were created +y 8ra7a#ati. %t does not ention which 8ra7a#ati. One would like to know which 8ra7a#ati it was who created the four Varnas. 5or there are so any 8ra7a#atis. But e,en on the #oint of creation +y 8ra7a#ati there is no agree ent. One says they were created +y Brah an. $nother says they were created +y =assya#a. The third says they were created +y :anu. On the issue how any Varnas9 the creatorwhoe,er he was created9 again there is no unifor ity. The Rig@Veda says four Varnas were created. But other authorities say only two Varnas were created9 so e say Brah ans and =shatriyas and so e say Brah ana and (hudras. On the issue the relations intended +y the creator for +inding together the four Varnas the Rig@Veda lays down the rule of graded ine-uality +ased on the i #ortance of the #art of the creation fro which the #articular Varna was +orn. But the white Ja7ur@Veda denies this theory of the Rig@Veda. (o also the K#anishad9 Ra ayana9 :aha+harata9 and 8uranas. %ndeed the Hari Vansha goes to the length of saying that the (hudras are twice +orn. This chaos see s to +e the result of concoction of the theory of &hatur,arna which the Brah ins -uietly singled into the Rig@Veda contrary to esta+lished traditions. *hat was the #ur#ose9 what was the oti,e of the Brah ins who concocted this
Ff24G

theory. RIDDLE NO. 10 THE OUR ASHRA(AS&THE #H! AND HO# A'OUT THE( The di,ision of society into four orders called Va as is not the only #eculiar feature of Hindu (ociety. *hat is called $shra Ahar a is another. There is howe,er one #oint of difference +etween the two. The Varna Ahar a is a theory of the organiBation of society. The $shra Ahar a on the other hand is a theory of regulating the life of an indi,idual. The $shra Ahar a di,ides the life of an indi,idual into four stages H1I Brah acharya9 H2I 6rahasthashra 9 H'I Vana#rastha and H)I (annyas. The state of Brah acharya has +oth de 7ure and de facto connotation in that it eans an un arried state of life. %ts de 7ure connotation eans the stage of study under a teacher. 6rahasthashra is the stage of a householder9 a stage of a arried fa ily life. The stage of (annyas is a stage of renunciation of ci,ic rights and res#onsi+ilities. %t is a stage of ci,ic death. The stage of Vana#rastha is in +etween 6rahasthashra and (annyas. %t is a stage in which one +elongs to society +ut is +ound to li,e away fro society. $s the na e i #lies it #rescri+es dwelling in forest. The Hindus +elie,e that this institution of $shra Ahar a is as ,ital as that of the Varna Ahar a for the well@+eing society. They call the two +y a 7oint na e of Varnashra Ahar a as though they were one and integral. The two together for the steel@fra e of the Hindu (ociety. To +egin with it would +e +etter to ha,e a full understanding of the $shra Ahar a +efore in-uiring into its origin and its #ur#ose and its #eculiarities. The +est source for an e"#osition of the $shra syste is the :anu ( riti fro which the following rele,ant e"tracts are re#roduced: This is an 12@#age :anuscri#t. This is the ty#ed first co#y with a title written in the author?s handwriting.!d. D%n the eighth year after conce#tion9 one should #erfor the initiation Hu#anayanaI of a Brah ana9 in the ele,enth after conce#tion HthatI of a =shatriya9 +ut in the twelfth that of a VaisyaFf21G.D D$ twice@+orn an who9 not ha,ing studied the Veda9 a##lies hi self to other Hand worldly studyI9 soon falls9 e,en while li,ing9 to the condition of a (udra and his descendants Hafter hi I. DFf22G DThe ,ow of the three Vedas under a teacher ust +e ke#t for thirty@si" years or for half that ti e9 or for a -uarter9 or until the HstudentI has #erfectly learnt the . D D *ho has studied in due order the three Vedas9 or two9 or e,en one only9 without +reaking the Hrule ofI studentshi#9 shall enter the order of householder.D Ff2'G DThe student9 the householder9 the her it9 and the ascetic9 these HconstituteI four

se#arate orders9 which all s#ring fro Hthe order ofI householders.D DBut all HorI e,en Hany ofI these orders9 assu ed successi,ely in accordance with the %nstitutes Hof the sacred lawI9 lead the Brah ana who acts +y the #receding HrulesI to the highest state.D D$nd in accordance with the #rece#ts of the Veda and of the ( riti9 the housekee#er is declared to +e su#erior to all of the C for he su##orts the other three Ff2)G.D D $ Twice@+orn (nataka9 who has thus li,ed according to the law in the order of householders9 ay9 taking a fir resolution and kee#ing his organs in su+7ection9 dwell in the forest9 duly Ho+ser,ing the rules gi,en +elowI: D*hen a householder sees his HskinI wrinkled and Hhis hairI white9 and the sons of his sons9 then he ay resort to the forestFf2/G.D D But ha,ing thus #assed the third #art of Ha an?s natural ter ofI life in the forest9 he ay li,e as an ascetic during the fourth #art of his e"istence9 after a+andoning all attach ent to worldly o+7ects.D DHe who after #assing fro order to order9 after offering sacrifices and su+duing his senses9 +eco es tired with Hgi,ing al s and offerings of foodI9 as ascetic9 gains +liss after death.D D*hen he has #aid the three de+ts9 let hi a##ly his ind to Hthe attain ent ofI final li+erationC he who seeks it without ha,ing #aid Hhis de+tsI sinks downwards.D D Ha,ing studied the Vedas in accordance with the rule9 ha,ing +egot sons according to the sacred law9 and ha,ing offered sacrifices according to his a+ility9 he ay direct his ind to Hthe attain ent ofI final li+eration.D D$ twice@+orn an who seeks final li+eration9 without ha,ing studied the Vedas9 without ha,ing +egotten sons9 and without ha,ing offered sacrifices9 sinks downwards?Ff20G.D 5ro these rules it is clear that according to :anu there are three features of the $shra Ahar a. 5irst is that it is not o#en to (hudras and wo en. The second is Brah acharya which is co #ulsory9 so is 6rahasthashra . Vana#rastha and (annyas are not co #ulsory. The third is that one ust #ass fro one stage to another in the order in which they stand na ely first Brah acharya9 then 6rahasthashra 9 then Vana#rastha and lastly (annyas. No one can o it one and enter the ne"t stage. $ cursory reflection on this syste of stages which ay well +e called a syste of #lanned econo y of the life of the indi,idual raises any -uestions. 5irst is what forced :anu to ha,e such a syste of #lanned econo y. Referring to the Vedas9 the theory of stages in life is -uite unknown. The Vedas s#eak of Brah achari. But there is nothing to show that Brah acharya was regarded as the first and inesca#a+le stage in life. *hy did the Brah ins ake Brah acharya as the co #ulsory stage in the life of an indi,idual. This is the first riddle a+out the $shra Ahar a. The second -uestion is why :anu ade it o+ligatory to o+ser,e the order of se-uence in the following of the different stages of life +y the indi,idual. Now there is no dou+t that there was a ti e when it was o#en to a Brah achari to enter any of the three $shra sM

He ay +eco e a 6rahasthashra i or he ay at once +eco e a (annyasi without +eco ing a 6rahasthashra i. &o #are what the authors of the Ahar a (utras ha,e to say on the #oint. Vasistha Ahar a (utra Ff21G says: DThere are four orders ,iB. Hthat ofI the student9 Hthat ofI the householder9 Hthat ofI the her it9 and Hthat ofI the ascetic D. D$ an who has studied one9 two or three Vedas without ,iolating the rules of studentshi#9 ay enter any of these HordersI whichsoe,er he #leases. D 6auta a Ahar a (utraFf22G says: D(o e Hdeclare9 thatI he Hwho has studied the VedaI ay ake his choice HwhichI a ong the orders Hhe is going to enter.ID The four orders are9 Hthat ofI the student Hthat ofI the householder9 HthatI of the ascetic H+hikshuI Hand that ofI the her it in the woods HVaikhanasaI. %t is o+,ious fro the ,iews e"#ressed +y the Ahar a (hastras that there was a ti e when the arried state was an o#tional state. $fter Brah acharya one would straight enter the stage of Vana#rastha or (annyasa. *hy did :anu re o,e the o#tion and ake the arried state an o+ligatory state9 why did he ake the arried state a condition #recedent to the stage of her it and the stage of her it a condition #recedent to the stage of a (annyas. $fter 6rahasthashtra there re ain two stages to co #lete the round of life Vana#rastha and (annyas. The -uestion is why :anu felt the necessity of life of the indi,idual after 6rahasthsra into two stages. *hy was one stage of (annyas not enough. The rules of regulating the life of the Vana#rastha and the (annyasi as laid down in :anu are so alike that they gi,e so e #oint to the -uestion. %n the following ta+le a co #arati,e study is ade of the &odes for the Vana#rastha and the (annyasa as #rescri+ed +y :anu: T5e Code 6o7 %*n*87*st5* D$+andoning all food raised +y culti,ation and all his +elongings9 he ay de#art into the forest9 either co itting his wife to his sons9 or acco #anied +y her.D &h. Vl@'. T5e Code 6o7 S*nn9*si DHa,ing #erfor ed the %shti9 sacred to the >ord of creaturesH8ra7a#atiI where Hhe gi,esI all his #ro#erty as the sacrificial fee9 ha,ing re#osited the sacred fires in hi self9 a Brah ana ay de#art fro his house9 Has an asceticI.D &h. Vl@'2. D*orlds9 radiant in +rilliancy9 +eco e Hthe #ortionI of hi who recites Hthe te"tsI regarding Brah an and de#arts fro his house Has an asceticI9 after gi,ing a #ro ise of safety to all created +eings.D &h. Vl@'3. D 5or that twice@+orn an9 +y who not the s allest danger there will +e no

DTaking with hi the sacred fire and the i #le ents re-uired for do estic HsacrificesI he ay go forth fro the ,illage into the forest and reside there9 duly controlling his senses.D &h. Vl@) D >et hi offer those fi,e great sacrifices according to the rule9 with

,arious kinds of #ure food fit for ascetics9 or with her+s9 roots and fruit.D V%@/. D >et hi wear a skin or a tattered gar entC let hi +athe in the e,ening or in the orning and let hi always wear Hhis hair inI +raids the hair on his +ody9 his +eard9 and his nails H+eing uncli##edI.D V%@0. D >et hi #erfor the Bali@offering with such food as he eats and gi,e al s according to his a+ilityC let hi honour those who co e to his her itage with al s consisting of water roots and fruit.D V%@1. ?D >et hi +e always industrious in #ri,ately reciting the VedaC let hi +e #atient of hardshi#s9 friendly Htowards allI9 of collected ind9 e,er li+eral and ne,er a recei,er of gifts9 and co #assionate towards all li,ing creatures.D V%@2. D >et hi offer9 according to the law9 the $gni@hotra with three sacred fires9 ne,er o itting the new@ oon and full@ oon sacrifices at the #ro#er ti e.D V%@3. D >et hi also offer the Nakshatreshti9 the $grayana9 and the =atur asya HsacrificesI9 as well as the Turayana and likewise the Aakshayana9 in due order.D V%@14.

danger fro anyH-uarterI after he is freed fro his +ody.D &h. V%@)4. D Ae#arting fro his house fully #ro,ided with the eans of #urification H8a,itraI9 let hi wander a+out a+solutely silent9 and caring nothing for en7oy ents that ay +e offered Hto hi I.D &h. V%@)1. D >et hi always wander alone9 without any co #anion9 in order to attain Hfinal li+erationI fully understanding that the solitary H an9 whoI neither forsakes nor is forsaken9 gains his end.D &h. V%@)2. D He shall neither #ossess a fire9 nor a dwelling9 he ay go to a ,illage for his food9 Hhe shall +eI indifferent to e,erything9 fir of #ur#ose9 editating HandI concentrating his ind on Brah an.D &h. V%@)'.

D *ith #ure grains9 fit for ascetics9 which grow in s#ring and in autu n9 and which he hi self has collected9 let hi se,erally #re#are the sacrificial cakes H#urodasaI and the +oilded esses

D$ #otsherd Hinstead of an al s@+owlI the roots of trees Hfor a dwellingI9 coarse worn@out gar ents9 life in solitude and indifference towards e,erything9 are the arks of one who has attained li+eration. &h. V%@)). D >et hi not desire to die9 let hi not desire to li,e9 let hi wait for Hhis a##ointedI ti e9 as a ser,ant HwaitsI for the #ay ent of his wages.D &h. V%@)/. D Aelighting in what refers to the (oul9 sitting Hin the #ostures #rescri+ed +y the JogaI9 inde#endent Hof e"ternal hel#I entirely a+staining fro sensual en7oy ents9 with hi self for his only

HkaruI9 as the law directs.D V%@1 11.

D Ha,ing offered those ost #ure sacrificial ,iands9 consisting of the #roduce of the forest9 he ay use the re ainder for hi self H i"ed withI salt #re#ared +y hi self.D V%@12. D >et hi eat ,egeta+les that grow on dry land or in water9 flowers9 roots and fruits9 the #roductions of #ure trees9 and oils e"tracted fro forest@fruits.D V%@1'. D>et hi a,oid honey9 flesh and ushroo s growing on the groundHor elsewhere9 the ,egeta+les calledI Bhustrina9 and (igruka9 and the (lesh antaka fruit.DV%@1). D>et hi throw away in the onth of $s,ina the food of ascetics. which he for erly collected9 likewise his worn@out clothes and his ,egeta+les9 roots9 and fruit.D V%@1/. D>et hi not eat anything Hgrown onI #loughed HlandI9 though it ay ha,e +een thrown away +y so e+ody9 nor roots and fruit grown in a ,illage9 though Hhe ay +eI tor ented H+y hungerI.D V%@ 10. D He ay eat either what has +een cooked with fire9 or what has +een ri#ened +y ti e: he either ay use a stone for grinding or his teeth his ortar.D V%@11.

co #anion9 he shall li,e in this world9 desiring the +liss Hof final li+eration.D &h. V%@)3. D Neither +y He"#lainingI #rodigies and o ens9 nor +y skill in astrology and #al istry nor +y gi,ing ad,ice and +y the e"#osition Hof the (astrasI let hi 9 e,er seek to o+tain al s.D &h. V%@ /4. D >et hi not Hin order to +egI go near a house filled with her its9 Brah anas9 +irds9 dogs or other endicants.D &h. V%@/1. D His hair9 nails and +eards +eing cli##ed carrying an al s@+owl9 a staff9 and a water@#ot9 let hi continually wander ?a+out controlling hi self and not hurting any creature.D &h.V%@/2. D His ,essels shall not: +e ade of etal9 they shall +e free fro fractures it is ordained that they shall +e cleansed with water9 likeHthe cu#s9 calledI =a asa9 at a sacrifice.D &h. V%@ /'. D$ gourd9 a wooden +owl9 an earthen HdishI9 or one ade of s#lit cane9 :anu the son of (,aya +hu9 has declared Hto +eI ,essels Hsuita+leI for an ascetic.D &h.V%@/).

D >et hi go to +eg once Ha dayI9 let hi not +e eager to o+tain a large -uantity Hof al sIC for an +e ascetic who eagerly seeks9 al s9 attaches hi self also to sensual en7oy ents.D &h. V%@//. D He ay either at once Hafter his daily D *hen no s oke ascends fro Hthe ealI cleanse Hhis ,essel for collecting kitchenI9 when the #estle lies foodI9 or lay u# a store sufficient for a otionless9 when the e +ers ha,e

onth9 or gather what suffices for si" +een e"tinguished9 when the #eo#le onths or for a year.D V%@12. ha,e finished their eal9 when the re nants in the dishes ha,e +een re o,ed9 let the ascetic always go to +eg.D &h. V%@/0. D Ha,ing collected food according to D >et hi not +e sorry when he his a+ility he ay either eat at night o+tains nothing9 nor re7oice when he HonlyI or in the dayti e HonlyI9 or at o+tains Hso ethingI9 let hi Hacce#tI e,ery fourth ealti e9 or at e,ery so uch only as will sustain life9 let hi eighth.D V%@13. not care a+out the H-uality of hisI utensils.D &h. V%@/1. D Or9 he ay li,e according to the rule D>et hi disdain all HfoodI o+tained in of the lunar #enance H=andrayanaI9 daily conse-uence of hu +le salutations9 di inishing the -uality of his food in the HforI e,en an ascetic who has attained +right Hhalf of the onthI and Hincreasing final li+eration9 is +ound Hwith the it in the dark HhalfIC or he ay eat on the fetters of the (a saraI +y acce#ting last days of each fortnight once Ha day Hfood gi,enI in conse-uence of hu +le onlyI9 +oiled +arley@gruel.D V%@24. salutations.D &h. V%@/2. D Or9 he ay constantly su+sist on D By eating little9 and +y standing and flowers9 roots9 and fruit alone9 which sitting in solitude9 let hi restrain his ha,e +een ri#ened +y ti e and ha,e senses9 if they are attracted +y sensual fallen s#ontaneously following the rule of o+7ects.D &h. V%@/3. the H%nstitutesI of Vikhanas D V%@21. EE >et hi either roll a+out on the D By the restraint of his senses9 +y ground9 or stand during the day on the destruction of lo,e and hatred9 and ti#toe9 HorI let hi alternately stand and +y the a+stention fro in7uring the sit downC going at the (a,anas Hat creatures9 he +eco es fit for sunrise9 at idday9 and at sunsetI to i ortality.D &h. V%@04. water in the forest Hin order to +atheI.D V%@22. D %n su er let hi e"#ose hi self to D*hen +y the dis#osition Hof his the heat of fi,e fires9 during the rainy heartI he +eco es indifferent to all season li,e under the o#en sky9 and in o+7ects9 he o+tains eternal ha##iness winter +e dressed in wet clothes9 HthusI +oth in this world and after death.D &h. gradually increasing Hthe rigour ofI his V%@24. austerities.D V%@2'. D*hen he +athes at the three (a,anas D He who has in this anner H(unrise9 idday and (unsetI9 let hi gradually gi,en u# all attach ents and offer li+ations of water to the anes and is freed fro all the #airs Hof the gods9 and #ractising harsher and o##ositesI9 re#oses in Brah an

harsher austerities9 let hi dry u# his +odily fra e.D V%@2). D Ha,ing re#osited the three sacred fires in hi self9 according to the #rescri+ed rule9 let hi li,e without a fire9 without a house wholly silent9 su+sisting on roots and fruit.D V%@2/. D :aking no effort Hto #rocureI things that gi,e #leasure9 chaste9 slee#ing on the +are ground9 not caring for any shelter9 dwelling at the roots of trees. V%@ 20.

alone.D &h. V%@21. D$ll that has +een declared Ha+o,eI de#ends on editationC for he who is not #roficient in the knowledge of that which refers to the (oul rea#s not the full reward of the #erfor ance of rites.D &h. V%@22. D >et hi constantly recite Hthose te"tsI of the Veda which refer to the sacrifice9 HthoseI referring to the deities9 and HthoseI which treat of the (oul and are contained in the concluding #ortions of the Veda HVedantaI.D &h. V%@2'. DThat is the refuge of the ignorant9 and e,en that Hthe refugeI of those who know Hthe eaning of the VedaIC that is Hthe #rotectionI of those who seek H+liss inI hea,en and of those who seek endless H+eatitudeI.D &h. V%@ 2). D$ twice@+orn an who +eco es an ascetic9 after the successi,e #erfor ance of the a+o,e@ entioned acts9 shakes off sin here +elow and reaches the highest Brah an.D &h. V%@ 2/

D 5ro Brah anas Hwho li,e asI ascetics let hi recei,e al s9 H+arely sufficientI to su##ort life9 or fro other householders of the twice@+orn HcastesI who reside in the forest.D V%@21.

DOr Hthe her it who dwells in the forestI ay +ring food fro a ,illage9 recei,ing it either in a hollow dish Hof lea,esI9 in Hhis nakedI hand9 or in a +roken earthen dish9 and ay eat eight outhfuls. D V% @ 22 DThese and other o+ser,ances ust a Brah ana who dwells in the forest diligently #ractise9 and in order to attain co #lete Hunion withI the Hsu#re eI (oul9 Hhe ust studyI the ,arious sacred te"ts contained in the K#anishads.D V%@ 23.

&o #aring the Vana#rastha with (annyas and 6rahastashra with Vana#rastha one sees so e ,ery striking rese +lances +etween the . &o #aring Vana#rastha with (annyas there are only a few differences in the odes of life #rescri+ed for the . 5irstly

a Vana#rastha does not a+andon his wife or his rights o,er his #ro#erty. But a (annyasi ust a+andon +oth. (econdly9 a Vana#rastha can ha,e a fi"ed dwelling although it ust +e in a forest. But a (annyasi cannot ha,e a fi"ed dwelling not e,en in a forest. He ust kee# on wandering fro #lace to #lace. Thirdly9 a (annyasi is de+arred fro e"#ounding the (hastras while the Vana#rastha is not e"#ressly #laced under such a disa+ility. $s for the rest their ode of life is identical. The rese +lance +etween 6rahasthashra and Vana#rastha is also ,ery close. The Vana#rasthi is a 6rahastashra i for all essential #ur#oses. >ike the 6rahastashra i +e continues to +e a arried an. >ike the 6rahastashra i he continues to +e the owner of his #ro#erty. >ike the 6rahastashra i he does not renounce the world and like the 6rahastashra i he follows the Vedic religion. The only #oints of difference +etween the Vana#rasthi and the 6rahastashra i are three. H 1 I the 6rahastashra i is not +ound to o+ser,e a+stinence in his food and clothing to which a Vana#rasti is su+7ect. H2I The 6rahastashra i dwells in the idst of society while the Vana#rasthi is re-uired to li,e in a forest. H'I The Vana#rasti is free to study the Vedanta while the 6rahastashra i is confined to the study of the Vedas. $s for the rest their odes of life are identical. Ha,ing regard to these close rese +lances +etween 6rahasthashra and Vana#rastha and +etween Vana#rastha and (annyas it is difficult to understand why :anu recogniBed this third ashra of Vana#rastha in +etween 6rahasthashra and (annyas as an ashra distinct and se#arate fro +oth. $s a atter of fact9 there could +e only three ashra s: H1I Bra hacharya9 H2I 6rahastashra and H'I (annyas. This see s to +e also the ,iew of (hankaracharya who in his Brah a (utra in defending the ,alidity of (annyas against the 8ur,a :i ansa (chool s#eaks only of three ashra as. *here did :anu get this idea of Vana#rastha $shrarn. *hat is his source. $s has +een #ointed out a+o,e9 6rahasthashra was not the ne"t co #ulsory stage of life after Brah acharya. $ Brah achari ay at once +eco e (annyasi without entering the stage of 6rahasthashra . But there was also another line of life which a Brah achari who did not wish to arry i ediately could ado#t na ely to +eco e $ranas or $rana anasFf23G. They were Brah acharies who wish to continue the life of (tudy without arrying. These $ranas li,ed in her itages in forests outside the ,illages or centres of #o#ulation. The forests where these $rana ascetics li,ed were called $ranyas and the #hiloso#hical works of these aranas were called $ranyakas. %t is o+,ious that :anu?s Vana#rastha is the original $rana with two differences H1I he has co #elled $rana to enter the arital state and H2I the arana stage instead of +eing the second stage is #rescri+ed as the third stage. The whole sche e of :anu rest in the #rinci#le that arriage is co #ulsory. $ Brah achari if he wishes to +eco e a (annyasi he ust +eco e a Vana#rastha and if he wishes to +eco e a Vana#rastha he ust +eco e a 6rasthashra i i.e.9 he ust arry. :anu ade esca#e fro arriage i #ossi+le. *hy.

RIDDLE NO.11 (ANU:S (ADNESS OR THE 'RAH(ANIC EXPLANATION O THE ORIGIN O THE (IXED CASTES

$ reader of the :anu ( riti will find that :anu for the #ur#oses of his discussion grou#s the ,arious castes under certain s#ecific heads na ely H1I $ryan &astes9 H2I Non@$ryan &astes9 H'I Vratya &astes9 H)I 5allen &astes and H/I (ankara &astes. By $ryan &astes he eans the four ,arnas na ely Brah ana9 =shatriya9 Vaishya and (hudra. %n other words9 :anu regards the syste of &hatur@,arna to +e the essence of $ryanis . By Non@$ryan &astes he eans those co unities who do not acce#t the creed of &hatur,arna and he cites the co unity called Aasyu as an illustration of those who he regards as a Non@$ryan co unityFf'4G. By Vratyas he eans those castes who were once +elie,ers in the &hatur,arna +ut who had re+elled against it. The list of Vratyas gi,en +y :anu includes the following castes: Vratya Brah anas 1. Bhrigga =antaka 2. $,antya '. Vatadhana ). 8hush#ada /. (aikha Vratya =shatriyas 1. <halla 2. :alla '. >accha,i ). Nata /. =arana 0. =hasa 1. Ara,ida. Vratya Vaishyas 1. (udhan,ana 2. $charya '. =arusha ). Vi7an an /. :aitra 0. (at,ata

This is a+out 24@#age :( on the origin of the i"ed castes ?. Through the original ty#ed :( se,eral handwritten #ages are inserted +y the author and the te"t has +een odified with se,eral a end ents #asted on the #ages.!d. %n the list of 5allen &astes :anu includes those =shatriyas who ha,e +eco e (hudras +y reason of the disuse of $ryan rites and cere onies and loss of ser,ices of the Brah in #riests. They are enu erated +y :anu as under: 1. 8aundrakas 2. &holas '. Ara,idas ). =a +ho7as 1. 8aradas 2. 8ahl,as 3. &hinas 14. =iratas

/. Ja,anas 0. (akas

11. Aaradas

By (ankara &astes :anu eans &astes the e +ers of which are +orn of #arents who do not +elong to the sa e caste. These i"ed castes he di,ides into ,arious categories H1I 8rogeny of different $ryan &astes which he su+di,ides into two classes HaI $nulo a and H+I 8ratilo a9 H2I 8rogeny of $nulo a and 8ratilo a &astes and H'I 8rogeny of Non@$ryan and the $ryan $nulo a and 8ratilo a &astes. Those included +y :anu under the head of i"ed castes are shown +elow under different categories:
1. 1. 8RO6!NJ O5 :%N!A $RJ$N &$(T!(

5ather Brah an Brah an Brah an =shatriya =shatriya =shatriya Vaishya Vaishya Vaishya (hudra (hudra (hudra

:other =shatriya Vaishya (hudra Brah an Vaishya (hudra Brah an =shatriya (hudra Brah an =shatriya Vaishya

8rogeny known as $nulo a or 8ratilo a . $ +ashta Nishad H8arasa,aI (uta . Kgra Vaidehaka :agadha =arana &handala =sattri $yoga,a $nulo a $nulo a 8ratilo a $nulo 8ratilo 8ratilo $nulo 8ratilo 8ratilo 8ratilo a a a a a a a

2. 8RO6!NJ O5 $RJ$N &$(T!( *%TH $NK>O:$@8R$T%>O:$ &$(T!( 5ather 1. Brah an 2. Brah an '. Brah an ). (hudra :other Kgra $ +ashta Nishada $+hira 8rogeny =nown $s $,rita Ahig,ana =ukutaka $+hira

2. 2. 8RO6!NJ O5 :%N!A :$RR%$6!( B!T*!!N $NK>O:$ $NA

8R$T%>O:$ &$(T!(

5ather 1. Vaideha 2. Nishada '. Nishada ). Vaidehaka /. Vaidehaka 0. Vaidehaka 1. &handala 2. Nishada 3. &handala 14. &handala 11. =shattari

:other $yoga,a $yoga,a Vaideha $ +ashta =ara,ara Nishada Vaideha Vaideha 8ukkassa Nishada Kgra

8rogeny known as :aitreyaka :arga,a HAasI =ai,arta =ara,ara Vena $ndhra :eda 8anduso#aka $hindaka (o#aka $ntya,asin (wa#aka

To :anu?s list of (ankar H i"edI &astes additions ha,e +een ade +y his successors. $ ong these are the authors of $ushanas ( riti9 Baudhayana ( riti9 Vashistha ( riti9 Ja7na,alkya ( riti and the (uta (anhita. Of these additions four ha,e +een ade +y the $ushanas ( riti. They are noted +elow: Na e of the i"ed caste 1. 8ulaksa 2. Jeka7 '. &har akarka ). Venuka 5ather?s caste (hudra 8ulaksa $yoga,a (uta :other?s caste =shatriya Vaishya Brah in Brah in

The following four are added +y the Baudhayana ( riti Na e of the i"ed caste 1. =shatriya 2. Brah ana '. Vaina ). (h,a#aka 5ather?s caste =shatriya Brah ana Vaidehaka Kgra :other?s caste Vaishya =shatriya $ +ashta =shatriya

Vashishta ( riti adds one to the list of :anu9 na ely: Na e of the :i"ed caste Vaina 5atherTs caste =shatriya :otherTs caste (hudra

The Ja7na,alkya ( riti adds two new castes to :anu?s list of Na e of i"ed caste 1. :urdha,asika 2. :ahisya 5atherTs caste Brah in =shatriya

i"ed castes.

:otherTs caste =shatriya Vaishya

The $dditions ade +y the author of the (uta (anhita are on a ,ast scale. They nu +er si"ty@three castes. Na e of the i"ed caste 1. $ +ashteya 2. Krdh,ana#ita '. =atkar ). =u +hkar /. =unda 0. 6olaka 1. &hakri 2. Aaushantya 3. Aaushantee 14. 8attanshali 11. 8ulinda 12. Bahyadas 1'. Bho7a 1). :ahikar 1/. :ana,ika 10. :leccha 11 (halika 12. (hundika 13. (hulikha 24. (a#arna 21. $gneyanartaka 22. $#itar 2'. $shra aka 2). Kda+andha 2/. =arana 20. =ar a 21. =ar akar 5ather?s caste =shatriya Brah an Vaishya Brah an Brah an Brah an (hudra =shatriya =shatriya (hudra Vaishya (hudra Vaishya Vaishya (hudra Vaishya Vaishya Brah in =shatriya Brah an $ +ashta Brah an Aantake,ala (anaka Nata =arana Renuka :other?s caste Vaishya Vaishya (hudra Vaishya :arried Brah in Brah in *idow Vaishya (hudra (hudra Vaishya =shatriya Brah in =shatriya Vaishya (hudra =shatriya =shatriya (hudra (hudra =shatriya $ +ashta Aaushanti (hudra =shatriya =shatriya =shatriya =shatriya

22. =ar ar 23. =ukkunda '4. 6uhaka '1. &har o#a7i,an '2. &ha akar ''. &har a7i,i '). Taksha '/. Taksha,riti '0. Aantaka,elaka '1. Aasyu '2. Aru ila '3. Nata )4. Na#ita )1. Niladi,arna,ikreta )2. 8iccahalla )'. 8ingala )). Bhagla+dha )/. Bharusha )0. Bhaira,a )1. :atanga )2. :adhuka )3. :atakar /4. :aitra /1. Ra7aka /2. Rathakar /'. Renuka /). >ohakar //. Vardhaki /0. Varya /1. Vi7an a /2. (hil# /3. (h,a#ach 04. (anaka 01. (a udra 02. (at,ata 0'. (unishada

:ahishya :agadha (wa#ach Vaidehika $yoga,a Nishad :ahishya Kgra &handala Nishad Nishad 8icchalla Nishada $yoga,a :alla Brah in Aaushanta (udhan,a Nishada Vi7an a Vaidehika Aasyu Vi7an a Vaideha :ahishya Na#ita :ahishya :ahishya (udhan,a Bharusha :ahishya &handala :agadha Takasha,rati Vi7an a Nishad

=arana (hudra Brah an Brah an Brah ani =arushi =arana Brah an Vaishya $yoga,a =shatriya =shatriya Brah in &hirkari =shatriya $yoga,a Brah ani Vaishya (hudra Vaishya $yoga,a Vaishya Vaishya Brah an =arana Brah an Brah ani Brah ani Vaishya Vaishya =arana Brah ani =shatriya Vaishya Vaishya Vaishya

Of the fi,e categories of castes it is easy to understand the e"#lanation gi,en +y :anu as regards the first four. But the sa e cannot +e said in res#ect of his treat ent of the

fifth category na ely the (ankar H i"edI caste. There are ,arious -uestions that +egin to trou+le the ind. %n the first #lace :anu?s list of i"ed castes is a #erfunctory list. %t is not an e"hausti,e list9 stating all the #ossi+ilities of (ankar. %n discussing the i"ed castes +orn out of the i"ture of the $ryan castes with the $nulo a@8ratilo a castes9 :anu should ha,e s#ecified the na es of castes which are the #rogeny of each of the four $ryan castes with each of the 12 $nulo a@8ratilo a castes. %f he had done so we should ha,e had a list of forty@eight resulting castes. $s a atter of fact he states only the na es of four castes of i"ed arriages of this category. %n discussing the #rogeny of i"ed arriages +etween $nulo a@8ratilo a castes gi,en the fact that we ha,e 12 of the 9 :anu should ha,e gi,en the na es of 1)) resulting castes. $s a atter of fact9 :anu only gi,es a list of % % castes. %n the for ation of these % % castes9 :anu gi,es fi,e #ossi+le co +inations of / castes only. Of these one HVaidehaI is outside the $nulo a@8ratilo a list. The case of the 2 are not considered at all. His account of the (ankar castes +orn out of the Non@$ryan and the $ryan castes is e-ually discre#ant. *e ought to ha,e had first a list of castes resulting fro a co +ination +etween the Non@$ryans with each of the four $ryan castes. *e ha,e none of the . $ssu ing that there was only one Non@$ryan casteAasyuwe ought to ha,e had a list of 12 castes resulting fro a con7ugation of Aasyus with each of the $nulo a@8ratilo a castes. $s a atter of fact we ha,e in :anu only one con7ugation. %n the discussion of this su+7ect of i"ed castes :anu does not consider the con7ugation +etween the Vratyas and the $ryan castes9 the Vratyas and the $nulo a@ 8ratilo a castes9 the Vratyas and the Non@$ryan castes. $ ong these o issions +y :anu there are so e that are glaring as well as significant. Take the case of (ankar +etween Brah ins and =shatriyas. He does not ention the caste +orn out of the (ankar +etween these two. Nor does he ention whether the (ankar caste +egotten of these two was a 8ratilo a or $nulo a. *hy did :anu fail to deal with this -uestion. %s it to +e su##osed that such a (ankar did not occur in his ti e. Or was he afraid to ention it. %f so9 of who was he afraid. (o e of the na es of the i"ed castes entioned +y :anu and the other ( ritikaras a##ear to +e -uite fictitious. 5or so e of the co unities entioned as +eing of +astard origin ha,e ne,er +een heard of +efore :anu. Nor does any one know what has ha##ened to the since. They are today non@e"istent without lea,ing any trace +ehind. &aste is an insolu+le su+stance and once a caste is for ed it aintains its se#arate e"istence9 unless for any s#ecial reason it dies out. This can ha##en +ut to a few. *ho are the $yoga,a9 Ahig,ana9 Kgra9 8ukkasa9 (,a#aka9 (,a#acha9 8anduso#aka9 $hindaka9 Bandika9 :alta9 :ahikar9 (halika9 (hundika9 (hulika9 Jeka79 =ukunda to ention only a few. *here are they. *hat has ha##ened to the .

>et us now #roceed to co #are :anu with the rest of ( ritikars. $re they unani ous on the origin of the ,arious i"ed castes referred to +y the . 5ar fro it co #are the following cases. ( riti 1. :anu 2. $ushanas '. Ja7na,alkya ). Baudhayana /. $gni 8urana 1. :anu 2. $ushanas '. Ja7na,alkya ). Vashishtha /. (uta 1. :anu 2. $ushanas '. Baudhayana ). Ja7na,alkya /. (uta (anhita 0. (uta (anhita 1. Vashishta 1. :anu 2.Brihad@Vishnu '.Brihad@Vishnu 1. :anu 2. (uta '. Baudhayana ). Ja7na,alkya /.Brihad Vishnu 0.Brihad Vishnu 1.Brihad Vishnu 1. $ushanas 5ather?s caste 1 $JO6$V$ (hudra Vaishya (hudra Vaishya (hudra 11 K6R$ =shatriya Brah an =shatriya =shatriya Vaishya %%% N%(H$A$ Brah ana Brah ana Brah ana Brah ana Brah ana Brah ana Vaishya %V 8K==$($ Nishada (hudra Vaishya V :$6$AH$ Vaishya Vaishya (hudra Vaishya Vaishya (hudra Vaishya V% R$TH$=$R =shatriya :other?s caste Vaishya =shatriya Vaishya =shatriya =shatriya (hudra (hudra Vaishya Vaishya (hudra (hudra (hudra (hudra (hudra Vaishya (hudra (hudra (hudra =shatriya =shatriya =shatriya =shatriya Vaishya =shatriya =shatriya =shatriya Brah an Brah ana

2. Baudhayana '. (uta 1. :anu 2. :anu '. Ja7na,alkya

Vaishya =shatriya V%% V$%A!H$=$ (hudra Vaishya Vaishya

(hudra Brah ana Vaishya Brah ana Brah ana

%f these different ( ritikaras are dealing with facts a+out the origin and genesis of the i"ed castes entioned a+o,e how can such a wide difference of o#inion e"ist a ong the . The con7ugation of two castes can@logically #roduce a third i"ed caste. But how the con7ugation of the sa e two castes #roduce a nu +er of different castes . But this is e"actly what :anu and his followers see to +e asserting. &onsider the following cases: %. &on7ugation of =shatriya father and Vaishya other. 1. Baudhyayana says that the caste of the #rogeny is =shatriya. 2. Ja7na,alkya says it is :ahishya. '. (uta says it is $ +ashta. %%. &on7ugation of (hudra father and =shatriya other 1. :anu says the 8rogeny is =sattri. 2. $ushanas says it is 8ullaksa. '. Vashishta says it is Vaina. %%%. &on7ugation of Brah ana father and Vaishya other. 1. :anu says that the #rogeny is called $ +ashta. 2. (uta once says it is called Krdha,a Na#ita +ut again says it is called =u +hakar. %V. &on7ugation of Vaishya father and =shatriya other 1. :anu says that the #rogeny is called :agadha. 2. (uta states that H1I Bho7a9 H2I :leccha9 H'I (halik and H)I 8ulinda are the 8rogenies of this single con7ugation. V. &on7ugation of =shatriya father and (hudra other 1. :anu says that the #rogeny is called Kgra. 2. (uta says that H1I Aaushantya9 H2I Aaushantee and H'I (hulika are the #rogenies of this single con7ugation. V%. &on7ugation of (hudra father and Vaishya other 1. :anu says the #rogeny is called $yoga,a. 2. (uta says the #rogeny is H1I 8attanshali and H2I &hakri. >et us take u# another -uestion. %s :anu?s e"#lanation of the genesis of the i"ed castes historically true. To +egin with the $+hira. $ccording to :anu the $+hiras are the +astards +orn of Brah in ales and $ +ashta fe ales. *hat does history say a+out the . History says that the $+hiras Hthe corru#t for of which is $hiraI were #astoral tri+es which inha+ited the lower districts of the North@*est as far as (indh. They were a ruling

inde#endent Tri+e and according to the Vishnu 8uranaFf'1G the $+hiras con-uered :agadha and reigned there for se,eral years. The $ +ashtaFf'2Gsays :anu are the +astards +orn of Brah ana ale and Vaishya fe ale. 8atan7ali s#eaks of $ +ashtyas as those who are the nati,es of a country called $ +ashta. That the $ +ashtas were an inde#endent tri+e is +eyond dis#ute. The $ +ashtas are entioned +y :egasthenes the 6reek $ +assador at the &ourt of &handragu#ta :aurya as one of the tri+es li,ing in the 8un7a+ who fought against $le"ander when he in,aded %ndia. The $ +ashtas are entioned in the :aha+harata. They were re#uted for their #olitical syste and for their +ra,ery. The $ndhrasFf''G says :anu are +astards of second degree in so far as they are the #rogeny of Vaidehaka ale and =ara,ara fe ale +oth of which +elong to +astard castes. The testi ony of history is -uite different. The $ndhras are a #eo#le who inha+ited that #art of the country which for s the eastern #art of the Aeccan 8lateau. The $ndhras are entioned +y :egasthenes. 8liny the !lder H11 $.A.I refers to the as a #owerful tri+e en7oying #ara ount sway o,er their land in the Aeccan9 #ossessed nu erous ,illages9 thirty walled towns defended +y oats and lowers and su##lies their king with an i ense ar y consisting of 19449444 infantry9 29444 ca,alry and 19444 ele#hants. $ccording to :anu the :agadhasFf')G are +astards +orn of Vaishya ale and =shatriya fe ale9 #anini the 6ra arian gi,es -uite a different deri,ation of ?:agadha?. $ccording to hi D:agadha?D eans a #erson who co es fro the country known as :agadha. :agadha corres#onds roughly to the #resent 8atna and 6aya districts of Bihar. ?The :agadhas ha,e +een entioned as inde#endent so,ereign #eo#le right fro the earliest ti es. They are first entioned in the $thar,a@Veda. The fa ous <arasandha was the king of :agadha who was a conte #orary of the 8anda,as. $ccording to :anu the Nishadas are the +astards +orn caste fro Brah in ales and (hudra fe ales. History has -uite a different talc to tell. The Nishadas were a nati,e tri+e with its own inde#endent territory and its own kings. They are a ,ery ancient tri+e. The Ra ayana entions 6uha as the =ing of Nishadas whose ca#ital was (ringa,era#ura and who showed hos#itality to Ra a when he was undergoing e"cile in the forest. $s to the Vaidehaka :anu says that they are the +astards +orn of Vaishya :ale and Brah in fe ale. !ty ologically Vaidehaka eans a #erson who is a nati,e of the country called VidehaFf'/G $ncient Videha corres#onds to the odern districts of &ha #aran and Aar+hanga in Bihar. The country and its #eo#le ha,e +een known to history fro a ,ery re ote anti-uity. The Ja7ur@Veda entions the . Ra ayana refers to the . (ita the wife of Ra a is the daughter of <anak who was the king ol Videha and whose ca#ital was :ithila. :any ore cases could +e e"a ined. Those that ha,e +een are -uite sufficient to show how :anu has #er,erted history and defa ed the ost res#ecta+le and #owerful

tri+es into +astards. This wholesale +astardiBation of huge co unities :anu did not a##ly to the Vratyas. But his successors carried the sche e further and +astardiBed the Vratyas also. =a a in :anu is Vratya. But the Brah a Vai,arta 8urana akes the Bastards and says that they are the #rogeny of Vaishya father and (hudra other. 8aundraka in :anu is Vratya. But in the Brah a,ai,arta 8urana he is a +astard +orn of Vaishya father and &hundi other. :alla in :anu is Vratya. But in the Brah a Vai,arta 8urana he is a +astard horn of >etta father and Ti+ara other. The Vhar77akautakas are Vratya Brah anas according to :anu. But in the 6auta a (anhita they are +astards +orn fro a Brah an father and Vaishya other. The Ja,anas were declared +y :anu as Vratya =shatriya. But in 6auta a (anhita they are shown as +astards +orn of a =shatriya father and (hudra other. The =iratas are according to :anu Vratya =shatriyas. But the Ballalacharitta akes the +astards horn fro Vaishya father and Brah in other. %t is -uite clear that so e of the co unities entioned +y :anu as +eing +astard in origin far fro +eing +astard were inde#endent in origin and yet :anu and the rest of the ( ratikara?s call the Bastards. *hy this adness on their #art. %s there a ethod in their adness . Ha,ing regard to all these considerations it is a riddle why :anu at all raised the -uestion of i"ed castes and what he wanted to saU a+out the . %t is #ossi+le that :anu had realiBed that the &hatur,arna had failed and that the e"istence of a large nu +er of castes which should neither +e descri+ed as Brah anas9 =shatriyas9 Vaishyas and (hudras was the +est #roof of the +reak down of the &hatur,arna and that he was therefore called u#on to e"#lain how these castes who were outside the &hatur,arna ca e into e"istence notwithstanding the rule of &hatur,arnas. But did :anu realiBe how terri+le is the !"#lanation which he has gi,en. *hat does his e"#lanation a ount to. *hat a reflection on the character of en and #articularly of wo en. %t is o+,ious that the unions of en and wo en ust ha,e +een clandestine +ecause #rohi+ited +y the rule of &hatur,arna. (uch clandestine unions could take #lace only here and there. They could not ha,e taken #lace on a wholesale scale. But unless one assu es a wholesale state of #ro iscuity how can one 7ustify the origin of the &handals or untoucha+les as gi,en +y :anu. The caste of &handala is said +y :anu to +e the #rogeny of illegiti ate intercourse +etween a (hudra ale and a Brah an fe ale. &an this +e true. %t eans that Brah in wo en ust ha,e +een ,ery la" in their orality and ust ha,e had s#ecial se"ual attraction for the (hudra?Ff'0G. This is un+elie,a+le. (o ,ast is the &handala #o#ulation that e,en if e,ery Brah in fe ale was a istress of a (hudra it could not account of the ,ast nu +er of &handalas in the country.

Aid :anu realiBe +y #ro#ounding his theory of the origin of the i"ed castes he was assigning an igno+le origin to a ,ast nu +er of the #eo#le of this country leading to their social and oral degradation. *hy did he say that the castes were i"ed in origin9 when as a atter of fact they were inde#endent in their e"istence. RIDDLE NO. 1; RO( PATERNIT! TO (ATERNIT!. #HAT DID THE 'RAH(INS #ISH TO GAIN '! IT-

THE CHANGE

:r. :ayne in his treatise on Hindu law has #ointed out so e ano alous features of the rules of =inshi#s. He says: DNo #art of the Hindu >aw is ore ano alous than that which go,erns the fa ily relations. Not only does there a##ear to +e a co #lete +reak of continuity +etween the ancient syste and that which now #re,ails9 +ut the different #arts of the ancient syste a##ear in this res#ect to +e in direct conflict with each other. *e find a law of inheritance9 which assu es the #ossi+ility of tracing ale ancestors in an un+roken #edigre e"tending to fourteen generationsC while cou#led with it is a fa ily law9 in which se,eral ad itted for s of arriage are only eu#he is s for seduction and ra#e9 and in which twel,e sorts of sons are recogniBed9 the a7ority of who ha,e no +lood relationshi# to their own father.D The e"istence of this ano aly is a fact and will +e -uite clear to those who care to study the Hindu >aw of arriage and #aternity. The Hindu >aw recogniBes eight different for s of arriage9 na ely H1I Brah a9 H2I Aai,a9 H'I $rsha9 H)I 8ra7a#atya9 H/I $sura9 H0I 6andhar,a9 H1I Rakshasa and H2I 8aisacha. The Brah a arriage is the gift of a daughter9 clothed and decked to a an learned in the Veda9 who her father ,oluntarily in,ites and res#ectfully recei,es. The Aai,a arriage consists of the gi,ing of the daughter +y father to the fa ily #riest attending a sacrifice at the ti e of the #ay ent of the sacrificial fee and in lieu of it. +rsha arriage is characteriBed +y the fact that the +ridegroo has to #ay a #rice for the +ride to the father of the +ride. 3rajapatya for of arriage is arked +y the a##lication of a an for a girl to +e his wife and the granting of the a##lication +y the father of the girl. 7This is an eleven-page typed chapter 85cept the title of the chapter no other additions are found in the handwriting of the author ! Ed./ The difference +etween 8ra7a#atya and Brah a arriage lies in the fact that in the latter the gift of the daughter is ade +y the father ,oluntarily +ut has to +e a##lied for. The fifth or the +sura for of arriage is that in which the +ridegroo ha,ing gi,en as uch wealth as he can afford to the father and #aternal kins en and to the girl herself takes her as his wife. There is not uch difference +etween +rsha and $sura for s of arriage. Both in,ol,e sale of the +ride. The difference lies in this that in the $rsha for

the #rice is fi"ed while in the $sura for it is not. 6andhar,a arriage is a arriage +y consent contracted fro nonreligious and sensual oti,es. :arriage +y seiBure of a aiden +y force fro her house while she wee#s and calls for assistance after her kins en and friends ha,e +een slain in +attle or wounded and their houses +roken o#en9 is the arriage styled "a1shasa. 3aisacha arriage is arriage +y ra#e on a girl either when she is aslee# or flushed with strong li-uor or disordered in her intellect. Hindu >aw recogniBed thirteen kinds of sons. H1I $urasa9 H2I =shetra7a9 H'I 8autrika#utra9 H)I =anina9 H/I 6udha7a9 H0I 8unar+ha,a9 H1I (ahodha7a9 H2I Aattaka9 H3I =ritri a9 H14I =ritaka9 H%%I $#a,iddha9 H12I (,aya datta and H1'I Nishada. The +urasa is a son +egotten +y a an hi self u#on his lawfully wedded wife. 3utri1aputra eans a son +orn to a daughter. %ts significance lies in the syste under which a an who had a daughter +ut no son could also ha,e his daughter to coha+it with a an selected or a##ointed +y hi . %f a daughter ga,e +irth to a son +y such se"ual intercourse the son +eca e the son of the girl?s father. %t was +ecause of this that the son was called 8utrika#utra. :an?s right to co #el his daughter to su+ it to se"ual intercourse with a an of his choice in order to get a son for hi self continued to e"ist e,en after the daughter was arried. That is why a an was warned not to arry a girl who had no +rothers. 0shetraja literally eans son of the field i.e.9 of the wife. %n Hindu ideology the wife is likened to the field and the hus+and +eing likened to the aster of the field. *here the hus+and was dead9 or ali,e +ut i #otent or incura+ly diseased the +rother or any other sapinda of the deceased was a##ointed +y the fa ily to #rocreate a son on the wife. The #ractice was called #iyoga and the son so +egotten was called 0sheiraja. %f an un arried daughter li,ing in the house of her father has through illicit intercourse gi,en +irth to a son and if she su+se-uently was arried the son +efore arriage was clai ed +y her hus+and as his son. (uch a son was called 0anina. The Eudhaja was a##arently a son +orn to a wo an while the hus+and had access to her +ut it is sus#ected that he is +orn of an adulterous connection. $s there is no #roof +y an irre+uta+le #resu #tion so to say the hus+and is entitled to clai the son as his own. He is called Eudhaja +ecause his +irth is clouded in sus#icious. 6udha eaning sus#icion. Sahodhaja is a son +orn to a wo an who was #regnant at the ti e of her arriage. %t is not certain whether he is the son of the hus+and who had access to the other +efore arriage or whether it is the case of a son +egotten +y a #erson other than the hus+and. But it is certain that the Sahodhaja$ is a son +orn to a #regnant aiden and clai ed as his son +y the an who arries her. 3unarhhava is the son of a wo an who a+andoned +y her hus+and and ha,ing li,ed with others9 re@enters his fa ily. %t is also used to denote the son of a wo an who lea,es an i #otent9 outcaste9 or a ad or diceased hus+and and takes another

hus+and. 3arasavaFf'1G is the son of a Brah in +y his (hudra wife. The rest of the sons are ado#ted sons as distinguished for those who were clai ed as sons. Aatta1a is the son who his father and other gi,e in ado#tion to another whose son he then +eco es. 0ratri a is a son ado#ted with the ado#tee?s consent only. 0rita is a son #urchased fro his #arents. +paviddha is a +oy a+andoned +y his #arents and is then taken in ado#ted and reckoned as a son. Svaya datta is a +oy +ereft of #arents or a+andoned +y the seeks a an shelter and #resents hi self saying ? >et e +eco e thy son ? when acce#ted he +eco es his son. %t will +e noticed how true it is to say that any for s of arriage are only eu#he is s for seduction and ra#e and how any of the sons ha,e no +lood relationshi# to their father. These different for s of arriage and different kinds of sons were recogniBed as lawful e,en u# to the ti e of :anu and e,en the changes ade +y :anu are ,ery inor. *ith regard to the for s of arriage :anu Ff'2G does not declare the to +e illegal. $ll that he says that of the eight for s9 si"9 na ely9 Brah a9 Aai,a9 $rsha9 8ra7a#atya9 $sura9 6andhar,a9 Rakshasa and 8aisachya are lawful for a =shatriya9 and that three na ely $sura9 6andhar,a and 8aisachya are lawful for a Vaishya and a (hudra. (i ilarly he does not disaffilate any of the 12 sons. On the contrary he recognises their kinshi#. The only change he akes is to alter the rules of inheritance +y #utting the into two classes H1I heirs and kins en and H2I kins en +ut not heirs. He says Ff'3G: 1/3. DThe legiti ate son of the +ody. the son +egotten on a wife. the son ado#ted9 the son ade9 the son secretly +orn9 and the son east off HareI the si" heirs and kins en.D 104. DThe son of an un arried da sel9 the son recei,ed with the wife9 the son +ought9 the son +egotten on a re arried wo an: the son self@gi,en and the son of a (udra fe ale HareI the si" Hwho areI not heirs9 H+utI kins en.D 102. D %f the two heirs of one an +e a legiti ate son of his +ody and a son +egotten on his wife9 each Hof the two sonsI9 to the e"clusion of the other9 shall take the estate of his HnaturalI father.D 10'. DThe legiti ate son of the +ody alone Hshall +eI the owner of the #aternal estate: +ut. in order to a,oid harshness9 let hi allow a aintenance to the rest.D There is another #art of the law of consanguinity which has undergone a #rofound change +ut which has hardly +een noticed +y any+ody. %t relates to the deter ination of the Varna of the child. *hat is to +e the Varna of the child. %s it to +e the father?s Varna or the other?s Varna . $ccording to the law as it #re,ailed in the days +efore :anu the Varna of the child was deter ined +y the Varna of the father. The Varna of the other was of no account. $ few illustrations will suffice to #ro,e the thesis.

5ather Na e 1. (hantanu 2 8arashara ' Vashishta ) (hantanu / Vishwa itra 0. Jayati 1. Jayati 2 <aratkari Varna =shtriya Brah an a Brah ana =shatriya =shatriya =shatriya =shatriya Brah an

:other Na e 6anga :atsyagandh a $ksha ala :atsyagandh a :enka Ae,ayani (har ishta <aratkari Varna Knknown 5isher a n 8ayan 5isher a n $#sara Brah in $suri Naga

&hild Na e Bhish a =rish Varna kshatriya Awaya

Vichitra,irya (hakuntala Jadu Aruhya $stika

kshatriya kshatriya kshatriya =shatriya Brah in

*hat does :anu do. The changes ade +y :anu in the law of the child?s Varna are of a ost re,olutionary character. :anuFf)4G lays down the following rules: /. D%n all castes H,arnaI those HchildrenI only which are +egotten in the direct order on wedded wi,es9 e-ual Hin casteI and arried as H,irginsI are to +e considered as +elonging to the sa e caste Has their fathersI.D 0. D (ons9 +egotten +y twice@+orn en on wi,es of the ne"t lower castes9 they declare to +e si ilar Hto their fathers9 +utI +la ed on account of the fault HinherentI in their others.D 1). DThose sons of the twice@+orn9 +egotten on wi,es of the ne"t lower castes9 who ha,e +een enu erated in due order9 they call +y the na e $nantaras H+elonging to the ne"t lower casteI on account of the +le ish HinherentI in their othersD )1. D(i" sons9 +egotten H+y $ryansI on wo en of e-ual and the ne"t lower castes H$nantaraI9 ha,e the duties of twice@+orn en: +ut ail those +orn in conse-uence of a ,iolation of the law are9 as regards their duties9 e-ual to (udras.D :anu distinguishes the following cases: H1I *here the father and other +elong to the sa e Varna. H2I *here the other +elongs to a Varna ne"t lower to that of the father e.g.. Brah an father and =shatriya other9 =shatriya father and Vaishya other9 Vaishya father and (hudra other. H'I *here the other +elongs to a Varna ore than one degree lower to that of the father9 e.g.. Brah in father and Vaishya or (hudra other9 =shatriya father and (hudra other. %n the first case the Varna of the child is to +e the Varna of the father. %n the second case also the Varna of the child is to +e the Varna of the father. But in the third case the child is not to ha,e the father?s Varna. :anu does not e"#ressly say what is to +e the Varna of the child if it is not to +e that of the father. But all the co entators of :anu :edhatithi. =alluka Bhatt. Narada and Nanda#andit@agree saying what of the course is o+,ious that in such cases the Varna of the child shall +e

the Varna of the other. %n short :anu altered the law of the child?s Varna fro that of 8itrasa,arna@according to father?s Varna to :atrasa,arnaaccording to other?s Varna. This is ost re,olutionary change. %t is a #ity few ha,e realiBed that gi,en the for s of arriage9 kinds of sons9 the #er issi+ility of $nulo a arriages and the theory of 8itrasa,arnya9 the Varna syste notwithstanding the desire of the Brah ins to ake it a closed syste re ained an o#en syste . There were so any holes so to say in the Varna syste . (o e of the for s of arriage had no relation to the theory of the Varna. %ndeed they could not ha,e. The Rakshas and the 8aisachya arriages were in all #ro+a+ility arriages in which the ales +elonged to the lower ,arnas and the fe ales to the higher ,arnas. The law of sonshi# #ro+a+ly left any loo#holes for the sons of (hudra to #ass as children of the Brah in. Take for instances sons such as 6udha7as9 (ahodha7as9 =anina. *ho can say that they were not +egotten +y (hudra or Brah in9 =shatriya or Vaishya. *hate,er dou+ts there ay +e a+out these the $nulo a syste of arriage which was sanctioned +y law co +ined with the law of 8itrasa,arnya had the #ositi,e effect of kee#ing the Varna syste of allowing the lower Varnas to #ass into the higher Varna. $ (hudra could not +eco e a Brah in9 a =shatriya or a Vaishya. But the child of a (hudra wo an could +eco e a Vaishya if she was arried to a Vaishya9 a =shatriya if she was arried to a =shatriya and e,en a Brah in if she was arried to a Brah in. The ele,ation and the incor#oration of the lower orders into the higher orders was #ositi,e and certain though the way of doing it was indirect. This was one result of the old syste . The other result was that a co unity of a Varna was always a i"ed and a co #osite co unity. $ Brah in co unity ight concei,a+ly consist of children +orn of Brah in wo en9 =shatriya wo en9 Vaishya wo en9 and (hudra wo en all entitled to the rights and #ri,ileges +elonging to the Brah in co unity. $ =shatriya co unity ay concei,a+ly consist of children +orn of =shatriya wo en9 Vaishya wo en and (hudra wo en all recogniBed as =shatriya and entitled to the rights and #ri,ileges of the =shatriya co unity. (i ilarly the Vaishya co unity ay concei,a+ly consist of children +orn of Vaishya wo en and (hudra wo en all recogniBed as Vaishyas and entitled to the rights and #ri,ileges of the Vaishya co unity. The change ade +y :anu is o##osed to so e of the ost funda ental notions of Hindu >aw. %n the first #lace9 it is o##osed to the =shetra@=shetra7a rule of Hindu >aw. $ccording to this rule9 which deals with the -uestion of #ro#erty in a child says that the owner of the child is the de jure hus+and of the other and not the de facto father of the child. :anu is aware of this theory. He #uts it in the following ter s?Ff)1G: DThus en who ha,e no arital #ro#erty in wo en9 +ut sow in the fields owned +y others9 ay raise u# fruit to the hus+ands9 +ut the #rocreator can ha,e no ad,antage fro it. Knless there +e a s#ecial agree ent +etween the owners of the land and of the seed9 the fruit +elongs clearly to the landowner9 for the rece#tacle is ore i #ortant

than the seed.D %t is on this that the right to the 12 kinds of sons is founded. This change was also o##osed to the rule of 8atna 8otestas. Hindu fa ily is a 8atriarchal fa ily sa e as the Ro an fa ily. %n +oth the father #ossessed certain authority o,er e +ers of the fa ily. :anu is aware of this and recogniBed it in ost a #le ter s. Aefining the authority of the Hindu father9 :anu says: DThree #ersons9 a wife9 a son9 and a sla,e9 are declared +y law to ha,e in general no wealth e"clusi,ely their ownC the wealth which they ay earn is regularly ac-uired for the an to who they +elong.D They +elong to the head of the fa ily@na ely the father. Knder the 8atna 8otestas the sons earnings are the #ro#erty of the father. The change in the law of #aternity ean a definite loss to the father. *hy did :anu change the law fro 8itra@sa,arnya to :atra@sa,arnya . RIDDLE NO. $2 "ALI %AR<!A OR THE 'RAH(ANIC ART O SUSPENDING THE OPERATION O SIN #ITHOUT CALLING IT SIN 5ew ha,e heard of the Brah anic dog a called =ali Var7ya. %t ust not +e confused with another Brah anic Aog a of =ali Juga. The dog a of =ali Var7a #rescri+es that custo s and usages which are ,alid and good in other yugas are not to +e o+ser,ed in the =ali $ge. The references to these instructions are scattered in the different 8uranas. But the $ditya#urana has codified the and +rought the togetherEFf)2G. The #ractices which are =ali Var7ya are gi,en +elow: H1I To a##oint the hus+and?s +rother for #rocreating a son on a widow. H2I The re arriage of a H arriedI girl Hwhose arriage is not consu atedI and of one Hwhose arriage was consu atedI to another hus+and Hafter the death of the first. H'I The arriage with girls of different Varna a ong #ersons of the three twice@+orn classes. H)I The killing e,en in a straight fight of Brah anas that ha,e +eco e des#eradoes. H/I The acce#tance Hfor all ordinary intercourse such as eating with hi I of a twice@ +orn #erson who is in the ha+it of ,oyaging o,er the sea in a shi# e,en after he has undergone a pray ascuta. H0I The initiation for a sattra. H1I The taking of a 0a andali Ha 7ar for waterI. H2I (tarting on the 6reat <ourney. H3I The killing of a cow in the sacrifice called Eo edha. H14I The #artaking of wine e,en in the Sraut ani sacrifice.

This is a nine-page typed copy with several corrections by the author himself -or /otes on all )* 9ali Var.yas, please see /otes to 3ppendi5 : of this part ! Ed. H11@12I >icking the ladle HsrucI after the $gnihotra Hoa a in order to take off the re ains of the offerings and using the ladle in the $gnihotra afterwards when it has +een so licked. H1'I !ntering into the stage of forest her it as laid down in sastras a+out it. H1)I >essening the #eriods of i #urity Hdue to death and +irthI in accordance with the conduct and Vedic learning of a an. H1/I 8rescri+ing death as the #enance Cprayascitta. for Brah ans. H10I !"#iation H+y secretly #erfor ed prayascittas. of the ortal sins other than theft Hof goldI and the sin of contact Hwith those guilty of :aha#atakasI. H11I The act of offering with :antras ani al flesh to the +ridegroo 9 the guest and the #itras. H12I The acce#tance as sons of those other than the aurasa HnaturalI and ado#ted sons. H13I Ordinary intercourse with those who incurred the sin of Hha,ing intercourse withI wo en of higher castes9 e,en after they had undergone the prayascitta for such sin. H24I The a+andon ent of the wife of an elderly #erson or of one who is entitled to res#ectI when she has had intercourse with one with who it is se,erely conde ned. H21I =illing oneself for the sake of another. H22I 6i,ing u# food left after one has #artaken of it. H2'I Resol,e to worshi# a #articular idol for life Hin return for #ay entI. H2)I Touching the +odies of #ersons who are in i #urity due to death after the charred +ones are collected. H2/I The actual slaughter +y Brah anas of the sacrificial ani al. H20I (ale of the (o a #lant +y Brah anas. H21I (ecuring food e,en fro a (udra when a Brah ana had no food for si" ti es of eals Hi.e.9 for three daysI. H22I 8er ission to Ha Brah anaI householder to take cooked food fro (udras if they are his dasas$ cowherds9 hereditary friends9 #ersons culti,ating his land on an agree ent to #ay #art of the #roduce. H23I 6oing on a ,ery distant #ilgri age. H'4I Beha,iour of a #u#il towards his teacher?s wife as towards a teacher that is declared Hin ( ritisI. H'1I The aintenance +y Brah anas in ad,ersity H+y following unworthy a,ocationsI and the ode of li,elihood in which a Brah ana does not care to accu ulate for to orrow. H'2I The acce#tance of aranis Htwo wooden +locks for #roducing fireI +y Brah anas in the Fo a at the ti e of ?ata1ar a in order that all the cere onies for the

child fro ?ata1ar a to his arriage ay +e #erfor ed therein. H''I &onstant 7ourneys +y Brah anas. H')I Blowing of fire with the outh Hi.e.9 without e #loying a +a +oo dha aniI. H'/I $llowing wo en who ha,e +eco e #olluted +y ra#e9 etc.9 to freely i" in the caste Hwhen they ha,e #erfor ed #rayascittaI as declared in the sastric te"ts. H'0I Begging of food +y a sannyasin fro #ersons of all Varnas Hincluding (udraI. H'1I To wait Hi.e.9 not to useI for ten days water that has recently +een dug in the grounds. H'2I 6i,ing fee to the teacher as de anded +y hi Hat the end of studyI according to the rules laid down in the sastra. H'3I The e #loy ent of (udras as cooks for Brah anas and the rest. H)4I suicide of old #eo#le +y falling fro a #reci#ice of into fire. H)1I 8erfor ing aca ana +y res#ecta+le #eo#le in water that would re ain e,en after a cow has drunk it to its heart?s content. H)2I 5ining witnesses who de#ose to a dis#ute +etween father and son. H)'I (annyasin should stay where he ha##ens to +e in the e,ening. The strange thing a+out this code of =ali@Var7ya is that its significance has not +een fully a##reciated. %t is si #ly referred to as a list of things for+idden in =ali Jug. But there is ore than this +ehind this list of don?ts. 8eo#le are no dou+t for+idden to follow the #ractice listed in the =ali Var7ya &ode. The -uestion howe,er9 is: $re these #ractices conde ned as +eing i oral9 sinful or otherwise har ful to society. The answer is no. One likes to know why these #ractices if they are for+idden are not conde ned. Herein lies the riddle of the =ali Var7ya &ode. This techni-ue of for+idding a #ractice without conde ning it stands in utter contrast with the #rocedure followed in earlier ages. To take only one illustration. The $#asta +ha Ahar a (utra for+ids the #ractice of gi,ing all #ro#erty to the eldest son. But he conde ns it. *hy did the Brah ins in,ent this new techni-ue9 for+id +ut not conde n. There ust +e so e s#ecial reason for this de#arture. *hat is that reason. APPENDIX I THE RIDDLE O THE %ARNASHRA( DHAR(A Reference has already +een ade to the two dog as of Varna Ahar a and $shar Ahar a9 which are called +y the collecti,e na es of Varnashra Ahar a and which for so funda ental a #art of Hinduis . %t cannot +ut +e instructi,e to know the ,iews e"#ressed +y the ancient writers on these strange dog as. To +egin with Varna Ahar a. %t would +e +etter to collect together in the first #lace the ,iews e"#ressed in the Vedas. The su+7ect is referred to in the Rig@Veda in the 34th Hy n of the 14th Book. %t runs as follows:@

D 1. 8urusha has a thousand heads9 a thousand eyes. a thousand feet9 on e,ery side en,elo#ing the earth he o,er#assed HifI +y a s#ace of ten fingers. 2. 8urusha hi self is this whole Huni,erseI9 whate,er has +een and whate,er shall +e. He is also the lord of i ortality since Hor9 whenI +y food he e"#ands. '. (uch is his greatness9 and 8urusha is su#erior to this. $ll e"istences are a -uarter of hi : and three@fourths of hi are that which is i ortal in the sky. ). *ith three -uarters 8urusha ounted u#wards. $ -uarter of hi was again #roduced here. He was then diffused e,erywhere o,er@things which eat and things which do not eat. /. 5ro hi was +orn Vira79 and fro Vira79 8urusha. *hen +orn9 he e"tended +eyond the earth9 +oth +ehind and +efore. 0. *hen the 6ods #erfor ed a sacrifice This is a consolidated ,ersion of Riddle No. 10 P 11 entitled ? Va ashra Ahar a ?. This title does not find #lace in the original Ta+le of &ontents. Hence this is #laced as $##endi". %t is difficult to identify which of the two ,ersions is later. Luotations ha,e +een retained in +oth the te"ts while the inter#retation see s to he odified at ,arious #laces. This is a //@#age ty#ed co#y without ha,ing any corrections +y the author.!d The $thar,a@Veda incor#orates the 8urusha (ukta. But the order of the ,erses ,aries fro the order in which they stand in the Rig@Veda. But like the Va7aseniya (anhita and the Taitterriya (anhita of the Ja7ur@Veda the $thar,a is not content with the 8urusha (ukta. %t offers other e"#lanations. They are not as co #lete and as uni,ersal as the 8urusha (ukta +ut they are s#ecial to it Ff.)'G : DThe Brah an was +orn the first9 with ten heads and ten faces. He first drank the so a9 he ade #oison #owerlessD. DThe 6ods were afraid of the Ra7anya when he was in the wo +. They +ound hi with +onds when he was in the wo +. &onse-uently this Ra7anya is +orn +ound. %f he were un+orn un+ound he would go on slaying his ene ies. %n regard to whate,er Ra7anya any one desires that he should +e +orn un+ound9 and should go on slaying his ene ies9 let hi offer for hi this $indra@Birhas#atya o+lation. $ Ra7anya has the character of %ndra9 and a Brah an is Brihas#ati. %t is through the Brah an that any one releases the Ra7anya fro his +ond. The golden +ond9 a gift9 anifestly releases fro the +ond that fetters hi . D 8urusha as the origin of the four Varnas is not the only e"#lanation of the origin of the Varna syste that is to +e found in the Vedas. There is another e"#lanation. %t s#eaks of #eo#le +eing descended fro :anu and is to +e found referred to in the following #assages Ff.))G: D 8rayers and hy ns were for erly congregated in the %ndra9 in the cere ony which $thar,an9 father :anu9 and Aadhyanch cele+rated D. *hate,er #ros#erity or succour father :anu o+tained +y sacrifices9 ay we gain all that under thy guidance9 o Rudra.D D Those #ure re edies of yours9 O :aruts9 those which are ost aus#icious9 ye ,igorous gods9 those which are +eneficient9 those which our father :anu chose9 those9 and the +lessing and succour of Rudra9 % desire.D

D That ancient friend hath +een e-ui##ed with the #owers of the ighty HgodsI. 5ather :anu has #re#ared hy ns to hi 9 as #ortals of success to the gods.D D(acrifice is :anu9 our #rotecting father.D D Ao ye HgodsI deli,er9 #rotect9 and intercede for usC do not lead us far away fro the #aternal #ath of :anu.D DHe H$gniI who a+ides a ong the offs#ring of :anu as the in,oker Hof the godsI9 is e,en the lord of these riches.D D$gni9 together with the gods9 and the children of :anush9 cele+rating a ultifor sacrifice? with hy ns etc. D D Je gods9 Va7as9 and Ri+hukshans9 co e to our sacrifice +y the #ath tra,elled +y the gods. that ye9 #leasing deities9 ay institute a sacrifice a ong these #eo#le of :anush on aus#icious days.D DThe #eo#le of :anush #raise in the sacrifices $gni the in,oker.D S*hene,er $gni9 lord of the #eo#le9 kindled9 a+ides gratified a ong the #eo#le of :anush9 he re#els all Rakshasas.D >et us now turn to the writing called the Brah anas and take note of what they ha,e to say on this -uestion. The e"#lanation gi,en +y the (atha#atha Brah ana is as follows Ff.)/G : DHKtteringI ?+huh?. 8ra7a#ati generated this earth. HKtteringI ?+hu,ah? he generated the air9 and HutteringI ?s,ah?. he generated the sky. This uni,erse is co@e"tensi,e with these worlds. HThe fireI is #laced with the whole. (aying ? +huh ?9 8ra7a#ati generated the Brah an HsayingI ?+hu,ah? he generated the =shattraC Hand sayingI ?s,ah?9 he generated the Vis. The fire is #laced with the whole. H(ayingI ?+huh?9 8ra7a#ati generated hi selfC Hsaying ?+hu,ah? he generated offs#ringC HsayingI ?s,ah? he generated ani als. This world is so uch as self9 offs#ring9 and ani als. HThe fireI is #laced with the whole.D Besides this there is another e"#lanation to +e found in this Brah ans Ff.)0G: DBrah a Hhere9 according to the co entator9 e"isting in the for of $gni9 and re#resenting the Brah an casteI was for erly . this Huni,erseI9 one only. Being one9 it did not de,elo#e. %t energetically created an e"cellent for 9 the =shattra9 ,iB.9 those a ong the gods who are #owers HkshattraniI9 %ndra9 Varuna9 (o a9 Rudra9 8ar7anya9 Ja a9 :rityu9 %ssana. Hence nothing is su#erior to the =shattra. Therefore the Brah an sits +elow the =shattriya at the ra7asuya@sacrifice: he confers that glory on the kshattra Hthe royal #owerI. This. the Brah a9 is the source of the =shattra: Hence9 although the king attains9 su#re acy9 he at the end resorts to the Brah a as his source. *hoe,er destroys hi Hthe Brah anI destroys his own source. He +eco es ost isera+le9 as one who has in7ured a su#erior. 2). He did not de,elo#e. he created the ViB@ViB.9 those classes of gods who are designated +y troo#s. Vasus9 Rudras9 $dityas. Vis,ede,as9 :arutsC 2/. He did not de,elo#e. He created the (udra class9 8ushan. This earth is 8ushan: for she nourishes all that e"ists. 20. He did not de,elo#e. He energetically created an e"cellent for 9 <ustice HAhar aI. This is the ruler HkshattraI of the ruler HkshattraI. na ely <ustice. hence nothing is with 8urush as the o+lation9 the s#ring was its +utter9 the su er its fuel9 and the autu n its Hacco #anyingI offering. 1. This ,icti 9 8urush9 +orn in the +eginning9 they i olated

on the sacrificial grass. *ith hi the gods9 the (adhyas9and the rishis sacrificed. 2. 5ro that uni,ersal sacrifice were #ro,ided curds and +utter. %t for ed those aerial HcreaturesI and ani als +oth wild and ta e. 3. 5ro the uni,ersal sacrifice s#rang the rich and sa an ,erses9 the etres and the ya7ush. 14. 5ro it s#rang horses9 and all ani als with two rows of teethC kine s#rang fro itC fro it goats and shee#. 11. *hen Hthe 6odsI di,ided 8urusha9 into how any #arts did they cut hi u#. *hat was his outh D *hat ar s Hhad heI . *hat Htwo o+7ectsI are said Hto ha,e +eenI the thighs and feet . 12. The Brah ana was his outhC the Ra7anya was ade his ar sC the +eing HcalledI the Vaisya9 he was his thighsC the (udra s#rang fro his feet. 1'. The oon s#rang fro his soul H anasI9 the sun fro his eye9 %ndra and $gni fro his outh9 and Vayu fro his +reath. 1). 5ro his na,el arose the air9 fro his head the sky9 fro his feet the earth9 fro his ear the HfourI -uartersC in this anner Hthe 6odsI for ed the worlds. 1/. *hen the 6ods9 #erfor ing sacrifice9 +ound 8urusha as a ,icti 9 there were se,en sticks Hstruck u#I for it Haround the fireI9 and thrice se,en #ieces of fuel were ade. 10. *ith sacrifice the 6ods #erfor ed the sacrifice. These were the earliest rites. These great #owers ha,e sought the sky9 where are the for er (adhyas9 gods D. This hy n is known +y its general na e 8urusha (ukta and is su##osed to e +ody the official doctrine of Varna and &aste. The first thing to do is to in-uire which of the other Vedas acce#t the theory of the origin of the Varna syste as #ro#ounded in the 8urusha (ukta of the Rig@Veda. !"a ining the different Vedas fro this #oint of ,iew the result a##ears to +e ,ery striking. The (a a@Veda has not incor#orated the 8urusha (ukta a ong its hy ns. Nor does it gi,e any other e"#lanation of the Varna Ahar a. The Ja7ur@Veda discloses a ,ery great degree of di,ersity of o#inion on this issue. Taking u# the case of the *hite Ja7ur@Veda se#arately fro that of the Black Ja7ur@ Veda the #osition as it e erges fro a co #arison of its three a,aila+le (anhitas stands thus. Of the three (anhitas the =athaka (anhita and :aitreyani (anhita do not ake any reference to the 8urusha (ukta of the Rig@Veda nor do they ake any atte #t to gi,e any other e"#lanation of the Varna syste . The Va7aseniya (anhita is the only (anhita of the Ja7ur@Veda which incor#orates the 8urusha (ukta +ut not without trans#osition of the ,erses. But the Va7asaneya (anhita gi,es a new and original e"#lanation of the Varna syste -uite different fro what is gi,en in the 8urusha (ukta Ff.)1G : D He lauded with one. >i,ing +eings were for edC 8ra7a#ati was the ruler. He lauded with three: the Brah an HBrah anI was created: Brah anas#ati was the ruler. He lauded with fi,eC e"isting things were created: Bhutana #ati was the ruler. He lauded with se,enC the se,en rishis were created : Ahatri was the ruler. He lauded with nineC the 5athers were created: $diti was the ruler. He lauded with ele,en: the seasons

were created: The $rta,as were the rulers. He lauded with thirteen: the onths were created: the year was the ruler. He lauded with fifteen: the =shattra Hthe =shattriyaI was created: %ndra was the ruler. He lauded with se,enteen: ani als were created : Brihas#ati was the ruler. He lauded with nineteen : the (udra and the $rya HVaisyaI were created : day and night were the rulers. He lauded with twenty@one: ani als with undi,ided hoofs were created : Varuna was the ruler. He lauded with twenty@threeC s all ani als were created : 8ushan was the ruler. He lauded with twenty@fi,e : wild ani als were created : Vayu was the ruler Hco #are R.V. ". 349 2I. He lauded with twentyse,en: hea,en and earth se#arated : Vasus9 Rudras9 and $dityas se#arated after the : they were the rulers. He lauded with twentynineC trees were created : (o a was the ruler. He lauded with thirty@one : li,ing +eings were created : The first and second hal,es of the onth were the rulers. He lauded with thirty one: e"isting things were tran-uilliBedC 8ra7a#ati 8ara eshthin was the ruler. D Turning to the Black Ja7ur@Veda there is only one (anhita of it which is a,aila+le. %t is called Taitterriya (anhita. This (anhita offers two e"#lanations. The first e"#lanation Ff.)2G is the sa e which is gi,en in the Va7aseniya (anhita as its own original e"#lanation. The second e"#lanation is its own #articular e"#lanation and is not to +e found in the Va7aseniya (anhita. %t reads as follows Ff.)3G : D He Hthe VratyaI +eca e filled with #assions thence s#rang the Ra7anya D. D >et the king to whose house the Vratya who knows this9 co es as a guest9 cause hi to +e res#ected as su#erior to hi self. (o doing he does no in7ury to his royal rank9 or to his real . 5ro hi arose the Brah an HBrah anI and the =shattra H=shatriyaI. They said9 ? %nto who shall we enter ?9 etc. D The i #ortant #oint is that while the Va7aseniya (anhita incor#orates the 8urusha (ukta fro the Rig@Veda the Taiterriya (anhita altogether o its to take any notice of it whatsoe,er su#erior to 7ustice. Therefore the weaker seeks Hto o,erco eI the stronger +y7ustice9 as +y a king. This 7ustice is truth. %n conse-uence they say of a an who s#eaks truth9 ? he s#eaks 7usticeC ? or of a an who is uttering 7ustice9 ?he s#eaks truth. ? 5or this is +oth of these. 21. This is the Brah a9 =shattra9 ViB. and (udra. DThrough $gni it +eca e Brah a a ong the gods9 the Brah an a ong en9 through the Hdi,ineI =shattriya a Hhu anI =shattriya9 through the Hdi,ineI Vaisya a Hhu anI Vaisya9 through the Hdi,ineI (udra a Hhu anI (udra. *herefore it is in $gni a ong the gods and in a Brah an a ong en9 that they seek after an a+ode. D The Taittiriya Brah ana has the following e"#lanations to offer. 5irst is in the following ter s Ff./4G : DThis entire Huni,erseI has +een created +y Brah a. :en say that the Vaisya class was #roduced fro rich@,erses. They say that the Ja7ur@Veda is the wo + fro which the =shattriya was +orn. The (a a@Veda is the source fro which the Brah ans s#rang. This word the ancients declared to the ancients. D The second refers only two ,arnasonly Brah an and (udra and says Ff./1G :

D The Brah an caste@9 is s#rung fro the godsC the (udra fro the $suras D. The third e"#lains the origin of the (udras in the following ter s Ff./2G: D >et hi at his will ilk out with a wooden dish. But let not a (udra ilk it out. 5or this (udra has s#rung fro non@e"istence. They say that that which a (udra ilks out is no o+lation. >et not a (udra ilk out the $gnihotra. 5or they do not #urify that. *hen that #asses +eyond the filter9 then it is an o+lation D. The ne"t thing would +e to see what e"#lanation the ( ritis ha,e to offer for the origin of the Varna syste . This is what :anu has to say in his ( riti Ff./'G : D He Hthe self@e"istentI ha,ing felt desire9 and willing to create ,arious li,ing +eings fro his own +ody9 first created the waters9 and threw into the a seed. 3. That seed +eca e a golden egg9 of lustre e-ual to the sunC in it he hi self was +orn as a Brah a9 the #arent of all the worlds. 14. The waters are called narah9 for they are s#rung fro NaraC and as they were his first s#here of otion he is therefore called Narayana. %%. 8roduced fro the i #erce#ti+le eternal9 e"istent and non@e"istent9 cause9 they ale H#urushaI is cele+rated in the world as Brah a. 12. $fter dwelling for a year in the egg9 the glorious +eing9 hi self9 +y his own conte #lation9 s#lit it in twain. That the worlds ight +e #eo#led9 he caused the Brah an9 the =shattriya9 the Vaisya9 and the (udra to issue fro his outh9 his ar s9 his thighs9 and his feet. '2. Ha,ing di,ided his own +ody into two #arts9 the lord HBrah aI +eca e.with the half a ale H#urushaI and with the half9 a fe aleC and in her he created Vira7. ''. =now9 o ost e"cellent twice@+orn en9 that %9 who that ale9 H#urushaI Vira79 hi self created9 a the creator of all this world. '). Aesiring to #roduce li,ing creatures9 % #erfor ed ,ery arduous de,otion9 and first created ten :aharshis Hgreat rishisI9 lords of li,ing +eings9 H'/I ,iB. :arichi9 $tri9 $ngiras9 8ulastya9 8ulaha9 =ratu9 8rachetas9 Vasistha9 Bhrigu9 and Narada. '0. They9 endowed with great energy9 created other se,en :anus9 gods9 and a+odes of gods9 and :aharshis of +oundless ightC H'1I Jakshas9 Rakshases9 8ishchas9 6andhar,as9 $#saras9 $suras9 Nagas9 (er#ents9 great Birds9 and the different classes of 8itrisC H'2I lightnings9 thunder+olts9 clouds9 #ortentous at os#heric sounds9 co ets9 and ,arious lu inariesC H'3I =innars9 a#es9 fishes9 different sorts of +irds9 cattle9 deer9 en9 +easts with two rows of teethC H)4I s all and large re#tiles9 ouths9 lice9 flies9 fleas9 all gadflies9 and gnats9 and otionless things of different sorts. )1. Thus +y y a##oint ent9 and +y the force of de,otion9 was all. This world Both :otionless and :o,ing9 created +y those great +eings9 according to the H#re,iousI actions of each creature. D There is also another ,iew e"#ressed +y :anu in his ( riti as to the +asic reasons for di,iding en into four classes Ff./)G : D % shall now declare succinctly in order the states which the soul reaches +y eans of each of these -ualities. )4. (ouls endowed with the (att,a -uality attain to godheadC those ha,ing the ra7as -uality +eco e enC whilst those characteriBed +y ta as always +eco e +easts such is the threefold destination. )'. !le#hants9 horses9 (udras and

conte #ti+le :lechhas9 lions9 tigers9 and +oars for the iddle dark condition..... )0. =ings9 =shattriyas9 a =ing?s #riests H#urohitahI9 and en whose chief occu#ation is the war of words9 co #ose the iddle condition of #assion.... )2. Ae,otees9 ascetics9 Brah ans9 the deities +orne on aerial cars9 constellations9 and Aaityas9 constitute the lowest condition of goodness. )3. (acrificing #riests9 rishis9 gods9 the ,edas9 the celestial lu inaries9 years9 the fathers the (adhyas9 for the second condition of goodness. /4. Brah a9 the creators9 righteousness9 the 6reat one H ahatI the Kna##arent One Ha,yaktaI co #ose the highest condition of goodness. D %t is interesting to co #are with these ,iews: those contained in the Ra ayana and the :aha+harata. The Ra ayana says that the four Varnas are the offs#ring of :anu9 the daughter of Aaksha and the wife of =asya##a Ff.//G. D>isten while % declare to you fro the co ence ent all the 8ra7a#atis Hlord of creaturesI who ca e into e"istence in the earliest ti e. =arda a was the first9 then Vokrita9 (esha9 (a sraya9 the energetic Bahu#utra9 (thanu9 :arichi9 $tri9 the strong =ratu9 8ulastya9 $ngiras9 8rachetas9 8ulaha9 Aaksha9 then Vi,as,at9 $rishtane i9 and the glorious =asya#a9 who was the last. The 8ra7a#ati Aaksha is fa ed to ha,e had si"ty daughters. Of these =asya#a took in arriage eight elegant aidens9 $diti9 Aiti9 Aanu9 =alaka9 Ta ra9 =rodha,asa9 :anu and $nala. =asya#a #leased9 then to these aids9 ? ye shall +ring forth sons like to e9 #reser,es of the three worlds ?. $diti9 Aiti9 Aanu and =alaka assentedC +ut the others did not agree. Thirty@three gods were +orn +y $diti9 the $dityas9 Vasus9 Rudras9 and the two $s,ins. :anu HwifeI of =asya#a9 #roduced en9 Brah ans9 =shattriyas9 Vaisyas9 and (udras. ? Brah ans were +orn fro the outh9 =shattriyas fro the +reast9 Vaisyas fro the thighs9 and (udras fro the feet9 ? so says the Veda. $nala ga,e +irth to all trees with #ure fruits. D The :aha+harata gi,es the following e"#lanation Ff./0G : D Born all with s#lendour9 like that of great rishis9 the ten sons of 8rachetas are re#uted to ha,e +een ,irtuous and holyC and +y the the glorious +eings were for erly +urnt u# +y fire s#ringing fro their ouths. 5ro the was +orn Aaksha 8rachetas9 and fro Aaksha9 the 8arent of the world Hwere #roducedI9 these creatures. &oha+iting with Virini9 the :uni Aaksha +egot a thousand sons like hi self9 fa ous for their religious o+ser,ances9 to who Narada taught the doctrine of final li+eration9 the une-ualled knowledge of the (ankhya. Aesirous of creating offs#ring9 the 8ra7a#ati Aaksha ne"t for ed fifty daughters of who he ga,e ten to Ahar a9 thirteen to =asya#a9 and twenty@se,en9 de,oted to the regulation of ti e9 to %ndu H(o aI..... On Aakshayani9 the ost e"cellent of his thirteen wi,es9 =asya#a9 the son of :arichi9 +egot the $dityas9 headed +y %ndra and distinguished +y their energy9 and also Vi,as,at. To Vi,as,at was +orn a son9 the ighty Ja a Vai,as,ata. To :artanda Hi.e. Vi,as,at9 the sunI was +orn the wise and ighty :anu9 and also the renowned Ja a9 his H:anu?sI younger +rother. Righteous was this wise :anu9 on who a race was founded. Hence this Hfa ilyI of

en +eca e known as the race of :anu. Brah ans9 =shattriyas9 and other en s#rang fro this :anu. 5ro hi o king9 ca e the Brah an con7oined with the =shatriya. D %n another #lace the :aha+harata gi,es the origin as it is gi,en in the 8urusha (ukta: DThe king should a##oint to +e his royal #riest a an who will #rotect the good9 and restrain the wicked. On this su+7ect they relate this following ancient story of a con,ersation +etween 8urura,as the son of % lla9 and :ataris,an HVayu9 the *indgodI. 8urura,as said : Jou ust e"#lain to e whence the Brah an9 and whence the C HotherI three castes were #roduced9 and whence the su#eriority Hof the firstI arises. :ataris,an answered : the Brah an was created fro Brah an?s outh9 the =shatriya fro his ar s9 the Vaisya fro his thighs9 while for the #ur#ose of ser,ing these three castes was #roduced the fourth class9 the (udra9 fashioned fro his feet. The Brah an9 as soon as +orn. +eco es the lord of all +eings u#on the earth9 for the #ur#ose of #rotecting the treasure of righteousness. Then Hthe creatorI constituted =shatriya the controller of the earth9 a second Ja a to +ear the rod9 for the satisfaction of the #eo#le. $nd it was Brah a?s ordinance that the Vaisya should sustain these three classes with oney and grain9 and that the (udra should ser,e the . The son of %lla then en-uired : Tell e9 Vayu. to who the earth9 with its wealth9 rightfully +elongs9 to the Brah an or the =shatriyya . Vayu re#lied : $ll this9 whate,er e"ists in the world9 is the Brah an?s #ro#erty +y right of #ri ogenitureC this is known to those who are skilled in the laws of duty. %t is his own which the Brah an eats9 #uts on. and +estows. He is the chief of all the castes9 the first@+orn and the ost e"cellent. <ust as a wo an when she has lost her HfirstI hus+and9 takes her +rother in law for a second: so the Brah an is the first resource in cala ityC afterwards another ay arise D. There is a third ,iew aintained in the (hanti#ar,a of :aha+harata Ff./1G : DBhrigu re#lied: ?Brah a thus for erly created the 8ra7a#atis9 Brah anic9 #enetrated +y his own energy9 and in s#lendour e-ualling the sun and fire. The lord then for ed truth9 righteousness austere fer,our9 and the eternal ,eda Hor sacred scienceI9 Virtuous #ractice9 and #urity for Hthe attain ent ofI hea,en. He also for ed the gods9 Aana,as9 6andhar,as. Aaityas9 $suras9 :ahoragas9 Jakshas9 Rakshasas9 Nagas9 8isachas9 and en9 Brah ans9 =shatriyas9 Vaisyas9 and (udras9 as well as all other classes H,arnahI of +eings. The colour H,arnaI of the Brah ans was whiteC that of the =shatriyas redC that of the Vaishyas yellow: and that of the (udra +lack.D Bharad,a7a here re7oins: ?%f the caste H,arnaI of the four classes is distinguished +y their colour H,arnaI. then a confusion of all the castes is o+ser,a+le. Aesire9 anger9 fear9 cu#idity9 grief9 a##rehension9 hunger9 fatigue9 #re,ail o,er us all9 +y what then9 is caste discri inated. (weat9 urine9 e"cre ent9 #hleg 9 +ile and +lood Hare co on to allI the +odies of all decayC +y what then is caste discri inated . There are innu era+le kinds of things o,ing and stationary9 how is the class H,arnaI of these ,arious o+7ects to +e deter ined . D

Bhrigu re#lies: There is no difference of castes: D %n the sa e (hanti#ar,a there is a fourth theory Ff./2G : D Bharad,a7a again en-uires: ? *hat is that in ,irtue of which a an is a Brah an9 a =shattriya9 a Vaisya9 or a (udraC tell e9 o9 ost elo-uent Brah an rishi ?. Bhrigu re#lies: ? He who is #ure9 consecrated +y the natal and other cere onies9 who has co #letely studied the Veda9 li,es in the #ractice of the si" cere onies9 #erfor s #erfectly the rites of #urification9 who eats the re ains of o+lations9 is attached to his religious teacher9 is constant in religious o+ser,ances9 and de,oted to truth is called a Brah an. He in who are seen truth9 li+erality9 inoffensi,eness9 har lessness9 odesty co #assion9 and austere fer,our9@@is declared to +e a Brah an. He who #ractises the duty arising out of the kingly office9 who is addicted to the study of the Veda9 and who delights in gi,ing and recei,ing9 is called a =shattriya. He who readily occu#ies hi self with cattle9 who is de,oted to agriculture9 and ac-uisition9.who is #ure9 and is #erfect in the study of the Veda9 is deno inated a Vaisya. He who is ha+itually addicted to all kinds of food9 #erfor s all kinds of work9 who is unclean9 who has a+andoned the Veda9 and does not #ractise #ure o+ser,ances9@@ is traditionally called a (udra. $nd this Hwhich % ha,e statedI is the ark of a (udra. and it is not found in a Brah an: HsuchI a (udra will re ain a (udra9 while the Brah an Hwho so actsI will +e no Brah anD. >et us in-uire what the 8uranas ha,e to say on the origin of the Varna (yste . To ? +egin with the Vishnu 8urana. There are two theories #ro#ounded in the Vishnu 8urana on the origin of the &hatur,arna. $ccording to one ascri+es the origin to :anu Ff./3G : ?? Before the undane egg e"isted the di,ine Brah a Hiranyagar+ha9 the eternal originator of all worlds9 who was the for of essence of Brah a9 who consists of the di,ine Vishnu9 who again is identical with Rik9 Ja7ush9 (a an and $thar,a Vedas. 5ro Brah a?s right thu + was +orn the 8ra7a#ati AakshaC Aaksha had a daughter $ditiC fro her was +orn Vi,as,atC and fro hi s#rang :anu. :anu had sons called lksh,aku9 Nriga9 Ahrishta9 (aryati9 Narishanta9 8ura su9 Na+hagandishta9 =arusha9 and 8rishadhra. D D 5ro =arusha the =arushas9 =shattriyas of great #ower9 were descended. D DNa+haga9 the son of Nedishta9 +eca e a VaisyaD. Of this e"#lanation ascri+ing the origin to :anu there is another and a different ,ersion in the Vishnu 8urana: D Aesirous of a son9 :anu sacrificed to :itra and VarunaC +ut in conse-uence of a wrong in,ocation through an irregularity of the hotri@#riest9 a daughter called %lla was +orn. Then through the fa,our of :itra and Varuna she +eca e to :anu a son called (udyu na. But +eing again changed into a fe ale through the wrath of %s,ara H:ahade,aI she wandered near the her itage of Budha the son of (o a Hthe :oonIC who +eco ing ena oured of her had +y her a son called 8urura,as. $fter his +irth9 the god who is for ed of sacrifice9 of the Rik9 Ja7ush9 (a an9 and $thar,a@Vedas9 of

all things9 of ind9 of nothing9 he who is in the for of the sacrificial :ale9 was worshi##ed +y the rishis of infinite s#lendour who desired that (udyu n should reco,er his anhood. Through the fa,our of this god %la +eca e again (udhu na. D D$ccording to the Vishnu 8urana9 $tri was the son of Brah a9 and the father of (o a Hthe oonI9 who Brah a installed as the so,ereign of #lants9 Brah ans and stars. $fter cele+rating the ra7asuya sacrifice9 (o a +eca e into"icated with #ride9 and carried off Tara H(tarI the wife of Brihas#ati the #rece#tor of the gods9 who 9 although ad onished and entreated +y Brah a9 the gods9 and rishis9 he refused to restore9 (o a?s #art was taken +y KsanasC and Rudra9 who had studied under $ngiras9 aided Brihas#ati. $ fierce conflict ensued +etween the two sides9 su##orted res#ecti,ely +y the gods and the Aaityas9 etc. Brah a inter#osed9 and co #elled (o a to restore Tara to her hus+and. (he had9 howe,er9 in the eanti e +eco e #regnant9 and +ore a son Budha Hthe #lanet :ercuryI9 of who 9 when strongly urged9 she acknowledged (o a to +e the father. 8urura,as9 as has +een already entioned9 was the son of this Budha +y %lla9 the daughter of :anu. The lo,es of 8urura,as and the $#sara Kr,asi are related in the (ata#atha Brah ana9 "i. /9 %9 % in the Vishnu 8urana9 i,. 09 13 ffC in the Bhaga,ata 8urana9 i"9 1)C and in the Hari,a sa9 section 20. The :aha+harata9 $di#. sect. 1/9 alludes to 8urura,as as ha,ing +een engaged in a contest with the Brah anas. This #assage will +e -uoted hereafter. $ccording to the Vishnu 8urana9 i,9 19 %9 8urura,as had si" sons9 of who the eldest was $yus. $yus had fi,e sons: Nahusha9 =shatra@,riddha9 Ra +ha9 Ra7i9 and $nenas. D D=shattra,riddha had a son (unahotra9 who had three sons9 =asa9 >esa9 and 6ritsa ada. 5ro the last s#rang (aunaka9 who #rogenited the syste of four castes. =asa had a son =asira7a9 of who again Airghata as was the son as Ahan,antri was Airghata as. D The second ascri+es the origin to Brah a as the following e"tract fro the Vishnu 8urana shows Ff.04G : D :aitreya Ff.01G says: Jou ha,e descri+ed to e the $r,aksrotas9 or hu an creationC declare to e9 o Brah an9 in detail the anner in which Brah a for ed it. Tell e how and with what -ualities9 he created the castes9 and what are traditionally re#uted to +e the functions of the Brah ans and others. 8arasara re#lies: '. *hen9 true to his design9 Brah a +eca e desirous to create the world9 creatures in who goodness Hsatt,aI #re,ailed s#rang fro his outhC ). Others in who #assion Hra7asI #redo inated ca e fro his +reastC others in who +oth #assion and darkness Hta asI were strong9 #roceeded fro his thighC H/I others he created fro his feet9 whose chief characteristic was darkness. Of these was co #osed the syste of four castes9 Brah ans9 =shatriyyas9 Vaisyas9 and (udras9 who had res#ecti,ely issued fro his outh9 +reast9 thighs9 and feet. 0. Brah a for ed this entire fourfold institution of classes for the #erfor ance of sacrifices9 the gods nourish ankind +y discharging rain. (acrifices9 the causes of #ros#erity9 H2I are constantly cele+rated +y ,irtuous en9 de,oted to their duties9 who a,oid wrong o+ser,ances9 and walk in the right #ath. 3.

:en9 in conse-uence of their hu anity9 o+tain hea,en and final li+erationC and they #roceed to the world which they desireD. %n the Hari,a sa are to +e found two theories. %t u#holds the theory of the origin of the Varnas as +eing +orn fro one of the descendents of :anu as the stock of descent than the one entioned +y the Vishnu 8urana Ff.02G : DThe son of 6ritsa ada was (unaka9 fro who s#rang the (aunakas9 Brah anas9 =shattriyas9 Vaisyas9 and (udras. D DVitatha was the father of fi,e sons9 (uhotra9 (uhotri9 6aya. 6arga9 and the great =a#ila. (uhotra had two sons9 the e"alted =asaka. and =ing 6ritsa ati. The sons of the latter were Brah ans9 =shattriyas9 and Vaisyas. D The other ,ersion s#eaks of their +eing for ed +y Vishnu who s#rang fro Brah a and had +eco e 8ra7a#ati Aaksha and is as follows Ff.0'G : D<an e7aya Ff.0)Gsays: % ha,e heard9 o Brah an the Hdescri#tion of theI Brah a Juga9 the first of the ages. % desire also to +e accurately infor ed +oth su arily9 and in detail9 a+out the age of the =shattriyas9 with its nu erous o+ser,ances9 illustrated as it was +y sacrifice9 and descri+ed9 as it has +een +y en skilled in the art of narration. Vaisa a#ayana re#lied: % shall descri+e to you that age re,ered for its sacrifices and distinguished for its ,arious works of li+erality9 as well as for its #eo#le. Those :unis of the siBe of a thu + had +een a+sor+ed +y the (un?s rays. 5ollowing a rule of life leading to final e anci#ation9 #ractising uno+structed cre onies. +oth in action and in a+stinence fro action constantly intent u#on Brah a9 united to Brah an as the highest o+7ect9 Brah ans glorious and sanctified in their conduct9 leading a life of continence9 disci#lined +y the knowledge of Brah an9 Brah ans co #lete in their o+ser,ances9 #erfect in knowledge9 and conte #lati,e9 when at the end of a thousand yugas9 their a7esty was full9 these :unis +eca e in,ol,ed in the dissolution of the world. Then Vishnu s#rung fro Brah a9 re o,ed +eyond the s#here of sense9 a+sor+ed in conte #lation9 +eca e the 8ra7a#ati Aaksha9 and for ed nu erous creatures. The Brah ans9 +eautiful Hor9 dear to (o aI9 were for ed fro an i #erisha+le HaksharaI: the =shattriyas fro a #erisha+le HksharaI9 ele ent: the Vaisyas fro alteration: the (udras fro a odification of s oke. *hile Vishnu was thinking u#on the castes H,arnaI Brah ans were for ed with white9 red9 yellow9 and +lue colours H,aranaihI. Hence in the world en ha,e +eco e di,ided into castes9 +eing of four descri#tions9 Brah ans. =shattriyas9 Vaisyas9 and (udras9 one in for 9 distinct in their duties9 Dtwo@footed9 ,ery wonderful9 full of energyH.I9 skilled in e"#edients in all their occu#ations. Rites are declared to +e #rescri+ed +y the Vedas for the three HhighestI castes. By that conte #lation #ractised +y the +eing s#rung fro Brah a +y that #ractised in his character as Vishnu9 the >ord 8rachetasa HAakshaI9 i.e. Vishnu the great conte #lator HyoginI9 #assed through his wisdo and energy fro that state of editation into the s#here of works. Ne"t the (udras9 #roduced fro e"tinction9 are destitute of rites. Hence they are not entitled to

+e ad itted to the #urificatory cere onies9 nor does sacred science +elong to the . <ust as the cloud of s oke which rises fro the fire on the friction of the fuel9 and is dissi#ated9 is of no ser,ice in the sacrificial rite9 so too the (udras wandering o,er the earth9 are altogether Huseless for #ur#oses of sacrificeI owing to their +irth9 their ode of life de,oid of #urity and their want of the o+ser,ances #rescri+ed in the Veda.D >astly the Bhagwat 8urana1: D $t the end of any thousand years the li,ing soul which resides in ti e9 action9 and natural -uality ga,e life to that lifeless egg floating on the water. 8urusha then ha,ing +urst the egg9 issued fro it was a thousand thighs9 feet9 ar s9 eyes9 faces and heads. *ith his e +ers the sages fashion the worlds9 the se,en lower worlds with his loins etc.9 and the se,en u##er worlds with his groin9 etc. The Brah an HwasI the outh of 8urusha9 the =shattriya his ar s9 the Vaishya was +orn fro the thighs9 the (udra fro the feet of the di,ine +eing. The earth was for ed fro his feet9 the air fro his na,elC the hea,en +y the heart9 and the ahaloka +y the +reast of the ighty one D. The Vayu 8urana takes u# the theory of :anu +ut says: DThe son of 6ritsa ada was (unaka9 fro who s#rang (aunaka. %n his fa ily were +orn Braha anas9 =shattriyas9 Vaisyas9 and (udras9 twice@+orn en with ,arious functions D. *hat does this sur,ey show . %f it shows anything it show?s what a chaotic state has +een created +y the Brah ans in trying to e"#lain the origin of the Varna syste . There is no unifor ity or consistency in the e"#lanations they ha,e offered. One and the sa e authority gi,es a ,ariety of e"#lanations. One and the sa e authority gi,es e"#lanations so e of which are ythical9 so e of which are ystical and rationalistic all intended to ser,e the sa e #ur#ose na ely to e"#lain the origin of the Varna syste . The Vedas atte #t to e"#lain the Varnas as ha,ing arisen fro 8urusha9 fro :anu9 fro 8ra7a#ati9 fro Vratya and fro (o a. The Brah anas show a arked di,ergence fro the Vedas. They do not acknowledge 8urusha9 :anu9 Vratya or (o a as the originators of the four ,arnas. They ,acilliate +etween 8ra7a#ati and Brah a Ff.0/G which is a new i #ortation. The Taitteriya Brah ana s#orts with an altogether new theory. %t s#eaks of Brah ins +orn of 6ods and (udras fro $suras. The :anu ( riti offers two e"#lanation ythological and rational. RThe ythological e"#lanations ascri+es the origin to Brah a and the rational ascri+es it to the constitutional ake u# of the indi,idual. The Ra ayana9 the :aha+harata and the 8uranas see to +e in su##ort of the theory of :anu as the #rogenitor of the four Va as. %n the handling of the the e of :anu they ha,e ade a co #lete ess of hi . %n the Ra ayana this :anu is a fe ale a daughter of Aaksha and wife of =asya##a. %n the :aha+harata :anu is a ale and not a fe ale. He is the son of Vi,as,at who is the son of =asya##a. %n the :aha+harata the wife of =asya##a is not :anu +ut is Aakshayani who is also said to +e the daughter of Aaksha. The 8uranas while

e"#ounding the theory of :anu as the originator of the four ,a as ha,e introduced into it any di,ergent ele ents. The Vishnu 8urana instead of ascri+ing the origin to :anu #roceeds to ascri+e it to his sons. But in hurry e"#lains the origin of the two Va as only9 na ely9 Brah ins and (udras fro two of :anu?s eight sons and forgets to gi,e an e"#lanation of the two other ,a as. %n another #lace the sa e Vishnu 8urana e"#ounds another theory +y which origin of the four Va as through :anu in the fe ale line of his daughter %la. $ccording to the second theory lla arried 8urura,as who had si" sons the eldest of who was $yus. 5ro $yus to =shatra,idha9 fro hi (unahotra9 fro hi 6ritsa ada. The four ,a as were originated fro 6ritsa ada. The Vayu 8urana does not ad it this. %t says that the four ,a as were +orn fro (aunaka the grandson of 6ritsa ada. The Hari,a sa in one #lace agrees with the Vishnu 8urana that the #rogenitor was 6ritsa ada with this difference that the (udras did not s#ring +ut fro who gi,es no e"#lanation. %n another #lace it says that the four ,a as s#rang fro (unaka the son of 6ritsa ada thus differing fro itself9 fro the Vishnu 8urana and fro the Vayu 8urana. These e"#lanations are like effusions of the i +eciles. They show how hard the Brah ins were #ut to for the defence of the Varna syste . The -uestion is why were the Brah ins not a+le to gi,e a consistent and unifor uni #eacha+le9 con,incing and rational e"#lanation of the Varna syste of which they ha,e +een such strong #rotagonists . Of these nu erous e"#lanations there are two on which the Varna syste is defended +y the Brah ins of today. The first is the origin of the four Varnas fro 8urusha the theory that is #ro#ounded in the 8urusha (ukta of the Rig@Veda. %t is not a historical e"#lanation. %t would +e so ething if it were ythological for ythology is history e,en if it is history in hy#er+ole. But it is not. The e"#lanation is #urely ystic. %t is a fantastic drea of a trou+led ind. That is why it was ne,er regarded as the e"#lanation and that is why there were so any other ri,al e"#lanations. That it was treated with scant courtesy e,en +y the Vedic writers is o+,ious fro two circu stances. %n the first #lace it occurs in the iscellaneous #ortion of the Rig@Veda. %n the second #lace it does not occur in the =athak and :aitreyani (anhita of the *hite Ja7ur@Veda and the Taitteriya (anhitas of the Black Ja7ur@Veda do not ado#t it. The (a @Veda incor#orates only / :antras of the 8urusha (ukta fro the Rig@Veda and what is i #ortant is that in ado#ting these fi,e :antras o it those which s#eak of the four Varnas s#ringing fro the four #arts of the +ody of the 8urusha. %t is of course a ,ery late co #osition and has +een inter#olated after all the four Vedas had taken their #resent sha#e. But a#art fro that it has all the arks showing its authors were not ,ery sure of their e"#lanation carrying con,iction. %t is #ro+a+ly an allegory9 figurati,e narration which the Brah ins atte #ted to con,ert into a literal state ent of hard fact. %t does not sol,e the riddle. On the contrary it creates a riddle which is9 why were the Brah ins interested in su##orting

the theory of &hatur,arna. The rational e"#lanation has +ehind it the authority of the Bhagwat 6eeta. =rishna9 the 6od of the Hindus9 e"#lains that he created the syste of &hatur,arna and #ro#ounds the theory that it is a syste of difference of 6una: innate ,irtue. This theory of difference of 6una is deri,ed fro the (ankhya 8hiloso#hy of =a#ila. =rishna offers this e"#lanation of &hatur,arna in a co anding s#irit as though it was incontro,erti+le. The (ankhya 8hiloso#hy no dou+t asserts as a funda ental #ro#osition that atter has got three 6unas@Ra79 Ta a and (at,a. :atter is not inert. %t is insta+le e-uilli+riu when all the three 6unas are coe-ual in their #ower. :atter +eco es dyna ic when the e-uilli+riu is distur+ed when one 6una +eco es asterful o,er others. =rishna was of course ,ery cle,er in seeking to gi,e scientific e"#lanation of the Varna syste +y a##lying the (ankhya Theory of 6una dhar a. But in doing so =rishna has really ade a fool of hi self. He did not realiBe that there are four Varnas and three 6unas and whate,er ingenuity he ight clai to ha,e he could not account for the four Varnas with a theory which did not re-uire ore than three 6unas. Here again what a##ears to +e a rational e"#lanation is an a+surd e"#lanation. %t does not sol,e the riddle. %t creates one. *hy were the Brah ins fighting so hard to 7ustify the &hatur,arna . The $shra Ahar a di,ides the life of an indi,idual into four stages H1I Brah charya9 H2I 6rahasthashra 9 H'I Vana#rastha and H)I (annyas. The state of Brah acharya has +oth a de 7ure and de facto connotation. %ts de facto connotation is that it eans an un arried state of life. %ts de 7ure connotation eans the stage ol study under a teacher. 6rahasthashra is the stage of a householder a stage of arried fa ily life. The stage of (annyas is a stage ol renunciation of ci,ic rights and res#onsi+ilities. %t is a stage of ci,ic death. The stage of Vana#rastha is in +etween 6rahasthashra and (annyas. %t is a stage in which one +elongs to society +ut is +ound to li,e away fro society. $s the na e i #lies it #rescri+es dwelling in forest. The Hindus +elie,e that this institution of $shra Ahar a is as old as that of the Varna Ahar a. They call the two +y a 7oint na e of Varnashra Ahar a as though they were one and integral9 and the two together for the steelfra e of the Hindu (ociety. To +egin with it would +e +etter to ha,e a full understanding of the $shra Ahar a +efore in-uiring into its origin and its #ur#ose and its #eculiarities. The +est source for an e"#osition of the $shra syste is the :anu ( riti fro which the following rele,ant e"tracts are re#roduced: &h. 11@'0. %n the eighth year after conce#tion9 one should #erfor the initiation Hu#anayanaI of a Brah ana9 in the ele,enth after conce#tion HthatI of a =shatriya9+ut in the twelfth that of a Vaisya. &h. 11@102. $ twice@+orn an who9 not ha,ing studied the Veda9 a##lies hi self to other Hand wordly studyI9 soon falls9 e,en while li,ing9 to the condition of a (udra and his descendants Hafter hi I.

&h. %ll@1. The ,ow of the three Vedas under a teacher ust +e ke#t for thirty@si" years or for half that ti e9 or for a -uarter9 or until the HstudentI has #erfectly learnt the . &h. %ll@2. *ho has studied in due order the three Vedas9 or two9 or e,en one only9 without +reaking the Hrule ofI studentshi#9 shall enter the order of householder. &h. Vl@2. The student9 the householder9 the her it9 and the ascetic9 these HconstituteI tour se#arate orders9 which ail s#ring fro Hthe order ofI householders. &h. V%@22. But all HorI e,en Hany ofI these orders9 assu ed successi,ely in accordance with the %nstitutes Hof the sacred lawI. lead the Brah ana who acts +y the #receding HrulesI to the highest state. &h. Vl@23. $nd in accordance with the #rece#ts of the Veda and of the ( riti. the housekee#er is declared to +e su#erior to all of the 9 for he su##orts the other three. &h. V%@1. $ twice@+orn (nataka9 who has thus li,ed according to the law in the order of householders9 ay9 taking a fir resolution and kee#ing his organs in su+7ection9 dwell in the forest9 duly Ho+ser,ing the rules gi,en +elowI. &h. Vl@2. *hen a householder sees his HskinI wrinkled and Hhis hairI white9 and the sons of his sons9 then he ay resort to the forest. &h. Vl@''. But ha,ing thus #assed the third #art of Ha an?s natural ter ofI life in the forest9 he ay li,e as an ascetic during the fourth #art of his e"istence9 after a+andoning all attach ent to worldly o+7ects. &h. Vl@'). He who after #assing fro order to order9 after offering sacrifices and su+duing his senses9 +eco es9 tired with gi,ing al s and offerings of food9 an ascetic9 gains +liss after death. &h. Vl@'/. *hen he has #aid the three de+ts9 let hi a##ly his ind to Hthe attain ent ofI final li+erationC he who seeks it without ha,ing #aid Hhis de+tsI sinks downwards. &h. Vl@'0. Ha,ing studied the Vedas in accordance with the rule9 ha,ing +egot sons according to the sacred law9 and ha,ing offered sacrifices according to his a+ility9 he ay direct his ind to Hthe attain ent ofI final li+eration. &h. Vl@'1. $ twice@+orn an who seeks final li+eration9 without ha,ing studied the Vedas9 without ha,ing +egotten sons and without ha,ing offered sacrifices9 sinks downwards. D 5or these rules it is clear that according to :anu there are three features of the $shra Ahar a. 5irst is that it is not o#en to (hudras and *o en. The second is Brah acharya which is co #ulsory9 so is 6rahasthashra . Vana#rastha and (annyas are not co #ulsory. The third is that one ust #ass fro one stage to another in the order in which they stand na ely first Brah acharya9 then 6rahasthashra 9 then Vana#rastha and lastly (annyas. No one can o it one and enter the ne"t stage. <udging what :anu says in the light of history there are se,eral -uestions which arise. Referring to the Vedas the theory of stages in life is -uite unknown. The Vedas s#eak of Brah achari. But there is nothing to show that Brah archarya was regarded as an inesca#a+le stage in life. There is reference to ? Jatis ? in the Rig@Veda. That again was not regarded as a stage in life. %ndeed unlike the (annyasi the Jati in the Rig@Vedic

ti es is a hated institution. %n fact there are any hy ns in the Rig@Veda where %ndra is s#oken of as ha,ing thrown the Jatis to the wol,es. *hy did the Brah ins for ulate this theory of the four $shra as. This is the first riddle a+out the $s+ra Ahar a. The second riddle relates to the order of se-uence a ong the four $shra as. Now there is no dou+t that there was a ti e when it was o#en to a Brah achari to enter any of the three $shra s. He ay +eco e a 6rahasthashra i or he ay at once +eco e a (annyasi without +eco ing a 6rahasthashra i. &o #are what the authors of the Ahar a (utras ha,e to say on the #oint. Vashishta Ahar a (utra says Ff.00G: DThere are four orders9,iB. Hthat ofI the student9 Hthat of I the householder9 Hthat ofI the her it9 and Hthat ofI the ascetic. D D$ an who has studied one9 two9 or three Vedas without ,iolating the rules of studentshi#9 ay enter any of these HordersI9 whichsoe,er he #leases. D 6auta a Ahar a (utra says Ff.01G : . D(o e Hdeclare9 thatI he Hwho has studied the VedaI ay ake his choice HwhichI a ong the orders Hhe is going to enterI. D DHThe four orders are9 that ofI the student Hthat ofI the householder9 Hthat ofI the ascetic HBhikshuI9 Hand that ofI the her it in the woods H,aikhanasaI. *hy did :anu re o,e the o#tion and ake the arried state an o+ligatory state9 why did he ake the arried state a condition #recedent to the stage of her it and the stage of her it a condition #recedent to the stage of a (annyasi. %f the four stages of life ha,e +een de,ised to ser,e so e i #ortant end it is difficult to understand why the two classes (hudras and wo en were e"cluded. The (hudras and wo en can only +e householders according to the sche e of :anu. *hy can they not +e Brah achari9 Vana#rasthi or (annyasi. *hat har can there +e either to the or to society if the $shra Ahar a was o#en to the . There are other riddles a+out the syste of $shra Ahar a. 5irst relates to the distinctions which :anu akes a ong the Brah acharis.? &h. 11@)1.. >et students according to the order Hof their castes.I.9 wear Has u##er dressesI the skins of +lack antelo#es9 s#otted deer9 and he@goats9 and Hlower gar entsI ade of a he #9 fla" or wool. Ff.02G ? &h. 11@)2. The girdle of a Brah ana shall consist of a tri#le cord of :unga grass9 s ooth and softC HthatI of a =shatriya9 of a +owstring9 ade of :ur,a fi+resgC HthatI of a Vaisya9 of he #en threads. &h. 11@)'. %f :unga grass Hand so forthI +e not #rocura+le9 Hthe girdlesI ay +e ade of =usa9 $s antaka9 and Bal+aga Hfi+resI9 with a single threefold knot9 or with three or fi,e Hknots according to the custo of the fa ilyI. &h. 11@)). The sacrificial string of a Brah ana shall +e ade of cotton9 Hshall +eI twisted to the right9 Hand consistI of three threads9 that of a =shatriya of he #en threads9 HandI that of a Vaisya of woolen threads. &h. 11@)/. $ Brah ana shall HcarryI9 according to the sacred law9 a staff of Bil,a or

8alasa a =shatriya9 or Vata or =hadiraC HandI a Vaisya9 of 8ilu or Kdu +ara. &h. 11@)0. The staff of a Brah ana shall +e ade of such length as to reach the end of his hair: that of a =shatriya9 to reach his forehead: HandI that of a Vaisya9 to reach Hthe ti# of hisI nose. &h. 11@)1. >et all the sta,es +e straight9 without a +le ish9 handso e to look at9 not likely to terrify en9 with their +ark #erfect9 unhurt +y fire. &h. 11@)2. Ha,ing taken a staff according to his choice9 ha,ing worshi##ed the sun and walked round the fire9 turning his right hand towards it9 Hthe studentI should +eg al s according to the #rescri+ed rule. &h. 11@)3. $n initiated Brah ana should +eg9 +eginning Hhis re-uest with the wordI lady H+ha,atiIC a =shatriya9 #lacing Hthe wordI >ady in the iddle9 +ut a Vaisya #lacing it at the end Hof the for ulaI. The Brah acharis all +elong to the sa e class9 na ely they are twice+orn. *hy should it +e necessary to ake a distinction in the aterial of their u##er gar ent . *hy should it +e necessary to ake a distinction in the aterial of their sacred thread . *hy should it +e necessary to ake a distinction in their staffs. *hy should it +e necessary to ake a distinction in the synta" of the for ula for +egging al s . *hy should a Brah an Brah achari say D Bhag,ati Bhikshya AehiD. *hy should a =shatriya Brah achari say DBhikshya Bha,ati AehiD. *hy should a Vaishya Brah achari say DBhikshya dehi +ha,ati D. The $shra Ahar a is a #eculiar institution of the Hindus and they are ,ery #roud of it. %t is true that it has no #arallel anywhere. But it is e-ually true that it is without any erit. &o #ulsory Brah acharya a##ears ,ery attracti,e since it has the look of co #ulsory education for children. %t was certainly not uni,ersal. (hudras and wo en were e"cluded fro it. Ha,ing regard to the fact that the (hudras and wo en for nearly 3V 14ths of the Hindu (ociety it is o+,ious that the sche e was the result of cunningness rather than wisdo . %t certainly was tainted +y discri ination against the asses. %t was sche e for the education of the go,erning classes. &o #ulsory arriage to say the least is a ost stu#id rule that can +e i agined. To co #el e,ery one to arry irres#ecti,e of oney or health is to o#en the road to ruination +oth for the indi,idual and the nation unless it is acco #anied +y a sche e where+y the state undertakes to guarantee su+sistence to e,ery+ody. The ost non@sensical stages are those of Vana#rastha and the (annyasi. >et e -uote the rules regarding these two. The following is the code #rescri+ed +y :anu for the Vana#rastha Ff.03G : &h. Vl@'. $+andoning all food raised +y culti,ation9 and all his +elongings9 he ay de#art into the forest9 either co itting his wife to his sons9 or acco #anied +y her. &h. Vl@). Taking with hi the sacred fire and the i #le ents re-uired for do estic HsacrificesI he ay go forth fro the ,illage into the forest and reside there9 duly controlling his senses. &h. Vl@/. >et hi offer those fi,e great sacrifices according to the rule9 with ,arious kinds of #ure food fit for ascetics9 or with her+s9 roots and fruit.

&h. Vl@0. >et hi wear a skin or a tattered gar ent: let hi +athe in the e,ening or in the orning and let hi always were Hhis hair in I +raids9 the hair on his +ody9 his +eard9 and his nails H+eing uncli##edI. &h. Vl@1. >et hi #erfor the Bali@offering with such food as he eats9 and gi,e al s according to his a+ility: let hi honour those who co e to his her itage with al s consisting of water roots and fruit. &h. Vl@2. >et hi +e always industrious in #ri,ately reciting the Veda: let hi +e #atient of hardshi#s9 friendly Htowards allI9 of collected ind9 e,er li+eral and ne,er a recei,er of gifts9 and co #assionate towards all li,ing creatures. &h. Vl@3. >et hi offer9 according to the law9 the $gni@hotra with three sacred fires9 ne,er o itting the new@ oon and full@ oon sacrifices at the #ro#er ti e. &h. V%@14. >et hi also offer the Nakshatreshti9 the $grayana9 and the=atur asya HsacrificesI9 as well as the Turayana and likewise the Aakshayana9 in due order. &h. Vl@11. *ith #ure grains9 fit for ascetics9 which grow in s#ring and in autu n9 and which he hi self has collected9 let hi se,erally #re#are the sacrificial cakes H#urodasaI and the +oiled esses HkaruI9 as the law directs. &h. Vl@12. Ha,ing offered those ost #ure sacrificial ,iands9 consisting of the #roduce of the forest9 he ay use the re ainder for hi self9 H i"ed withI salt #re#ared +y hi self. &h. V%@1'. >et hi eat ,egeta+les that grow on dry land or in water9 flowers9 roots and fruits9 the #roductions of #ure trees9 and oils e"tracted fro forest fruits. &h. Vl@1). >et hi a,oid honey9 flesh and ushroo s growing on the ground Hfor elsewhere9 the ,egeta+les calledI Bhustrina9 and (igruka9 and the (lesh antaka fruit. &h. V%@1/. >et hi throw away in the onth of $s,ina the food of ascetics9 which he for erly collected9 likewise his worn@out clothes and his ,egeta+les9 roots9 and fruits. &h. Vl@10. >et hi not eat anything Hgrown onI #loughed HlandI9 though it ay ha,e +een thrown away +y so e+ody9 nor roots and fruit grown in a ,illage9 though Hhe ay +eI tor ented H+y hungerI. &h. Vl@11. He ay eat either what has +een cooked with fire9 or what has +een ri#ened +y ti eC he either ay use a stone for grinding9 or his teeth ay +e his ortar. &h. V%@12. He ay either at once Hafter his daily ealI cleanse Hhis ,essel for collecting foodI9 or lay u# a store sufficient for a onth9 or gather what suffices for si" onths or for a year. &h. V%@13. Ha,ing collected food according to his a+ility he ay either eat at night HonlyI or in the day@ti e HonlyI9 or at e,ery fourth eal@ti e9 or at e,ery eighth. &h. Vl@24. Or he ay li,e according to the rule of the lunar #enance H=andrayana9 daily di inishing the -uantity of his foodI in the +right Hhalf of the onthI and Hincreasing itI in the dark HhalfIC or he ay eat on the last days of each fortnight9 once Ha day onlyI9 +oiled +arley@gruel. &h. Vl@21. Or he ay constantly su+sist on flowers9 roots9 and fruit alone9 which ha,e

+een ri#ened +y ti e and ha,e fallen s#ontaneously9 following the rule of the H%nstitutesI of Vikhanas. &h. Vl@22. >et hi either roll a+out on the ground9 or stand during the day on ti#toe9 HorI let hi alternately stand and sit downC going at the (a,anas Hat sunrise9 at idday9 and at sunsetI to water in the forest Hin order to +atheI. &h. Vl@2'. %n su er let hi e"#ose hi self to the heat of fi,e fires9 during the rainy season li,e under the o#en sky9 and in winter +e dressed in wet clothes9 HthusI gradually increasing Hthe rigour ofI his austerities. 9 &h. Vl@2). *hen he +athes at the three (a,anas Hsunrise9 idday9 and sunsetI9 let hi offer li+ations of water to the anes and the gods and #ractising harsher and harsher austerities9 let hi dry u# his +odily fra e. &h. Vl@2/. Ha,ing re#osited the three sacred fires in hi self9 according to the #rescri+ed rule9 let hi li,e without a 5ire9 without a house9 wholly silent9 su+sisting on roots and fruit. &h. Vl@20. :aking no effort Hto #rocureI things that gi,e #leasure9 chaste9 slee#ing on the +are ground9 not caring for any shelter9 dwelling at the roots of trees. &h. V 1@21. 5ro Brah anas Hwho li,e asI ascetics let hi recei,e al s9 H+arely sufficientI to su##ort life9 or fro other householders of the twice+orn HcastesI who reside in the forest. &h: Vl@22. Or Hthe her it who dwells in the forest ay +ring foodI fro a ,illage9 recei,ing it either in a hollow dish Hof lea,esI9 in Hhis nakedI hand9 or in a +roken earthen dish9 and ay eat eight outhfuls. &h. Vl@23. These and other o+ser,ances ust a Brah ana who dwells in the forest diligently #ractise9 and in order to attain co #lete Hunion withI the Hsu#re eI soul9 Hhe ust studyI the ,arious sacred te"ts contained in the K#anishadas. The rules for a (annyasi #rescri+ed in the :anu( riti are as follows Ff.14G : &h. V 1@'2. Ha,ing #erfor ed the %shti9 sacred to the >ord of creatures H#ra7a#atiI where Hhe gi,esI all his #ro#erty as the sacrificial fee9 ha,ing re#osited the sacred fires in hi self9 a Brah ana ay de#art fro his house Has an asceticI. &h. V 1@'3. *orlds9 radiant in +rilliancy9 +eco e Hthe #ortionI of hi who recites Hthe te"ts regardingI Brah an and de#arts fro his house Has an asceticI9 after gi,ing a #ro ise of safety to all created +eings. &h. V%@)4. 5or that twice@+orn an9 +y who not the s allest danger e,en is caused to created +eings9 there will +e no danger fro any H-uarterI after he is freed fro his +ody. &h. V 1@)1. Ae#arting fro his house fully #ro,ided with the eans of #urification H8a,itraI9 let hi wander a+out a+solutely silent9 and caring nothing for en7oy ents that ay +e offered Hto hi I. &h. Vl@)2. >et hi always wander alone9without any co #anion9 in order to attain Hfinal li+erationI9 fully understanding that the solitary H an9 whoI neither forsakes nor is forsaken9 gains his end Ff.11G .

&h. Vl@)'. He shall neither #ossess a fire9 nor a dwelling9 he ay go to a ,illage for his food9 Hhe shall +eI indiffetent to e,erything9 fir of #ur#ose9 editating HandI concentrating his ind on Brah an. &h.V%@)). $ #otsherd Hinstead of an al s@+owlI9 the roots of trees Hfor a dwellingI9 coarse worn@out gar ents9 life in solitude and indifference towards9 e,erything9 are the arks of one who has attained li+eration. &h. Vl@)/. >et hi not desire to die9 let hi not desire to li,e9 let hi wait for Hhis a##ointedI ti e9 as a ser,ant HwaitsI for the #ay ent of his wages. &h. Vl@)3. Aelighting in what refers to the (oul9 sitting Hin the #ostures #rescri+ed +y the JogaI9 inde#endent Hof e"ternal hel#I entirely a+staining fro sensual en7oy ents9 with hi self for his only co #anion9 he shall li,e in this world9 desiring the +liss Hof final li+erationI. &h. Vl@/4. Neither +y He"#lainingI #rodigies and o ens9 nor +y skill in astrology and #al istry9 nor +y gi,ing ad,ice and +y the e"#osition Hof the (astrasI9 let hi e,er seek to o+tain al s. &h. V%@/1.>et hi not Hin order to +egI go near a house filled with her its9 Brah anas9 +irds9 dogs9 or other endicants. &h. Vl@/2. His hair9 nails9 and +eards +eing cli##ed9 carrying an al s +owl9 a staff9 and a water@#ot let hi continually wander a+out controlling hi self and not hurting any creature. &h. Vl@/'. His ,essels shall not +e ade of etal9 they shall +e free fro fractures9 it is ordained that they shall +e cleansed with water9 like Hthe cu#s9 calledI =a asa9 at a sacrifice. &h. Vl@/). $ gourd9 a wooden +lowl9 an earthen HdishI9 or one ade of s#lit cane9 :anu9 the son of (,aya +hu9 has declared Hto +eI ,essels Hsuita+leI for an ascetic. &h. V%@//. >et hi go to +eg once Ha dayI9 let hi not +e eager to o+tain a large -uantity Hof al sIC for an ascetic who eagerly seeks. al s9 attaches hi self also to sensual en7oy ents. &h. Vl@/0. *hen no s oke ascends fro Hthe kitchenI9 when the #estle lies otionless9 when the e +ers ha,e +een e"tinguished9 when the #eo#le ha,e finished their eal9 when the re nants in the dishes ha,e +een re o,ed9 let the ascetic always go to +eg. &h. Vl@/1. >et hi not +e sorry when he o+tains nothing9 nor re7oice when he o+tains Hso ethingI9 let hi Hacce#tI so uch only as will sustain life9 let hi not care a+out the H-uality of hisI utensils. &h. Vl@/2. >et hi disdain all HfoodI o+tained in conse-unce of hu +le salutations9 HforI e,en an ascetic who has attained final li+eration9 is +ound Hwith the fetters of the (a saraI +y acce#ting Hfood gi,enI in conse-uence of hu +le salutations. &h. V%@/3.Byeatinglittle9and +y standing and sitting in solitude9 let hi restrain his senses9 if they are attracted +y sensual o+7ects.

&h.V%@04. By the restraint of his senses9 +y the destruction of lo,e and hatred9 and +y the a+stention fro in7uring the creatures9 he +eco es fit for i ortality. &h. V%@24. Ff.12G *hen +y the dis#osition Hof his heartI he +eco es indifferent to all o+7ects9 he o+tains eternal ha##iness +oth in this world and after death. &h. V%@21. He who has in this anner gradually gi,en u# all attach ents and is freed fro all the #airs Hof o##ositesI9 re#oses in Brah an alone. &h.V%@22.$ll that has +een declared Ha+o,eI de#ends on editation: for he who is not #roficient in the knowledge of that which refers to the (oul rea#s not the full reward of the #erfor ance of rites. &h. V%@2'. >et hi constantly recite Hthose te"ts ofI the Veda which refer to the sacrifice HthoseI referring to the deities9 and HthoseI which treat of the (oul and are contained in the concluding #ortions of the Veda HVedantaI. &h. Vl@2). That is the refuge of the ignorant9 and e,en that Hthe refugeI of those who know Hthe eaning of the VedaI: that is Hthe #rotectionI of those who seek H+liss inI hea,en and of those who seek. endless H+eatitudeI. &h. Vl@2/. $ twice@+orn an who +eco es an ascetic9 after the successi,e #erfor ance of the a+o,e@ entioned acts9 shakes off sin here +elow and reaches the highest Brah an. &o #aring the Vana#rastha with the (annyasi the rese +lance in this o+ser,ances is so close that one is led to ask why these two stages are created as se#arate stages. There a##ear to +e only a few differences. 5irstly a Vana#rastha ay take his wife with hi and a (annyasi cannot. (econdly a Vana#rastha is re-uired only to lea,e his #ro#erty +ehind9 and a (annyasi has to di,est hi self of it. Thirdly a Vana#rastha ust ake his dwelling in a forest and a (annyasi cannot ha,e a 5i"ed dwelling +ut kee# on wandering fro #lace to #lace. $s for the rest their ode of life is identical. *hy did the Brah ins recogniBe an additional stage such as that of a Vana#rastha when the stage of (annyas would ha,e sufficed for +oth. But the -uestion re ainsna ely what good these two stages ser,e. They cannot +ecited as e"a #les of self sacrifice. The Vans#rastha and (annyasi cannot +ut +e old en. :anu is ,ery #ositi,e as to the #eriod when a :an can +eco e Vana#rastha9The ti e ri#e for it is after wrinkles which is of course -uite anad,anced age. The (annyasi ust +e still ore ad,anced in age. To e"hi+it such #eo#le who ha,e en7oyed all the #leasures of life as instances of self@ sacrifice +ecause they choose to gi,e u# their #leasures at a stage of life when they are inca#a+le of en7oying the ust +e nothing short of folly. $d ittedly this a+andon ent of ho e. and fa ily is not for the #ur#ose of rendering social ser,ice to suffering hu anity. The #ur#ose is to ena+le the to #erfor austerities and to wait #eaceful death. %t see s to +e a height of folly to cut of old and aged en fro hi and fa ily and die in 7ungles uncared and unwe#t for so insignificant and tri,ial a #ur#ose. The $shra syste is an ancient atte #t of #lanned econo y #roduced +y the Brah ins. %t is so stu#id that it is a riddle to understand the causes and the oti,es

which ha,e led the Brah ins to de,ise it. APPENDIX II CO(PULSOR! (ATRI(ON! :anu #rescri+es that an indi,idual?s life on earth +e di,ided into four stages. The four stages are: H1I Brah acharya9 H2I 6rahastashtra 9 H'I Vana#rastha and H)I (anyas. The stage of Brah acharya is the stage of studentshi#a #eriod de,oted to the study of the Vedds. ? The stage of 6rahasthashra is the stage of arried state or as :anu calls it the state of +eing an householder arrying and rearing a fa ily. %n the Vana#rastha stage the Vana#rastha ceases to +e an householder in as uch as he a+andons his house. He9 howe,er9 does not a+andon his wife. He li,es in 7ungle +ut does not gi,e u# his right to his #ro#erty. He is dead in so far as the religious duties of an householder are concerned +ut he is not ci,illy dead. The stage of (anyas is the stage in which a #erson +reaks his arital tie9 a+andons his wife9 gi,es u# his wordly goods and lea,es his household and does not follow the religious in7unctions en7oined u#on a householder and goes and li,es in 7ungle to editate u#on Brah a. He is dee ed to ha,e co itted ci,il death. The di,ision of an?s life into stages is an idea older than :anu. *hat is i #ortant is the changes :anu has ade in the sche e. The first change :anu has ade is that he has ade arriage co #ulsory. $ Brah achari after he has 5inished his study ust arry. This is the rule laid down +y :anu as ay +e seen fro the following: H%. 2 H$ studentI who has studied in due order the three Vedas9 or two9 or e,en one only9 without +reaking Hthe rules ofI studentshi# shall enter the order of housefolder.D H%. ) DHa,ing +athed9 with the #er ission of his teacher9 and #erfor ed according to the rule the (a a,artana Hthe rite on returning ho eI9 a twice@+orn an shall arry a wife of e-ual caste who is endowed with aus#icious arks.D This cha#ter ay +e read along with the Riddle on ? The 5our $shra as.?!d. The second change :anu has ade is to #rohi+it entry into the order of (anyas for a Brah achari who had not arried. :arriage is ade +y :anu a condition #recedent to (anyas. He declares entry into (anyas without ha,ing undergone the stage of arriage to +e a sin. V%. '/D *hen he has #aid the three de+ts9 let hi a##ly his ind to Hthe attain ent ofI final li+erationC he who seeks it without ha,ing #aid Hhis de+tsI sinks downwards.D V%. '0 DHa,ing studied the Vedas in accordance with the rule9 ha,ing +egot sons according to the sacred law9 and ha,ing offered sacrifices according to his a+ility9 he ay direct his ind to Hthe attain ent ofI 5inal li+eration. V%. '1 D$ twice@+orn an who seeks final li+eration9 without ha,ing studied the Vedas9 without ha,ing +egotten sons9 and without ha,ing offered sacrifices9 sinks downwards.

V%. '2 DHa,ing #erfor ed the %shti9 sacred to the >ord of creatures H8ra7a#atiI9 where Hhe gi,esI all his #ro#erty as the sacrificial fee9 ha,ing re#osited the sacred fires in hi self9 a Brah ana ay de#art fro his house Has an asceticI.D The third change ade +y :anu is to #rohi+it an householder fro +eco ing a (annyasi without first entering the stage of Vana#rastha. V%.9 % D$ twice@+orn (nataka9 who has thus li,ed according to the law in the order of householders9 ay9 taking a fir resolution and kee#ing his organs in su+7ection9 dwell in the forest9 duly Ho+ser,ing the rules gi,en +elowI.D V%. 2. D*hen a householder sees his HskinI wrinkled9 and Hhis hairI white9 and the sons of his sons9 then he ay resort to the forest. V%. '. D$+andoning all food raised +y culti,ation9 and all his +elongings9 he ay de#art into the forest9 either co itting his wife to his sons or acco #anied +y her.D These changes ade +y :anu are of course re,olutionary changes as co #ared with the rules which go,erned the +efore the ti e of :anu. On this #oint9 % will only -uote the rele,ant rules contained in two of the Ahar a (hastras9 the Vasistha Ahar a (utra and the 6auta a Ahar a (utra. Vasistha Ahar a (utra Ff.1'Gsays: DThere are four orders ,iB.9 Hthat ofI student9 Hthat ofI the householder9 Hthat ofI the her it9 and Hthat ofI the ascetic.D D$ an who has studied one9 two or three Vedas without ,iolating the rules of studentshi#9 ay enter any of these HordersI whichsoe,er he #leases.D 6auta a Ahar a (utraFf.1)G says: D(o e Hdeclare9 thatI he Hwho has studied the VedaI ay ake his choice HwhichI a ong the orders Hhe is going to enterI.D .DHThe four orders are9 thatI the student Hthat ofI the householder9 HthatI of the ascetic H+hikshuI Hand that of I the her it in the woods HVaikhanasaI.D $s is clear fro the two Ahar a (hastras what order a #erson should enter after co #leting the stage of Brah acharya is a atter which was left to his choice. %f he wished he ight arry and +eco e an householderC or without entering into the arital state he ight if so inclined straightaway enter into the order of a (annyasi. That :anu in aking atri ony a condition #recedent for entry into the order of Vana#rashtha and (annyas has ade a re,olutionary change is therefore -uite o+,ious. There is another change :anu see s to ha,e ade. One does not see why to reach (annyasa after atri ony it was necessary to go through Vana#rastha. *hy one could not straightaway +eco e a (annyasi. $fter all is there any difference +etween a Vana#rastha and a (annyasi which can +e called to +e funda ental. %n an e"cursus to this &ha#ter9 % ha,e collected together the rules ade +y :anu for regulating the conduct of the Vana#rastha and the (annyasi. 5ro a #erusal of these rules it will +e found that there is hardly any difference. !"ce#t the fact that the Vana#rastha is re-uired to #erfor so e of the religious duties and o+ser,ances which are #rescri+ed

for the householders there is in su+stance no difference +etween en who ha,e entered the two orders. %t is e-ually true that the ends to +e realiBed +y the Vana#rastha and the (annyasi are the sa e. How si ilar are the ends to +e achie,ed +y the can +e seen +y reference to the following te"ts fro :anu. !NA( TO B! $&H%!V!A Vana#rastha (annyasi V%. 23 DThese and other o+ser,ances V%. 2/ D$ twice@+orn an who +eco es ust a Brah ana who dwells in the an ascetic after the successi,e forest diligently #ractise9 and in order to #erfor ance of the a+o,e entioned attain co #lete Hunion withI the (u#re e acts9 shakes off sin here +elow and (oul9 Hhe ust studyI the ,arious sacredreaches the highest Brah in. te"ts contained in the K#anishads *hy then :anu car,ed out Vana#rastha as a se#arate stage fro 6rahasthashra and fro (annyas. Regarding Vana#rastha it can +e said that such a class e"isted +efore :anu. They were called $ranas. $ccording to 8rof. Radha =u ud :ooker7i Ff.1/G : DBrah acharis9 who wanted to continue as such9 without arrying in #ursuit of knowledge9 were called $ranas or $rana ans. These $ranas li,ed in her itages in the forests outside the ,illages or centres of #o#ulation. The forests where these $rana ascetics li,ed were called $ranyas. The #hiloso#hical s#eculations of these learned ascetics regarding such ulti ate #ro+le s as Brah a9 &reation9 (oul9 or % ortality are e +odied in works called $ranyakas.D To these old $ranas :anu ga,e the na e Vana#rasthas which has the sa e eaning as $ranas. :anu has not only ade achange in na es he has introduced another change of considera+le significance. %n +etween Brah acharya and Vana#rastha he has introduced a arried state. *hile the original Vana#rastha or $rana was an un arried #erson9 :anu?s Vana#rastha was necessarily a arried an. %n the old syste Brah acharya was followed +y Vana#rastha or +y 6rahastashra de#ending u#on the choice of the indi,idual. :anu changed the order9 so that no one could +eco e a Vana#rastha unless he was first arried. The old syste 9 the two stages of Vana#rastha or (annyasi9 did not in,ol,e any hardshi# or cruelty to wi,es and children. The new syste introduced +y :anu did. 5or to force a #erson to arry and then to #er it hi to a+andon his wife is nothing short of cruelty if it did not in,ol,e cri inality. But :anu did not care for such considerations. He was +ent on aking atri ony co #ulsory for all. *hy did :anu do it . *hy did he ake 6rahastashra co #ulsory for a Vana#rastha or (annyasi. :anu recogniBes the arried state as a su#erior stage the foundation of

all other states. $s he says: V%. 21 DThe student9 the householder9 the her it and the ascetics9 these HconstituteI four se#arate orders9 which all s#ring fro Hthe order ofI householders. V%. 22 DBut all Hor e,en any ofI these orders9 assu ed successi,ely in accordance with the %nstitutes Hof the sacred lawI9 lead the Brah ana who acts +y the #receding HrulesI to the highest state. V%. 23 D$nd in accordance with the #rece#ts of the Veda and of the s riti the housekee#er is declared to +e su#erior to all of the 9 for he su##orts the other three. V%. 34 D$s all ri,ers9 +oth great and s all9 find a resting@#lace in the ocean9 e,en so en of all orders find #rotection with householdersD 6ranting the truth of this state ent the -uestion still re ains why did :anu insist u#on arriage as a condition #recedent to Vana#rastha or (annyas. The only answer is that he wanted to discourage #ersons9 fro +eco ing (annyasi. *hy did :anu dislike the order of Vana#rastha or (annyasi. The answer is that the religion of Buddha was largely su##orted and #ro#agated +y (annyasis called Bhikshus. %t was easy for un arried #ersons to +eco e Bhikshus. :anu was an"ious to sto# this. Hence the condition of arriage. !N&KR(K( &O:8$R$T%V! &OA! 5OR V$N$8R$(TH$ $NA ($NNJ$(% 1. 1. &onnection with the household on entry into the order Vana#rastha (annyasi Vana#rastha V%. ' D$+andoning all food raised +y culti,ation and all his +elongings he ay de#art into the forest9 either co itting his wife to his sons9 or acco #anied +y her.D (annyasi V%. '2 DHa,ing #erfor ed the %shti9 sacred to the >ord of creatures H8ra7a#atiI where Hhe gi,esI all his #ro#erty as the sacrificial fee9 ha,ing re#osited the sacred fires in hi self9 a Brah ana ay de#art fro his house9 Has an asceticI.D

%%. Rules Regarding Awelling Vana#rastha V%. ) DTaking with hi the sacred fire and the i #le ents re-uired for do estic HsacrificesI he ay go forth fro the ,illage into the forest and reside there9 duly controlling his senses.D (annyasi V%. )1 DAe#arting fro his house fully #ro,ided with the eans of #urification H8a,itraI9 let hi wander a+out a+solutely silent9 and caring nothing for en7oy ents that ay +e offered Hto hi I.D

V%. )2 D>et hi always wander alone9 without any co #anion9 in order to attain Hfinal li+erationI fully understanding that the solitary an who neither forsakes nor is forsaken9 gains his end.D V%. )' D He shall neither #ossess a fire9 nor a dwelling he ay go to a ,illage for his food9 Hhe shall +eI indifferent to e,erything9 fir of #ur#ose9 editating HandI concentrating his ind on Brah an.D %%%. Rules as to :ode of >ife Vana#rastha V%. 0 D>et hi wear a skin or a tattered gar entC let hi +athe in the e,ening or in the orning and let hi always wear Hhis hair inI +raids9 the hair on his +ody9 and his nails H+eing uncli##edI.D (annyasi V%. )) D$ #otsherd Hinstead of an al s@+owlI the roots of trees Hfor a dwellingI9 coarse worn@out gar ents9 life in solitude and indifference towards9 e,erything are the arks of one who has attained li+eration.D V%. /2 DHis hair9 nails and +eard +eing cli##ed carrying an al s@+owl9 staff9 and a water@#ot let hi continually wander a+out controlling hi self and not hurting any creature.D V%. /' DHis ,essels shall not +e ade of etal9 they shall +e free fro fractures9 it is ordained that they shall +e cleansed with water9 like Hthe cu#s calledI =a asa9 at a sacrifice.D V%. /) D$ gourd9 a wooden +owl9 an earthen HdishI or one ade of s#lit cane9 :anu the son of (wa@ya +hu9 has declared Hto +eI ,essels Hsuita+leI for an ascetic.D

%V. Rules as to :eans of >i,elihood Vana#rastha (annyasi V%. % % D*ith #ure grains9 fit for ascetics9 V%. )3 DAelighting in what refers to which grow in s#ring9 and in autu n and the (oul sitting in the #osture

which he hi self has collected9 let hi se,erally #re#are the sacrificial cakes H#urodasaI and the +oiled esses H=aruI as the law directs.D V%. 12 D Ha,ing offered those ost #ure sacrificial ,iands9 consisting of the #roduce of the forest9 he ay use the re ainder for hi self H i"ed withI salt #re#ared +y hi self.D V%. 20 D :aking no effort Hto #rocureI things that gi,e #leasure chaste9 slee#ing on the +are ground9 not caring for any shelter9 dwelling at the roots of trees.D V%. 21 D5ro Brah ans Hwho li,e asI ascetics9 let hi recei,e al s9 H+arely sufficientI to su##ort life9 or fro other householders of the twice@+orn HcastesI who reside in the forest.D V%. 22 DOr Hthe her itI who dwells in the forestI ay +ringHfoodIfro a ,illage9 recei,ing it either in a hollow dish Hof lea,esI in Hhis nakedI hand9 or in a +roken earthern dish9 and ay eat eight outhfuls.D

#rescri+ed +y the JogaI9 inde#endent Hof e"ternal hel#I entirely a+staining fro sensual en7oy ent with hi self for his only co #anion he shall li,e in this world desiring the +liss Hof 5inal li+erationI.D V%. /4 DNeither +y He"#laining #rodigies and o ens9 nor +y skill in astrology and #al istry nor +y gi,ing ad,ice and +y the e"#osition Hof the(astrasI let hi 9 e,er seek to o+tain al s.D V%. /1 D>et hi not Hin order to +egI go near a house filled with her its9 Brah anas9 +irds9 dogs9 or other endicants.D

V. Rules as to 5ood Vana#rastha V%. 1' D >et hi eat ,egeta+les that grow on dry land or in water9 flowers9 roots and fruits9 the #roductions of #ure trees and oils e"tracted fro forest@ fruits.D V%. 1) D >et hi a,oid honey9 flesh and ushroo s growing on the ground H or elsewhere9 the ,egeta+les calledI Bhustrina and (igruka and the (lesh antaka fruits. V%. 1/ D >et hi throw away in the outh of$s,inathefood of ascetics9 (annyasi V%. // D >et hi go to +eg once a day9 let hi not +e eager to o+tain a large -uantity Hof al sI: for an ascetic who eagerly seeks al s9 attaches hi self also to sensual en7oy ents.D V%. /0 D *hen no s oke ascends fro Hthe kitchenI when the #estle lies otionless9 when the e +ers ha,e +een e"tinguished9 when the #eo#le ha,e finished their eal9 when the

which he for erly collected9 likewise his worn@out clothes and his ,egeta+les9 roots and fruit.D V%9 10 D >et hi not eat anything Hgrown onI #loughed HlandI9 though it ay ha,e +een thrown away +y so e+ody9 nor roots and fruit grown in a ,illage9 though Hhe ay +eItor ented H+y hungerI.D V%. 11 D He ay eat either what has +een cooked with fire9 or what has +een ri#ened +y ti eC he either ay use a stone for grinding or his teeth ay +e his ortar.D V%. 12 DHe ay either at once Hafter his daily ealI cleanse Hhis ,essel for collecting foodI9 or lay u# a store sufficient fora onth9 or gather what suffices for si" onths or for a year.D V%. 13 D Ha,ing collected food according to his a+ility9 he ay either eat at night HonlyI9 or in the day@ti e HonlyI or at e,ery fourth eal@ti e or at e,ery eighth.D V%. 24 DOr9 he ay li,e accord ing to the rule of the lunar #enance H=an@ drayana9 daily di inishing the -uantity of his foodI in the +right Hhalf of the onthI and Hincreasing itI in the dark HhalfIC or he ay eat on the last days of each fortnight once Ha day onlyI9 +oiled +arley@gruel.D V%. 21 DOr he ay constantly su+sist on flowers9 roots9 and fruit alone9 which ha,e +een ri#ened +y ti e and ha,e fallen s#ontaneously9 following the rule of the H%nstitutesI of Vikhanas.D V%. 22 D>et hi either roll a+out on the ground9 or stand during the day on

re nants in the dishes ha,e +een re o,ed let the ascetic always go to +eg.D V%. /1 D>et hi not +e sorry when he o+tains nothing9 nor re7oice when he o+tains Hso ethingI9 let hi Hacce#tI so uch only as will sustain life9 let hi not care a+out the H-uality of hisI utensils. V%. /2 D >et hi disdain all HfoodI o+tained in conse-uence of hu +le salutations9 HforI e,en an ascetic who has attained final li+eration9 is +ound Hwith the fetters of the (a saraI +y acce#ting Hfood gi,enI inconse-uence of hu +le salutations.D

ti#toe9 HorI let hi alternately stand and sit downC going at the (a,anas Hat sunrise9 at idday9 and at sunsetI to water in the forest Hin order to +atheI. V%. Auties to +e #erfor ed Vana#rastha (annyasi V%. / D>et hi offer those fi,e great V%. 0/ DBy dee# editation let sacrifices according to the rule9 with hi recogniBe the su+tle nature of ,arious kinds of #ure food fit for the (u#re e (oul9 and its ascetics9 or with her+s9 roots9 and fruit. #resence in all organis s9 +oth the highest and the lowest.D V%. 1 D>et hi #erfor the Bali@ V%. 2' D>et hi constantly recite offering with such food as he eats9 Hthose te"tsI of the Veda refer to which and gi,e al s according to his the sacrifice HthoseI refering to the a+ilityC let hi honour those who co e deities and HthoseI which treat of to his her itage with al s consisting of the soul and are contained in the water9 roots9 and fruit. &oncluding #ortions of the Veda HVedantaI.D V%. 2 D>et hi +e always industrious in #ri,ately reciting the VedaC let hi +e #atient of hardshi#s9 friendly Htowards allI9 of collected ind9 e,er li+eral and ne,er a recei,er of gifts9 and co #assionate towards all li,ing creatures.D V%. 3 D >et hi offer9 according to the law9 the $gnihotra with three sacred fires ne,er o itting the new@ oon and full@ oon sacritices at the #ro#er ti e.D V%. 14 D >et hi also offer the Nakshatreshti. the $grayana9 and the =atur asya HsacrificesI9 as well as Turayana and likewise the Aaksha,ana. in due order.D V%. 2' D%n (u er let hi e"#ose hi self to the heat of the fi,e fires. Auring the rainy season li,e under the o#en sky and in winter +e dressed in wet clothes9 HthusI gradually increasing

Hthe rigour ofI his austerities.D V%. 2) D *hen he +athes at the three (a,anas Hsunrise idday and sunsetI9 let hi offer li+ations of water to the anes and the 6ods and #ractising harsher and harsher austerities9 let hi dry u# his +odily fra e.D V%. 2/ D Ha,ing re#osited the three sacred lires in hi self according to the #rescri+ed rule9 let hi li,e without a fire9 without a house wholly silent9 su+sisting on roots and fruit.D

PART III

Riddle In Hinduism ______________________________________________

Contents PART III - Politi=*l Riddle no. 21 : The theory of an,antara Riddle no. 22 : Brah a is not dhar a. *hat good is Brah a. Riddle no. 2' : =ali Juga*hy ha,e the +rah ins ade it unending. Riddle no. 2) : The riddle of the =ali yuga $##endi" % : The riddle of Ra a and =rishna

PART III POLITICAL RIDDLE NO. $1 THE THEOR! O (AN%ANTARA The Brah ins had a theory of the 6o,ern ent of their country fro Hea,en. This see s to +e the idea underlying what is called a :an,antara. The idea underlying a -anvantara is related to the #olitical 6o,ern ent of the country. %t is founded on the +elief that the 6o,ern ent of the world is entrusted to a

cor#oration for a fi"ed #eriod. This cor#oration consists of an officer called :anu and (a#tarishis Hse,en RishisI and one %ndra conducting the affairs of the country fro their seats in Hea,en without consulting the #eo#le or ascertaining their wishes. The #eriod of the reign +y one cor#oration is called a :an,antara after :anu the #re ier authority in the ruling set. *hen the reign of one :anu is o,er he is succeeded +y another :anu and so on. $s in the case of the Jugas9 the :an,antaras also o,e in cycles. 5ourteen :an,antaras ake one cycle. The Vishnu 8urana gi,es us an idea of these :an,antaras which is as follows: DThen Brah a created hi self the :anu (waya +hu,a9 +orn of9 and identical with9 his original self9 for the #rotection of created +eingsC and the fe ale #ortion of hi self he constituted (ataru#a9 who austerity #urified fro the sin Hof for+idden nu#tialsI9 and who the di,ine :anu (waya +hu,a took to wife. (to##ing here for the o ent one ight ask*hat does this ean. Aoes it ean that Brah a was a her a#hrodite. Aoes it ean that :anu (waya +hu arried his sister. (ataru#a. How ,ery strange if this is true as the Vishnu 8urana see s to suggest. The Vishnu 8urana #roceeds to say: D 5ro these two are +orn two sons9 8riya,rata and Kttan#ada9 and two daughters9 na ed 8rasuti and $kuti graced with lo,eliness and e"halted erit. 7This is an 11-page MS of which last four pages are in the handwriting of the author !Ed./ 8rasuti he ga,e to Aaksha and ga,e $kuti to the 8atriarch Ruchi9 who es#oused her. $kuti +ore to Ruchi twins9 Ja7na and Aakshina9 who afterwards +eca e hus+and and wife Hagain a case of a +rother arrying his sisterI and had twel,e sons9 the deities called Ja as9 in the :an,antara of (waya +hu,a.D DThe first :anu was (waya +hu,a9 then ca e (warochisha9 then $utta i9 then Ta asa9 then Rai,ata9 then &hakshushaC these si" :anus ha,e #assed away. The :anu who #resides o,er the se,enth :an,antara9 which is the #resent #eriod9 is Vai,aswata the son of the sun.D D% will now9 enu erate9 says the author of the Vishnu 8urana9 the #residing 6ods9 Rishis9 and sons of the :anu (warochisha. The deities of this #eriod Hor the second :an,antaraI were called 8ara,atas and TushitasC and the =ing of the gods was the ighty Vi#aschit. The se,en Rishis were Kr7a9 (ta +ha9 8rana9 Aattoli9 Risha+ha9 Nischara9 and $r,ari,at. $nd &haitra9 =i #urusha9 and others were the :anu?s sons. D%n the third #eriod9 or :anwantara of $utta in9 (usanti was the %ndra9 the king of the gods9 the orders of who were the (udha as9 (atyas9 (i,as9 8radersanas9 and Vasa,ertisC each of the fi,e orders consisting of twel,e di,inities. The se,en sons of Vasishtha were the se,en RishisC and $7a9 8arasu9 Ai,ya9 and others were the sons of :anu. D %n the #eriod of Ta asa9 the fourth :anu9 the (uru#as9 Haris9 (atyas9 and

(udhis were the classes of 6ods9 each co #rising twenty@se,en. (i,i was the %ndra9 also designated +y his #erfor ance of a hundred sacrifices Hor na ed (atakratuI. The se,en Rishis were <yotirdha a9 8rithu9 =a,ya9 &haitra9 $gni9 Vanaka and 8i,ara. The sons of Ta asa were the ighty kings Nara9 =hyati9 (anthaya9 <anu7angha and others.D D%n the fifth inter,al H:an,antaraI the :anu was Rai,ataC the %ndra was Vi+hu9 the classes of gods9 consisting of fourteen each9 were the $ it+has9 $+hutarasas9 Vaikunthas9 and (u edhasC the se,en Rishis were Hiranyaro a9 Vedasri9 Krddha+ahu9 Veda+ahu9 (udha an9 8ar7anya and :aha uniC the sons of Rai,ata were Bala+andhu9 (usa +ha,ya9 (atyaka9 and other ,aliant kings.D DThese four :anus9 (warochisha9 $utta i9 Ta asa9 and Rai,ata9 were all descended fro 8riya,rata9 who in conse-uence of #ro#itiating Vishnu +y his de,otions9 o+tained these rules of the :an,antaras for his #osterity. D&hakshusha was the :anu of the si"th #eriod in which the %ndra was :ano7,aCthe fi,e classes of 6ods were the $dyas9 8rastutas9 Bha,yas9 8rithugas9 and the agnani ous >ekhas eight of each (u edhas9 Vira7as9 Ha,ish at9 Ktta a9 :adhu9 $+hina an and (ahishnu were the se,en sagesC the kings of the earth9 the sons of &haksusha9 were the #owerful Kru9 8uru9 (atadhu na and others.D DThe :anu of the #resent se,enth :an,antara is the wise lord of o+se-uies9 and illustrious offs#ring of the sun called :anu Vai,aswata and deities are the $dityas9 Vasus and RudrasC their so,ereign is 8urandaraC Vasishtha9 =asya#a9 $tri9 <a adagni9 6auta a9 Viswa itra and Bharadwa7a are the se,en RishisC and the nine #ious sons of Vai,aswata :anu are the kings of %kshwaku9 Na+hanidishta9 =arusha9 8rishadhra9 and the cele+rated Vasu at.D (o far the #articulars of se,en :an,antaras which are gi,en +y the Vishnu 8urana relate to :an,antaras which had run out at the ti e when the Vishnu 8urana was written. *hether the rule of the :an,antaras was an e"ternal one the Brah ins ha,e +een silent. But the author of the Vishnu 8urana knew that se,en ore :an,antaras were to co e. Below are gi,en the #articulars of these se,en. D(an7ana9 the daughter of Vishwakar an was the wife of the sun9 and +ore hi 9 three children9 the :anu HVai,aswataI9 Ja a and the goddess Ja i Hor the Ja una ri,erI. Kna+le to endure the fer,ours of her lord9 (an7ana ga,e hi &hhaya as his hand aid9 and re#aired to the forests to #ractise de,out e"ercises. The sun9 su##osing &hhaya to +e his wife (an7ana9 +egot +y her three other children (anaischara H(aturnI9 another :anu H(a,arniI and a daughter Ta#ati Hthe Ta#ti ri,erI. &hhaya u#on one occasion9 +eing offended with Ja a9 the son of (an7ana9 denounced an i #recation u#on hi 9 and there+y re,ealed to Ja a and to the sun that she was not in truth (an7ana9 the other of the for er. Being further infor ed +y &hhaya that his wife had gone to the wilderness the sun +eheld her +y the eye of

editation engaged in austerities9 in the figure of a are Hin the region of Kttara =uruI. :eta or#hosing hi self into a horse9 he re7oined his wife9 and +egot three other children9 the two $swins9 and Re,anta9 and then +rought (an7ana +ack to his own dwelling. To di inish his intensity9 Vishwakara an #laced the lu inary on his lathe to grind off so e of his effulgenceC and in this anner reduced it an eighth: for ore than that was inse#ara+le. The #arts of the di,ine Vaishna,a s#lendour9 residing in the sun9 that were filed off +y Viswakara an fell +laBing down u#on the earth9 and the artist constructed of the the discuss of Vishnu9 the trident of (hi,a9 the wea#on of the god of wealth9 the lance of =artikeya9 and the wea#ons of the other gods: all these Viswakar an fa+ricated fro the su#erflous rays of the sun.D DThe son of &hhaya9 who was called also a :anu was deno inated (a,arni9 fro +eing of the sa e caste H(a,arniI as his elder +rother9 the :anu Vai,aswata. He #resides o,er the ensuing or eighth :an,antaraC the #articulars of which and the following9 % will now relate. %n the #eriod in which (a,arni shall +e the :anu9 the classes of the gods will +e (uta#as9 $ +ita+has and :ukhyas: twenty@one of each. The se,en Rishis will +e Ai#ti at9 6ala,a9 Ra a9 =ri#a9 ArauniC y son Vyasa will +e the si"th and the se,enth will +e Rishyasringa. The %ndra will +e Bali9 the sinless son of Virochana who through the fa,our of Vishnu is actually so,ereign of #art of 8atala. The royal #rogeny of (a,arni will +e Vira7as9 $r,ari,as9 Nir oha9 and others.D D The ninth :anu will +e Aakshasa,arni. The 8aras9 :arichigar+has and (udharrnas@ will +e the three classes of di,initiesC each consisting of twel,e9 their #owerful chief will +e the %ndra $d+huta (a,ana9 Ayuti at9 Bha,ya9 Vasu9 :edhatithi9 <yotisha an and (atya9 will +e he se,en Rishis. Ahritketu9 Ari#tiketu9 8anchahasta9 Nir aya9 8rithusra,a9 and others will +e the sons of the :anu. D %n the tenth :anwantara the :anu will +e Brah a@sa,arniC the gods will +e the (udha as9 Virudhas9 and (atasankhyasC the %ndra will +e the ighty (antiC the Rishis will +e Ha,isha an9 (ukriti9 (atya9 $##a urthi9 Na+haga9 $#rati au7as and (atyaketuC and the ten sons of the :anu will +e (ukshetra9 Ktta au7as9 Harishena and others.D D %n the ele,enth :anwantara the :anu will +e Ahar a@sa,arniC the #rinci#al classes of gods will +e the Vihanga as. =arnaga as9 and the Nir anaratis9 each thirty in nu +erC of who Vrisha will +e the %ndraC the Rishis will +e Nischara9 $gnite7as9 Va#usha an9 Vishnu9 $runi9 Ha,isha an9 and $naghaC the kings of the earth9 and sons of the :anu9 will +e (a,arga9 (ar,adhar a9 Ae,anika9 and others.D D%n the twelfth :an,antara the son of Rudra@(a,arni9 will +e the :anuC Ritudha a will +e the %ndraC and the Haritas9 >ohitasC (u anasas and (ukra as will +e the classes of gods9 each co #rising fifteen Ta#aswi9 (uta#as9 Ta#o urti9 Ta#orti9 Ta#odhriti9 Ta#odyuti and Ta#odhana will +e the RishisC and Ae,as9 K#ade,a9 Ae,asreshtha and others will +e the anu?s sons9 and ighty onarchs on the

earth.D D%n the thirteenth :an,antara the :anu will +e RauchyaC the classes of gods9 thirty@three in each9 will +e (udha anas9 (udhar ans and (ukar anas9 their %ndra will +e Ai,as#atiC the Rishis will +e Nir oha9 Tatwadersin9 Nish#raka #a9 Nirutsuka9 Ahriti at9 $,yaya and (uta#asC and &hitrasena9 Vichitra9 and others will +e the kings.D D %n the fourteenth :an,antara9 Bhautya will +e the :anuC (uchi9 the %ndraC the fi,e classes of gods will +e the &hakshushas9 the 8a,itras9 =anishthas Bhra7iras and Va,riddhasC the se,en Rishis will +e $gni+ahu9 (uchi9 (ikra9 :agadha9 6ridhra9 Jukta and $7itaC and the sons of the :anu will +e Kru9 6a+hir9 6a+hira9 Bradhna and others who will +e kings9 and will rule o,er9 the earth.D (uch is the theory of :an,antaras. *e now hear of the Aictatorshi# of the 8roletariat. The Brah anic theory was 7ust the o##osite of it. %t was a theory of the Aictatorshi# o,er the 8roletariat +y the Hea,enly fathers. Be that as it ay the -uestion that #ri arily co es to one?s ind is: How these fourteen :anus who succeeded one another rule the #eo#le. *hat laws did they ake for the go,ernance of the #eo#le. The only #lace where one can get an answer is the :anus riti. Referring to the first cha#ter of :anus riti we get the following answer: &h. %. 1. The great sages a##roached :anu9 who was seated with a collected ind9 and9 ha,ing duly worshi##ed hi s#oke as follows: 2. Aeign9 di,ine one9 do declare to us #recisely and in due order the sacred laws of each of the Hfour chiefI castes HVarnaI and of the inter ediate ones. '. 5or thou9 O >ord9 alone knowest the #ur#ort of the rites and knowledge of the (oul taught in this whole ordinance of the (waya +hu H:anuI which is unknowa+le and unfatho a+le. :anu re#lies to the saying: /. This uni,erse e"isted in the sha#e of darkness un#ercei,ed9 destitute of distincti,e arks9 unattaina+le +y reasoning9 unknowa+le9 wholly i ersed as it were in dee# slee#. 2. (waya +hu :anu desiring to #roduce +eings of any kinds fro his own +ody9 first with a thought created the waters and #laced his seed in the . 3. That H(eedI +eca e a golden egg9 in +rilliancy e-ual to the sunC in that !gg he hi self was +orn as Brah an9 the #rogenitor of the whole world. '). Then9 %9 desiring to #roduce created +eings #erfor ed ,ery difficult austerities and there+y called into e"istence ten great sages9 lords of created +eings. '/. :arichi9 $tri9 $ngiras9 8ulastya9 8ulaha9 =ratu9 8rachetas9 Vashishta9 Bhrugu and Narada. /2. But he ha,ing co #osed these %nstitutes of the sacred law9 hi self taught the 9 according to rule9 to e alone in the +eginning: ne"t % taught the to :arichi and the other sages.

/3. Bhrigu will fully recite to you these %nstitutesC for that sage learned the whole in its entirety fro e. 5ro this it a##ears that the only :anu who ade laws was the (waya +hu :anu. $ccording to Vishnu 8urana9 each :an,antara had its own :anu. *hy did they not ake laws for their own :an,antara. Or was it the laws ade +y (waya +hu :anu were to +e !ternal. %f so9 why did the Brah ins ha,e se#arate :an,antara. RIDDLE NO. $$ 'RAH(A IS NOT DHAR(A. #HAT GOOD IS 'RAH(AThere are ,arious for s of 6o,ern ent known to history:onarchy9 $ristocracy and Ae ocracy to which ay +e added Aictatorshi#. The ost #re,alent for of 6o,ern ent at the #resent ti e is Ae ocracy. There is howe,er no unani ity as to what constitutes Ae ocracy. *hen one e"a ines the -uestion one finds that there are two ,iews a+out it. One ,iew is that Ae ocracy is a for of 6o,ern ent. $ccording to this ,iew where the 6o,ern ent is chosen +y the #eo#le that is where 6o,ern ent is a re#resentati,e 6o,ern ent there is Ae ocracy. $ccording to this ,iew Ae ocracy is 7ust synony ous with Re#resentati,e 6o,ern ent which eans adult suffrage and #eriodical elections. $ccording to another ,iew a de ocracy is ore than a for of 6o,ern ent. %t is a for of the organiBation of (ociety. There are two essential conditions which characteriBe a de ocratically constituted society. 5irst is the a+sence of stratification of society into classes. The (econd is a social ha+it on the #art of indi,iduals and grou#s which is ready for continuous read7ust ent or recognition of reci#rocity of interests. $s to the first there can +e no dou+t that it is the ost essential condition of Ae ocracy. $s 8rof. Aewey has o+ser,ed: F:uotation referred to by the author is not recorded in the original -S fro * Ae ocracy and Kducation *$ by Aewey p. LM.8 The second condition is e-ually necessary for a de ocratically constituted society.
Ff1G

This chapter consists about 24 pages out of which first two pages and the concluding si5 are in the handwriting of the author The rest are typed pages with all necessary modifications by ;r 3mbed1ar !Ed. The results of this lack of reci#rocity of interests a ong grou#s and indi,iduals #roduce anti@de ocratic results which ha,e +een well descri+ed +y 8rof. Aewey when he says: 6:uotation fro *Ae ocracy and Kducation * of page LL referred to by the author is not recorded in the original -S.8

Ff2G

Of the two ,iews a+out de ocracy there is no dou+t that the first one is ,ery su#erficial if not erroneous. There cannot +e de ocratic 6o,ern ent unless the society for which it functions is de ocratic in its for and structure. Those who hold that de ocracy need +e no ore than a ere atter of elections see to ake three istakes. One istake they ake is to +elie,e that 6o,ern ent is so ething which is -uite distinct and se#arate fro society. $s a atter of fact 6o,ern ent is not so ething which is distinct and se#arate fro (ociety. 6o,ern ent is one of the any institutions which (ociety rears and to which it assigns the function of carrying out so e of the duties which are necessary for collecti,e social life. The (econd istake they ake lies in their failure to realiBe that a 6o,ern ent is to reflect the ulti ate #ur#oses9 ai s9 o+7ects and wishes of society and this can ha##en only where the society in which the 6o,ern ent is rooted is de ocratic. %f society is not de ocratic9 6o,ern ent can ne,er +e. *here society is di,ided into two classes go,erning and the go,erned the 6o,ern ent is +ound to +e the 6o,ern ent of the go,erning class. The third istake they ake is to forget that whether 6o,ern ent would +e good or +ad de ocratic or unde ocratic de#ends to a large e"tent u# on the instru entalities #articularly the &i,il (er,ice on which e,ery where 6o,ern ent has to de#end for ad inistering the >aw. %t all de#ends u#on the social ilieu in which ci,il ser,ants are nurtured. %f the social ilieu is unde ocratic the 6o,ern ent is +ound to +e unde ocratic. There is one other istake which is res#onsi+le for the ,iew that for de ocracy to function it is enough to ha,e a de ocratic for of 6o,ern ent. To realiBe this istake it is necessary to ha,e so e idea of what is eant +y good 6o,ern ent. 6ood 6o,ern ent eans good laws and good ad inistration. This is the essence of good 6o,ern ent. Nothing else can +e. Now there cannot +e good 6o,ern ent in this sense if those who are in,ested with ruling #ower seek the ad,antage of their own class instead of the ad,antage of the whole #eo#le or of those who are downtrodden. *hether the Ae ocratic for of 6o,ern ent will result in good will de#end u#on the dis#osition of the indi,iduals co #osing society. %f the ental dis#osition of the indi,iduals is de ocratic then the de ocratic for of 6o,ern ent can +e e"#ected to result in good 6o,ern ent. %f not9 de ocratic for of 6o,ern ent ay easily +eco e a dangerous for of 6o,ern ent. %f the indi,iduals in a society are se#arated into classes and the classes are isolated fro one another and each indi,idual feels that his loyalty to his class ust co e +efore his loyalty to e,ery thing else and li,ing in class co #art ents he +eco es class conscious +ound to #lace the interests of his class a+o,e the interests of others9 uses his authority to #er,ert law and 7ustice to #ro ote the interests of his class and for this #ur#ose #ractises syste atically discri ination against #ersons who do not

+elong to his caste in e,ery s#here of life what can a de ocratic 6o,ern ent do. %n a (ociety where classes clash and are charged with anti@social feelings and s#irit of aggressi,eness9 the 6o,ern ent can hardly discharge its task of go,erning with 7ustice and fair#lay. %n such a society9 6o,ern ent e,en though it ay in for +e a go,ern ent of the #eo#le and +y the #eo#le it can ne,er +e a 6o,ern ent for the #eo#le. %t will +e a 6o,ern ent +y a class for a class. $ 6o,ern ent for the #eo#le can +e had only where the attitude of each indi,idual is de ocratic which eans that each indi,idual is #re#ared to treat e,ery other indi,idual as his e-ual and is #re#ared to gi,e hi the sa e li+erty which he clai s for hi self. This de ocratic attitude of ind is the result of socialiBation of the indi,idual in a de ocratic society. Ae ocratic society is therefore a #rere-uisite of a de ocratic 6o,ern ent. Ae ocratic 6o,ern ents ha,e to##led down in largely due to the fact that the society for which they were set u# was not de ocratic. Knfortunately to what e"tent@the task of good 6o,ern ent de#ends u#on the ental and oral dis#osition of its su+7ects has seldo +een realiBed. Ae ocracy is ore than a #olitical achine. %t is e,en ore than a social syste . %t is an attitude of ind or a #hiloso#hy of life. (o e e-uate Ae ocracy with e-uality and li+erty. !-uality and li+erty are no dou+t the dee#est concern of Ae ocracy. But the ore i #ortant -uestion is what sustains e-uality and li+erty. (o e would say that it is the law of the state which sustains e-uality and li+erty. This is not a true answer. *hat sustains e-uality and li+erty is fellow@felling. *hat the 5rench Re,olutionists called fraternity. The word fraternity is not an ade-uate e"#ression. The #ro#er ter is what the Buddha called9 :aitree. *ithout 5raternity >i+erty would destroy e-uality and e-uality would destroy li+erty. %f in Ae ocracy li+erty does not destroy e-uality and e-uality does not destroy li+erty9 it is +ecause at the +asis of +oth there is fraternity. 5raternity is therefore the root of Ae ocracy. The foregoing discussion is erely a #reli inary to the ain -uestion. That -uestion iswherein lie the roots of fraternity without which Ae ocracy is not #ossi+le. Beyond dis#ute9 it has its origin in Religion. %n e"a ining the #ossi+ilities of the origin of Ae ocracy or its functioning successfully one ust go to the Religion of the #eo#le and askdoes it teach fraternity or does it not. %f it does9 the chances for a de ocratic 6o,ern ent are great. %f it does not9 the chances are #oor. Of course other factors ay affect the #ossi+ilities. But if fraternity is not there9 there is nothing to +uilt de ocracy on. *hy did Ae ocracy not grow in %ndia. That is the ain -uestion. The answer is -uite si #le. The Hindu Religion does not teach fraternity. %nstead it teaches di,ision of society into classes or ,arnas and the aintenance of se#arate class consciousness. %n such a syste where is the roo for Ae ocracy . The Hindu social syste is unde ocratic not +y accident. %t is designed to +e

unde ocratic. %ts di,ision of society into varnas and castes9 and of castes and outcastes are not theories +ut are decrees. They are all +arricades raised against de ocracy. 5ro this it would a##ear that the doctrine of fraternity was unknown to the Hindu Religious and 8hiloso#hic thought. But such a conclusion would not +e warranted +y the facts of history. The Hindu Religious and 8hiloso#hic thought ga,e rise to an idea which had greater #otentialities for #roducing social de ocracy than the idea of fraternity. %t is the doctrine of Brah ais EFf'G. %t would not +e sur#rising if so e one asked what is this Brah ais . %t is so ething new e,en to Hindus. The Hindus are fa iliar with Vedanta. They are fa ilar with Brah anis . But they are certainly not fa iliar with Brah ais . Before #roceeding further a few words of e"#lanation are necessary. There are three strands in the #hiloso#hic and religious thought of the Hindus. They ay +e designaged as H1I 2rah ais H2I Vedanta and H'I 2rah anis . $lthough they are correlated they stand for three different and distinct ideologies. The essence of Brah ais is su ed u# in a dog a which is stated in three different for s. They are HiI Sarva 0halvida 2rah a; $ll this is Brah a. HiiI +ha 2rah as i; $t ana H(elfI is the sa e as Brah a. Therefore % a Brah a. HiiiI Tattva asi; $t ana H(elfI is the sa e as Brah a. Therefore thou art also Brah a. They are called :aha,akyas which eans 6reat (ayings and they su u# the essence of Brah ais . The following are the dog as which su u# the teachings of Vedant % Brah a is the only reality. %% The world is aya or unreal . %%% <i,a and Brah a are HiI according to one school identicalC HiiI according to another not identical +ut are ele ents of hi and not se#arate fro hi C HiiiI according to the third school they are distinct and se#arate. The creed of 2ra hanis ay +e su ed u# in the following dog as HiI Belief in the chatur,arna. HiiI (anctity and infalli+ility of the Vedas. HiiiI (acrifices to 6ods the only way to sal,ation. :ost #eo#le know the distinction +etween the Vedanta and Brah anis and the #oints of contro,ersy +etween the . But ,ery few #eo#le know the distinction +etween Brah ais and Vedanta. !,en Hindus are not aware of the doctrine of Brah ais and the distinction +etween it and Vedanta. But the distinction is o+,ious. *hile Brah ais and Vedanta agree that $t an is the sa e as Brah a. But the two differ in that Brah ais does not treat the world as unreal9 Vedanta does. This is the funda ental difference +etween the two. The essence of Brah ais is that the world is real and the reality +ehind the world is Brah a. !,erything therefore is of the essence of Brah a. There are two criticis s which ha,e +een le,elled against Brah ais . %t is said

that Brah ais is #iece of i #udence. 5or a an to say D % a Brah a D is a kind of arrogance. The other criticis le,elled against Brah ais is the ina+ility of an to know Brah a. ?% a Brah a? ay a##ear to +e i #udence. But it can also +e an assertion of one?s own worth. %n a world where hu anity suffers so uch fro an inferiority co #le" such an assertion on the #art of an is to +e welco ed. Ae ocracy de ands that each indi,idual shall ha,e e,ery o##ortunity for realiBing its worth. %t also re-uites that each indi,idual shall know that he is as good as e,ery+ody else. Those who sneer at +ha 2rah as i H% a Brah aI as an i #udent Ktterance forget the other #art of the -aha Va1ya na ely Tatva asi HThou art also Brah aI. %f +ha 2rah as i has stood alone without the con7unct of Tatva asi it ay not ha,e +een #ossi+le to sneer at it. But with the con7unct of Tatvan si the charge of selfish arrogance cannot stand against Brah ais . %t ay well +e that Brah a is unknowa+le. But all the sa e this theory of Brah a has certain social i #lications which ha,e a tre endous ,alue as a foundation for Ae ocracy. %f all #ersons are #arts of Brah a then all are e-ual and all ust en7oy the sa e li+erty which is what Ae ocracy eans. >ooked at fro this #oint of ,iew Brah a ay +e unknowa+le. But there cannot +e slightest dou+t that no doctrine could furnish a stronger foundation for Ae ocracy than the doctrine of Brah a. To su##ort Ae ocracy +ecause we are all children of 6od is a ,ery weak foundation for Ae ocracy to rest on. That is why Ae ocracy is so shaky where,er it ade to rest on such a foundation. But to recogniBe and realiBe that you and % are #arts of the sa e cos ic #rinci#le lea,es roo for no other theory of associated life e"ce#t de ocracy. %t does not erely #reach Ae ocracy. %t akes de ocracy an o+ligation of one and all. *estern students of Ae ocracy ha,e s#read the +elief that Ae ocracy has ste ed either fro &hristianity or fro 8lato and that there is no other source of ins#iration for de ocracy. %f they had known that %ndia too had de,elo#ed the doctrine of Brah ais which furnishes a +etter foundation for Ae ocracy they would not ha,e +een so dog atic. %ndia too ust +e ad itted to ha,e a contri+ution towards a theoretical fouodation for Ae ocracy. The -uestion is what ha##ened to this doctrine of Brah ais . %t is -uite o+,ious that Brah ais had no social effects. %t was not ade the +asis of Ahar a. *hen .asked why this ha##ened the answer is that Brah ais is only #hiloso#hy9 as though #hiloso#hy arises not out of social life +ut out of nothing and for nothing. 8hiloso#hy is no #urely theoretic atter. %t has #ractical #otentialities. 8hiloso#hy has its roots in the #ro+le s of life and whate,er theories #hiloso#hy #ro#ounds ust return to society as instru ents of re@constructing society. %t is not enough to know. Those who know ust endea,our to fulfil. *hy then Brah ais failed to #roduce a new society. This is a great riddle. %t is not that the Brah ins did not recogniBe the doctrine of Brah ais . They did. But

they did not ask how they could su##ort ine-uality +etween the Brah in and the (hudra9 +etween an and wo an9 +etween caste an and outcaste . But they did not. The result is that we ha,e on the one hand the ost de ocratic #rinci#le of Brah ais and on the other hand a society infested with castes9 su+castes9 outcastes9 #ri iti,e tri+es and cri inal tri+es. &an there +e a greater dile a than this . *hat is ore ridiculous is the teaching of the 6reat (hankaracharya. 5or it was this (hankarcharya who taught that there is Brah a and this Brah a is real and that it #er,ades all and at the sa e ti e u#held all the ine-uities of the Brah anic society. Only a lunatic could +e ha##y with +eing the #ro#ounder of two such contradictions. Truely as the Brah in is like a cow9 he can eat anything and e,erything as the cow does and re ain a Brah in. RIDDLE NO. $) "ALI !UGA&#H! HA%E THE 'RAH(INS (ADE IT UNENDING%f there is any notion wides#read a ong the Hindus and understood +y e,ery an and wo an adult or old9 ature or i ature it is that of the =ali Juga. They are all aware of the fact that the #resent Juga is =ali Juga and that they are li,ing in the =ali Juga. The theory of =ali Juga has a #sychological effect u#on the ind of the #eo#le. %t eans that it is an un#ro#itious age. %t is an i oral age. %t is therefore an age in which hu an effort will not +ear any fruit. %t is therefore necessary to in-uire as to how such a notion arose. There are really four #oints which re-uire elucidation. They are H1I *hat is =ali Juga .9 H2I *hen did =ali Juga +egin .9 H'I *hen is the =ali Juga to end . and H)I *hy such a notion was s#read a ong the #eo#le. % To +egin with the first #oint. 5or the #ur#oses of this in-uiry it is +etter to s#lit the words =ali Juga and consider the se#arately. *hat is eant +y Juga . The word Juga occurs in the Rig@Veda in the sense of age9 generation or tri+e as in the e"#ressions >uge >uge Hin e,ery ageI9 Bttara >ugani Hfuture agesI9 Kttare Juge Hlater agesI and 3urvani >ugani Hfor er agesI etc. %t occurs in connection with :anushy9 :anusha9 :anushah in which case it denotes generations of en. %t 7ust eant ages. Various atte #ts are ade to asertain the #eriod the Vaidikas intended to +e co,ered +y the ter ? Juga ?. >uga is deri,ed fro the (anskrit root >uj which eans to 7oin and ay ha,e had the sa e eaning as the astrono ical ter ?con7unction?. This chapter contains )( typed pages <nly % pages of this chapter at the beginning are numbered 'hile no other pages are numbered 0owsoever the

te5t of this chapter has been found to be complete and without any loss of material !Ed. 8rof. *e+er suggests that the #eriod of ti e known as >uga was connected with four lunar #hases. 5ollowing this suggestion :r. Rangacharya ?Ff)G has ad,anced the theory that D in all #ro+a+ility the earliest conce#tion of a Juga eant the #eriod of a onth fro new@ oon when the (un and the :oon see each other i.e.9 they are in con7unctionD. This ,iew is not acce#ted +y others. 5or instance9 according to :r. (ha shastry the ter Juga is in the sense of a single hu an year as in the (etu ahat ya which is said to for #art of the (kanda 8urana. $ccording to the sa e authority it is used in the sense of a 8ar,a or half a lunation9 known as a white or dark half of a lunar onth. $ll these atte #ts do not hel# us to know what was the #eriod which the Vaidikas intended to +e co,ered +y a Juga. *hile in the literature of the Vaidikas or theologians there is no e"actitude regarding the use of the ter Juga in the literature of the astrono ers Hwriters on Vedanga <yotishI as distinguished fro the Vaidikas the word Juga connotes a definite #eriod. $ccording to the 9 a Juga eans a cycle of fi,e years which are called H1I (a ,atsara9 H2I 8ari,atsara9 H'I %d,atsara9 H)I $nu,atsara and H/I Vatsara. &o ing to 0ali it is one of the cycles ade u# of four >ugas D 0rita$ Treta$ Awapar and 0ali. *hat is the origin of the ter 0ali < The ter s =rita9 Treta9 Awa#ar and =ali are known to ha,e +een used .in the three different connections. The earliest use of the ter =ali as well as of other ter s is connected with the ga e of dice. 5ro the Rig@Veda it a##ears that the dice #iece that was used in the ga e was ade of the +rown fruit of the Vi+hitaka tree +eing a+out the siBe of a nut eg9 nearly round with fi,e slightly flattened sides. >ater on the dice was ade of four sides instead of fi,e. !ach side was arked with the different nu erals )9 '9 2 and 1. The side arked with ) was called =rita9 with ' Treta9 with 2 Awa#ara and with 1 =ali. (ha shastry gi,es an account of how a ga e of dice for ed #art of sacrifice and how it was #layed. The following is his account': DTaking a cow +elonging to the sacrificer9 a nu +er of #layers used to go along the streets of a town or ,illage9 and aking the cow the stake9 they used to #lay at dice in different +atches with those who de#osited grain as their stake. !ach #layer used to throw on the ground a hundred or ore 'owries HshellsI9 and when the nu +er of the &owries thus cast and fallen with their face u#wards or downwards9 as agreed u#on9 was e"actly di,isi+le +y four then the sacrificer was declared to ha,e won: +ut if otherwise he was defeated. *ith the grain thus won9 four Brah ans used to +e fed on the day of sacrifice. D

Ff/G

8rofessor !ggling?s references to the Vedic literature lea,e no dou+t a+out the #re,alence of the ga e of dice al ost fro the earliest ti e. %t is also clear fro his references that the ga e was #layed with fi,e dice four of which were called 0rita while the fifth was called =ali. He also #oints out that there were ,arious odes in which the ga e was #layed and says that according to the earliest ode of #laying the ga e9 if all the dice fell unifor ly with the arked sides either u#wards or downwards then the #layer won the ga e. The ga e of dice for ed #art of the Ra7asuya and also of the sacrificial cere ony connected with the esta+lish ent of the sacred fire. These ter s=rita9 Treta9 Awa#ara and =aliwere also used in :athe atics. This is clear fro the following #assage fro $+hayade,asuri?s &o entary on Bhag,ati (utra a ,olu inous work on <aina religion. D %n athe atical ter inology an e,en nu +er is called ? Jug a ?9 and an odd nu +er ? O7ah ?. Here there are9 howe,er9 two nu +ers deser,ing of the na e ? Jug a ? and two nu +ers deser,ing of the na e ?O7ah?. (till9 +y the word ?Jug a? four Jug as i.e.9 four nu +ers are eant. Of the i.e.9 =rita@yug a: =rita eans acco #lished9 i.e.9 co #lete9 for the reason that there is no other nu +er after four9 which +ears a se#arate na e Hi.e.9 a na e different fro the four na es =rita and othersI. That nu +er which is not inco #lete like Tryo7a and other nu +ers9 and which is a s#ecial e,en nu +er is =ritayug a. $s to Tryo7a: that #articular odd nu +er which is une,en fro a+o,e a =rityug a is Tryo7a. $s the Awa#arayug a: That nu +er which is another e,en nu +er like =rityug a9 +ut different fro it and which is easured +y two fro the +eginning or fro a+o,e a =rityug a is Awa#arayug a A,a#ara is a s#ecial gra atical word. $s to =alyo7a:That s#ecial une,en nu +er which is odd +y =ali9 i.e.9 to a =ritayug a is called =alyo7a. That nu +er etc. which e,en di,ided +y four9 ends in co #lete di,ision9 =rityug a. %n the series of nu +ers9 the nu +er four9 though it need not +e di,ided +y four +ecause it is itself four9 is also called =rityug a. D (ha shastry entions another sense in which these ter s are used. $ccording to hi 9 they are used to ean the 8ar,as of those na es9 such as =rita 8ar,a9 Treta 8ar,a9 Awa#ara 8ar,a and =ali 8ar,a. $ 8ar,a is a #eriod of 1/ tithis or days otherwise called 8aksha. 5or reasons connected with religious cere onies the e"act ti e when a 8ar,a closed was regarded as i #ortant. %t was held that the 8ar,as fell into four classes according to the ti e of their closing. They were held to close either H1I at (unrise9 H2I at one -uarter or 8ada of the day9 H'I after 2 -uarters or 8adas of the day or H)I at or after three -uarters or 8adas of the day. The first was called 0rita 8ar,a9 the second Treta 8ar,a9 the third Awapara 8ar,a and the fourth 0ali 8ar,a. *hate,er the eaning in which the words 0ali and >uga were used at one ti e9 the ter 0ali >uga has long since +een used to designate a unit in the Hindu syste
Ff0G Ff1G

of reckoning ti e. $ccording to the Hindus there is a cycle of ti e which consists of four Jugas of which the =ali Juga for s one. The other Jugas are called 0rita$ Treta and Awapar. %% *hen did the #resent =ali Juga +egin . There are two different answers to the -uestion. $ccording to the $itereya Brah ana it +egan with Na+hanedishta son of Vai,as,ata :anu. $ccording to the 8uranas it +egan on the death of =rishna after the +attle of :aha+harata. The first has +een reduced to ti e ter +y Ar. (ha shastry?Ff2G who says that =ali Juga +egan in '141 B.&. The second has +een worked out +y :r. 6o#al $iyer with eticulous care. His ,iew is that the :aha+harat *ar co enced on the 1)th of Octo+er and ended on the night of '1st Octo+er 113) B.&. He #laces the death of =rishna 10 years after the close of the war +asing his conclusion on the ground that 8arikshit was 10 when he was installed on the throne and reading it with the connected facts na ely that the 8anda,as went of :aha#rasthan i ediately after installing 8arikshit on the throne and this they did on the ,ery day =rishna died. This gi,es 1111 B.&. as the date of the co ence ent of the =ali Juga. *e ha,e thus two different dates for the co ence ent of the =ali Juga '141 B.&. and 1111 B.&. This is the first riddle a+out the =ali Juga. Two e"#lanations are forthco ing for these two widely se#arated dates for the co ence ent of one and the sa e Juga. One e"#lanation is '141 B.&. is the date of the co ence ent of the =al#a and not of =ali and it was a istake on the #art of the co#yist who isread =al#a for =ali and +rought a+out this confusion. The other e"#lanation is that gi,en +y Ar. (ha shastry. $ccording to hi there were two =ali Juga !ras which ust +e distinguished9 one +eginning in '141 B.&. and another +eginning in 1204 or 12)4 B.&. The first lasted a+out 12)4 or 1204 years and was lost. %%% *hen is the =ali Juga going to end . On this -uestion the ,iew of the great %ndian $strono er 6argacharya in his Siddhanta when s#eaking of (alisuka :aurya the fourth in succession fro $soka akes the following i #ortant o+ser,ation : DThen the ,iciously ,aliant 6reeks9 after reducing (aketa9 8anchala country to :athura9 will reach =usu adhwa7a H8atnaI: 8ush#a#ura +eing taken all #ro,inces will undou+tedly +e in disorder. The uncon-uera+le Ja,anas will not re ain in the iddle country. There will +e cruel and dreadful war a ong the sel,es. Then after the destruction of the 6reeks at the end of the Juga9 se,en #owerful =ings reign in Oudha. D The i #ortant words are D after the destruction of the 6reeks at the end of the JugaD. These words gi,e rise to two -uestions H1I which Juga 6arga has in ind
Ff3G

and H2I when did the defeat and destruction of the 6reeks in %ndia take #lace. Now the answers to these -uestions are not in dou+t. By Juga he eans =ali Juga and the destruction and defeat of the 6reeks took #lace a+out 10/ B.&. %t is not ere atter of inference fro facts. There are direct state ents in cha#ters 122 and 134 of the Vana#ar,a of the :aha+harata that the Bar+arian (akas9 Ja,anas9 Balhikas and any others will de,astate Bharat,arsna ? at the end of the 0ali >uga". The result which follows when the two state ents are #ut together is that the =ali Juga ended in 10/ B.&. There is also another argu ent which su##orts this conclusion. $ccording to the :aha+harata9 =ali Juga was to co #rise a #eriod of one thousand years . %f we acce#t the state ent that the =ali Juga +egan in 1111 B.&. and deduct one thousand years since then we cannot esca#e the conclusion that =ali Juga should ha,e ended +y a+out 111 B.&. which is not ,ery far fro the historical fact referred to +y 6arga as ha##ening at the close of the =ali Juga. There can therefore +e no dou+t that in the o#inion of the chief $strono er 9 =ali Juga ca e to end +y a+out 10/ B.&. *hat is howe,er the #osition. The #osition is that according to the Vaidika Brah aris =ali Juga has not ended. %t still continues. This is clear fro the ter s of San1alpa which is a declaration which e,ery Hindu akes e,en today +efore undertaking any religious cere ony. The (ankal#a is in the following ter s : DOn the aus#icious day and hour9 in the second 8arardha of 5irst Bra ha9 which is called the =al#a of the White Boar9 in the #eriod of Vaivasvata :anu9 in the 0ali >uga$ in the country of <a +ud,i#a in Bharata,arsha in the country of Bharat9 in the luni@solar cycle of the si"ty years which +egins with 8radha,a and ends with =shaya or $kshaya and which is current9 as ordained +y >ord Vishnu9 in the year Hna eI9 of the cycle9 in the (outhern or the Northern $yana9 as the case ay +e9 in the white or dark half9 on the Tithi. % Hna eI +egin to #erfor the rite Hna eI the o+7ect of #leasing the $l ighty. D The -uestion we ha,e to consider is why and how the Vedic Brah ins anage to kee# the 0ali Juga going on when the astrono er had said it was closed. The first thing to do is to ascertain what is the original #eriod of the 0ali >uga . $ccording to the Vishnu 8urana: DThe =ritayuga co #rises )444 years9 the Treta '444?9the Awa#ara 2444 and the =ali 1444. Thus those that know the #ast ha,e declared. D Thus =ali Juga originally co,ered a #eriod of 1444 years only. %t is o+,ious that e,en on this reckoning the =ali Juga should ha,e ended long ago e,en according to the reckoning of the Vedic Brah ins. But it has not. *hat is the resason . O+,iously9 +ecause the #eriod originally co,ered +y the =ali Juga ca e to +e lengthened. This was done in two ways. 5irstly9 it was done +y adding two #eriods called (andhya and (andhya sa +efore and after the co ence ent and the end of a Juga. $uthority for this can +e found
Ff14G Ff11G Ff12G

in the sa e #assage of the Vishnu 8urana already referred to and which reads as follows DThe #eriod that #recedes a Juga is called Sandhya..... and the #eriod which co es after a Juga is called Sandhya sa$ which lasts for a like #eriod. The inter,als +etween these (andhyas and (andhya sas are known as the Jugas called =rita9 Treta and the like. D *hat was the #eriod of (andhya and (andhya sa . *as it unifor for all the Jugas or did it differ with the Juga. (andhya and (andhya sa #eriods were not unifor . They differed with each Juga. The following ta+le gi,es so e idea of the four Jugas and their (andhya and (andhya sa Knit of a :ahayuga 8eriod Jug 8eriod Aawn Twilight Total =rita )444 )44 )44 )244 Treta '444 '44 '44 '044 Awa#ara 2444 244 244 2)44 =ali 1444 144 144 1244 :aha 12444 Juga :aha Juga 12444

The =ali Juga instead of re aining as +efore a #eriod of 19444 years was lengthened to a #eriod of 19244 years +y the addition of (andhya and (andhya sa. (econdly a new inno,ation was ade. %t was declared that the #eriod fi"ed for the Jugas was really a #eriod of di,ine years and not hu an years. $ccording to the Vedic Brah ins one di,ine day was e-ual to one hu an year so that the #eriod of =ali Juga which was 19444 years #lus 244 years of (andhya and (andha sa i.e. 19244 years in all +eca e H1244 " '04I e-ual to ).'29444 years. %n these two ways the Vedic Brah ins instead of declaring the end of =ali Juga in 10/ '.C. as the astrono er had said e"tended its life to ).'29444 years. No wonder =ali Juga continues e,en to@day and will continue for lakhs of years. There is no end to the =ali Juga. %V *hat does the 0ali >uga stand for. The 1ali >uga eans an age of adhar a$ an age which is de oraliBed and an age in which the laws ade +y the =ing ought not to +e o+eyed. One -uestion at once arises. *hy was the =ali Juga ore de oraliBed than the #receding Jugas. *hat was the oral condition of the $ryans in the Juga or Jugas #receding the #resent =ali Juga. $nyone who co #ares the

ha+its and social #ractices of the later $ryans with those of the ancient $ryans will find a tre endous i #ro,e ent al ost a ounting to a social re,olution in their anners and orals. The religion of the Vedic $ryans was full of +ar+aric and o+scene o+ser,ances. Hu an sacrifice for ed a #art of their religion and was called Nara edhayagna. :ost ela+orate descri#tions of the rite are found in the Ja7ur@Veda (a hita. Ja7ur@ Veda Brah anas9 the (ankhyana and Vaitana (utras. The worshi# of genitals or what is called 8hallus worshi# was -uite #re,alent a ong the ancient $ryans. The cult of the #hallus ca e to he known as (ka +ha and. 2' recogniBed as #art of $ryan religion as ay +e seen in the hy n in $thar,a@Veda N.1. $nother instance of o+scenity which disfigured the religion of the $ncient $ryans is connected with the $sh,a edha Ja7na or the horse sacrifice. $ necessary #art of the $sh,a edha was the introduction of the Sepas H#enisI of the :edha Hdead horseI into the Joni H,aginaI of the chief wife of the Ja7a ana Hthe sacrificerI acco #anied +y the recital of long series of :antras +y the Brah in #riests. $ :antra in the Va7asaneya (a hita H""iii. 12I shows that there used to +e a co #etition a ong the -ueens as to who was to recei,e this high honour of +eing ser,ed +y the horse. Those who want to know ore a+out it will find it in the co entary of :ahidhara on the Je7ur@ Veda where he gi,es full descri#tion of the details of this o+scene rite which had for ed a #art of the $ryan religion. The orals of the $ncient $ryans were no +etter than their religion. The $ryans were a race of ga +lers. 6a +ling was de,elo#ed +y the into a science in ,ery early days of the $ryan ci,iliBation so uch so that they had e,en de,ised the dice and gi,en the certain technical ter s. The luckiest dice was called =rit and the unluckiest was called =ali. Treta and Awa#ara were inter ediate +etween the . Not only was ga +ling well de,elo#ed a ong the ancient $ryans +ut they did not #lay without stakes. They ga +led with such a+andon that there is really no co #arison with their s#irit of ga +ling. =ingdo s and e,en wi,es were offered as stakes at ga +ling. =ing Nala staked his kingdo and lost it. The 8and,as went uch +eyond. They not only staked their kingdo +ut they also staked their wife9 Arau#adi9 and lost +oth. $ ong the $ryans ga +ling was not the ga e of the rich. %t was a ,ice of the any. The ancient $ryans were also a race of drunkards. *ine for ed a ost essential #art of their religion. The Vedic 6ods drank wine. The di,ine wine was called (o a. (ince the 6ods of the $ryans drank wine the $ryans had no scru#les in the atter of drinking. %ndeed to drink it was a #art of an $ryan?s religious duty. There were so any (o a sacrifices a ong the ancient $ryans that there were hardly any days when (o a was not drunk. (o a was restricted to only the three u##er classes9 na ely9 the Brah ins9 the =shatriyas and the Vaishyas. That does not ean the (hudras were a+stainers. Those who were denied (o a drank (ura which was

ordinary9 unconsecrated wine sold in the arket. Not only the :ale $ryans were addicted to drinking +ut the fe ales also indulged in drinking. The =aushitaki 6rihya (utra 1.11.12 ad,ises that four or eight wo en who are not widowed after ha,ing +een regaled with wine and food should +e called to dance for four ti es on the night #re,ious to the wedding cere ony. This ha+it of drinking into"icating li-uor was not confined to the Non@Brah in wo en. !,en Brah in wo en were addicted to it. Arinking was not regarded as a sin. %t was not e,en a ,ice9 it was -uite a res#ecta+le #ractice. The Rig@Veda says: D*orshi##ing the (un +efore drinking :adira HwineI.D The Ja7ur@Veda says: D Oh9 Ae,a (o aM +eing strengthened and in,igorated +y (ura HwineI9 +y thy #ure s#irit #lease the Ae,asC gi,e 7uicy food to the sacrificer and ,igour to Brah anas and =shatriyas.D The :antra Brah ana says: D By which wo en ha,e +een ade en7oya+le +y en9 and +y which water has +een transfor ed into wine Hfor the en7oy ent of enI9 etc.D That Ra a and (ita +oth drank wine is ad itted +y the Ra ayana. Ktter =hand says: D >ike %ndra in the case of Hhis wifeI (hachi9 Ra a &handra ade (ita drink #urified honey ade wine. (er,ants +rought for Ra a &handra eat and sweet fruits.D ) (o did =rishna and $r7una. %n the Kdyoga 8ar,a of the :aha+harat (an7aya says: D$r7una and (hri =rishna drinking wine ade fro honey and +eing sweet@scented and garlanded9 wearing s#lendid clothes and orna ents9 sat on a golden throne studded with ,arious 7ewels. % saw (hrikrishna?s feet on $r7una?s la#9 and $r7una?s feet on Arau#adi and (atya+ha a?s la#.D *e ay ne"t #roceed to consider the arital relations of en and wo en. *hat does history say . %n the +eginning there was no law of arriage a ong the $ryans. %t was a state of co #lete #ro iscuity +oth in the higher and lower classes of the society. There was no such thing as a -uestion of #rohi+ited degrees as the following instances will show. 2rah a arried his own daughter Satarupa. Their son was :anu the founder of the 8ruthu dynasty which #receded the rise of the +i1sva1as and the +ilas. Hiranyakash#u arried his daughter Rohini. Other cases of father arrying daughters are Vashishtha and (hatru#a9 <anhu and <annha,i9 and (urya and K.sha. That such arriages +etween father and daughters were co on is indicated +y the usage of recogniBing 0anin sons. =anin sons ean sons +orn to un arried daughter. They were in law the sons of the father of the girl. O+,iously they ust +e sons +egotten +y the father on his own daughter There are cases of father and son coha+iting with the sa e wo an9 Brah a is the father of :anu and (ataru#a is his other. This (ataru#a is also the wife of :anu.

$nother case is that of Shradha. (he is the wife of Vi,as,at. Their son is :anu. But (hradha is also the wife of :anu thus indicating the #ractice of father and son sharing a wo an. %t was o#en for a #erson to arry his +rother?s daughter. Ahar a arried 14 daughters of Aaksha though Aaksha and Ahar a were +rothers. One could also arry his uncle?s daughter as did =asya#a who arried 1' wi,es all of who were the daughters of Aaksha and Aaksha was the +rother of =asya#a?s father :arichi. The case of Ja a and Ja i entioned in the Rig@Veda is a notorious case9 which throws a great deal of light on the -uestion of arriages +etween +rothers and sisters. Because Ja a refused to coha+it with Ja i it ust not +e su##osed that such arriages did not e"ist. The $di 8ar,a of the :aha+harata gi,es a geneology which +egins fro Brah ade,a. $ccording to this geneology Brah a had three sons :arichi9 Aaksha and Ahar a and one daughter whose na e the geneology unfortunately does not gi,e. %n this ,ery geneology it is stated that Aaksha arried the daughter of Brah a who was his sister and had a ,ast nu +er of daughters ,ariously esti ated as +eing +etween /4 and 04. Other instances of arriages +etween +rothers and sisters could +e cited. They are 8ushan and his sister $cchoda and $ a,asu. 8urukutsa and Nar ada9 Vi#rachiti and (i hika9 Nahusa and Vira7a9 (ukra@Ksanas and 6o9 $ su at and Jasoda9 Aasaratha and =ausalya9 Ra a and (itaC (uka and 8i,ariC Arau#adi and 8rasti are all cases of +rothers arrying sisters. The following cases show that there was no #rohi+ition against son coha+iting with his other. There is the case of 8ushan and his other :anu and (atru#a and :anu and (hradha. $ttention ay also +e drawn to two other cases9 $r7una and Kr,ashi and $r7una and Kttara. Kttara was arried to $+hi anyu son of $r7una when he was +arely 10. Kttara was associated with $r7una. He taught her usic and dancing. Kttara is descri+ed as +eing in lo,e with $r7una and the :aha+harata s#eaks of their getting arried as a natural se-uel to their lo,e affair. The :aha+harata does not say that they were actually arried +ut if they were9 then $+hi anyu can +e said to ha,e arried his other. The $r7una Kr,asi e#isode is ore #ositi,e in its indication. %ndra was the real father of $r7una. Kr,ashi was the istress of %ndra and therefore in the #osition of a other to $r7una. (he was a tutor to $r7una and taught hi usic and dancing. Kr,asi +eca e ena oured of $r7una and with the consent of his father9 %ndra9 a##roached $r7una for se"ual intercourse. $r7una refused to agree on the ground that she was like other to hi . Kr,ashi?s conduct has historically ore significant than $r7una?s denial and for two reasons. The ,ery re-uest +y Kr,ashi to $r7una and the consent +y %ndra show that Kr,ashi was following a well esta+lished #ractice. (econdly9 Kr,ashi in her re#ly to $r7una tells hi in a #ointed anner that this was a well recogniBed custo and that all $r7una?s forefathers had acce#ted

#recisely si ilar in,itations without any guilt +eing attached to the . Nothing illustrates +etter than the co #lete disregard of consanguity in coha+itation in ancient %ndia than the following story which is related in the second $dhyaya of the Hari,a sha. $ccording to it (o a was the son of ten fathers suggesting the e"istence of 8olyandryeach one of who was called 8ralheta. (o a had a daughter -arisha;The ten fathers of So a and So a hi self coha+ited with :arisha. This is a case of ten grand@fathers and father arried to a wo an who was a grand@daughter and daughter to her hus+ands. %n the sa e $dhyaya the story of Aaksha 8ra7a#ati is told. This Aaksha 8ra7a#ati who is the son of (o a is said to ha,e gi,en his 21 daughters to his father9 (o a for #rocreation. %n the third $dhyaya of Hari,a sha the author says that Aaksha ga,e his daughter in arriage to his own father Brah a on who Brah a +egot a son who +eca e fa ous as Narada. $ll these are cases of coha+itation of (a#inda en9 with (a#inda wo en. The ancient $ryan wo en were sold. The sale of daughters is e,idenced +y the $rsha for of arriage. $ccording to the technical ter s used the father of the +oy ga,e Eo/-ithuna and took the girl. This is another way of saying that the girl was sold for a Eo/-ithuna. 6o@:ithuna eans one cow and one +ull which was regarded as a reasona+le #rice of a girl. Not only daughters were sold +y their fathers +ut wi,es also were sold +y their hus+ands. The Hari,a sha in its 13th $dhyaya descri+es how a religious rite called 8unyaka@Vrata should +e the fee that should +e offered to the officiating #riest. %t says that the wi,es of Brah ins should +e #urchased fro their hus+ands and gi,en to the officiating #riest as his fee. %t is -uite o+,ious fro this that Brah ins freely sold their wi,es for a consideration. That the ancient $ryans let their wo en on rent for coha+itation to others is also a fact. %n the :aha+harata there is an account of the life of :adha,i in $dhyayas 14' to 12'. $ccording to this account :adha,i was the daughter of =ing Jayati. Jayati ade a gift of her to 6alawa. 6al,a who was a Rishi as a fee to a #riest. 6al,a rented her out to three kings in succession +ut to each for a #eriod necessary to +eget a son on her. $fter the tenancy of the third king ter inated :adha,i was surrendered +y 6al,a to his 6uru Vish,a itra who ade her his wife. Vish,a itra ke#t her till he +egot a son on her and ga,e her +ack to 6al,a. 6al,a returned her to her father Jayati. 8olyga y and 8olyandry were raging in the ancient $ryan society. The fact is so well known that it is unnecessary to record cases which show its e"istence. But what is #ro+a+ly not well known is the fact of #ro iscuity. 8ro iscuity in atters of se" +eco es -uite a##arent if one were only to e"a ine the rules of Niyoga which the $ryan na e for a syste under which a wo an who is wedded can +eget on herself a #rogeny fro another who is not her hus+and. This syste resulted in a co #lete

state of #ro iscuity for it was uncontrolled. %n the first #lace9 there was no li it to the nu +er of Niyogas o#en to a wo an. :adhuti had one Niyoga allowed to her. $ +ika had one actual Niyoga and another #ro#osed. (aradandayani had three. 8andu allowed his wife =unti four Niyogas. Vyusistas,a was #er itted to ha,e 1 and Vali is known to ha,e allowed as any as 11 Niyogas9 %% on one and 0 on his second wife. <ust as there was no li it to the nu +er of Niyogas so also there was no definition of cases in which Niyoga was #er issi+le. Niyoga took #lace in the lifeti e of the hus+and and e,en in cases where the hus+and was not o,erco e +y any congenital inca#acity to #rocreate. The initiati,e was #ro+a+ly taken +y the wife. The choice of a an was left to her. (he was free to find out with who she would unite a Niyoga and how any ti es9 if she chose the sa e an. The Niyogas were another na e for illicit intercourse +etween en and wo en which ight last for one night or twel,e years or ore with the hus+and a willing and a slee#ing #artner in this trade of fornication. These were the anners and orals of co on en in the ancient $ryan (ociety. *hat were the orals of the Brah ins. Truth to tell they were no +etter en than those of the co on en. The looseness of the orals a ong the Brah ins is e,idenced +y any instances. But a few will suffice. The cases showing that the Brah ins used to sell their wi,es has already +een referred to. % will gi,e other cases showing looseness. The Ktanka is a #u#il of Veda Hthe 8urohita of <an e7aya %%%I. The wife of Veda ost cal ly re-uests Ktanka to take the #lace of her hus+and and ?a##roach ? her for the sake of ,irtue. $nother case that ay +e referred to in this connection is that of Kddalaka?s wife. (he is free to go to other Brah ins either of her own free will9 or in res#onse to in,itations. (hwetketu is her son +y one of her hus+and?s #u#ils. These are not ere instances of la"ity or adultery. These are cases of recogniBed latitudes allowed to Brah in wo en. <atila@6auta i? was a Brah in wo an and had 1 hus+ands who were Rishis. The :aha+harata says that the wi,es of the citiBens ad ire Arau#adi in the co #any of her fi,e hus+ands and co #are her to <atila 6auta i with her se,en hus+ands. -a ata is the wife of Btathya. But Brahas#ati the +rother of Ktathya had free access to :a ata during the life ti e of Ktathya. The only o+7ection :a ata once raises to hi is to ask hi to wait on account of her #regnancy +ut does not say that a##roaches to her were either i #ro#er or unlawful. (uch i oralities were so co on a ong the Brah ins that Arau#adi when she was called a cow +y Auryodhana for her #olyandry is said to ha,e said she was sorry that her hus+ands were not +orn as Brah ins. >et us e"a ine the orality of the rishis. *hat do we find. The first thing we find is the #re,alence of +estiality a ong the rishis. Take the case of the rishi called Vibhanda1a. %n $dhyaya 144 of the Vana 8ar,a of the :aha+harata it is stated that he coha+ited with a fe ale deer and that the fe ale deer +ore a son to hi who

su+se-uently +eca e known as Rishi (hranga. %n $dhyaya % as well as in 112 of the $di 8ar,a of the :aha+harata there is a narration of how 8andu the father of the 8anda,as recei,ed his curse fro the Rishi +y na e Aa a. Vyas says that the Rishi Aa a was once engaged in the act of coitus with a fe ale deer in a 7ungle. *hile so engaged 8andu shot hi with an arrow +efore the rishi was s#ent as a result of it Aa a died. But +efore he died Aa a uttered a curse saying that if 8andu e,er thought of a##roaching his wife he would die instantly. Vyas tries to gloss this +estiality of the rishi +y saying that the Rishi and his wife had +oth taken the for of deer in fun and frolic. Other instances of such +estiality +y the rishis it will not +e difficult to find if a diligent search was ade in the ancient religious literature in %ndia. $nother heinous #ractice which is associated with the rishis is coha+itation with wo en in the o#en and within the sight of the #u+lic. %n $dhyaya 0' of the $di 8ar,a of the :aha+harata a descri#tion is gi,en of how the Rishi 8arashara had se"ual intercourse with (atya,ati9 alias :atsya 6andha a fisher an?s girl. Vyas says that he coha+ited with her in the o#en and in #u+lic. $nother si ilar instance is to +e found in $dhyaya 14) of the $di 8ar,a. %t is stated therein that the Rishi Airgha Ta a coha+ited with a wo an in the sight of the #u+lic. There are any such instances entioned in the :aha+harata. There is9 howe,er9 no need to encu +er the record with the . 5or the word +yonija is enough to #ro,e the general e"istence of the #ractice. :ost Hindus know that (ita9 Arau#adi and other renowned ladies are s#oken of +yonija. *hat they ean +y +yonija is a child +orn +y i aculate conce#tion. There is howe,er no warrant fro ety ological #oint of ,iew to gi,e such a eaning to the $yoni. The root eaning of the word Joni is house. >onija eans a child +orn or concei,ed in the house. +yonija eans a child +orn or concei,ed outside the house. %f this is the correct ety ology of $yoni7a it testifies to the #ractice of indulging in se"ual intercourse in the o#en within the sight of the #u+lic. $nother #ractice which e,idences the re,olting i orality of the rishis in the &handyogya K#anishad. $ccording to this K#anishad it a##ears that the rishis had ade a rule that if while they were engaged in #erfor ing a >ajna if a wo an e"#ressed a desire for se"ual intercourse with the rishi who was a##roached should i ediately without waiting for the co #letion of the Ja7na and without caring to retire in a secluded s#ot #roceeded to co it se"ual intercourse with her in the Ja7na :anda# and in the sight of the #u+lic. This i oral #erfor ance of the rishi was ele,ated to the #osition of a Religious o+ser,ance and gi,en the technical na e of Va adev/ Vrata which was later on re,i,ed as Va a/ -arga. This does not e"haust all that one finds in the ancient sacredotal literature of the $ryans a+out the orality of the rishis. One #hase of their oral life re ains to +e entioned. The ancient $ryans also see to +e #ossessed with the desire to ha,e +etter

#rogeny which they acco #lished +y sending their wi,es to others and it was ostly to the rishis who were regarded +y the $ryas as #edigree cattle. The nu +er of rishis who figure in such cases for -uite a for ida+le nu +er. %ndeed the rishis see ed to ha,e ade a regular trade in this kind of i orality and they were so lucky that e,en kings asked the to i #regnate the -ueens. >et us now take the Ae,as . The Ae,as were a #owerful and ost licentious co unity. They e,en olested the wi,es of the rishis. The story of how %ndra ra#ed $halya the wife of Rishi 6auta a is well known. But the i oralities they co itted on the $ryan wo en were uns#eaka+le. The Ae,as as a co unity a##ears to ha,e esta+lished an o,erlordshi# o,er the $ryan co unity in ,ery early ti es. This o,erlordshi# had +eco e degenerated that the $ryan wo en had to #rostitute the sel,es to satisfy the lust of the Ae,as. The $ryans took #ride if his wife was in the kee#ing of a Ae,a and was i #regnated +y hi . The ention is in the :aha+harata and in the Hari,a sha of sons +orn to $rya wo en fro %ndra. Ja a9 Nasatya9 $gni9 Vayu and other Ae,as is so fre-uent that one is astounded to note the scale on which such illicit intercourse +etween the Ae,as and the $rya wo en was going on. %n course of ti e the relations +etween the Ae,as and the $ryans +eca e sta+liBed and a##ears to ha,e taken the for of feudalis . The Ae,as e"acted two +oons?Ff1)G fro the $ryans. The first +oon was the >ajna which were #eriodic feasts gi,en +y the $ryans to the Ae,as in return for the #rotection of the Ae,as in their fight against the Rakshasas9 Aaityas and Aana,as. The Ja7nas were nothing +ut feudal e"actions of the Ae,as. %f they ha,e not +een so understood it is largely +ecause the word Ae,a instead of thought to +e the na e of a co unity is regarded as a ter for e"#ressing the idea of 6od which is -uite wrong at any rate in the early stages of $ryan (ociety. The second +oon clai ed +y the Ae,as against the $ryans was the #rior right to en7oy $ryan wo an. This was syste atiBed at a ,ery early date. There is a ention of it in the Rig@Veda in N. 2/.)4. $ccording to it the first right o,er an $rya fe ale was that of (o a second of 6andhar,a9 third of $gni and lastly of the $ryan. !,ery $ryan wo an was hy#othecated to so e Ae,a who had a right to en7oy her first on +eco ing #u+er. Before she could +e arried to an $ryan she had to +e redee ed +y getting the right of the Ae,a e"tinguished +y aking hi a #ro#er #ay ent. The descri#tion of the arriage cere ony gi,en in the 1th =handika of the 1st $dhyaya of the $sh,alayan 6rahya (utra furnish the ost cogent #roof of the e"istence of the syste . $ careful and critical e"a ination of the (utra re,eals that at the arriage three Ae,as were #resent9 +rya an$ Varuna and 3ushan$ o+,iously +ecause they had a right of #reli+ation o,er the +ride. The first thing that the +ride@groo does9 is to +ring her near a stone sla+ and ake her stand on it telling her ?Tread on this stone9 like a stone +e fir . O,erco e the ene iesC tread the foes down ?. This
Ff1'G

eans that the +ridegroo does it to li+erate the +ride fro the #hysical control of the three Ae,as who he regards as his ene ies. The Ae,as get angry and arch on the +ridegroo . The +rother of the +ride inter,enes and tries to settle the dis#ute. He +rings #arched gra with a ,iew to offer it the $ngry Ae,a with a ,iew to +uy off their rights o,er the +ride. The +rother then asks the +ride to 7oin her #al s and ake a hollow. He then fills the hollow of her #al with the #arched grain and #ours clarified +utter on it and asks her to offer it to each Ae,a three ti es. This offering is called +vadana. *hile the +ride is aking this $,adana to the Ae,a the +rother of the +ride utters a state ent which is ,ery significant. He says D This girl is aking this $,adana to $rya an Ae,a through $gni. $rya an should therefore relin-uish his right o,er the girl and should not distur+ the #ossession of the +ridegroo D. (e#arate $,adanas are ade +y the +ride to the other two Ae,as and in their case also the +rother alters the sa e for ula. $fter the $,adan follows the 8radakshana round the $gni which is called ($8T$8$A% after which the arriage of the +ride and +ridegroo +eco es co #lete ,alid and good. $ll this of course is ,ery illu inating and throw a flood of light on the utter su+7ection of the $ryans to the Ae,as and oral degradation of Ae,as as well as of the $ryans. >awyers know that (a#ta#adi is the ost essential cere ony in a Hindu arriage and that without it there is no arriage at >aw. But ,ery few know why (a#ta#adi has so great an i #ortance. The reason is -uite o+,ious. %t is a test whether the Ae,a who had his right of #reli+ation o,er the +ride was satisfied with the $,adana and was #re#ared to release her. %f the Ae,a allowed the +ridegroo to take the +ride away with hi u# to a distance co,ered +y the (a#ta#adi it raised an irre+uta+le #resu #tion that the Ae,a was satisfied with the co #ensation and that his right was e"tinguished and the girl was free to +e the wife of another. The (a#ta#adi cannot ha,e any other eaning. The fact that (a#ta#adi is necessary in e,ery arriage shows how uni,ersally #re,alent this kind of i orality had +een a ong the Ae,as and the $ryans. This sur,ey cannot +e co #lete without se#arate reference to the orals of =rishna. (ince the +eginning of =ali Juga which is the sa e thing is associated with his death his orals +eca e of considera+le i #ortance. How do the orals of =rishna co #are with those of the others. 5ull details are gi,en in another #lace a+out the sort of life =rishna led. To that % will add here a few. =rishna +elonged to the Vrasni HJada,a fa ilyI. The Jada,as were #olyga ous. The Jada,a =ings are re#orted to ha,e innu era+le wi,es and innu era+le sons a stain fro which =rishna hi self was not free. But this Jada,a fa ily and =rishna?s own house was not free fro the stain of #arental incest. The case of a father arrying daughter is re#orted +y the :atsya 8urana to ha,e occurred in the Jada, fa ily. $ccording to :atsya 8urana9 =ing Taittiri an ancestor of =rishna arried his own daughter and +egot on her a son 9+y na e Nala. The case of a son coha+iting with his other is

found in the conduct of Sa ba the son of =rishna. The :atsya 8urana tells how (a +a li,ed an illicit life with the wi,es of =rishna his father and how =rishna got angry and cursed (a +a and the guilty wi,es on that account. There is a reference to this in the :aha+harata also. (atya+ha a asked Arau#adi the secret of her #ower o,er her fi,e hus+ands. $ccording to the :aha+harata Arau#adi warned her against talking or staying in #ri,ate with her ste#@sons. This corro+orates what the :atsya 8urana has to say a+out Sa ba. (arn+a?s is not the only case. His +rother 8radyu na arried his foster other -ayavati the wife of (a +ara. (uch is the state of orals in the $ryan (ociety +efore the death of =rishna. %t is not #ossi+le to di,ide this history into definite Jugas and to say that what state of orals e"isted in the =rita9 what in Treta and what in Awa#ara Juga which closed at the death of =rishna %f9 howe,er9 we allow the ancient $ryans a s#irit of #rogressi,e refor it is #ossi+le to say that the worst cases of i orality occurred in earliest age i.e. the =rita age9 the less re,olting in the Treta and the least re,olting in the Awa#ara and the +est in the =ali age. This line of thinking does not rest u#on ere general de,elo# ent of hu an society as we see all o,er the world. That instead of undergoing a oral decay the ancient $ryan society was engaged in re o,ing social e,ils +y undertaking +old refor s is +orne out +y its story. Ae,as and the rishis occu#ied a ,ery high #lace in the eyes of the co on $ryan and as is usual the inferior always i itate their su#erior. *hat the su#erior class does for s a standard for the inferior. The i oralities which were #re,alent in the $ryan (ociety were largely the result of the i itation +y the co on an of the i oral acts and deeds of the Ae,as and the rishis. To sto# the s#read of i oralities in society the leaders of the $ryan (ociety introduced a refor of the greatest significance. They declared that acts and deeds of the Ae,as and the rishis are not to +e cited or treated as #recedents. %n this way one cause and source of i orality was re o,ed +y a +old and courageous stroke. Other refor s were e-ually drastic. The :aha+harata refers to two refor ers Airghata a and (hwetaketu. %t was laid down +y (hwetketu that the arriage is indissolu+le and there was to +e no di,orce. Two refor s are attri+uted to Airghata a. He sto##ed #olyandry and declared that a wo an can ha,e only one hus+and at a ti e. The second refor he is said to ha,e carried out. was to lay down conditions for regulating Niyog. The following were the ost i #ortant of these conditions. HiI The father or +rother of the widow Hor of the widow?s hus+andI shall asse +le the 6urus who taught or sacrificed for the deceased hus+and and his relati,es and shall a##oint her to raise issue for the deceased hus+and . HiiI H1I The hus+and9 whether li,ing or dead9 ust ha,e no sonsC H2I The 6urus in a fa ily council should decide to a##oint the widow to raise issue for her hus+and9 H'I
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The #erson a##ointed ust +e either the hus+and?s +rother or a sa#inda9 or sagotra of the hus+and or Haccording to 6auta aI a sa#ra,ara or a #erson of the sa e caste. H)I The #erson a##ointed and the widow ust +e actuated +y no lust +ut only +y a sense of dutyC H/I The #erson a##ointed ust +e anointed with ghee or oil HNarada (tri#urnsa9 22I ust not s#eak with or kiss her or engage in the s#orti,e dalliance with the wo enC H0I This relationshi# was to last till one son was +orn Hor two according to so eIC H1I The widow ust +e co #arati,ely young9 she should not +e old or sterile9 or #ast child@+earing or sickly or unwilling or #regnant HBaud. Ah. (. %%. 2.149 Narad9 (tri#u sa 2'.2)IC H2I $fter the +irth of a son they were to regard the sel,es as father@in@law and daughter@in@law H:anu %N9 02I. %t is further ade clear +y the te"ts that if a +rother@in@law has intercourse with his sister@in@law without a##oint ent +y elders or if he does so e,en when a##ointed +y elders +ut the other circu stances do not e"ist He.g.9 if the hus+and has a sonI9 he would +e guilty of the sin of incest.D There are other refor s carried out +y the ancient $ryan (ociety necessary to i #ro,e its orals. One was to esta+lish the rule of #rohi+ited degrees for #ur#oses of arriage to #re,ent recurrence of father@daughter9 +rother@sister9 other@son9 grandfather@grand daughter arriages. The other was to declare se"ual intercourse +etween the wife of the 6uru and the #u#il a heinous sin. !-ually clear is the e,idence in su##ort of an atte #t to control ga +ling. !,ery treatise in the series called Ahar a (utras contain references to laws ade throwing on the =ing the duty and urgency of controlling ga +ling +y (tate authorities under stringent laws. $ll these refor s had taken effect long +efore the =ali Juga started and it is natural to hold that fro the #oint of ,iew of orality the =ali Juga was a +etter age. To call it an age in which orals were declining is not only without foundation +ut is an utter #er,ersion. This discussion a+out the =ali Juga raised any riddles in the first #lace. How and when did the idea of ahayuga arise. %t is true that all o,er the world the idea of a golden age lying in the #ast has +een #re,alent. But the idea of a :ahayuga is -uite satisfied with the idea of a golden #ast #re,elent elsewhere in %ndia. !lsewhere the golden #ast is dee ed to return. %t is gone for e,er. But in the idea of the :ahayuga the golden #ast is not gone for e,er. %t is to return after the cycle is co #lete. The second riddle is why was the =ali Juga not closed in 10/ B.&. *hen according to the astrono er it was due to end why was it continued. Third riddle is the addition of (andhya and (andhya sa #eriods to the 0ali >uga. %t is -uite o+,ious that these were later additions. 5or the Vishnu 8urana states the se#arately. %f they were original #arts of =ali Juga they would not ha,e +een stated se#arately why were these additions ade. $ fourth riddle is the change in the counting of the #eriod. Originally the #eriod of the =ali Juga was said to +e hu an years. (u+se-uently it was said to +e a #eriod of di,ine years with the result of the

=ali Juga +eing confined to 1244 years +eca e e"tended to )9'29444 years. That this was an inno,ation is -uite o+,ious. 5or the :aha+harata knows nothing a+out this calculation in ter of di,ine years. *hy was this inno,ation ade. *hat was the o+7ect of the Vedic Brah ins in thus indefinitely e"tending the #eriod of the =ali Juga. *as it to +lack ail so e (hudra =ings that the theory of =ali Juga was in,ented and ade unending so as to destroy his su+7ects fro ha,ing any faith in his rule. RIDDLE NO. $3 THE RIDDLE O THE "ALI !UGA The Knits into which ti e is +roken u# for the #ur#oses of reckoning it which are #re,alent a ong the Hindus ha,e not deser,ed the attention which their e"traordinary character call for. This is a atter which for s one of the #rinci#al su+7ect atter of the 8uranas. There are according to the 8uranas fi,e easures of ti e H1I Varsha9 H2I Juga9 H'I :aha Juga9 H)I :anwantara and H/I =al#a. % will draw u#on the Vishnu 8urana to show what these units are. To +egin with the Varsha. This is how the Vishnu 8urana e"#lains it : D Oh +est of sages9 fifteen twinklings of the eye ake a 0ashtha4 thirty =alas9 one -uhurtta4 thirty :uhurttas constitute a day and night of ortals: thirty such days ake a onth9 di,ided into two half@ onths: si" onths for an +yana Hthe #eriod of the (un?s #rogress north or south of the ecli#ticI: and two $yanas co #ose a year.D The sa e is e"#lained in greater details at another #lace in the Vishnu 8urana D 5ifteen twinklings of the eye (#i edhas. ake a 0ashtha*$ thirty =ashthas9 a 0ala4 Thirty =alas9 a -uhurtta Hforty@eighty inutesIC and thirty :uhurttas9 a day and nightC the #ortions of the day are longer or shorter9 as has +een e"#lainedC +ut the (andhya is always the sa e in increase or decrease9 +eing only one :uhurtta. 5ro the #eriod that a line ay +e drawn across the (un Hor that half his or+ is ,isi+leI to the e"#iration of three :uhurttas Htwo hours and twenty@four inutesI9 that inter,al is called 8ratar H orningI9 for ing a fifth #ortion of the day.
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7This is another version entitled ' The ,iddle of the 9ali =uga ' The copy available with us is a carbon copy having no corrections or modifications by the author This chapter contains )4 pages ! Ed./ The ne"t #ortion9 or three :uhurttas fro orning9 is ter ed Sangava HforenoonI: the three ne"t :uhurttas constitute id@dayC the afternoon co #rises the ne"t three :uhurttasC the three :uhurttas following are considered as the e,eningC and the

fifteen :uhurttas of the day are thus classed in fi,e #ortions of three each.D D5ifteen days of thirty :uhurttas each are called a 3a1sha Ha lunar fortnightIC two of these ake a onthC and two onths9 a solar seasonC three seasons a northern or southern declination (+yana.*$ and those two co #ose a year.D The conce#tion of Juga is e"#lained +y the Vishnu 8urana in the following ter s : D Twel,e thousand di,ine years9 each co #osed of Hthree hundred and si"tyI such days9 constitute the #eriod of the four Jugas9 or ages. They are thus distri+uted: the =rita age has four thousand di,ine yearsC the Treta three thousandC the Awa#ara two thousandC and =ali age one thousandC so those ac-uainted with anti-uity ha,e declared. D The #eriod that #recedes a Juga is called a Sandhya$ and it is of as any hundred years as there are thousand in the JugaC and the #eriod that follows a Juga9 ter ed the Sandhyansa$ is of si ilar duration. The inter,al +etween the (andhya and the (andhyasana is the Juga9 deno inated9 =rita9 Treta9 Pc.D The ter Juga is also used +y the Vishnu 8urana to denote a different easure of ti e. %t says : " Years, made up of four kinds of months, are distinguished into five kinds; and an aggregate of all the varieties of time is termed a Yuga, or cycle. The years are severally, called Samvatsara, ldvatsara, Anuvatsara, Parivatsara, and Vatsara. This is the time called a Yuga." The easure of :aha Juga is an e"tension of the Juga. $s the Vishnu 8urana #oints out : DThe =rita9 Treta9 Awa#ara9 and =ali constitute a great age9 or aggregate of four ages: a thousand such aggregates are a day of Brah a9D The :anwantara is e"#lained +y the Vishnu 8urana in the following ter s : DThe inter,al9 called a :anwantara9 is e-ual to se,enty@one ti es9 the nu +er of years contained in the four Jugas9 with so e additional years.D *hat is =al#a is stated +y the Vishnu 8urana in the following +rief te"t: D =al#a Hor the dayI of Brah a.D These are the #eriods in which ti e is di,ided. The ti e included in these #eriods ay ne"t +e noted. The Varsha is si #le enough. %t is the sa e as the year or a #eriod of '0/ days. The Juga9 :aha Juga9 :anwantara and =al#a are not so si #le for calculating the #eriods. %t would +e easier to treat Juga9 :aha Juga etc.9 as su+@di,isions of a =al#a rather than treat the =al#a as a ulti#le of Juga. 8roceeding along that line the relation +etween a =al#a and a :aha Juga is that in one =al#a there are 11 :aha Jugas while one :aha Juga consists of four Jugas and a :anwantara is e-ual to 11 :aha Jugas with so e additional years. %n co #uting the #eriods co,ered +y these units we cannot take Juga as our +ase for co #utation. 5or the Juga is a fi"ed +ut not unifor #eriod. The +asis of
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co #utation is the :aha Juga which consists of a fi"ed #eriod. $ :aha Juga consists of a #eriod of four Jugas called H1I =rita9 H2I Treta9 H'I Awa#ara and H)I =ali. !ach Juga has its #eriod fi"ed. !ach Juga in addition to its #eriod has a dawn and a twilight which ha,e fi"ed duration. $ctual #eriod as well as the #eriod of the dawn and the twilight are different for the different Jugas. Jug =rita Treta Awa#ara =ali :aha Juga 8eriod )444 '444 2444 1444 Aawn )44 '44 244 144 Twilight )44 '44 244 144 Total )244 '044 2)44 1244 12444

This co #utation of the :aha Juga is in ter s of di,ine years i.e. 12444 di,ine years or years of Brah a ake u# one :aha Juga at the rate of one year of en +eing e-ual to one di,ine day the :aha Juga in ter s of hu an or ortal years co es to H'04 12444I )'9249444 years. (e,enty@one :aha Jugas ake one =al#a. This eans that a =al#a is e-ual to H)'9249444 " 11I '9409129444. &o ing to :anwantaras one :an,antara is e-ual to 11 :aha Jugas #lus so ething ore. The #eriod of a an,antara is e-ual to that of a =al#a i.e. '9409129444 plus so ething ore. The #eriod of a :an,antara is +igger than the #eriod included in a =al#a. The conce#tion of a Varsha is in accord with astrono y and is necessary for the #ur#ose of calculating ti e.The conce#tion of a =al#a is +oth ythological and cos ological and is +ased u#on the +elief that the Kni,erse undergoes the #rocess of creation and dissolution at the hands of Brah a and the #eriod +etween creation and dissolution is called =al#a. The first +ook of the Vishnu 8urana is occu#ied with this. %t +egins with the details of creation. &reation is of twofold character9 H1I #ri ary HsargaI i.e. the origin of the uni,erse fro 8rakriti or eternal crude atterC H2I (econdary H8ratisargaI i.e. the anner in which for s of things are de,elo#ed fro ele entary su+stances #re,iously e,ol.,ed9 or the anner in which they rea##ear after their te #orary destruction. Both these creations are #eriodical9 +ut the ter ination of the first occurs only at the end of the life of Brah a9 when not only all the 6ods and all other for s are annihilated9 +ut the ele ents are again erged into #ri ary su+stance9 +esides which one only s#iritual +eing e"istsC the later takes #lace at the end of e,ery =al#a or day of Brah a9 and affects only the for s of inferior creatures9 and lower worlds9 lea,ing the su+stance of the uni,erse entire9 and sages and 6ods unhar ed. (uch is the conce#tion underlying =al#a. The conce#tion underlying :an,antara is ythological if not historical. %t starts with

the +elief that Brah a ga,e rise to creation9 inani ate as well as ani ate. But the ani ates did not ulti#ly the sel,es. Brah a then created other 3 ind +orn sons +ut they were without desire or #assion9 ins#ired with holy wisdo 9 estranged fro the uni,erse9 and undesirous of #rogeny. Brah a ha,ing #ercei,ed this was filled with wrath. Brah a then con,erted hi self into two #ersons9 the first ale9 or :anu (waya +hu,a and the first wo an9 or (ataru#a. :anu (waya +hu,a arried (ataru#a. Thus +egan the first :an,antara which is called :an,antara (waya +hu,a. The fourteen :an,antaras are descri+ed as follows1 DThen9 Brah a created hi self the :anu (waya +hu,a9 +orn of9 and identical with9 @his original self9 for the #rotection of created +eings9 and the fe ale #ortion of hi self he constituted (ataru#a9 who austerity #urified fro the sin Hof for+idden nu#tialsI9 and who the di,ine :anu (waya +hu,a took to wife. 5ro these two were +orn two sons9 8riya,rata and Kttana#ada9 and two daughters9 na ed 8rasuti and $kuti graced with lo,eliness and e"alted erit. 8rasuti he ga,e to Aaksha9 after gi,ing $kuti to the 8atriarch Ruchi9 who es#oused her. $kuti +ore to Ruchi twins9 Ja7na and Aakshina9 who afterwards +eca e hus+and and wife9 and had twel,e sons9 the deities called Ja as9 in the :anwantara of (waya +hu,a.D D The first :anu was (waya +hu,a9 then ca e (warochisha9 the $utta i9 then Ta asa9 then Rai,ata9 then &hakshusha: these si" :anus ha,e #assed away. The :anu who #resides o,er the se,enth :anwantara9 which is the #resent #eriod9 is Vai,aswata9 the son of the (un.D DThe #eriod of (waya +hu,a :anu9 in the +eginning of the =al#a9 has already +een descri+ed +y e9 together with the gods9 Rishis9 and other #ersonages9 who then flourished. % will now9 therefore9 enu erate the #residing gods9 Rishis9 and sons of the :anu9 in the -anwantara of Swarochisha. The deities of this #eriod Hor the second :an,antaraI were the classes called 8ara,atas and TushitasC and the king of the gods was the ighty Vi#aschit. The se,en Rishis were Kr7a9 (ta +ha9 8rana9 Aattoli9 Risha+ha9 Nischara9 and $r,ari,atC and &haitra9 =i #urusha and others9 were the :anu?s sons. D %n the third period$ or :anwantara of $utta i9 (usanti was the %ndra9 the king of the gods the orders of who were the (udha as9 (atyas9 (i,as9 8radersanas9 and Vasa,ertisC each of the fi,e orders consisting of twel,e di,inities. The se,en sons of Vasishtha were the se,en RishisC and $7a9 8arasu9 Ai,ya and others9 were the sons of the :anu. DThe (uru#as9 Haris9 (atyas9 and (udhis were the classes of gods9 each co #rising twenty@se,en9 in the #eriod of Ta asa9 the fourth -anu. (i,i was the %ndra9 also designated +y his #erfor ance of a hundred sacrifices Hor na ed (atakratuI. The se,en Rishis were <yotirdha a9 8rithu9 =a,ya9 &haitra9 $gni9 Vanaka9 and 8i,ara. The sons of Ta asa were the ighty kings Nara9 =hyati9
Ff2'G

(antahaya9 <anu7angha9 and others.D D %n the fifth inter,al the :anu was Rai,ataC the %ndra was ,i+hu: the classes of gods9 consisting of fourteen each9 were the $ ita+has9 $+hutara7asas9 Vaikunthas9 and (u edhasasC the se,en Rishis were Hiranyaro a9 Vedasri9 Krdoha+ahu9 Veda+ahu9 (udha an9 8ar7anya and :aha uni: the sons of Rai,ata were Bala+andhu (usa +ha,ya9 (atyaka9 and other ,aliant kings.D DThese four :anus9 (warochisha9 $utta i9 Ta asa9 and Rai,ata9 were all descended fro 8riya,rata9 who in conse-uence of #ro#itiating Vishnu +y his de,otions9 o+tained these rulers of the :anwantaras for his #osterity. D&hakshusha was the :anu of the si,th period in which the %ndra was <ano7a,aC the fi,e classes of gods were the $dya 8rastutas9 Bha,yas9 8rithugas9 and the agnani ous >ekhas9 eight of each: (u edhas9 Vira7as9 Ha,ish at9 Ktta a9 :adhu9 $+hina an9 and (ahishnu were the se,en sagesC the kings of the earth9 the sons of &hakshusha9 were the #owerful Kru9 8uru9 (atadhu na9 and others.D DThe :anu of the present is the wise lord of o+se-uies9 the illustrious offs#ring of the sunC the deities are the $dityas9 Vasus9 and RudrasC their so,ereign is 8urandra: Vasistha9 =asya#a9 $tri9 <a adagni9 6auta a9 Viswa itra9 and Bharadwa7a are the se,en RishisC and the nine #ious sons of Vai,aswata :anu are the kings %kshwaku9 Na+haga9 Ahrishta9 (anyati9 Narishyanata Na+hanidishta9 =arusha9 8rishadhra9 and the cele+rated Vasu at.D (o far the #articulars of se,en :an,antaras which are s#oken of +y the Vishnu 8urana as the #ast :anwantaras. Below are gi,en the #articulars of other se,en : D (an7ana9 the daughter of Viswakar an9 was the wife of the (un9 and +ore hi three children9 the :anu HVai,aswataI9 Ja a9 and the goddess Ja i Hor the Ja una ri,erI. Kna+le to endure the fer,ours of her lord9 (an7ana ga,e hi &hhaya as his hand aid9 and re#aired to the forests to #ractise de,out e"ercises. The (un9 su##osing &hhaya to +e his wife (an7ana9 +egot +y her three other children9 (anaischara H(aturnI9 another :anu H(a,arniI9 and a daughter Ta#ati Hthe Ta#ti ri,erI. &hhaya9 u#on one occasion9 +eing offended with Ja a9 the son of (an7ana9 denounced an i #recation u#on hi 9 and there+y re,ealed to Ja a and to the (un that she was not in truth (an7ana9 the other of the for er. Being further infor ed +y &hhaya that his wife had gone the wilderness9 the (un +eheld her +y the eye of editation engaged in austerities9 in the figure of a are Hin the region of Kttara =uruI. :eta or#hosing hi self into a horse9 he re7oined his wife9 and +egot three other children9 the two $swins9 and Re,anta9 and then +rought (an7ana +ack to his own dwelling. To di inish his intensity9 Viswakar an #laced the lu inary on his lathe to grind off so e of his effulgenceC and in this anner reduced it an eight9 for ore than that was inse#ara+le. The #arts of the di,ine Vaishna,a slendour9 residing in the (un9 that were filed off +y Viswakar an9 fell +laBing down u#on the earth9 and the artist constructed of the the discuss of Vishnu9 the trident of (i,a9
Ff2)G

the wea#on of the god of wealth9 the lance of =artikeya9 and the wea#ons of the other gods: all these Viswakar an fa+ricated fro the su#erfluous rays of the sun: DThe son of &hhaya9 who was called also a :anu was deno inated (a,arni9 fro +eing of the sa e caste H(a,arniI as his elder +rother9 the :anu Vai,aswata. He #resides o,er the ensuing or eighth -anwantara4 the #articulars of which9 and the following9 % will now relate. %n the #eriod in which (a,arni shall +e the :anu9 the classes of the gods will +e (uta#as9 $ ita+has9 and :ukhyasC twentyone of each. The se,en Rishis will +e Ai#ti at9 6ala,a9 Ra a9 =ri#a9 ArauniC y son Vyasa will +e the si"th9 and the se,enth will +e Rishyasringa. The %ndra will +e Bali9 the sinless son of Virochan who through the fa,our of Vishnu is actually so,ereign of #art of 8atala. The royal #rogeny of (a,arni will +e Vira7as9 $r,ari,a9 Nir oha9 and others.D DThe ninth -anu will +e Aaksha@(a,arni. The 8aras9 :arichigar+has9 and (udhar as will +e the three classes of di,inities9 each consisting of twel,eC their #owerful chief will +e the %ndra9 $+huta. (a,ana9 Ayuti at9 Bha,ya9 Vasu9 :edhatithi9 <yotisha an9 and (atya will +e the se,en Rishis. Ahritketu9 Ari#tiketu9 8anchahasta9 Nira aya9 8rithusraya9 and others will +e the sons of the :anu.D D%n the tenth -anwantara the :anu will +e Brah a@sa,arniC the gods will +e the (udha as9 Viruddhas9 and (atasankhyasC the %ndra will +e the ighty (antiC the Rishis will +e Ha,isha an9 (ukriti9 (atya9 $##a urti9 Na+haga9 $#rati au7as and (atyaketuC and the ten sons of the :anu will +e (ukshetra9 Ktta au7as9 Harishena and others.D D %n the eleventh -anwantara the :anu will +e Ahar a@sa,arniC the #rinci#al classes of gods will +e the Vihanga a =a aga as9 and the Nir anaratis9 each thirty in nu +erC of who Vrisha will +e the %ndra: the Rishis will +e Nischara9 $gnite7as9 Va#usha an9 Vishnu9 $runi9 Ha,isha an9 and $naghaC the kings of the earth9 and sons of the :anu9 will +e (a,arga9 (ar,adhar a9 Ae,anika9 and others.D D %n the twelfth -anwantara the son of Rudra9 (a,arni9 will +e the :anu: Ritudha a will +e the %ndraC and the Haritas9 >ohitas: (u anasas9 and (ukr as will +e the classes of gods9 each co #rising fifteen Ta#aswi9 (uta#as9 Ta#o urti9 Ta#orati9 Ta#odhriti9 Ta#odyuti and Ta#odhana will +e the RishisC and Ae,a,an9 K#ade,a9 Ae,asreshtha and others9 will +e the :anu?s sons9 and ighty onarchs on the earth.D D%n the thirteenth -anwantara the :anu will +e RauchyaC the classes of gods thirty@ three in each will +e the (udha anas9 (udhar ans9 and (ukar anas9 their %ndra will +e Ai,as#atiC the Rishis will +e Nir oha9 Tatwadersin9 Nish#raka #a9 Nirutsuka9 Ahriti at9 $,yaya9 and (uta#asC and &hitrasena9 Vichitra9 and others9 will +e the kings.D D%n the fourteenth :anwantara9 Bhautya will +e the :anuC (uchi9 the %ndra: the fi,e classes of gods will +e the &hakshushas9 the 8a,itras9 =anishthas9 Bhra7iras9 and Va,riddhasC the se,en Rishis will +e $gni+ahu9 (uchi9 (ukra9 :agadha9 6ridhra9

Jukta and $7itaC and the sons of the :anu will +e Kru9 6a+hira9 Bradhna9 and others9 who will +e kings9 and will rule o,er the earth.D The sche e of :anwantaras see s to +e designed to #ro,ide a go,erning +ody for the uni,erse during the #eriod of a :anwantara. O,er e,ery :anwantara there #resides a :anu as the legislator9 Aeities to worshi#9 se,en Rishis and a =ing to ad inister the affairs. $s the Vishnu 8urana says : DThe deities of the different classes recei,e the sacrifices during the :anwantaras to which they se,erally +elongC and the sons of the :anu the sel,es9 and their descendants9 are the so,ereigns of the earth for the whole of the sa e ter . The :anu9 the se,en Rishis9 the gods9 the sons of the :anu9 who are kings9 and %ndra9 are the +eings who #reside o,er the world during each :anwantara.D But the sche e of chronology called the :aha Juga is a ost #er#le"ing +usiness. *hy =al#a should ha,e +een di,ided into :aha Jugas and why a :aha Juga should ha,e +een su+@di,ided into four Jugas9 =rita9 Treta9 Awa#ara and =ali is a riddle which needs e"#lanation. %t is not +ased on ythology and unlike the era it has no reference to any real or su##osed history of the Hindus. %n the first #lace why was the #eriod co,ered +y a Juga so enor ously e"tended as to ake the whole chronoloy a##ear fa+ulous and fa+ricated. %n the Rig@Veda the word >uga occurs at least '2 ti es. %t is used in the sense of age9 generation9 yoke or tri+e. %n a few #laces it a##ears to refer to a ,ery +rief #eriod. %n any #laces it a##ears to refer to a ,ery +rief #eriod and (ayana e,en goes so far as to render the ter yuge yuge +y #ratidina i.e. e,ery day. %n the ne"t #lace the conce#tion of four Jugas is associated with a deterioration in the oral fi+re in society. This conce#tion is well stated in the following e"tract fro the :aha+harata : DThe =rita is that age in which righteousness is eternal. %n the ti e of that ost e"cellent of Jugas He,erythingI had +een done H=ritaI and nothing Hre ainedI to +e done9 did not then languish9 nor did the #eo#le decline. $fterwards9 through Hthe influence ofI ti e9 this yuga fell into a state of inferiority. %n that age there were neither 6ods9 Aana,as9 6andhar,as9 Jakshas9 Rakshasas9 nor 8annagasC no +uying or selling went onC the Vedas were not classed as (a an9 Rich9 and Ja7ushC no efforts were ade +y en: the fruit Hof the earth was o+tainedI +y their ere wish: righteousness and a+andon ent of the world H#re,ailedI. No disease or decline of the organs of sense arose through the influence of the ageC there was no alice9 wee#ing9 #ride9 or decei#tC no contention9 and how could there +e any lassitude. No hatred9 cruelty9 fear affliction9 7ealousy9 or en,y. Hence the su#re e Brah a was the transcendent resort of those Jogins. Then Narayana the soul of all +eings9 was white9 Brah ans9 =shatriyas9 Vaishyas and (hudras #ossessed the characteristics of =rita. %n that age were +orn creatures de,oted to their duties. They were alike in the o+7ect of their trust9 in o+ser,ances and in their knowledge. $t that
Ff2/G Ff20G

#eriod the castes9 alike in their functions9 fulfilled their duties9 were unceasingly de,oted to one deity9 and used one for ula H antraI9 one rule and one rite. Though they had se#arate duties9 they had +ut one Veda9 and #ractised one duty. By works connected with the four orders9 and de#endent on con7unctures of ti e9 +ut unaffected +y desire9 or Hho#e ofI reward9 they attained to su#re e felicity. This co #lete and eternal righteousness of the four castes during the =rita was arked +y the character of that age and sought after union with the su#re e soul. The =rita age was free fro the three -ualities. Knderstand now the Treta9 in which sacrifice co enced9 righteousness decreased +y a fourth9 Vishnu +eca e redC and en adhered to truth9 and were de,oted to a righteousness de#endent on cere onies. Then sacrifices #re,ailed9 with holy acts and a ,ariety of rites. %n the Treta en acted with an o+7ect in ,iew9 seeking after reward for their rites and their fights9 and no longer dis#osed to austerities and to li+erality fro Ha si #le feeling ofI duty. %n this age9 howe,er9 they were de,oted to their own duties9 and to religious cere onies. %n the Awa#ara age righteousness was di inished +y two -uarters9 Vishnu +eca e yellow9 and the Veda fourfold. (o e studied four Vedas9 others three9 others two9 others one9 and so e none at all. The scri#tures +eing thus di,ided9 cere onies were cele+rated in a great ,ariety of waysC and the #eo#le +eing occu#ied with austerity and the +estowal of gifts9 +eca e full of #assion Hra7asiI. Owing to ignorance of the one Veda9 Vedas were ulti#lied. $nd now fro the decline of goodness H(att,aI few only adhered to truth. *hen en had fallen away fro goodness9 any diseases9 desires and cala ities9 caused +y destiny9 assailed the 9 +y which they were se,erely afflicted9 and dri,en to #ractice austerities. Others desiring en7oy ent and hea,enly +liss9 offered sacrifices. Thus9 when they had reached the Awa#ara9 en declined through unrighteousness. %n the =ali righteousness re ained to the e"tent of one fourth only. $rri,ed in that age of darkness9 Vishnu +eca e +lackC #ractices en7oined +y the Vedas9 works of righteousness9 and rites of sacrifice9 ceased. &ala ities9 diseases9 fatigue9 faults9 such as anger9 etc.9 distresses9 an"iety9 hunger9 fear9 #re,ailed. $s the ages re,ol,e9 righteousness again declines. *hen this takes #laces the #eo#le also decline. *hen they decay9 the i #ulses which actuate the also decay. The #ractices generated +y this declension of the Jugas frustrate en?s ai s. (uch is the =ali Juga which has e"isted for a short ti e. Those who are long li,ed act in confor ity with the character of the age.D This is undou+tedly ,ery strange. There is reference to these ter s in the ancient ,edic literature. The words =rita9 Treta9 Awa#ara and $skanda occur in the Taittiriya (anhita and in the Va7asaneyi (anhita9 in the $iteriya Brah ana and also in the (ata#atha Brah ana. The (ata#atha Brah ana refers Dto =rita as one who takes ad,antage of istakes in the ga eC to the Treta as one who #lays on a regular #lanC to the Awa#ara as one who #lans to o,er reach his fellow #layer to $skanda a #ost

of the ga ing roo D. %n the $iteriya Brah ana and the Taiteriya Brah ana the word =ali is used in #lace of $skanda. The Taiteriya Brah ana s#eaks of the =rita as the aster of the ga ing hall9 to the Treta as one who takes ad,antage of istakes9 to the Awa#ara as one who sits outside9 to the =ali as one who is like a #ost of the ga ing house i.e. ne,er lea,es it. The $iteriya Brah ana says: There is e,ery success to +e ho#edC for the unluckiest die9 the =ali is lying9 two others are slowly o,ing and half fallen9 +ut the luckiest9 the =rita9 is in full otion.D %t is clear that in all these #laces the words ha,e no other eaning than that of throws or dice in ga +ling. The sense in which :anu uses these ter s ay also +e noted. He says : DThe =rita9 Treta9 Awa#ara and =aliyugas are all odes of a =ing?s actionC for a =ing is called a JugaC while aslee# he is =aliC waking he is the Awa#ra ageC he is intent u#on action he is Treta9 o,ing a+out he is =rita.D &o #aring :anu with his #redecessors one has to ad it that a definite change in the connotation of these words ha,e taken #lace words which for ed #art of the ga +lers 7argon ha,e +eco e ter s of 8olitics ha,ing reference to the readiness of the =ing to do his duty and aking a distinction +etween ,arious ty#es of kings9 those who are acti,e9 those who are intent on action9 those who are awake and those who are slee#ing i.e. allowing society to go to dogs. The -uestion is what are the circu stances that forced the Brah ins to in,ent the theory of =ali Juga. *hy did the Brah ins ake =ali Juga synony ous with the degraded state of (ociety. *hy :anu calls a slee#ing ruler =ing =ali. *ho was the =ing ruling in :anu?s ti e. *hy does he call hi a slee#ing =ing. These are so e of the riddles which the theory of =ali Juga gi,es rise to. There are other riddles +esides these which a close e"a ination of the =ali Juga theory #resents us with. *hen does the =ali age actually co ence. There are ,arious theories a+out the #recise date when the =ali Juga +egan. The 8uranas ha,e gi,en two dates. (o e say that it co enced a+out the +eginning of the N%V century B.&. Others say that it +egan on the 12th 5e+ruary '142 B.&. a date on which the war +etween the =aura,as and 8anda,as is alleged to ha,e +een found. $s #ointed out +y 8rof. %yengar there is no e,idence to #ro,e that the =ali era was used earlier than the V%% century $.A. anywhere in %ndia. %t occurs for the first ti e in an inscri#tion +elonging to the reign of 8ulakeshi %% who ruled at Bada i +etween 014 and 0)2 $.A. %t records two dates the (aka date //0 and the =ali date '1'/. These dates ado#t '142 B.&. as the starting date of =ali Juga. This is wrong. The date '142 B.&. is neither the date of the :aha+harata war nor is the date of the co ence ent of the =ali Juga. :r. =ane has conclusi,ely #ro,ed. $ccording to the ost #ositi,e state ents regarding the king of different dynasties that ha,e ruled fro 8arikshit the son of the 8anda,as the #recise date of the :aha+harata *ar was 120' B.&. %t cannot +e '142 B.&. :r. =ane has also shown that the date '142
Ff21G

B.&. stands for the +eginning of the =al#a and not for the +eginning of =ali and that the linking u# of =ali with the date '142 B.&. instead of with the =al#a was an error due to a isreading or a wrong transcri#tion the ter 0alpadi into 0alyadi. There is thus no #recise date which the Brah ins can gi,e for the co ence ent of the =ali $ge. That there should +e #recise +eginning which can +e assigned to so re arka+le an e,ent is a riddle. But there are other riddles which ay +e entioned. There are two dog as associated with the =ali $ge. %t is strongly held +y the Brah ans that in the =ali $ge there are only two Varnas the first and the lastthe Brah ins and the (hudras. The two iddle ones =shatriyas and Vaishyas they say are non@e"istent. *hat is the +asis of this dog a. *hat does this dog a ean. Aoes this ean that these Varnas were lost to Brah anis or does this ean that they ceased to e"ist. *hich is the #eriod of %ndia?s history which in fact accords with this dog a . Aoes this ean that the loss of these two Varnas to Brah anis arks the +eginning of =ali Juga. The second dog a associated with the theory of the =ali Juga is called =ali Var7ya which eans custo s and usages which are not to +e o+ser,ed in the =ali $ge. They are scattered in the different 8uranas. But the $ditya#urana has odified the and +rought the in one #lace. The #ractices which co e under =ali Var7ya are gi,en +elow : 1. To a##oint the hus+and?s +rother for #rocreating a son on a widow . D2. The re arriage of a H arriedI girl Hwhose arriage is not consu atedI and of one Hwhose arriage was consu atedI to another hus+and Hafter the death of the firstI. D '. The arriage with girls of different Varna a ong #ersons of the three twice@ +orn classes.D D). The killing e,en in a straight fight of Brah anas that ha,e +eco e des#eradoes. D D/. The acce#tance Hfor all ordinary intercourse such as eating with hi I of a twice@ +orn #erson who is in the ha+it of ,oyaging o,er the sea in a shi#9 e,en after he has undergone a #rayascitta . D0. The initiation for a sattra. D1. The taking a =a andalu Ha 7ar for water ?Ff'0GID D2. (tarting on the 6reat <ourney.D D3. The killing of a cow in the sacrifice called 6o edhaCD Ff'2GD14. The #artaking of wine e,en in the (raut ani sacrifice.D D11@12. >icking the ladle HsrucI after the $gnihotra Ho a in order to take off the re ains of the offerings and using the ladle in the agnihotra afterwards when it has +een so licked.D D1'. !ntering into the stage of forest her it as laid down in sastras a+out it. D D1). >essening the #eriods of i #urity Hdue to death and +irthI in accordance with the conduct and ,edic learning of a an D1/. 8rescri+ing death as the #enance
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H8rayascittaI for Brah anas.?D D10. !"#lanation H+y secretly #erfor ed 8rayascittasI of the ortal sins other than theft Hof goldI and the sin of contact Hwith those guilty of :aha#atakasI.D D11. The act of offering with :antras ani al flesh to the +ridegroo 9 the guest9 and the #itrs.D D12. ?Ff)0GThe acce#tance as sons of those other than the aurasa HnaturalI and ado#ted sons. D D 13. Ordinary intercourse with those who incurred the sin of Hha,ing intercourse withI wo en of higher castes9 e,en after they had undergone the 8rayascitta for such sin.D D 24. The a+andon ent of the wife of an elderly #erson Hor of one who is entitled to res#ectI when she has had intercourse with one with who it is se,erely conde ned.D D21. =illing oneself for the sake of another.D Ff/1GD22. 6i,ing u# food left after one has #artaken of it.D D2'. Resol,e to worshi# a #articular idol for life Hin return for #ay entI D D2). Touching the +odies of #ersons who are in i #urity due to death after the charred +ones are collected D . D 2/. The actual slaughter +y Brah anas of the sacrificial ani al.D D20. (ale of the (o a #lant +y Braha anas.D D21. (ecuring food e,en fro a (hudra when a Braha ana has had no food for si" ti es of eals Hi.e. for three daysI.D D22. 8er ission to Ha Braha anaI householder to take cooked food fro (hudras if they are his dasas9 cowherds9 hereditary friends9 #ersons culti,ating his land on an agree ent to #ay #art of the #roduce.D D23. 6oing on a ,ery distant #ilgri age.D D'4. Beha,iour of a #u#il towards his teacher?s wife as towards a teacher that is declared in s rtisD . D'1. The aintenance +y Braha anas in ad,ersity H+y following unworthy a,ocationsI and the ode of li,elihood in which a Brah ana does not care to accu ulate for to orrow.D D '2. Ff02GThe acce#tance of aranis Htwo wooden +locks for #roducing fireI +y Brah anas Hin the Ho a at the ti e of jata1ar a. in order that all the cere onies for the child fro jata1ar a to his arriage ay +e#erfor ed therein.D D''. &onstant 7ourneys +y Braha anas.D D'). Blowing of fire with the outh Hi.e. without e #loying a +a +oo dha ni." D'/. $llowing wo en who ha,e +eco e #olluted +y ra#e9 Pc.Q to freely i" in the caste Hwhen they ha,e #erfor ed prayascitta. as declared in the sastric te"ts. " D'0. Begging of food +y a sannayasin fro #ersons of all Varnas Hincluding sudraI.D D'1. To wait Hi.e. not to useI for ten days water that has recently +een dug in the
Ff)'G Ff))G Ff)/G Ff)1G Ff)2G Ff)3G Ff/4G Ff/2G Ff/'G Ff/)G Ff//G Ff/0G Ff/1G Ff/2G Ff/3G Ff04G Ff01G Ff0'G Ff0)G Ff0/G Ff00G Ff01G

ground.D D'2. 6i,ing fee to the teacher as de anded +y hi Hat the end of studyI according to the rules laid down in the sastra.D D'3. The e #loy ent of sudras as cook for Brah anas and the rest. D D)4. (uicide of old #eo#le +y calling fro a #reci#ice or into fire.D D)1. 8erfor ing $ca ana +y res#ecta+le #eo#le in water that would re ain e,en after a cow has drunk it to its heart?s content.D D)2. 5ining witnesses who de#ose to a dis#ute +etween father and son. D D)'. (annyasin should stay where he ha##ened to +e in the e,ening.D These are the =ali Var7yas set out in the aditya#urana. The strange thing a+out this code of =ali Var7ya is that its significance has not +een fully a##reciated. %t is si #ly referred to as a list of things for+idden in the =ali Juga. But there is ore than this +ehind this list of don?ts. 8eo#le are no dou+t for+idden to follow the #ractices listed in the =ali Var7ya &ode. The -uestion howe,er is: $re these #ractices conde ned as +eing i oral9 sinful or otherwise har ful to society. The answer is no. One likes to know why these #ractices if they are for+idden are not conde ned. Herein lies the riddle of the =ali Var7ya &ode. This techni-ue of for+idding a #ractice without conde ning it stands in utter contrast with the #rocedure followed in earlier ages. To take only one illustration. The $#asta +a Ahar a (utra for+ids the #ractice of gi,ing all #ro#erty to the eldest son. But he conde ns it. *hy did the Brah ins in,ent this new technics for+id +ut not conde n . There ust +e so e s#ecial reason for this de#arture. *hat is that reason. APPENDIX I THE RIDDLE O RA(A AND "RISHNA Ra a is the hero of the Ra ayana whose author is Val iki. The story of the Ra ayana is a ,ery short one. Besides it is si #le and in itself there is nothing sensational a+out it. Ra a is the son of Aasharatha the king of $yodhya the odern Benares. Aasharatha had three wi,es9 =ausalya9 =aikeyi and (u itra +esides se,eral hundred concu+ines. =aikeyi had arried Aasharatha on ter s which were at the ti e of arriage uns#ecified and which Aasharatha was +ound to fulfil whene,er he was called u#on +y =aikeyi to do so. Aasharatha was childless for a long ti e. $n heir to the throne was ardently desired +y hi . (eeing that there was no ho#e of his +egetting a son on any of his three wi,es he decided to #erfor a 8utreshti Ja7na and called the sage (hrung at the sacrifice who #re#ared #indas and ga,e the three wi,es of Aasharatha to eat the . $fter they ate the #indas three wi,es +eca e #regnant and ga,e +irth to sons. =ausalya ga,e +irth to Ra a9 =aikeyi ga,e +irth to Bharata and (u itra ga,e +irth to two sons >a" an and (atrughana. %n due course Ra a was arried to (ita. *hen Ra a ca e of age9 Aasharatha thought of resigning the throne in fa,our of Ra a and retiring fro kingshi#. *hile this was
Ff02G Ff03G Ff14G Ff11G Ff12G Ff1'G Ff1)G

+eing settled =aikeyi raised the -uestion of rendering her satisfaction of the ter s on which she had arried Aasharatha. On +eing asked to state her ter s she de anded that her son Bharata should +e installed on the throne in #reference to % Ra a and Ra a should li,e in forest for 12 years. Aasharatha with great reluctance agreed. Bharata +eca e king of $yodhya and Ra a acco #anied +y his wife (ita and his ste# +rother >a" an went to li,e in the forest. *hile the three li,ing in the forest Ra,ana the king of >anka kidna##ed (ita and took her away and ke#t her in his #alace intending to ake her one of his wi,es. Ra a and >a" an then started search of (ita. On the way they eet (ugri,a and Hanu an two leading #ersonages of the Vanara H onkeyI race and for friendshi# with the . *ith their hel# the #lace of the a+duction was located and with their hel# they arched on >anka9 defeated Ra,ana in the +attle and rescued (ita. Ra a returns with >a" an and (ita to $yodhya. By that ti e twel,e years had ela#sed and the ter #rescri+ed +y =aikeyi was fulfilled with the result that Bharata ga,e u# the throne and in his #lace Ra a +eca e the king of $yodhya. (This is a JL/page typed copy placed in a well/bound file along with the -S of * Sy bols of Finduis *. This riddle does not find place in the original Table of 'ontents. Fence this is included as an +ppendi, to this part.;Kd. #oteD Eovern ent does not concur with the views e,pressed in this 'hapter. . (uch is in +rief the outline of the story of the Ra ayana as told +y Val iki. There is nothing in this story to ake Ra a the o+7ect of worshi#. He is only a dutiful son. But Val iki saw so ething e"traordinary in Ra a and that is why he undertook to co #ose the Ra ayana. Val iki asked Narada the following -uestionEFf1/G: DTell e OhM Narada9 who is the ost acco #lished an on earth at the #resent ti e.D and then goes on to ela+orate what he eans +y acco #lished an. He defines his acco #lished an as: D 8owerful9 one who knows the secret of religion9 one who knows gratitude9 truthful9 one who is ready to sacrifice his self interest e,en when in distress to fulfil a religious ,ow9 ,irtuous in his conduct9 eager to safeguard the interests of all9 strong #leasing in a##earance with #ower of self@control9 a+le to su+due anger9 illustrious9 with no 7ealousy for the #ros#erity of others9 and in war a+le to strike terror in the hearts of 6ods.D Narada then asks for ti e to consider and after ature deli+eration tells hi that the only #erson who can +e said to #ossess these ,irtues is Ra a9 the son of Aasharatha. %t is +ecause of his ,irtues that Ra a has co e to +e deified. But is Ra a a

worthy #ersonality of deification. >et those who acce#t hi an o+7ect worthy of worshi# as a 6od consider the following facts. Ra a?s +irth is iraculous and it ay +e that the suggestion that he was +orn fro a #inda #re#ared +y the sage (hrung is an allegorical glass to co,er the naked truth that he was +egotten u#on =ausalya +y the sage (hrung although the two did not stand in the relationshi# of hus+and and wife. %n any case his +irth if not disre#uta+le in its origin is certainly unnatural. There are other incidents connected with the +irth of Ra a the unsa,ory character of which it will +e difficult to deny. Val iki starts his Ra ayana +y e #hasiBing the fact that Ra a is an $,atar of Vishnu and it is Vishnu who agreed to take +irth as Ra a and +e the son of Aasharatha. The 6od Brah a ca e to know of this and felt that in order that this Ra a $,atar of Vishnu +e a co #lete success arrange ent shall +e ade that Ra a shall ha,e #owerful associates to hel# hi and coo#erate with hi . There were none such e"isting then. The 6ods agreed to carry out the co and of Brah a and engaged the sel,es in wholesale acts of fornication not only against $#saras who were #rostitutes not only against the un arried daughters of Jakshas and Nagas +ut also against the lawfully wedded wi,es of Ruksha9 Vidhyadhar9 6andhar,as9 =innars and Vanaras and #roduced the Vanaras who +eca e the associates of Ra a. Ra a?s +irth is thus acco #anied +y general de+auchery if not in his case certainly in the case of his associates. His arriage to (ita is not a+o,e co ent. $ccording to Buddha Ra ayana9 (ita was the sister of Ra a9 +oth were the children of Aasharatha. The Ra ayana of Val iki does not agree with the relationshi# entioned in Buddha Ra ayana. $ccording to Val iki (ita was the daughter of the king <anaka of Videha and therefore not a sister of Ra a. This is not con,incing for e,en according to Val iki she is not the natural +orn daughter of <anaka +ut a child found +y a far er in his field while #loughing it and #resented +y hi to king <anaka and +rought u# +y <anaka. %t was therefore in a su#erficial sense that (ita could +e said to +e the daughter of <anaka. The story in the Buddha Ra ayana is natural and not inconsistent with the $ryan rules EFf10G of arriage. %f the story is true9 then Ra a?s arriage to (ita is no ideal to +e co#ied. %n another sense Ra a?s arriage was not an ideal arriage which could +e co#ied. One of the ,irtues ascri+ed to Ra a is that he was onoga ous. %t is difficult to understand how such a notion could ha,e +eco e co on. 5or it has no foundation in fact. !,en Val iki refersEFf11G to the any wi,es of Ra a. These were of course in addition to his any concu+ines. %n this he was the true son of his no inal father Aasharatha who had not only the three wi,es referred to a+o,e +ut any others. >et us ne"t consider his character as an indi,idual and as a king. %n s#eaking of hi as an indi,idual % will refer to only two incidents one relating to his treat ent of

Vali and other relating to his treat ent of his own wife (ita. 5irst let us consider the incident of Vali. Vali and (ugri,a were two +rothers. They +elonged to the Vanar race and ca e fro a ruling fa ily which had its own kingdo the ca#ital of which was =ishkindha. $t the ti e when (ita was kidna##ed +y Ra,ana9 Vali was reigning at =ishkindha. *hile Vali was on the throne he was engaged in a war with a Rakshasa +y na e :aya,i. %n the #ersonal co +at +etween the two :aya,i ran for his life. Both Vali and (ugri,a #ursued hi . :aya,i entered into a dee# ca,ity in the earth. Vali asked (ugri,a to wait at the outh of the ca,ity and hi self went inside. $fter so eti e a flood of +lood ca e fro inside the ca,ity. (ugri,a concluded that Vali ust ha,e +een killed +y :aya,i and ca e to =ishkindha and got hi self declared king in #lace of Vali and ade Hanu an his 8ri e :inister $s a atter of fact9 Vali was not killed. %t was :aya,i who was killed +y Vali. Vali ca e out of the ca,ity +ut did not find (ugri,a there. He #roceeded to =ishkindha and to his great sur#rise he found that (ugri,a had #roclai ed hi self king. Vali naturally +eca e enraged at this act of treachery on the #art of his +rother (ugri,a and he had good ground to +e. (ugri,a should ha,e ascertained9 should not erely ha,e assu ed that Vali was dead. (econdly Vali had a son +y na e $ngad who (ugri,a should ha,e ade the king as the legiti ate heir of Vali. He did neither of the two things. His was a clear case of usur#ation. Vali dro,e out (ugri,a and took +ack the throne. The two +rothers +eca e ortal ene ies. This occurred 7ust after Ra,ana had kidna##ed (ita. Ra a and >a" an were wandering in search of her. (ugri,a and Hanu an were wandering in search of friends who could hel# the to regain the throne fro Vali. The two #arties et -uite accidentally. $fter infor ing each other of their difficulties a co #act was arri,ed at +etween the two. %t was agreed that Ra a should hel# (ugri,a to kill Vali and to esta+lish hi on the throne of =ishkindha. On the #art of (ugri,a and Hanu an it was agreed that they should hel# Ra a to regain (ita. To ena+le Ra a to fulfil his #art of the co #act it was #lanned that (ugri,a should wear a garland in his neck as to +e easily distinguisha+le to Ra a fro Vali and that while the dual was going on Ra a should conceal hi self +ehind a tree and then shoot an arrow at Vali and kill hi . $ccordingly a dual was arranged9 (ugri,a with a garland in his neck and while the daul was on9 Ra a standing +ehind a tree shot Vali with his arrow and o#ened the way to (ugri,a to +e the king of =ishkindha. This urder of Vali is the greatest +lot on the character of Ra a. %t was a cri e which was thoroughly un#ro,oked9 for Vali had no -uarrel with Ra a. %t was ost cowardly act for Vali was unar ed. %t was a #lanned and #re editated urder. &onsider his treat ent of his own wife (ita. *ith the ar y collected for hi +y (ugri,a and Hanu an9 Ra a in,ades >anka. There too he #lays the sa e ean #art as he did as +etween the two +rothers Vali and (ugri,a. He takes the hel# of

Bi+hishana the +rother of Ra,ana #ro ising hi to kill Ra,ana and his son and #lace hi on the ,acant throne. Ra a kills Ra,ana and also his son lndra7it. The first thing Ra a does after the close of the fight is to gi,e a decent +urial to the dead +ody of Ra,ana. Thereafter he interests hi self in the coronation of Bi+hishana and it is after the coronation is o,er that he sends Hanu an to (ita and that took to infor her that he9 >a" an and (ugri,a are hale and hearty and that they ha,e killed Ra,ana. The first thing he should ha,e done after dis#osing of Ra,ana was to ha,e gone to (ita. He does not do so. He finds ore interest in the coronation than in (ita. !,en when the coronation is o,er he does not go hi self +ut sends Hanu an. $nd what is the essage he sends. He does not ask Hanu an to +ring her. He asks hi to infor her that he is hale and hearty. %t is (ita who e"#resses to Hanu an her desire to see Ra a. Ra a does not go to (ita his own wife who was kidna##ed and confined +y Ra,ana for ore than 14 onths. (ita is +rought to hi and what does Ra a say to (ita when he sees her. %t would +e difficult to +elie,e any an with ordinary hu an kindness could address to his wife in such dire distress as Ra a did to (ita when he et her in >anka if there was not the direct authority of Val iki. This is how Ra a addressed herEFf12G: % ha,e got you as a #riBe in a war after con-uering y ene y your ca#tor. % ha,e reco,ered y honour and #unished y ene y. 8eo#le ha,e witnessed y ilitary #rowess and % a glad y a+ours ha,e +een rewarded. % ca e here to kill Ra,ana and wash off the dishonour. % did not take this trou+le for your sake.D &ould there +e anything ore cruel than this conduct of Ra a towards (ita. He does not sto# there. He #roceeded to tell her: D % sus#ect your conduct. Jou ust ha,e +een s#oiled +y Ra,ana. Jour ,ery sight is re,olting to e. On you daughter of <anaka9 % allow you to go anywhere you like. % ha,e nothing to do with you. % con-uerred you +ack and % a content for that was y o+7ect. % cannot think that Ra,ana would ha,e failed to en7oy a wo an as +eautiful as you are.D naturally (ita calls Ra a low and ean and tells hi -uite that she would ha,e co itted suicide and sa,ed hi all this if when Hanu an first ca e he had sent her a essage that he a+andoned her on the ground that she was kidna##ed. To gi,e hi no e"cuse (ita undertakes to #ro,e her #urity. (he enters the fire and co es out unscathed. The 6ods satisfied with this e,idence #roclai that she is #ure. %t is then that Ra a agrees to take her +ack to $yodhya. $nd what does he do with her when he +rings her +ack to $yodhya. Of course9 he +eca e king and she +eca e -ueen. But while Ra a re ained king9 (ita ceased to +e a -ueen ,ery soon. This incident reflects great infa y u#on Ra a. %t is recorded +y Val iki in his Ra ayana that so e days after the coronation of Ra a and (ita as king and -ueen (ita concei,ed. (eeing that she was carrying so e residents of

e,il dis#osition +egan to calu niate (ita suggesting that she ust ha,e concei,ed fro Ra,ana while she was in >anka and +la ing Ra a for taking such a wo an +ack as his wife. This alicious gossi# in the town was re#orted +y Bhadra9 the &ourt 7oker to Ra a. Ra a e,idently was stung +y this calu ny. He was o,erwhel ed with a sense of disgrace. This is -uite natural. *hat is -uite unnatural is the eans he ado#ts of getting rid of this disgrace. To get rid of this disgrace he takes the shortest cut and the swiftest eansna ely to a+andon her9 a wo an in a so ewhat ad,anced state of #regnancy in a 7ungle9 without friends9 without #ro,ision9 without e,en notice in a ost treacherous anner. There is no dou+t that the idea of a+andoning (ita was not sudden and had not occurred to Ra a on the s#ur of the o ent. The genesis of the idea the de,elo#ing of it and the #lan of e"ecuting are worth so e detailed ention. *hen Bhadra re#orts to hi the gossi# a+out (ita which had s#read in the town Ra a calls his +rothers and tells the his feelings. He tells the (ita?s #urity and chastity was #ro,ed in >anka9 that 6ods had ,ouched lor it and that he a+solutely +elie,ed in her innocence9 #urity and chastity. D$ll the sa e the #u+lic are calu niating (ita and are +la ing e and #utting e to sha e. No one can tolerate such disgrace. Honour is a great asset9 6ods as well as great en stri,e to aintain it in tact. % cannot +ear this dishonour and disgrace. To sa,e yself fro such dishonour and disgrace % shall +e ready e,en to a+andon you. Aon?t think % shall hesitate to a+andon (ita.D This shows that he had ade u# his ind to a+andon (ita as the easiest way of sa,ing hi self fro #u+lic calu ny without waiting to consider whether the way was fair or foul. The life of (ita si #ly did not count. *hat counted was his own #ersonal na e and fa e. He of course does not take the anly course of sto##ing this gossi#9 which as a king he could do and which as a hus+and who was con,inced of his wife?s innocence he was +ound to it. He yielded to the #u+lic gossi# and there are not wanting Hindus who use this as ground to #ro,e that Ra a was a de ocratic king when others could e-ually well say that he was a weak and cowardly onarch: Be that as it ay that dia+olical #lan of sa,ing his na e and his fa e he discloses to his +rothers +ut not to (ita the only #erson who was affected +y it and the only #erson who was entitled to ha,e notice of it. But she is ke#t entirely in the dark. Ra a kee#s it away fro (ita as a closely guarded secret and was waiting for an o##ortunity to #ut his #lan into action. !,entually the cruel fate of (ita gi,es hi the o##ortunity he was waiting for. *o en who are carrying e"hi+it all sorts of cra,ings for all sorts of things. Ra a knew of this. (o one day he asked (ita if there was anything for which she felt a cra,ing. (he said yes. Ra a said what was it. (he re#lied that she would like to li,e in the ,icinity of the $shra a of sage on the +ank of the ri,er 6anges and li,e on fruits and roots at least for one night. Ra a si #ly 7u #ed at the suggestion of (ita and said D Be easy y dear % shall see that you are sent there to orrow D. (ita treats this as an honest #ro ise +y a

lo,ing hus+and. But what does Ra a do. He thinks it is a good o##ortunity for carrying through his #lan of a+andoning (ita. $ccordingly he called his +rothers to a secret conference and disclosed to the his deter ination to use this desire of (ita as an o##ortunity to carry out his #lan of a+andon ent of (ita. He tells his +rothers not to intercede on +ehalf of (ita9 and warns the that if they ca e in his way he would look u#on the as his ene ies. Then he tells >a" an to take (ita in a chariot ne"t day to the $shra in the 7ungle on the +ank of the ri,er 6anges and to a+andon her there. >a" an did not know how he could uster courage to tell (ita what was decided a+out (ita +y Ra a. (ensing his difficulty Ra a infor s >a" an that (ita had already e"#ressed her desire to s#end so e ti e in the ,icinity of an $shra a on the +ank of the ri,er and eased the ind of >a" an. This confa+ulation took #lace at night. Ne"t orning >a" an asked (u anta to yoke the horses to the chariot. (u anta infor s >a" an of his ha,ing done so. >a" an then goes into the #alace and eets (ita and re inds her of her ha,ing e"#ressed her desire to #ass so e days in the ,icinity of an $shra a and Ra a ha,ing #ro ised to fulfil the sa e and tells her of his ha,ing +een charged +y Ra a to do the needful in the atter. He #oints to her the chariot waiting there and says ?let us goM? (ita 7u #s into the chariot with her heart full of gratitude to Ra a. *ith >a" an as her co #anion and (u anta as coach an the chariot #roceeds to its a##ointed #lace. $t last they were on the +ank of the 6anges and were ferried across +y the fisher en. >a" an fell at (ita?s feet9 and with hot tears issuing fro his eyes he said ? 8ardon e9 49 +la eless -ueen9 for what % a doing. :y orders are to a+andon you here9 for the #eo#le +la e Ra a for kee#ing you in his house.D (ita a+andoned +y Ra a and left to die in a 7ungle went for shelter in the $shra a of Val iki which was near a+out. Val iki ga,e her #rotection and ke#t her in his $shra . There in course of ti e (ita ga,e +irth to twin sons9 called =usa and >a,a. The three li,ed with Val iki. Val iki +rought u# the +oys and taught the to sing the Ra ayana which he had co #osed. 5or 12 years the +oys li,ed in the forest in the $shra a of Val iki not far fro $yodhya where Ra a continued to rule. Ne,er once in those 12 years this odel hus+and and lo,ing father cared to in-uire what had ha##ened to (ita whether she was li,ing or whether she was dead. Twel,e years after Ra a eets (ita in a strange anner. Ra a decided to #erfor a Jadna and issued in,itation to all the Rishis to attend and take #art. 5or reasons +est known to Ra a hi self no in,itation was issued to Val iki although his $shra was near to $yodhya. But Val iki ca e to the Jadna of his own accord acco #anied +y the two sons of (ita introducing the as his disci#les. *hile the Jadna was going on the two +oys used to #erfor recitations of Ra ayana in the #resence of the $sse +ly. Ra a was ,ery #leased and ade in-uiries when he was infor ed that they were the sons of (ita. %t was then he re e +ered (ita and what does he do then. He does not send for (ita. He calls these innocent +oys who knew nothing a+out their

#arents? sin9 who were the only ,icti s of a cruel destiny to tell Val iki that if (ita was #ure and chaste she could #resent herself in the $sse +ly to take a ,ow there+y re o,e the calu ny cast against herself and hi self. This is a thing she had once done in >anka. This is a thing she could ha,e +een asked to do again +efore she was sent away. There was no #ro ise that after this ,indication of her character Ra a was #re#ared to take her +ack. Val iki +rings her to the $sse +ly. *hen she was in front of Ra a9 Val iki said9 :2> son of Aasharatha9 here is (ita who you a+andoned in conse-uence of #u+lic disa##ro+ation. (he will now swear her #urity if #er itted +y you. Here are your twin@+orn sons +red u# +y e in y her itage.? ? % know9? said Ra a ?that (ita is #ure and that these are y sons. (he #erfor ed an ordeal in >anka in #roof of her #urity and therefore % took her +ack. But #eo#le here ha,e dou+ts still9 and let (ita #erfor an ordeal here that all these Rishis and #eo#le ay witness it.D *ith eyes cast down on the ground and with hands folded (ita swore D $s % ne,er thought of any an e"ce#t Ra a e,en in y ind. let other !arth o#en and +ury e. $s % always lo,ed Ra a in words9 in thoughts9 and in deed9 let other !arth o#en and +ury eM $s she uttered the oath9 the earth ,erily o#ened and (ita was carried away inside seated on a golden si hasana HthroneI. Hea,enly flowers fell on (ita?s head while the audience looked on as in a trance. That eans that (ita #referred to die rather than return to Ra a who had +eha,ed no +etter than a +rute. (uch is the tragedy of (ita and the cri e of Ra a the 6od. >et e throw so e search light on Ra a the =ing. Ra a is held out as an ideal =ing. But can that conclusion +e said to +e founded in fact. $s a atter of fact Ra a ne,er functions9 as a =ing. He was a no inal =ing. The ad inistration as Val iki states were entrusted to Bharata his +rother. He had freed hi self fro the cares and worries a+out his kingdo and his su+7ects. Val iki has ,ery inutely descri+edEFf13G the daily life of Ra a after he +eca e =ing. $ccording to that account the day was di,ided into two #arts. K# to forenoon and afternoon. 5ro orning to forenoon he was engaged in #erfor ing religious rites and cere onies and offering de,otion. The afternoon he s#ent alternately in the co #any of &ourt 7esters and in the ;enana. *hen he got tired of the ;enana he 7oined the co #any of 7esters and when he got tired of 7esters he went +ack to the ;enanaEFf24G. Val iki also gi,es a detailed descri#tion of how Ra a s#ent his life in the ;enana. This ;enana was housed in a #ark called $shoka Vana. There Ra a9 used to take his eal. The food according to Val iki consisted of all kinds of delicious ,iands. They included flesh and fruits and li-uor. Ra a was not a teetotaller. He drank li-uor co#iously and Val iki records that Ra a saw to it that (ita 7oined with hi in his drinking +outsEFf21G. 5ro the descri#tion of the ;enana of Ra a as gi,en +y Val iki it was +y no eans a ean thing. There were $#saras9 Kraga and =innari acco #lished in dancing and singing. There were other +eautiful

wo en +rought fro different #arts. Ra a sat in the idst of these wo en drinking and dancing. They #leased Ra a and Ra a garlanded the . Val iki calls Ra a as a ?8rince a ong wo en?s en ?. This was not a day?s affair. %t was a regular course of his life. $s has already +een said Ra a ne,er attended to #u+lic +usiness. He ne,er o+ser,ed the ancient rule of %ndian kings of hearing the wrongs of his su+7ects and atte #ting to redress the . Only one occasion has +een recorded +y Val iki when he #ersonally heard the grie,ance of his su+7ects. But unfortunately the occasion turned out to +e a tragic one. He took u#on hi self to redress the wrong +ut in doing so co itted the worst cri e that history has e,er recorded. The incident is known as the urder of (a +uka the (hudra. %t is said +y Val iki that in Ra a?s reign there were no #re ature deaths in his kingdo . %t ha##ened9 howe,er9 that a certain Brah an?s son died in a #re ature death. The +erea,ed father carried his +ody to the gate of the king?s #alace9 and #lacing it there9 cried aloud and +itterly re#roached Ra a for the death of his son9 saying that it ust +e the conse-uence of so e sin co itted within his real 9 and that the king hi self was guilty if he did not #unish it: and 5inally threatened to end his life there +y sitting dharna Hhunger@strikeI against Ra a unless his son was restored to life. Ra a thereu#on consulted his council of eight learned Rishis and Narada a ongst the told Ra a that so e (hudra a ong his su+7ects ust ha,e +een #erfor ing Ta#asya Hascetic e"ercisesI9 and there+y going against Ahar a Hsacred lawIC for according to it the #ractice of Ta#asya was #ro#er to the twice@+orn alone9 while the duty of the (hudras consisted only in the ser,ice of the twice@+orn. Ra a was thus con,inced that it was the sin co itted +y a (hudra in transgressing Ahar a in that anner9 which was res#onsi+le for the death of the Brah in +oy. (o9 Ra a ounted his aerial car and scoured the countryside for the cul#rit. $t last9 in a wild region far away to the south he es#ied a an #ractising rigorous austerities of a certain kind. He a##roached the an9 and with no ore ado than to en-uire of hi and infor hi self that he was a (hudra9 +y na e (a +uka who was #ractising Ta#asya with a ,iew to going to hea,en in his own earthly #erson and without so uch as a warning9 e"#ostulation or the like addressed to hi 9 cut off his head. $nd to and +eholdM that ,ery o ent the dead Brah an +oy in distant $yodhya +egan to +reathe again. Here in the wilds the 6ods rained flowers on the king fro their 7oy at his ha,ing #re,ented a (hudra fro gaining ad ission to their celestial a+ode through the #ower of the Ta#asya which he had no right to #erfor . They also a##eared +efore Ra a and congratulated hi on his deed. %n answer to his #rayer to the to re,i,e the dead Brah an +oy lying at the #alace gate in $yodhya9 they infor ed hi that he had already co e to life. They then de#arted. Ra a thence #roceeded to the $shra a which was near+y of the sage W$gastya9 who co ended the ste# he had taken with (a +uka9 and #resented hi with a di,ine +racelet. Ra a then returned to his

ca#ital. (uch is Ra a. II Now a+out =rishna. He is the hero of the :aha+harata. Really s#eaking the :aha+harata is #rinci#ally connected with the =aura,as and the 8anda,as. %t is the story of the war fought +y the two for right to the kingdo which +elonged to their ancestors. They should +e the #rinci#al characters. But they are not. %t is =rishna who is the hero of the e#ic. This is a little strange thing. But what is stranger still is the #ossi+ility not +eing a conte #orary of the =aura,as and 8anda,as. =rishna was the friend of the 8anda,as who had their e #ire. =rishna was the ene y of =ansa who also had his e #ire. %t does not see #ossi+le that two such e #ires should su+sist side +y side at once and at the sa e ti e. (econdly9 in the :aha+harata there is nothing to show that there was any intercourse +etween the two e #ires. The two stories of =rishna and the 8anda,as ha,e +een i"ed together at so e later date in order to #ro,ide =rishna with a larger theater to #lay a +igger #art. The i"ture of the two stories is the result of a deli+erate design on the #art of Vyas to glorify =rishna and to raise hi a+o,e all. %n the hands of Vyas =rishna is 6od a ong en. That is why he is ade the hero of the :aha+harata. Aoes =rishna really deser,e to +e called 6od a ong en. $ short sketch of his life alone will hel# to gi,e a correct answer. =rishna was +orn at :athura at idnight on the 2th day of the onth of Bhadra. His father was Vasude,a of the Jadu race9 and his other Ae,aki9 daughter of Ae,aka9 the +rother of Kgrasen9 king of :athura. Kgrasen?s wife had an illicit connection with Aru ila the Aana,a king of (au+ha. 5ro this illicit connection was +orn =ansa who was in a sense the cousin of Ae,aki. =ansa i #risoned Kgrasen and usur#ed the throne of :athura. Ha,ing heard fro Narada or Aaivavani$ a ,oice fro Hea,en that Ae,aki?s eighth child would kill hi 9 =ansa i #risoned +oth Ae,aki and her hus+and and killed si" of their children as they were +orn one after another. The se,enth child9 Balara a9 was iraculously transferred fro Ae,aki?s wo + to that of Rohini9 another wife of Vasude,a. *hen the eighth child9 =rishna9 was +orn9 he was secretly +orne +y his father to the other side of the ri,er Ja una9 where Nanda and his wife Jasoda9 nati,es of Vra7a9 were then li,ing. The Ja una rolled +ack her waters to ake way for the di,ine child9 the $nanta9 the chief of ser#ents #rotected hi with his a #le hood fro the hea,y torrent of rain that was then falling. By a #re,ious arrange ent9 Vasude,a e"changed his son for Nanda?s newly +orn daughter. Jogindra or :aha aya and #resented the latter to =ansa as his eighth child9 +ut she flew away9 telling hi that the child which is +eing +rought u# +y Nanda and Jasoda would kill hi . This led =ansa to ake a series of unsuccessful atte #ts to kill the child =rishna. *ith this o+7ect he sent to Vra7a a nu +er of $suras in ,arious

for s. The killing of these $suras and nu +er of other heroic deeds9 i #ossi+le for an ordinary hu an child are the chief sta#le of the 8uranic account of =rishna?s early life. (o e of the are entioned in the :aha+harata also. $s ight +e e"#ected9 the authorities differ largely in their narration of these facts. % ention only so e of the 9 following chiefly the later authorities. The first or one of the first of these is the killing of 8utana. (he was =ansa?s nurse and was sent +y hi to kill =rishna in the for of a fe ale ,ulture9 according to Hari,a sa9 and of a +eautiful wo an according to the Bhaga,ata. $s she #retending to suckle =rishna9 #ut her #oisoned +reast into his outh9 he sucked it so #owerfully as to draw out her ,ery life@+lood so that she fell down with an yell and died. =rishna #erfor ed another of these feats when he was only three onths old. %t was the +reaking of a Sa1ata$ a cart which was used as a cu#+oard and had se,eral 7ars and #ans9 full of ilk and curd9 ranged on it. $ccording to the Hari,a sa (akata was an $sura sent +y =ansa and had entered the cart intending to crush the infant =rishna +y its weight. Howe,er9 Jasoda had #laced the +oy under the cart and gone to +athe in the Ja una. On her return she was told that he had kicked against it and +roken it to #ieces with all that lay on it. This e,ent sur#rised and frightened Jasoda9 and she offered #u7as to a,ert the e,ils threatened +y it. *hen 8utana and (akata?s atte #ts to kill =rishna ha,ing failed9 =ansa sent another of his e issaries an asura na ed Trina,arta9 to atte #t the sa e task. He ca e in the for of a +ird and carried aloft the di,ine child9 then only a year old. But he soon dro##ed down dead with the child safe and holding his throat tightly. The ne"t feat was the +reaking of two ar7una trees growing side +y side. They are descri+ed as the +odies of two Jakshas who were con,erted into this for +y a curse9 and who were released +y this feat of =rishna. *hen he had learnt to crawl a+out and could hardly +e ke#t out of ischief Jasoda tied hi with a ro#e to a wooden ortar and went to ind her household duties. *hen she was out of sight9 =rishna +egan to drag the ortar after hi till it stuck fast +etween the trees. (till #ulling the hea,y weight after hi 9 he u#rooted the trees and ade the fall down with a tre endous noise9 hi self re aining unhurt +y the . Now these e,ents filled Nanda with fear9 and he seriously thought of lea,ing Vra7a and o,ing to another settle ent. *hile he was thus thinking9 the #lace was infested with wol,es which ade great ha,oc a ong the cattle and ade it -uite unsafe. This fi"ed the wa,ering intention of the no ads and they o,ed with all their +elongings to the #leasant woodland na ed Vrinda,an. =rishna was then only se,en years old. $fter his re o,al to this new settle ent9 =rishna killed -uite a large nu +er of $suras. One of the was $ristha9 who ca e in the for of a +ullC another9 =esin9 who was disguised as a horse. 5i,e others9 Vratrasura9 Bakasura9 $ghasura9

Bho asura and (ankhasura9 the last a Jaksha. :ore i #ortant than these was =aliya9 a snake chief9 who li,ed with his fa ily in a whirl#ool of the Ja una and thus #oisoned its water. =rishna one day threw hi self on =aliya?s hood and danced so wildly as to ake hi ,o it +lood. He would thus ha,e killed hi 9 +ut on the inter,ention of the snake?s fa ily9 he s#ared hi and allowed hi to o,e away to another a+ode. The su+7ugation of =aliya was followed +y Vastra@harana9 the carrying away of clothes9 a hard nut to crack for worshi##ers and ad irers of the 8uranic =rishna. The whole narration is so o+scene9 that e,en the erest outlines will9 % fear9 +e felt to +e indelicate. But % ust gi,e the in as decent a for as is #ossi+le9 to ake y +rief account of =rishna?s doings as full as % can. (o e 6o#ies had di,ed into the waters of the Ja una for a +ath9 lea,ing their clothes on the +anks9 as is said to +e still the custo in so e #arts of the country. =rishna seiBed the clothes and with the cli +ed u#on a tree on the ri,erside. *hen asked to return the 9 he refused to do so unless the wo en a##roached the tree and each +egged her own dress for herself. This they could do only +y co ing naked out of the water and #resenting the sel,es naked +efore =rishna. *hen they did this9 =rishna was #leased and he ga,e the their clothes. This story is found in the Bhaga,ata. The ne"t of =rishna?s feats was the u#lifting of the 6o,ardhan Hill. The 6o#as were a+out to cele+rate their annual sacrifices to %ndra9 the 6od of rain9 and +egan to ake grand #re#arations for it. =rishna #ointed out to the that as they were a #astoral and not an agricultural tri+e9 their real 6ods were kine9 hills and woods9 and the only they should worshi#9 and not such 6ods as the rain@gi,ing %ndra. The 6o#as were con,inced9 and gi,ing u# their intention of worshi##ing %ndra9 cele+rated a grand sacrifice to the hill 6o,ardhan9 the nourisher of kine9 acco #anied with feasting and dancing. %ndra was as he could not +ut +e greatly enraged at this affront offered to hi 9 and as #unish ent9 he #oured rain on the 6o#a settle ent for se,en days and nights continually. =rishna9 nothing daunted9 u#rooted the hill and held it u# as an u +rella o,er the settle ent and thus #rotected the 6o#as and their cattle fro the ruinous effects of %ndra?s wrath. $s to the 7ealousy +etween %ndra and the =rishna of the Rig@Veda and that +etween the for er and the Vishnu of the (ata#atha Brah ana9 % ha,e already s#oken in y first lecture. =rishna?s youthful career was full or illicit inti acy with the young wo en of Brinda+en which is called his Rasalila. Rasa is a sort of circular dance in which the hands of the dancers9 en and wo en9 are 7oined together. %t is said to +e still #re,alent a ong so e of the wild tri+es of this country. =rishna9 it is stated9 was in the ha+it of often en7oying this dance with the young 6o#is of Brinda+en9 who lo,ed hi #assionately. One of these dances is descri+ed in the Vishnu 8urana9 the Hari,a sa and the Bhaga,ata. $ll these authorities inter#ret the 6o#i?s lo,e for =rishna as #ietylo,e to 6od9 and see nothing wrong in their a orous dealings with

hi dealings which9 in the case of any other #erson9 would +e highly re#rehensi+le according to their own ad ission. $ll agree as to the general character of the affair the scene9 the ti e and season9 the drawing of the wo en with sweet usic9 the dance9 the a orous feelings of the wo en for =rishna9 and their e"#ression in ,arious ways. But while the Vishnu 8urana tries not always successfullyto kee# within the li its of decency9 the Hari,a sa +egins to +e #lainly indecent9 and the Bhaga,ata throws away all reser,e and re,els in indecency. Of all his indecencies the worst is his illicit life with one 6o#i +y na e Radha. =rishna?s illicit relations with Radha are #ortrayed in the Brah a,ai,arta 8urana. =rishna is arried to Ruk ani the daughter of =ing Ruk angad. Radha was arried to..... =rishna who a+andons his lawfully wedded wife Ruk ini and seduces Radha wife of another an and li,es with her in sin without re orse. =rishna was also a warrior and a #olitician e,en at a ,ery early age9 we are told9 when he was in his twelfth year. !,ery one of his acts whether as a warrior or as a #olitician was an i oral act. His first act in this s#here was the assassination of his aternal uncle =a sa. ?$ssassination? is not too strong a ter for it9 for though =a sa had gi,en hi #ro,ocation9 he was not killed in the course of a +attle or e,en in a single co +at. The story is that ha,ing heard 6od =rishna?s youthful feats at Brinda+an9 =arnsa got frightened and deter ined to secure his death +y confronting hi with a great athlete in an o#en e"hi+ition of ar s. $ccordingly he announced the cele+ration of a dhanuryajna a +ow sacrifice9 and in,ited =rishna9 Balara a and their 6o#a friends to it. $krura9 an adherent of =rishna9 +ut an officer of =a sa. was de#uted +y the latter to +ring the +rothers to :athura. They ca e9 deter ined to kill =a sa. He had #ro,oked not only the 9 +ut other Jada,as also9 who his #ersecution had co #elled to lea,e :athura. The +rothers were therefore su##orted +y a cons#iracy against hi . Ha,ing arri,ed at :athura9 they desired to change their si #le 6o#a dress for a ore decent one9 and asked for clothes fro =a sa?s washer an9 who they et in the street. $s the an +eha,ed insolently with the 9 they killed hi and took fro his stock whate,er clothes they liked. They then et =u+7a9 a hunch@+acked wo an who ser,ed as =a sa?s #erfu er. $t their re-uest she annointed the with sandal #aste and in return was cured +y =rishna of her +odily defor ity. The Bhag,ata akes hi ,isit her on a su+se-uent occasion and descri+es his union with her with its characteristic indecency. Howe,er9 on the #resent occasion9 the +rothers annointed +y =u+7a and garlanded +y (uda a9 a flower@seller9 entered the #lace of sacrifice and +roke the great +ow to which the sacrifice was to +e offered. The frightened =a sa sent an ele#hant na ed =u,alaya#ida to kill the . =rishna killed the ele#hant and entered the arena. There the +rothers encountered =a sa?s chosen athletes9 &hanura9 :ustika9 Toshalaka and $ndhra. =rishna killed &hanura and Toshalaka and Balara a the other two. 5rustrated in his #lan of securing =rishna?s death +y stratage =a sa ordered the

+rothers and their 6o#a friends to +e turned out and +anished fro his kingdo 9 @ their herds to +e confiscated and Vasude,a9 Nanda and his own father Kgrasen to +e assassinated. $t this =rishna got u#on the #latfor on which =arnsa was seated9 and seiBing hi +y the hair9 threw hi down on the ground and killed hi . Ha,ing consoled =a sa?s wee#ing wi,es he ordered a royal cre ation for hi 9 and refusing the kingdo offered hi +y Kgrasen9 installed the latter on the throne and in,ited his +anished relati,es to return to :athura. The ne"t e#isode is =rishna?s fight with <arasandha9 e #eror of :agadha9 and =alaya,ana. <arasandha was the son@in@law of =a sa. !nraged +y =rishna?s assassination of =arnsa9 his son@in@law9 <arasandha is said to ha,e in,aded :athura se,enteen ti es and to ha,e +een e,ery ti e re#ulsed +y =rishna. 5earing9 howe,er9 that an eighteenth in,asion would +e disastrous to the city9 =rishna re o,ed the Jada,as to Awarka at the west end of 6u7arat 8eninsula. $fter the re o,al of the Jada,as fro :athura9 the city was +esieged +y =alaya,ana at the instigation of <arasandha. *hile #ursuing the unar ed =rishna9 howe,er9 out of the city9 the in,ader was +urnt to ashes9 +y fire issuing fro the eyes of king :uchakunda9 who had +een slee#ing in a ountain ca,e and who he had awakened with a kick istaking hi for =rishna. =rishna defeated the ar y of =alaya,ana +ut while flying to Awaraka with the +ooty9 he was o,ertaken +y <arasandha. He9 howe,er9 e,aded his ene y +y cli +ing a hill and flying to Awaraka after 7u #ing down fro it. =rishna was now9 for the first ti e9 arried. He arried Ruk ini daughter of Bhish aka9 king of Vidar+ha. Her father9 at <arasandha?s ad,ice9 was aking #re#arations to get her arried to (ishu#ala9 =rishna?s cousin and king of &hedi. But =rishna carried her off on the day +efore the #ro#osed arriage. The Bhaga,ata says she had fallen in lo,e with =rishna and had addressed a lo,e letter to hi . This does not see to +e true. 5or =rishna did not re ain a true and faithful hus+and of Ruk ini. Ruk ini was gradually followed +y an enor ously ,ast ar y of co@wi,es till the nu +er of =rishna?s consorts rose to si"teen thousand one hundred and eight. His children nu +ered one lakh and eighty@thousand. The chief of his wi,es were the well@known eight9 Ruk ini9 (atya+ha a9 <a +a,ati9 =alindi9 :itra+inda9 (atya9 Bhadra9 and >aksh ana. The re aining si"teen thousand and one hundred were arried to hi on the sa e day. They +elonged originally to the hare of king Naraka of 8rag7yotish who =rishna defeated and killed at the in,itation of %ndra9 whose other?s ear@rings had +een carried away +y Naraka. *hile #aying a ,isit after the +attle to %ndra?s hea,en in co #any with (atya+ha a9 this lady took fancy to %ndra?s fa ous #ari7at tree. To o+lige his wife9 =rishna had to fight with the 6od who he had 7ust fa,oured. %ndra9 though the chief of the Vedic 6ods9 and though he was hel#ed +y the latter on this occasion was indeed no atch for the ? %ncarnation of the (u#re e Being ? and was forced to #art with his fa,ourite flower@

tree9 which was thus carried to Awarka and #lanted there. The story of how he o+tained his chief eight wi,es is ,ery interesting. The story of how he got Ruk ini is already told. (atya+ha a was the daughter of (atra7it9 a Vada,a chief who ga,e her away in arriage to =rishna +ecause he was afraid of hi and wished to +uy his fa,our. <a +a,ati was the daughter of <a +a,na9 a +ear chief9 against who =rishna waged a long war to reco,er a #re,ious ge he had taken away fro a Jada,a. <a +a,ana was defeated and #resented his daughter to =rishna9 as a #eace@offering. =alindi went through a series of austerities in order to get =rishna as her hus+and and her de,otion was rewarded +y the arriage she had sought. :itra+inda was a cousin of =rishna and was carried off +y hi fro the (,aya ,ara grounds. (atya was the daughter of Nagna7it9 king of $yodhya and was won +y =rishna when he had achie,ed a +ra,e feat of ar s9 na ely9 killing a nu +er of naughty +ulls +elonging to Nagna7it. Bhadra was another cousin of =rishna and was arried +y hi in the usual way. >aksh ana was the daughter of Brihatsena9 king of :adra9 and was carried off +y hi fro the (waya a,ara grounds. =rishna?s #art in $r7una?s arriage with (u+hadra9 sister of Balara a and =rishna?s half sister is noteworthy. %n the course of his tra,els $r7una arri,ed at the holy #lace of 8ra+hasa9 and was recei,ed +y =rishna on the hill of Rai,ataka. There he was ena oured of (u+hadni and asked =rishna how he could get her. =rishna ad,ised hi to carry her off as a +ra,e =shatriya without de#ending u#on the chances of a (,aya ,ara 9 the usual =shatriya for of arriage. The Jada,as were at first enraged at this outrage9 +ut when =rishna con,inced the that $r7una would +e a ,ery worthy hus+and for (u+hadra. and that +y carrying her off he had done nothing unworthy of a hero9 they consented to the union. $nd how could they do otherwise. =rishna did not si #ly argue like us9 #oor talkers. He9 as we ha,e already seen9 had +acked his #rece#ts +y his e"a #le. %t is interesting to note how =rishna dis#osed of <arasandha and (ishu#ala who created trou+le at the Ra7asuya #erfor ed +y Judhisthira. <arasandha had i #risoned a large nu +er of kings and intended to sacrifice the to Rudra. Knless he was killed and the i #risoned #rinces released and gi,en an o##ortunity to #ay ho age to Judhisthira9 the latter?s clai as e #eror could not +e esta+lished. =rishna therefore #roceeded with Bhirna and $r7una to Ra7agriha9 <arasandha?s ca#ital9 and challenged hi to a single co +at with anyone of the he ight choose. (uch a challenge could not +e refused +y a =shatriya9 and <arasandha9 at the antici#ation of death at his o##onent?s hand9 declared his son (ahade, as his heir a##arent and chose Bhi a as his o##onent. The co +at lasted thirteen days9 and <arasandha at length et with a #ainful death at his ri,al?s hand. Ha,ing #ut (ahade, on his father?s throne9 and in,ited the released #rinces to attend Judhisthira?s Ra7asuya9 =rishna and his friends returned to %ndra#rastha. %n due course the Ra7asuya ca e off. Of the ,arious functions and duties

connected with the cere ony9 =rishna is said to ha,e taken charge of washing the feet of the Brah ans. This is a sure indication of the co #arati,e odernness of the :aha+harata9 at any rate9 of this story. 5or in ancient ti es9 e,en when the su#re acy of the Brah ans had +een esta+lished9 the =shatriyas ne,er #aid the any ser,ile honour. Howe,er when the sacrifice was o,er9 the ti e ca e for Judhisthira to ake #resents to the asse +led #rinces9 #riests and other #ersons deser,ing honour. To who ust honour +e #aid first. Judhisthira ha,ing asked Bhish a?s o#inion on the atter9 the latter re#lied that =rishna was the #erson to +e honoured first. $ccordingly (ahade,a at Judhishtira?s co and #resented the $rghya9 the ark of honour9 to =rishna9 and the latter acce#ted it. This u#set (ishu#ala9 who ade a long s#eech9 challenging =rishna?s right to the honour and a+using the 8anda,as for #aying any honour and =rishna for acce#ting it. Bhish a ade another s#eech narrating =rishna?s e"#loits and achie,e ents at length9 and declaring his di,inity. (ishu#ala rose again9 re+utted Bhish a?s argu ents one after another9 and grossly a+used hi . %t is #ointed out +y =rishna?s recent +iogra#hers9 that of the charges +rought against =rishna +y (ishu#ala9 there is no ention of his dealings with the Brinda+an 6o#is9 a sure indication9 according to the 9 that when the :aha+haratha was co #osed9 the story of these dealings of =rishna9 a story ade so uch of +y the writers of the 8uranas and the later #oets9 was not concei,ed. Howe,er9 at the end of (ishu#ala?s s#eech Bhish a9 who saw that Judhishtira was afraid lest (ishu#ala and his followers ight o+struct the co #letion of the cere ony9 said9 addressing the that if they were resol,ed to die they ight challenge the di,ine =rishna hi self to fight. $t this (ishu#ala challenged =rishna9 who rose in res#onse and narrated his o##onent?s nu erous isdeeds. Then with the words9 D$t the re-uest of his other9 y aunt9 % ha,e #ardoned a hundred of (ishu#ala?s offences. But % cannot #ardon the insulting words he has s#oken of e +efore the asse +led #rinces: % kill hi +efore you all D. He threw his chakra at hi and cut off his head $ctions of =rishna during the :aha+harata *ar ay now +e re,iewed. The following are so e of the : 1. *hen (atyaki9 =rishna?s friend9 was hard #ressed +y Bhurisra,a9 son of (o adatta9 =rishna induced $r7una to cut off his ar s9 and there+y ade it easy for (atyaki to kill hi . 2. *hen $+hi anyu was unfairly surrounded and killed +y se,en =aura,a warriors9 $r7una ,owed the death of the ring leader9 <ayadratha9 ne"t day +efore sunset9 or9 failing that his own death +y entering into fire. *hen the (un was a+out to set9 and <ayadratha re ained unslain9 =rishna iraculously hid the (un9 on which <ayadratha9 ha,ing co e out =rishna unco,ered the (un9 and $r7una killed <ayadratha when he was unaware. '. Aes#airing of Arona +eing e,er killed +y fair eans =rishna ad,ised the

8anda,as to kill hi unfairly. %f he could he ade to cast down his ar s9 he could9 =rishna said9 +e killed easily. This could +e done if he was told that his son9 $s,atha a was dead. Bhi a tried the suggested de,ice He killed an ele#hant na ed after Arona?s son and told hi that $s,atha a was killed. The warrior was so ewhat de#ressed +y the news9 +ut did not -uite +elie,e it. $t this 7uncture he was hard #ressed +y a nu +er of sages to cease fighting and #re#are hi self for hea,en with editations worthy of a Brah ana. This checked the hero still ore and he a##lied to the truthful Judhisthira for correct infor ation a+out his son. 5inding Judhisthira unwilling to tell a lie9 =rishna o,erca e his reluctance +y a long e"hortation9 in the course of which he announced his ethics of untruth in the following edifying te"t fro Vasishtha?s ( riti. D %n arriage9 in a orous dealings9 when one?s life is in danger9 when the whole of one?s #ossession is going to +e lost9 and when a Brah an?s interest is at stake9 untruth should +e told. The wise ha,e said that s#eaking untruth on these fi,e occasions is not a sin.D Judhisthir?s scru#les were stifled9 and he said to his #rece#tor9 D Jes9 $s,atha a is killed D adding in a low ,oice9 D that is9 an ele#hant D which last words9 howe,er were not heard +y Aron. His de#ression was co #lete9 and on hearing so e +itterly re#roachful words fro Bhi a9 he ga,e u# his ar s9 and while sitting in a editati,e #osture9 was killed +y Ahristhadyu na. ). *hen Bhi a was unsuccessfully fighting with Auryodhana +y the side of the A,ai#ayana >ake =rishna re inded hi through $r7una that he had ,owed the +reaking of his o##onent?s thighs. Now striking a ri,al +elow the na,el was unfair9 +ut as Auryodhana could not +e killed e"ce#t +y such an unfair eans9 =rishna ad,ised Bhi a to ado#t the sa e and Bhi a did.D The death of =rishna throws a flood of light on his orals. =rishna died as the Ruler of Awaraka. *hat was this Awaraka like and what sort of death awaited hi . %n founding his city of Awaraka he had taken care to settle thousands of ? unfortunates ? there. $s the Hari,a sa said: ? O9 hero ha,ing con-uered the a+odes of the Aaityas HgiantsI with the hel# of +ra,e Jadus9 the >ord settled thousands of #u+lic wo en in Awaraka D. Aancing9 singing and drinking +y en and wo en arried and #rostitutes filled the city of Awaraka. *e get a descri#tion of a seatri# in which these wo en for ed a #rinci#al source of en7oy ent. !"cited +y their singing and dancing9 the +rothers =rishna and Balara a 7oined in the dancing with their wi,es. They were followed +y the other Jada,a chiefs and +y $r7una and Narada. Then a fresh e"cite ent was sought. :en and wo en all fell into the sea and at =rishna?s suggestion9 the gentle en +egan a 7alakrida water s#ort9 with the ladies9 =rishna leading one #arty9 and Balara a another9 while the courtesans added to the a use ent +y their usic. This was followed +y eating and drinking and this again +y a s#ecial usical #erfor ance in which the leaders the sel,es e"hi+ited their res#ecti,e skill in handling ,arious usical instru ents. %t will thus +e seen what a

7olly #eo#le these Jada,as were9 and with what conte #t they would ha,e treated the o+7ections urged nowadays +y the Brah ans and such other #urists against notch #arties and the nati,e theatres. %t was in one of these re,elsa drunken re,el that the Jada,as were destroyed. They9 it is said9 had incurred the dis#leasure of a nu +er of sages +y a childish trick #layed on the latter +y so e of their +oys. These +oys disguised (a +a9 one of =rishna?s sons9 as a wo an with child9 tying an iron #estle +elow his na,el9 and asked the sages to say what child the ?wo an? would gi,e +irth to. The enraged sage said ?she? would #roduce an iron #estle which would +e the ruin of the Jada,as. 5earing the worst conse-uences fro this curse9 the +oys took the #estle to the sea@side and ru++ed it away. But its #articles ca e out in the for of era1as$ a kind of reeds and its last re aining +it9 which had +een thrown into the sea9 was afterwards reco,ered and used +y a hunter as the #oint of an arrowC Now it was with these erakas that the Jada,as killed the sel,es. They had gone in large #arties to the holy #lace of 8ra+hasa. They indulged in drinking there and this #ro,ed their ruin. The e,ils of drinking there had +een found out at length +y =rishna and so e other Jada,a leaders9 and it was #rohi+ited on #ain of death +y a #u+lic notification. But the #rohi+ition had no effect. The drunken Jada,as at first -uarrelled and then +egan to fight and kill one another. *hen so e of =rishna?s own sons were killed he hi self 7oined in the fight and killed a large nu +er of his own #eo#le. He then went in search of Balara a. He found hi in editati,e #osture and saw his s#irit #assing out of his +ody in the for of a large ser#ent i.e.9 (esha Naga9 the di,ine snake who he had incarnated. =rishna now felt that it was ti e for hi also to #ass away. He then +ade farewell to his father and his wi,es9 telling the that he had sent for $r7una9 who would take charge of the . Then he seated hi self under a tree9 hidden +y its leafy and outstretching +ranches9 and co #osed his ind in editation. *hile thus sitting9 a hunter na ed <ara istook hi for a deer and hit hi with an arrow9 one #ointed with the last re aining +it of the fatal #estle. Aisco,ering his istake9 the an fell at =rishna?s feet and was #ardoned and flew away to hea,en9 illu ining all sides +y its daBBling light. $r7una ca e and #roceeded towards Hastina#ur with the sur,i,ing Jada,as en and wo en. But his good genius ha,ing left hi he had lost the #ower of his hitherto ighty ar and his unri,alled skill as an archer. $ nu +er of $hiras9 ar ed only with lathis9 attacked his #arty and carried off any of the wo en9 and he reached Hastina#ur only with a s all re nant. $fter $r7una?s de#arture the sea engulfed Awaraka9 and nothing was left to s#eak of the Jada,as9 their glories9 their do estic +roils and their re,els.