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User's Guide
2
Copyright 2010, Texas Instruments Incorporated
Contents
Preface 1
...................................................................................................................................... Introduction to the Software Development Tools ................................................................... 1.1 Software Development Tools Overview ................................................................................ 1.2 Tools Descriptions ......................................................................................................... Introduction to Object Modules ........................................................................................... 2.1 Sections ..................................................................................................................... 2.2 How the Assembler Handles Sections .................................................................................. 2.2.1 Uninitialized Sections ............................................................................................ 2.2.2 Initialized Sections ................................................................................................ 2.2.3 Named Sections .................................................................................................. 2.2.4 Subsections ....................................................................................................... 2.2.5 Section Program Counters ...................................................................................... 2.2.6 Using Sections Directives ....................................................................................... 2.3 How the Linker Handles Sections ....................................................................................... 2.3.1 Default Memory Allocation ...................................................................................... 2.3.2 Placing Sections in the Memory Map .......................................................................... 2.4 Relocation .................................................................................................................. 2.5 Run-Time Relocation ...................................................................................................... 2.6 Loading a Program ........................................................................................................ 2.7 Symbols in an Object File ................................................................................................ 2.7.1 External Symbols ................................................................................................. 2.7.2 The Symbol Table ................................................................................................ Assembler Description ....................................................................................................... 3.1 Assembler Overview ...................................................................................................... 3.2 The Assembler's Role in the Software Development Flow .......................................................... 3.3 Invoking the Assembler ................................................................................................... 3.4 Naming Alternate Directories for Assembler Input .................................................................... 3.4.1 Using the --include_path Assembler Option .................................................................. 3.4.2 Using the MSP430_A_DIR Environment Variable ........................................................... 3.5 Source Statement Format ................................................................................................ 3.5.1 Label Field ......................................................................................................... 3.5.2 Mnemonic Field ................................................................................................... 3.5.3 Operand Field ..................................................................................................... 3.5.4 Comment Field .................................................................................................... 3.6 Constants ................................................................................................................... 3.6.1 Binary Integers .................................................................................................... 3.6.2 Octal Integers ..................................................................................................... 3.6.3 Decimal Integers .................................................................................................. 3.6.4 Hexadecimal Integers ............................................................................................ 3.6.5 Character Constants ............................................................................................. 3.6.6 Assembly-Time Constants ...................................................................................... 3.7 Character Strings .......................................................................................................... 3.8 Symbols ..................................................................................................................... 3.8.1 Labels .............................................................................................................. 3.8.2 Local Labels .......................................................................................................
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20 21 21 22 23 23 24 24 27 27 28 28 29 29 30 30 30
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32 33 34 35 36 36 38 38 39 39 39 39 40 40 40 40 41 41 41 42 42 42
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3.9
3.8.3 Symbolic Constants .............................................................................................. 3.8.4 Defining Symbolic Constants (--asm_define Option) ........................................................ 3.8.5 Predefined Symbolic Constants ................................................................................ 3.8.6 Substitution Symbols ............................................................................................. Expressions ................................................................................................................ 3.9.1 Operators .......................................................................................................... 3.9.2 Expression Overflow and Underflow ........................................................................... 3.9.3 Well-Defined Expressions ....................................................................................... 3.9.4 Conditional Expressions ......................................................................................... Source Listings ............................................................................................................ Debugging Assembly Source ............................................................................................ Cross-Reference Listings ................................................................................................. Directives Summary ....................................................................................................... Directives That Define Sections ......................................................................................... Directives That Initialize Constants ..................................................................................... Directives That Perform Alignment and Reserve Space ............................................................. Directives That Format the Output Listings ............................................................................ Directives That Reference Other Files .................................................................................. Directives That Enable Conditional Assembly ......................................................................... Directives That Define Union or Structure Types ..................................................................... Directives That Define Enumerated Types ............................................................................. Directives That Define Symbols at Assembly Time ................................................................... Miscellaneous Directives ................................................................................................. Directives Reference ...................................................................................................... Using Macros ............................................................................................................. Defining Macros .......................................................................................................... Macro Parameters/Substitution Symbols ............................................................................. 5.3.1 Directives That Define Substitution Symbols ................................................................ 5.3.2 Built-In Substitution Symbol Functions ....................................................................... 5.3.3 Recursive Substitution Symbols .............................................................................. 5.3.4 Forced Substitution ............................................................................................. 5.3.5 Accessing Individual Characters of Subscripted Substitution Symbols .................................. 5.3.6 Substitution Symbols as Local Variables in Macros ........................................................ Macro Libraries ........................................................................................................... Using Conditional Assembly in Macros ............................................................................... Using Labels in Macros ................................................................................................. Producing Messages in Macros ........................................................................................ Using Directives to Format the Output Listing ....................................................................... Using Recursive and Nested Macros ................................................................................. Macro Directives Summary ............................................................................................. Archiver Overview ........................................................................................................ The Archiver's Role in the Software Development Flow ............................................................ Invoking the Archiver .................................................................................................... Archiver Examples ....................................................................................................... Library Information Archiver Description .............................................................................. 6.5.1 Invoking the Library Information Archiver .................................................................... 6.5.2 Library Information Archiver Example: ....................................................................... 6.5.3 Listing the Contents of an Index Library ..................................................................... 6.5.4 Requirements ....................................................................................................
43 44 45 46 46 47 47 47 47 48 50 51 54 58 60 62 63 64 64 65 65 65 66 67 118 118 120 121 122 123 123 124 125 126 127 129 130 131 132 133 136 136 138 139 140 140 141 141 141
Assembler Directives
4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12
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Macro Description
5.1 5.2 5.3
............................................................................................................ 117
Archiver Description
6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5
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Linker Description
7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4
........................................................................................................... 143 Linker Overview .......................................................................................................... 144 The Linker's Role in the Software Development Flow .............................................................. 145 Invoking the Linker ....................................................................................................... 146 Linker Options ............................................................................................................ 147 7.4.1 Wild Cards in File, Section, and Symbol Patterns .......................................................... 149 7.4.2 Relocation Capabilities (--absolute_exe and --relocatable Options) ..................................... 149 7.4.3 Allocate Memory for Use by the Loader to Pass Arguments (--arg_size Option) ...................... 150 7.4.4 Control Linker Diagnostics ..................................................................................... 150 7.4.5 Disable Automatic Library Selection (--disable_auto_rts Option) ......................................... 151 7.4.6 Disable Conditional Linking (--disable_clink Option) ....................................................... 151 7.4.7 Link Command File Preprocessing (--disable_pp, --define and --undefine Options) ................... 151 7.4.8 Define an Entry Point (--entry_point Option) ................................................................ 152 7.4.9 Set Default Fill Value (--fill_value Option) ................................................................... 153 7.4.10 Generate List of Dead Functions (--generate_dead_funcs_list Option) ................................ 153 7.4.11 Define Heap Size (--heap_size Option) ..................................................................... 153 7.4.12 Hiding Symbols ................................................................................................. 153
7.4.13 Alter the Library Search Algorithm (--library Option, --search_path Option, and MSP430_C_DIR Environment Variable) .......................................................................................... 7.4.14 Change Symbol Localization ................................................................................. 7.4.15 Create a Map File (--map_file Option) ...................................................................... 7.4.16 Managing Map File Contents (--mapfile_contents Option) ............................................... 7.4.17 Disable Name Demangling (--no_demangle) .............................................................. 7.4.18 Disable Merge of Symbolic Debugging Information (--no_sym_merge Option) ....................... 7.4.19 Strip Symbolic Information (--no_sym_table Option) ...................................................... 7.4.20 Name an Output Module (--output_file Option) ............................................................ 7.4.21 C Language Options (--ram_model and --rom_model Options) ......................................... 7.4.22 Create an Absolute Listing File (--run_abs Option) ........................................................ 7.4.23 Scan All Libraries for Duplicate Symbol Definitions (--scan_libraries) .................................. 7.4.24 Define Stack Size (--stack_size Option) .................................................................... 7.4.25 Enforce Strict Compatibility (--strict_compatibility Option) ................................................ 7.4.26 Mapping of Symbols (--symbol_map Option) .............................................................. 7.4.27 Introduce an Unresolved Symbol (--undef_sym Option) .................................................. 7.4.28 Replace Multiply Routine With Hardware Multiplier Routine (--use_hw_mpy) ......................... 7.4.29 Display a Message When an Undefined Output Section Is Created (--warn_sections Option) ..... 7.4.30 Generate XML Link Information File (--xml_link_info Option) ............................................ Linker Command Files .................................................................................................. 7.5.1 Reserved Names in Linker Command Files ................................................................. 7.5.2 Constants in Linker Command Files ......................................................................... 7.5.3 The MEMORY Directive ........................................................................................ 7.5.4 The SECTIONS Directive ...................................................................................... 7.5.5 Specifying a Section's Run-Time Address ................................................................... 7.5.6 Using UNION and GROUP Statements ...................................................................... 7.5.7 Special Section Types (DSECT, COPY, and NOLOAD) .................................................. 7.5.8 Assigning Symbols at Link Time .............................................................................. 7.5.9 Creating and Filling Holes ..................................................................................... Object Libraries ........................................................................................................... Default Allocation Algorithm ............................................................................................ 7.7.1 How the Allocation Algorithm Creates Output Sections ................................................... 7.7.2 Reducing Memory Fragmentation ............................................................................ Linker-Generated Copy Tables ........................................................................................ 7.8.1 A Current Boot-Loaded Application Development Process ............................................... 7.8.2 An Alternative Approach ....................................................................................... 7.8.3 Overlay Management Example ...............................................................................
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7.5
7.6 7.7
7.8
154 156 157 158 159 159 160 160 160 160 160 161 161 161 161 162 162 162 163 164 164 165 167 178 180 184 185 190 193 194 194 195 195 195 196 196
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7.9 7.10
7.11
7.8.4 Generating Copy Tables Automatically With the Linker ................................................... 7.8.5 The table() Operator ............................................................................................ 7.8.6 Boot-Time Copy Tables ........................................................................................ 7.8.7 Using the table() Operator to Manage Object Components ............................................... 7.8.8 Copy Table Contents ........................................................................................... 7.8.9 General Purpose Copy Routine ............................................................................... 7.8.10 Linker-Generated Copy Table Sections and Symbols .................................................... 7.8.11 Splitting Object Components and Overlay Management ................................................. Partial (Incremental) Linking ............................................................................................ Linking C/C++ Code ..................................................................................................... 7.10.1 Run-Time Initialization ......................................................................................... 7.10.2 Object Libraries and Run-Time Support .................................................................... 7.10.3 Setting the Size of the Stack and Heap Sections ......................................................... 7.10.4 Autoinitialization of Variables at Run Time ................................................................. 7.10.5 Initialization of Variables at Load Time ...................................................................... 7.10.6 The --rom_model and --ram_model Linker Options ....................................................... Linker Example ...........................................................................................................
197 198 198 198 199 200 201 201 203 204 204 204 204 205 205 206 207
............................................................................................... 211
Producing an Absolute Listing .......................................................................................... 212 Invoking the Absolute Lister ............................................................................................ 213 Absolute Lister Example ................................................................................................ 214
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Producing a Cross-Reference Listing ................................................................................. 218 Invoking the Cross-Reference Lister .................................................................................. 219 Cross-Reference Listing Example ..................................................................................... 220
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224 225 226 226 228 229 229 231 232 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 240 241 241 241 242 242 243 243 244
Object File Display Utility ................................................................................ Disassembler .............................................................................................. Name Utility ............................................................................................... Strip Utility .................................................................................................
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11.3
11.4
11.5 11.6
The Hex Conversion Utility's Role in the Software Development Flow ........................................... Invoking the Hex Conversion Utility ................................................................................... 11.2.1 Invoking the Hex Conversion Utility From the Command Line .......................................... 11.2.2 Invoking the Hex Conversion Utility With a Command File .............................................. Understanding Memory Widths ........................................................................................ 11.3.1 Target Width .................................................................................................... 11.3.2 Specifying the Memory Width ................................................................................ 11.3.3 Partitioning Data Into Output Files ........................................................................... 11.3.4 Specifying Word Order for Output Words ................................................................... The ROMS Directive ..................................................................................................... 11.4.1 When to Use the ROMS Directive ........................................................................... 11.4.2 An Example of the ROMS Directive ......................................................................... The SECTIONS Directive ............................................................................................... The Load Image Format (--load_image Option) ..................................................................... 11.6.1 Load Image Section Formation .............................................................................. 11.6.2 Load Image Characteristics .................................................................................. Excluding a Specified Section .......................................................................................... Assigning Output Filenames ............................................................................................ Image Mode and the --fill Option ....................................................................................... 11.9.1 Generating a Memory Image ................................................................................. 11.9.2 Specifying a Fill Value .........................................................................................
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11.9.3 Steps to Follow in Using Image Mode ...................................................................... 11.10 Controlling the ROM Device Address ................................................................................. 11.11 Control Hex Conversion Utility Diagnostics .......................................................................... 11.12 Description of the Object Formats ..................................................................................... 11.12.1 ASCII-Hex Object Format (--ascii Option) ................................................................. 11.12.2 Intel MCS-86 Object Format (--intel Option) .............................................................. 11.12.3 Motorola Exorciser Object Format (--motorola Option) .................................................. 11.12.4 Extended Tektronix Object Format (--tektronix Option) ................................................. 11.12.5 Texas Instruments SDSMAC (TI-Tagged) Object Format (--ti_tagged Option) ...................... 11.12.6 TI-TXT Hex Format (--ti_txt Option) ........................................................................
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12.3
12.4
Overview of the .cdecls Directive ...................................................................................... Notes on C/C++ Conversions .......................................................................................... 12.2.1 Comments ...................................................................................................... 12.2.2 Conditional Compilation (#if/#else/#ifdef/etc.) .............................................................. 12.2.3 Pragmas ......................................................................................................... 12.2.4 The #error and #warning Directives ......................................................................... 12.2.5 Predefined symbol _ _ASM_HEADER_ _ .................................................................. 12.2.6 Usage Within C/C++ asm( ) Statements .................................................................... 12.2.7 The #include Directive ......................................................................................... 12.2.8 Conversion of #define Macros ............................................................................... 12.2.9 The #undef Directive .......................................................................................... 12.2.10 Enumerations ................................................................................................. 12.2.11 C Strings ....................................................................................................... 12.2.12 C/C++ Built-In Functions .................................................................................... 12.2.13 Structures and Unions ....................................................................................... 12.2.14 Function/Variable Prototypes ............................................................................... 12.2.15 C Constant Suffixes .......................................................................................... 12.2.16 Basic C/C++ Types ........................................................................................... Notes on C++ Specific Conversions ................................................................................... 12.3.1 Name Mangling ................................................................................................ 12.3.2 Derived Classes ................................................................................................ 12.3.3 Templates ....................................................................................................... 12.3.4 Virtual Functions ............................................................................................... Special Assembler Support ............................................................................................. 12.4.1 Enumerations (.enum/.emember/.endenum) ............................................................... 12.4.2 The .define Directive ........................................................................................... 12.4.3 The .undefine/.unasg Directives ............................................................................. 12.4.4 The $defined( ) Directive ...................................................................................... 12.4.5 The $sizeof Built-In Function ................................................................................. 12.4.6 Structure/Union Alignment & $alignof( ) .................................................................... 12.4.7 The .cstring Directive ..........................................................................................
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DWARF Debugging Format ............................................................................................ 262 COFF Debugging Format ............................................................................................... 262 Debug Directive Syntax ................................................................................................. 263
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XML Information File Element Types .................................................................................. Document Elements ..................................................................................................... B.2.1 Header Elements ................................................................................................ B.2.2 Input File List .................................................................................................... B.2.3 Object Component List ......................................................................................... B.2.4 Logical Group List ...............................................................................................
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B.2.5 Placement Map .................................................................................................. 271 B.2.6 Far Call Trampoline List ........................................................................................ 272 B.2.7 Symbol Table .................................................................................................... 273
Glossary
......................................................................................................................... 275
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List of Figures
1-1. 2-1. 2-2. 2-3. 2-4. 3-1. 3-2. 4-1. 4-2. 4-3. 4-4. 4-5. 4-6. 4-7. 6-1. 7-1. 7-2. 7-3. 7-4. 7-5. 7-6. 8-1. 9-1. 11-1. 11-2. 11-3. 11-4. 11-5. 11-6. 11-7. 11-8. 11-9. 11-10. 11-11. MSP430 Software Development Flow
................................................................................. 16 ............................................................................... 20 Using Sections Directives Example ..................................................................................... 25 Object Code Generated by the File in ................................................................................. 26 Combining Input Sections to Form an Executable Object Module .................................................. 27 The Assembler in the MSP430 Software Development Flow ....................................................... 33 Example Assembler Listing .............................................................................................. 49 The .field Directive ........................................................................................................ 60 Initialization Directives .................................................................................................... 61 The .align Directive ........................................................................................................ 62 The .space and .bes Directives .......................................................................................... 62 Single-Precision Floating-Point Format ................................................................................. 80 The .field Directive ........................................................................................................ 86 The .usect Directive ..................................................................................................... 115 The Archiver in the MSP430 Software Development Flow ......................................................... 137 The Linker in the MSP430 Software Development Flow ........................................................... 145 Section Allocation Defined by ......................................................................................... 168 Run-Time Execution of ................................................................................................. 180 Memory Allocation Shown in and ..................................................................................... 181 Autoinitialization at Run Time .......................................................................................... 205 Initialization at Load Time ............................................................................................... 206 Absolute Lister Development Flow .................................................................................... 212 The Cross-Reference Lister Development Flow ..................................................................... 218 The Hex Conversion Utility in the MSP430 Software Development Flow ........................................ 228 Hex Conversion Utility Process Flow .................................................................................. 232 Object File Data and Memory Widths ................................................................................. 233 Data, Memory, and ROM Widths ...................................................................................... 235 The infile.out File Partitioned Into Four Output Files ................................................................ 238 ASCII-Hex Object Format ............................................................................................... 246 Intel Hexadecimal Object Format ...................................................................................... 247 Motorola-S Format ....................................................................................................... 248 Extended Tektronix Object Format .................................................................................... 249 TI-Tagged Object Format ............................................................................................... 250 TI-TXT Object Format ................................................................................................... 251
Partitioning Memory Into Logical Blocks
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List of Tables
3-1. 3-2. 3-3. 4-1. 4-2. 4-3. 4-4. 4-5. 4-6. 4-7. 4-8. 4-9. 4-10. 4-11. 4-12. 4-13. 4-14. 5-1. 5-2. 5-3. 5-4. 5-5. 5-6. 7-1. 7-2. 7-3. 7-4. 7-5. 7-6. 7-7. 7-8. 7-9. 9-1. 11-1. 11-2. A-1. MSP430 Assembler Options ............................................................................................. 34
........................................................................ 47 Symbol Attributes .......................................................................................................... 51 Directives That Define Sections ......................................................................................... 54 Directives That Initialize Values (Data and Memory) ................................................................. 54 Directives That Perform Alignment and Reserve Space ............................................................. 55 Directives That Format the Output Listing ............................................................................. 55 Directives That Reference Other Files .................................................................................. 55 Directives That Effect Symbol Linkage and Visibility ................................................................. 55 Directives That Enable Conditional Assembly ......................................................................... 56 Directives That Define Structure Types ................................................................................ 56 Directives That Define Symbols at Assembly Time ................................................................... 56 Directives That Create or Effect Macros ............................................................................... 56 Directives That Control Diagnostics ..................................................................................... 57 Directives That Perform Assembly Source Debug .................................................................... 57 Directives That Are Used by the Absolute Lister ...................................................................... 57 Directives That Perform Miscellaneous Functions .................................................................... 57 Substitution Symbol Functions and Return Values .................................................................. 122 Creating Macros .......................................................................................................... 133 Manipulating Substitution Symbols .................................................................................... 133 Conditional Assembly ................................................................................................... 133 Producing Assembly-Time Messages ................................................................................. 133 Formatting the Listing ................................................................................................... 133 Basic Options Summary ................................................................................................ 147 Command File Preprocessing Options Summary ................................................................... 147 Diagnostic Options Summary .......................................................................................... 147 File Search Path Options Summary ................................................................................... 147 Linker Output Options Summary ....................................................................................... 148 Symbol Management Options Summary ............................................................................. 148 Run-Time Environment Options Summary ........................................................................... 148 Miscellaneous Options Summary ...................................................................................... 149 Groups of Operators Used in Expressions (Precedence) .......................................................... 186 Symbol Attributes in Cross-Reference Listing........................................................................ 221 Basic Hex Conversion Utility Options ................................................................................. 229 Options for Specifying Hex Conversion Formats .................................................................... 246 Symbolic Debugging Directives ........................................................................................ 263
Operators Used in Expressions (Precedence)
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List of Tables
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Preface
SLAU131E July 2010
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Notational Conventions
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Notational Conventions
This document uses the following conventions: Program listings, program examples, and interactive displays are shown in a special typeface. Interactive displays use a bold version of the special typeface to distinguish commands that you enter from items that the system displays (such as prompts, command output, error messages, etc.). Here is a sample of C code:
#include <stdio.h> main() { printf("hello, cruel world\n"); }
In syntax descriptions, the instruction, command, or directive is in a bold typeface and parameters are in an italic typeface. Portions of a syntax that are in bold should be entered as shown; portions of a syntax that are in italics describe the type of information that should be entered. Square brackets ( [ and ] ) identify an optional parameter. If you use an optional parameter, you specify the information within the brackets. Unless the square brackets are in the bold typeface, do not enter the brackets themselves. The following is an example of a command that has an optional parameter:
cl430 [options] [filenames] [--run_linker [link_options] [object files]] Braces ( { and } ) indicate that you must choose one of the parameters within the braces; you do not enter the braces themselves. This is an example of a command with braces that are not included in the actual syntax but indicate that you must specify either the --rom_model or --ram_model option: {--rom_model | --ram_model} filenames [--output_file= name.out]
cl430 --run_linker
--library= libraryname In assembler syntax statements, column 1 is reserved for the first character of a label or symbol. If the label or symbol is optional, it is usually not shown. If it is a required parameter, it is shown starting against the left margin of the box, as in the example below. No instruction, command, directive, or parameter, other than a symbol or label, can begin in column 1.
symbol .usect "section name", size in bytes[, alignment] Some directives can have a varying number of parameters. For example, the .byte directive can have up to 100 parameters. This syntax is shown as [, ..., parameter]. Following are other symbols and abbreviations used throughout this document:
Symbol B,b H, h LSB MSB 0x Q, q Definition Suffix binary integer Suffix hexadecimal integer Least significant bit Most significant bit Prefix hexadecimal integer Suffix octal integer
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MSP430 is a trademark of Texas Instruments. All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners. SLAU131E July 2010
Copyright 2010, Texas Instruments Incorporated
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Chapter 1
SLAU131E July 2010
The MSP430 is supported by a set of software development tools, which includes an optimizing C/C++ compiler, an assembler, a linker, and assorted utilities. This chapter provides an overview of these tools. The MSP430 is supported by the following assembly language development tools: Assembler Archiver Linker Library information archiver Absolute lister Cross-reference lister Object file display utility Disassembler Name utility Strip utility Hex conversion utility This chapter shows how these tools fit into the general software tools development flow and gives a brief description of each tool. For convenience, it also summarizes the C/C++ compiler and debugging tools. For detailed information on the compiler and debugger, and for complete descriptions of the MSP430, refer to the books listed in Related Documentation From Texas Instruments.
Topic
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1.1 1.2
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1.1
C/C++ compiler
Archiver
Assembler source
Macro library
Assembler
Archiver
Object files
Library-build process
Debugging tools
Linker
Run-timesupport library
EPROM programmer
Absolute lister
Cross-reference lister
MSP430
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Tools Descriptions
1.2
Tools Descriptions
The following list describes the tools that are shown in Figure 1-1: The C/C++ compiler accepts C/C++ source code and produces MSP430 assembly language source code. A shell program, an optimizer, and an interlist utility are included in the compiler package: The shell program enables you to compile, assemble, and link source modules in one step. The optimizer modifies code to improve the efficiency of C/C++ programs. The interlist utility interlists C/C++ source statements with assembly language output to correlate code produced by the compiler with your source code. See the MSP430 Optimizing C/C++ Compiler User's Guide for more information. The assembler translates assembly language source files into machine language object modules. Source files can contain instructions, assembler directives, and macro directives. You can use assembler directives to control various aspects of the assembly process, such as the source listing format, data alignment, and section content. See Chapter 3 through Chapter 5. See the MSP430x1xx Family User's Guide, the MSP430x2xx Family User's Guide, the MSP430x3xx Family User's Guide, the MSP430x4xx Family User's Guide, or the MSP430x5xx Family User's Guide for detailed information on the assembly language instruction set. The linker combines object files into a single executable object module. As it creates the executable module, it performs relocation and resolves external references. The linker accepts relocatable object modules (created by the assembler) as input. It also accepts archiver library members and output modules created by a previous linker run. Link directives allow you to combine object file sections, bind sections or symbols to addresses or within memory ranges, and define or redefine global symbols. See Chapter 7. The archiver allows you to collect a group of files into a single archive file, called a library. For example, you can collect several macros into a macro library. The assembler searches the library and uses the members that are called as macros by the source file. You can also use the archiver to collect a group of object files into an object library. The linker includes in the library the members that resolve external references during the link. The archiver allows you to modify a library by deleting, replacing, extracting, or adding members. See Section 6.1 . The library information archiver allows you to create an index library of several object file library versions, which is useful when several versions of a single library are available. This index library is the used in the link step in place of a particular version of your object file library. See Section 6.5. You can use the library-build process to build your own customized run-time-support library. See the MSP430 Optimizing C/C++ Compiler User's Guide for more information. The hex conversion utility converts an object file into TI-Tagged, ASCII-Hex, Intel, Motorola-S, or Tektronix object format. The converted file can be downloaded to an EPROM programmer. See Chapter 11. The absolute lister uses linked object files to create .abs files. These files can be assembled to produce a listing of the absolute addresses of object code. See Chapter 8. The cross-reference lister uses object files to produce a cross-reference listing showing symbols, their definition, and their references in the linked source files. See Chapter 9. The main product of this development process is a module that can be executed in a MSP430 device. In addition, the following utilities are provided: The object file display utility prints the contents of object files, executable files, and/or archive libraries in both human readable and XML formats. See Section 10.1. The disassembler writes the disassembled object code from object or executable files. See Section 10.2. The name utility prints a list of names defined and referenced in a object or an executable file. See Section 10.3. The strip utility removes symbol table and debugging information from object and executable files. See Section 10.4.
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Chapter 2
SLAU131E July 2010
The assembler and linker create object modules that can be executed by a MSP430device. Object modules make modular programming easier because they encourage you to think in terms of blocks of code and data when you write an assembly language program. These blocks are known as sections. Both the assembler and the linker provide directives that allow you to create and manipulate sections. This chapter focuses on the concept and use of sections in assembly language programs.
Topic
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Sections ........................................................................................................... How the Assembler Handles Sections ................................................................. How the Linker Handles Sections ........................................................................ Relocation ........................................................................................................ Run-Time Relocation ......................................................................................... Loading a Program ............................................................................................ Symbols in an Object File ...................................................................................
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Sections
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2.1
Sections
The smallest unit of an object file is called a section. A section is a block of code or data that occupies contiguous space in the memory map with other sections. Each section of an object file is separate and distinct. Object files usually contain three default sections: .text section .data section .bss section usually contains executable code usually contains initialized data usually reserves space for uninitialized variables
In addition, the assembler and linker allow you to create, name, and link named sections that are used like the .data, .text, and .bss sections. There are two basic types of sections: Initialized sections Uninitialized sections contain data or code. The .text and .data sections are initialized; named sections created with the .sect assembler directive are also initialized. reserve space in the memory map for uninitialized data. The .bss section is uninitialized; named sections created with the .usect assembler directive are also uninitialized.
Several assembler directives allow you to associate various portions of code and data with the appropriate sections. The assembler builds these sections during the assembly process, creating an object file organized as shown in Figure 2-1. One of the linker's functions is to relocate sections into the target system's memory map; this function is called allocation. Because most systems contain several types of memory, using sections can help you use target memory more efficiently. All sections are independently relocatable; you can place any section into any allocated block of target memory. For example, you can define a section that contains an initialization routine and then allocate the routine into a portion of the memory map that contains ROM. Figure 2-1 shows the relationship between sections in an object file and a hypothetical target memory. Figure 2-1. Partitioning Memory Into Logical Blocks
Object file .bss .data .text ROM Target memory RAM EEPROM
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2.2
size in bytes
The initialized section directives (.text, .data, and .sect) tell the assembler to stop assembling into the current section and begin assembling into the indicated section. The .bss and .usect directives, however, do not end the current section and begin a new one; they simply escape from the current section temporarily. The .bss and .usect directives can appear anywhere in an initialized section without affecting its contents. For an example, see Section 2.2.6.
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The assembler treats uninitialized subsections (created with the .usect directive) in the same manner as uninitialized sections. See Section 2.2.4, for more information on creating subsections.
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2.2.4 Subsections
Subsections are smaller sections within larger sections. Like sections, subsections can be manipulated by the linker. Placing each function and object in a uniquely-named subsection allows finer-grained memory placement, and also allows the linker finer-grained unused-function elimination. You can create subsections by using the .sect or .usect directive. The syntaxes for a subsection name are: symbol .usect "section name:subsection name",size in bytes[, alignment] .sect "section name:subsection name" A subsection is identified by the base section name followed by a colon and the name of the subsection. A subsection can be allocated separately or grouped with other sections using the same base name. For example, you create a subsection called _func within the .text section:
.sect ".text:_func"
Using the linker's SECTIONS directive, you can allocate .text:_func separately, or with all the .text sections. See Section 7.5.4.1 for an example using subsections. You can create two types of subsections: Initialized subsections are created using the .sect directive. See Section 2.2.2. Uninitialized subsections are created using the .usect directive. See Section 2.2.1. Subsections are allocated in the same manner as sections. See Section 7.5.4 for information on the SECTIONS directive.
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See Section 3.10 for more information on interpreting the fields in a source listing.
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coeff
.data .word
011h,0x22,0x33
10 0000
.bss
buffer,10
14 0006 0123
ptr
.word
0x123
18 0000 19 0000 403A add: 0002 1234 20 0004 521A 0006 0001!
#0x1234,R10 &coeff+1,R10
ivals
.data .word
0xAA,0xBB,0xCC
29 0000 30 0001
var2 inbuf
.usect .usect
newvars, 1 newvars, 7
34 0008 35 0008 403C mpy: 000a 3456 36 000c 421D 000e 0000! 37 0010 1290 0012 FFEE!
.sect .word
vectors 0x300
Field 4
As Figure 2-3 shows, the file in Figure 2-2 creates five sections: .text .data vectors .bss newvars contains six 32-bit words of object code. contains seven words of initialized data. is a named section created with the .sect directive; it contains one word of initialized data. reserves 10 bytes in memory. is a named section created with the .usect directive; it contains eight bytes in memory.
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The second column shows the object code that is assembled into these sections; the first column shows the source statements that generated the object code. Figure 2-3. Object Code Generated by the File in Figure 2-2
Line numbers 19 19 20 20 35 35 36 36 37 37 6 6 6 14 25 25 25 Object code 403A 1234 521A 0001! 403C 3456 421D 0000! 1290 FFEE! 0011 0022 0033 0123 00AA 00BB 00CC No data ten bytes reserved No data eight bytes reserved Section .text
.data
.bss
10
29 30
newvars
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2.3
Init Tables
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Relocation
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In Figure 2-4, file1.obj and file2.obj have been assembled to be used as linker input. Each contains the .text, .data, and .bss default sections; in addition, each contains a named section. The executable object module shows the combined sections. The linker combines the .text section from file1.obj and the .text section from file2.obj to form one .text section, then combines the two .data sections and the two .bss sections, and finally places the named sections at the end. The memory map shows how the sections are put into memory. By default, the linker begins at 0h and places the sections one after the other in the following order: .text, .const, .data, .bss, .cinit, and then any named sections in the order they are encountered in the input files. The C/C++ compiler uses the .const section to store string constants, and variables or arrays that are declared as const. The C/C++ compiler produces tables of data for autoinitializing global variables; these variables are stored in a named section called .cinit (see Example 7-7). For more information on the .const and .cinit sections, see the MSP430 Optimizing C/C++ Compiler User's Guide.
2.4
Relocation
The assembler treats each section as if it began at address 0. All relocatable symbols (labels) are relative to address 0 in their sections. Of course, all sections cannot actually begin at address 0 in memory, so the linker relocates sections by: Allocating them into the memory map so that they begin at the appropriate address as defined with the linker's MEMORY directive Adjusting symbol values to correspond to the new section addresses Adjusting references to relocated symbols to reflect the adjusted symbol values The linker uses relocation entries to adjust references to symbol values. The assembler creates a relocation entry each time a relocatable symbol is referenced. The linker then uses these entries to patch the references after the symbols are relocated. Example 2-1 contains a code segment for a MSP430 device that generates relocation entries.
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Run-Time Relocation
In Example 2-1, both symbols X and Y are relocatable. Y is defined in the .text section of this module; X is defined in another module. When the code is assembled, X has a value of 0 (the assembler assumes all undefined external symbols have values of 0), and Y has a value of 8 (relative to address 0 in the .text section). The assembler generates two relocation entries: one for X and one for Y. The reference to X is an external reference and the reference to Y is to an internally defined relocatable symbol (both are indicated by the ! character in the listing). After the code is linked, suppose that X is relocated to address 0x0800. Suppose also that the .text section is relocated to begin at address 0x0600; Y now has a relocated value of 0x0608. The linker uses the relocation entry for the reference to X to patch the branch instruction in the object code:
4B820000!
becomes
4B820800
Each section in an object module has a table of relocation entries. The table contains one relocation entry for each relocatable reference in the section. The linker usually removes relocation entries after it uses them. This prevents the output file from being relocated again (if it is relinked or when it is loaded). A file that contains no relocation entries is an absolute file (all its addresses are absolute addresses). If you want the linker to retain relocation entries, invoke the linker with the --relocatable option (see Section 7.4.2.2).
2.5
Run-Time Relocation
At times you may want to load code into one area of memory and run it in another. For example, you may have performance-critical code in an external-memory-based system. The code must be loaded into external memory, but it would run faster in internal memory. The linker provides a simple way to handle this. Using the SECTIONS directive, you can optionally direct the linker to allocate a section twice: first to set its load address and again to set its run address. Use the load keyword for the load address and the run keyword for the run address. The load address determines where a loader places the raw data for the section. Any references to the section (such as references to labels in it) refer to its run address. The application must copy the section from its load address to its run address before the first reference of the symbol is encountered at run time; this does not happen automatically simply because you specify a separate run address. For an example that illustrates how to move a block of code at run time, see Example 7-9. If you provide only one allocation (either load or run) for a section, the section is allocated only once and loads and runs at the same address. If you provide both allocations, the section is actually allocated as if it were two separate sections of the same size. Uninitialized sections (such as .bss) are not loaded, so the only significant address is the run address. The linker allocates uninitialized sections only once; if you specify both run and load addresses, the linker warns you and ignores the load address. For a complete description of run-time relocation, see Section 7.5.5.
2.6
Loading a Program
The linker produces executable object modules. An executable object module has the same format as object files that are used as linker input; the sections in an executable object module, however, are combined and relocated into target memory. To run a program, the data in the executable object module must be transferred, or loaded, into target system memory. Several methods can be used for loading a program, depending on the execution environment. Common situations are described below: Code Composer Essentials can load an executable object module onto hardware. The Code Composer Essentials loader reads the executable file and copies the program into target memory. You can use the hex conversion utility (hex430, which is shipped as part of the assembly language package) to convert the executable object module into one of several object file formats. You can then use the converted file with an EPROM programmer to burn the program into an EPROM.
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2.7
The .global directive for x declares that it is an external symbol defined in this module and that other modules can reference x. The .global directive for y declares that it is an undefined symbol that is defined in another module. The assembler determines that y is defined in another module because it is not defined in the current module. The assembler places both x and y in the object files symbol table. When the file is linked with other object files, the entry for x resolves references to x in other files. The entry for y causes the linker to look through the symbol tables of other files for ys definition. The linker must match all references with corresponding definitions. If the linker cannot find a symbol's definition, it prints an error message about the unresolved reference. This type of error prevents the linker from creating an executable object module.
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Chapter 3
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Assembler Description
The MSP430 assembler translates assembly language source files into machine language object files. These files are in object modules, which are discussed in Chapter 2. Source files can contain the following assembly language elements: Assembler directives Macro directives Assembly language instructions described in Chapter 4 described in Chapter 5 described in the MSP430x1xx Family User's Guide, the MSP430x3xx Family User's Guide, or the MSP430x4xx Family User's Guide
Topic
...........................................................................................................................
Assembler Overview .......................................................................................... The Assembler's Role in the Software Development Flow ...................................... Invoking the Assembler ..................................................................................... Naming Alternate Directories for Assembler Input ................................................. Source Statement Format ................................................................................... Constants ......................................................................................................... Character Strings .............................................................................................. Symbols ........................................................................................................... Expressions ...................................................................................................... Source Listings ................................................................................................. Debugging Assembly Source .............................................................................. Cross-Reference Listings ...................................................................................
Page
3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12
32 33 34 35 38 39 41 42 46 48 50 51
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Assembler Overview
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3.1
Assembler Overview
The 2-pass assembler does the following: Processes the source statements in a text file to produce a relocatable object file Produces a source listing (if requested) and provides you with control over this listing Allows you to segment your code into sections and maintain a section program counter (SPC) for each section of object code Defines and references global symbols and appends a cross-reference listing to the source listing (if requested) Allows conditional assembly Supports macros, allowing you to define macros inline or in a library
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3.2
C/C++ compiler
Archiver
Assembler source
Macro library
Assembler
Archiver
Object files
Library-build process
Debugging tools
Linker
Run-timesupport library
EPROM programmer
Absolute lister
Cross-reference lister
MSP430
Assembler Description
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3.3
The valid assembler options are listed in Table 3-1: Table 3-1. MSP430 Assembler Options
Option --absolute_listing --asm_define=name[=def] Alias -aa -ad Description creates an absolute listing. When you use --absolute_listing, the assembler does not produce an object file. The --absolute_listing option is used in conjunction with the absolute lister. sets the name symbol. This is equivalent to defining name with a .set directive in the case of a numeric value or with an .asg directive otherwise. If value is omitted, the symbol is set to 1. See Section 3.8.4. performs preprocessing for assembly files, but instead of writing preprocessed output, writes a list of dependency lines suitable for input to a standard make utility. The list is written to a file with the same name as the source file but with a .ppa extension. performs preprocessing for assembly files, but instead of writing preprocessed output, writes a list of files included with the .include directive. The list is written to a file with the same name as the source file but with a .ppa extension. produces a listing file with the same name as the input file with a .lst extension. undefines the predefined constant name, which overrides any --asm_define options for the specified constant. appends the contents of a file to the command line. You can use this option to avoid limitations on command line length imposed by the host operating system. Use an asterisk or a semicolon (* or ;) at the beginning of a line in the command file to include comments. Comments that begin in any other column must begin with a semicolon. Within the command file, filenames or option parameters containing embedded spaces or hyphens must be surrounded with quotation marks. For example: "this-file.asm" copies the specified file for the assembly module. The file is inserted before source file statements. The copied file appears in the assembly listing files. produces a cross-reference table and appends it to the end of the listing file; it also adds cross-reference information to the object file for use by the cross-reference utility. If you do not request a listing file but use the --cross_reference option, the assembler creates a listing file automatically, naming it with the same name as the input file with a .lst extension. includes the specified file for the assembly module. The file is included before source file statements. The included file does not appear in the assembly listing files. specifies a directory where the assembler can find files named by the .copy, .include, or .mlib directives. There is no limit to the number of directories you can specify in this manner; each pathname must be preceded by the --include_path option. See Section 3.4.1. puts all defined symbols in the object file's symbol table. The assembler usually puts only global symbols into the symbol table. When you use --output_all_syms, symbols defined as labels or as assembly-time constants are also placed in the table. suppresses the banner and progress information (assembler runs in quiet mode). selects the instruction set version. Using --silicon_version=mspx generates code for MSP430x devices (20-bit code addresses). Using --silicon_version=msp generates code for 16-bit MSP430 devices. Modules assembled/compiled for 16-bit MSP devices are not compatible with modules that are assembled/compiled for 20-bit MSPx devices. The linker generates errors if an attempt is made to combine incompatible object files.
--asm_dependency
-apd
--asm_includes
-api
-al -au -@
--copy_file=filename --cross_reference
-ahc -ax
--include_file=filename --include_path=pathname
-ahi
-I
--output_all_syms
-as
--quiet silicon_version={msp|mspx}
-q
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--syms_ignore_case
-ac
3.4
Assembler Description
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Assume the following paths for the copy.asm file: UNIX: Windows: /tools/files/copy.asm c:\tools\files\copy.asm
You could set up the search path with the commands shown below:
Operating System UNIX (Bourne shell) Windows Enter cl430 --include_path=/tools/files source.asm cl430 --include_path=c:\tools\files source.asm
The assembler first searches for copy.asm in the current directory because source.asm is in the current directory. Then the assembler searches in the directory named with the --include_path option.
The pathnames are directories that contain copy/include files or macro libraries. The pathnames must follow these constraints: Pathnames must be separated with a semicolon. Spaces or tabs at the beginning or end of a path are ignored. For example the space before and after the semicolon in the following is ignored:
set MSP_A_DIR= c:\path\one\to\tools ; c:\path\two\to\tools
Spaces and tabs are allowed within paths to accommodate Windows directories that contain spaces. For example, the pathnames in the following are valid:
set MSP_A_DIR=c:\first path\to\tools;d:\second path\to\tools
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In assembly source, you can use the .copy, .include, or .mlib directive without specifying path information. If the assembler does not find the file in the directory that contains the current source file or in directories named by the --include_path option, it searches the paths named by the environment variable. For example, assume that a file called source.asm contains these statements:
.copy "copy1.asm" .copy "copy2.asm"
Assume the following paths for the files: UNIX: Windows: /tools/files/copy1.asm and /dsys/copy2.asm c:\tools\files\copy1.asm and c:\dsys\copy2.asm
You could set up the search path with the commands shown below:
Operating System UNIX (Bourne shell) Windows Enter MSP430_A_DIR="/dsys"; export MSP430_A_DIR cl430 --include_path=/tools/files source.asm MSP430_A_DIR=c:\dsys cl430 --include_path=c:\tools\files source.asm
The assembler first searches for copy1.asm and copy2.asm in the current directory because source.asm is in the current directory. Then the assembler searches in the directory named with the --include_path option and finds copy1.asm. Finally, the assembler searches the directory named with MSP430_A_DIR and finds copy2.asm. The environment variable remains set until you reboot the system or reset the variable by entering one of these commands:
Operating System UNIX (Bourne shell) Windows Enter unset MSP430_A_DIR set MSP430_A_DIR=
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3.5
The MSP430 assembler reads up to 200 characters per line. Any characters beyond 200 are truncated. Keep the operational part of your source statements (that is, everything other than comments) less than 200 characters in length for correct assembly. Your comments can extend beyond the 200-character limit, but the truncated portion is not included in the listing file. Follow these guidelines: All statements must begin with a label, a blank, an asterisk, or a semicolon. Labels are optional; if used, they must begin in column 1. One or more blanks must separate each field. Tab and space characters are blanks. You must separate the operand list from the preceding field with a blank. Comments are optional. Comments that begin in column 1 can begin with an asterisk or a semicolon (* or ;), but comments that begin in any other column must begin with a semicolon. A mnemonic cannot begin in column 1 or it will be interpreted as a label. The following sections describe each of the fields.
A label on a line by itself is a valid statement. The label assigns the current value of the section program counter to the label; this is equivalent to the following directive statement:
label .equ $ ; $ provides the current value of the SPC
When a label appears on a line by itself, it points to the instruction on the next line (the SPC is not incremented):
3 0050 4 0050 0003 Here: .word 3
If you do not use a label, the character in column 1 must be a blank, an asterisk, or a semicolon.
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Constants
In the first statement, the # prefix is necessary to tell the assembler to add the value 10 to R1. In the second statement, however, the # prefix is not used; the assembler expects the operand to be a value and initializes a byte with the value 10. See the MSP430x1xx Family Users Guide, the MSP430x3xx Family Users Guide, and the MSP430x4xx Family Users Guide for more information on the syntax and usage of instructions. See Chapter 4 for more information on the syntax and usage of directives.
3.6
Constants
The assembler supports several types of constants: Binary integer Octal integer Decimal integer Hexadecimal integer Character Assembly time The assembler maintains each constant internally as a 32-bit quantity. Constants are not sign extended. For example, the constant 00FFh is equal to 00FF (base 16) or 255 (base 10); it does not equal -1. However, when used with the .byte directive, -1 is equivalent to 00FFh.
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Constants
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Character Strings
You can also use the .set directive to assign symbolic constants for register names. In this case, the symbol becomes a synonym for the register:
OP1 .set MOV R11 OP1, 2(SP)
3.7
Character Strings
A character string is a string of characters enclosed in double quotes. Double quotes that are part of character strings are represented by two consecutive double quotes. The maximum length of a string varies and is defined for each directive that requires a character string. Characters are represented internally as 8-bit ASCII characters. These are examples of valid character strings: "sample program" "PLAN ""C""" defines the 14-character string sample program. defines the 8-character string PLAN "C".
Character strings are used for the following: Filenames, as in .copy "filename" Section names, as in .sect "section name" Data initialization directives, as in .byte "charstring" Operands of .string directives
Assembler Description
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Symbols
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3.8
Symbols
Symbols are used as labels, constants, and substitution symbols. A symbol name is a string of alphanumeric characters, the dollar sign, and underscores (A-Z, a-z, 0-9, $, and _). The first character in a symbol cannot be a number, and symbols cannot contain embedded blanks. The symbols you define are case sensitive; for example, the assembler recognizes ABC, Abc, and abc as three unique symbols. You can override case sensitivity with the --syms_ignore_case assembler option (see Section 3.3). A symbol is valid only during the assembly in which it is defined, unless you use the .global directive or the .def directive to declare it as an external symbol (see Identify Global Symbols).
3.8.1 Labels
Symbols used as labels become symbolic addresses that are associated with locations in the program. Labels used locally within a file must be unique. Mnemonic opcodes and assembler directive names without the . prefix are valid label names. Labels can also be used as the operands of .global, .ref, .def, or .bss directives; for example:
.global func MOV MOV CALL #CON1, R11 R11, 0(SP) #func
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Symbols
Example 3-1. Local Labels of the Form $n This is an example of code that declares and uses a local label legally:
.global ADDRA, ADDRB, ADDRC Label1: MOV #ADDRA, R11 ; Load Address A to R11. SUB #ADDRB, R11 ; Subtract Address B. JL $1 ; If < 0, branch to $1 MOV #ADDRB, R11 ; otherwise, load ADDRB to R11 JMP $2 ; and branch to $2. $1 MOV #ADDRA, R11 ; $1: load ADDRA to AC0. $2 ADD #ADDRC, R11 ; $2: add ADDRC. .newblock ; Undefine $1 so it can be used again. JMP $1 ; If less than zero, branch to $1. MOV R11, &ADDRC ; Store AC0 low in ADDRC. $1 NOP
The $1 label is not undefined before being reused by the second branch instruction. Therefore, $1 is redefined, which is illegal.
Local labels are especially useful in macros. If a macro contains a normal label and is called more than once, the assembler issues a multiple-definition error. If you use a local label and .newblock within a macro, however, the local label is used and reset each time the macro is expanded. Up to ten local labels of the $n form can be in effect at one time. Local labels of the form name? are not limited. After you undefine a local label, you can define it and use it again. Local labels do not appear in the object code symbol table. Because local labels are intended to be used only locally, branches to local labels are not expanded in case the branch's offset is out of range.
; array declaration
The assembler also has several predefined symbolic constants; these are discussed in Section 3.8.5.
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Symbols
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Once you have defined the name with the --asm_define option, the symbol can be used in place of a constant value, a well-defined expression, or an otherwise undefined symbol used with assembly directives and instructions. For example, on the command line you enter:
cl430 --asm_define=SYM1=1 --asm_define=SYM2=2 --asm_define=SYM3=3 --asm_define=SYM4=4 value.asm
Since you have assigned values to SYM1, SYM2, SYM3, and SYM4, you can use them in source code. Example 3-2 shows how the value.asm file uses these symbols without defining them explicitly. Within assembler source, you can test the symbol defined with the --asm_define option with the following directives:
Type of Test Existence Nonexistence Equal to value Not equal to value Directive Usage .if $isdefed(" name ") .if $isdefed(" name ") = 0 .if name = value .if name != value
The argument to the $isdefed built-in function must be enclosed in quotes. The quotes cause the argument to be interpreted literally rather than as a substitution symbol. Example 3-2. Using Symbolic Constants Defined on Command Line
IF_4:if .byte .else .byte .endif IF_5: .if .byte .else .byte .endif .if .byte .else .byte .endif .if .byte .elseif .byte .endif SYM4 = SYM2 * SYM2 SYM4 ; Equal values SYM2 * SYM2 ; Unequal values
IF_6:
SYM3 * SYM2 != SYM4 + SYM2 SYM3 * SYM2 ; Unequal value SYM4 + SYM4 ; Equal values
IF_7:
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Symbols
Register symbols and aliases can be entered as all uppercase or all lowercase characters; that is, R1 could also be entered as r1, SP, or sp. Processor symbols, as follow: The .MSP430 symbol is always set to 1. The processor symbol can be entered as all uppercase or all lowercase characters; that is, .MSP430 could also be entered as .msp430. The .MSP430X symbol is set to 1 when the --silicon_version=mspx option is specified. The processor symbol can be entered as all uppercase or all lowercase characters; that is, .MSP430X could also be entered as .msp430x. The .MSP4619 symbol is set to 1 when the --silicon_version=mspx option is specified. The processor symbol can be entered as all uppercase or all lowercase characters; that is, .MSP4619 could also be entered as .msp4619. The __LARGE_CODE_MODEL__ symbol is set to 1 when the --code_model=large option is specified. The __LARGE_DATA_MODEL__ symbol is set to 1 when the --data_model=large or data_model=restricted option is specified. The __LONG_PTRDIFF_T__ symbol is set to 1 when the --data_model=large option is specified. Indicates ptrdiff_t is a long. The __UNSIGNED_LONG_SIZE_T__ symbol is set to 1 when the --data_model=large option is specified. Indicates size_t is an unsigned long.
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Expressions
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When you are using macros, substitution symbols are important because macro parameters are actually substitution symbols that are assigned a macro argument. The following code shows how substitution symbols are used in macros:
myadd .macro src, dest ; addl macro definition ADD src, dest ; Add the value in register dest to the value in ; register src. .endm
*myadd invocation myadd R4, R5 ; Calls the macro addl and substitutes R4 for src ; and R5 for dest. The macro adds the value of R4 ; and the value of R5.
3.9
Expressions
An expression is a constant, a symbol, or a series of constants and symbols separated by arithmetic operators. The 32-bit ranges of valid expression values are -2147 483 648 to 2147 483 647 for signed values, and 0 to 4 294 967 295 for unsigned values. Three main factors influence the order of expression evaluation: Parentheses Expressions enclosed in parentheses are always evaluated first. 8 / (4 / 2) = 4, but 8 / 4 / 2 = 1 You cannot substitute braces ( { } ) or brackets ( [ ] ) for parentheses. Operators, listed in Table 3-2, are divided into nine precedence groups. When parentheses do not determine the order of expression evaluation, the highest precedence operation is evaluated first. 8 + 4 / 2 = 10 (4 / 2 is evaluated first) When parentheses and precedence groups do not determine the order of expression evaluation, the expressions are evaluated from left to right, except for Group 1, which is evaluated from right to left. 8 / 4*2 = 4, but 8 / (4*2) = 1
Precedence groups
Left-to-right evaluation
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Expressions
3.9.1 Operators
Table 3-2 lists the operators that can be used in expressions, according to precedence group. Table 3-2. Operators Used in Expressions (Precedence)
Group 1
(1)
Description
(2)
Unary plus Unary minus 1s complement Logical NOT Multiplication Division Modulo Addition Subtraction Shift left Shift right Less than Less than or equal to Greater than Greater than or equal to Equal to Not equal to Bitwise AND Bitwise exclusive OR (XOR) Bitwise OR
3 4 5
6 7 8 9
(1) (2)
Group 1 operators are evaluated right to left. All other operators are evaluated left to right. Unary + and - have higher precedence than the binary forms.
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Source Listings
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Field 4: Source Statement Field This field contains the characters of the source statement as they were scanned by the assembler. The assembler accepts a maximum line length of 200 characters. Spacing in this field is determined by the spacing in the source statement. Figure 3-2 shows an assembler listing with each of the four fields identified.
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Source Listings
A A A
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
1 1 addfive 2 3 2 3 4 5 6 0000 430B 7 8 9 10 0002 0002 503B 0004 0005 0006 0006 503B 0008 0005 000a 000a 503B 000c 0005 000e 000e 503B 0010 0005 0012 0012 503B 0014 0005 11 12 0016 4B82 0018 0000!
Field 1 Field 2 Field 2
.copy mac1.inc .macro dst ADD.W #5,dst .endm .global var1 MOV.W #0,R11
.loop 5 addfive R11 .endloop addfive R11 ADD.W #5,R11 addfive R11 ADD.W #5,R11 addfive R11 ADD.W #5,R11 addfive R11 ADD.W #5,R11 addfive R11 ADD.W #5,R11 MOV.W R11,&var1
Field 4
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When you load this program into a symbolic debugger, addfive appears as a C function. You can monitor the values in svar while stepping through main just as you would any regular C variable. Example 3-3. Viewing Assembly Variables as C Types C Program
typedef struct { int m1; int m2; } X; X svar = { 1, 2 };
.global addfive addfive: .asmfunc MOV #5,R12 ADD R12,&svar ADD R12,&svar + 2 RET .endasmfunc
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Cross-Reference Listings
3 7
Label Value
Definition Reference
column contains each symbol that was defined or referenced during the assembly. column contains an 8-digit hexadecimal number (which is the value assigned to the symbol) or a name that describes the symbol's attributes. A value may also be preceded by a character that describes the symbol's attributes. Table 3-3 lists these characters and names. (DEFN) column contains the statement number that defines the symbol. This column is blank for undefined symbols. (REF) column lists the line numbers of statements that reference the symbol. A blank in this column indicates that the symbol was never used. Table 3-3. Symbol Attributes
Character or Name REF UNDF ' " + Meaning External reference (global symbol) Undefined Symbol defined in a .text section Symbol defined in a .data section Symbol defined in a .sect section Symbol defined in a .bss or .usect section
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Chapter 4
SLAU131E July 2010
Assembler Directives
Assembler directives supply data to the program and control the assembly process. Assembler directives enable you to do the following: Assemble code and data into specified sections Reserve space in memory for uninitialized variables Control the appearance of listings Initialize memory Assemble conditional blocks Define global variables Specify libraries from which the assembler can obtain macros Examine symbolic debugging information This chapter is divided into two parts: the first part (Section 4.1 through Section 4.11) describes the directives according to function, and the second part (Section 4.12) is an alphabetical reference.
Topic
...........................................................................................................................
Directives Summary .......................................................................................... Directives That Define Sections .......................................................................... Directives That Initialize Constants ...................................................................... Directives That Perform Alignment and Reserve Space ......................................... Directives That Format the Output Listings .......................................................... Directives That Reference Other Files .................................................................. Directives That Enable Conditional Assembly ....................................................... Directives That Define Union or Structure Types ................................................... Directives That Define Enumerated Types ............................................................ Directives That Define Symbols at Assembly Time ................................................ Miscellaneous Directives .................................................................................... Directives Reference ..........................................................................................
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4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12
54 58 60 62 63 64 64 65 65 65 66 67
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4.1
Directives Summary
Table 4-1 through Table 4-14 summarize the assembler directives. Besides the assembler directives documented here, the MSP430 software tools support the following directives: The assembler uses several directives for macros. Macro directives are discussed in Chapter 5; they are not discussed in this chapter. The C compiler uses directives for symbolic debugging. Unlike other directives, symbolic debugging directives are not used in most assembly language programs. Appendix A discusses these directives; they are not discussed in this chapter.
Labels and Comments Are Not Shown in Syntaxes NOTE: Any source statement that contains a directive can also contain a label and a comment. Labels begin in the first column (only labels and comments can appear in the first column), and comments must be preceded by a semicolon, or an asterisk if the comment is the only element in the line. To improve readability, labels and comments are not shown as part of the directive syntax.
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Directives Summary
Reserves size bytes in the current section; a label points to the end .bes topic of the reserved space Reserves size bytes in the current section; a label points to the beginning of the reserved space .space topic
.symdepend dst symbol name[, src symbol name] Creates an artificial reference from a section to a symbol
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macname .macro [parameter1 ][,... , parametern ] Define macro by macname .mexit .mlib filename .var
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Directives Summary
In addition to the assembly directives that you can use in your code, the compiler produces several directives when it creates assembly code. These directives are to be used only by the compiler; do not attempt to use these directives. DWARF directives listed in Section A.1 COFF/STABS directives listed in Section A.2 The .template directive is used for early template instantiation. It encodes information about a template that has yet to be instantiated. This is a COFF C++ directive. The .compiler_opts directive indicates that the assembly code was produced by the compiler, and which build model options were used for this file.
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4.2
The .bss and .usect directives do not end the current section or begin new sections; they reserve the specified amount of space, and then the assembler resumes assembling code or data into the current section.
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1,2 3,4
9,10 11,12
13,14
.bss .word
sym,19 15,16
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4.3
15
13 12 11 10 1 0 0 0
9 0 0 0
16 bits
The .int and .word directives place one or more 16-bit values into consecutive 16-bit values in the current section. The .string and .cstring directives place 8-bit characters from one or more character strings into the current section. The .string and .cstring directives are similar to .byte, placing an 8-bit character in each consecutive byte of the current section. The .cstring directive adds a NUL character needed by C; the .string directive does not add a NUL character.
Directives That Initialize Constants When Used in a .struct/.endstruct Sequence NOTE: The .byte, .char, .word, .int, .long, .string, .double, .float, .half, .short, and .field directives do not initialize memory when they are part of a .struct/ .endstruct sequence; rather, they define a members size. For more information, see the .struct/.endstruct directives.
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Figure 4-2 compares the .byte, .char, .int, .long, .float, .word, and .string directives. Using the following assembled code:
1 0000 0001 2 0002 3 0004 4 0006 0008 5 000a 6 000c 000e 7 0010 0011 0012 0013 00AA 00BB 00CC DDDD FFFF EEEE DDDD FCB9 3FFF 0048 0065 006C 0070 .byte .char .word .long .int .float 0AAh,0BBh 0xCC 0xDDDD 0xEEEEFFFF 0xDDDD 1.9999
.string "Hello"
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4.4
.align .byte
The .bes and .space directives reserve a specified number of bytes in the current section. The assembler fills these reserved byres with 0s. When you use a label with .space, it points to the first byte that contains reserved bits. When you use a label with .bes, it points to the last byte that contains reserved bits. Figure 4-4 shows how the .space and .bes directives work for the following assembled code:
1 0000 0002 2 0004 3 0016 4 002b 5 002c 0100 0200 Res_1 000F Res_2 00BA .word .space .word .bes .byte 0x100,0x200 17 15 20 0xBA
Res_1 points to the first byte in the space reserved by .space. Res_2 points to the last byte in the space reserved by .bes. Figure 4-4. The .space and .bes Directives
17 bytes reserved
Res_1 = 04h
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4.5
The source code listing includes false conditional blocks that do not generate code. The .fclist and .fcnolist directives turn this listing on and off. You can use the .fclist directive to list false conditional blocks exactly as they appear in the source code. You can use the .fcnolist directive to list only the conditional blocks that are actually assembled. The .length directive controls the page length of the listing file. You can use this directive to adjust listings for various output devices. The .list and .nolist directives turn the output listing on and off. You can use the .nolist directive to prevent the assembler from printing selected source statements in the listing file. Use the .list directive to turn the listing on again. The source code listing includes macro expansions and loop blocks. The .mlist and .mnolist directives turn this listing on and off. You can use the .mlist directive to print all macro expansions and loop blocks to the listing, and the .mnolist directive to suppress this listing. The .option directive controls certain features in the listing file. This directive has the following operands: A B H M N O R T W X turns on listing of all directives and data, and subsequent expansions, macros, and blocks. limits the listing of .byte and .char directives to one line. limits the listing of .half and .short directives to one line. turns off macro expansions in the listing. turns off listing (performs .nolist). turns on listing (performs .list). resets the B, H, M, T, and, W directives (turns off the limits of B, H, M, T, and W). limits the listing of .string directives to one line. limits the listing of .word and .int directives to one line. produces a cross-reference listing of symbols. You can also obtain a cross-reference listing by invoking the assembler with the --cross_reference option (see Section 3.3).
The .page directive causes a page eject in the output listing. The source code listing includes substitution symbol expansions. The .sslist and .ssnolist directives turn this listing on and off. You can use the .sslist directive to print all substitution symbol expansions to the listing, and the .ssnolist directive to suppress this listing. These directives are useful for debugging the expansion of substitution symbols. The .tab directive defines tab size. The .title directive supplies a title that the assembler prints at the top of each page. The .width directive controls the page width of the listing file. You can use this directive to adjust listings for various output devices.
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4.6
4.7
The .loop/.break/.endloop directives tell the assembler to repeatedly assemble a block of code according to the evaluation of an expression. .loop [well-defined expression] marks the beginning of a repeatable block of code. The optional expression evaluates to the loop count. .break [well-defined expression] tells the assembler to assemble repeatedly when the .break well-defined expression is false and to go to the code immediately after .endloop when the expression is true or omitted. .endloop marks the end of a repeatable block. The assembler supports several relational operators that are useful for conditional expressions. For more information about relational operators, see Section 3.9.4.
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4.8
; declare COORD (coordinate) ; actual memory allocation ; load member Y of structure ; COORD into register R0.
4.9
The .eval directive evaluates a well-defined expression, translates the results into a character string, and assigns the character string to a substitution symbol. This directive is most useful for manipulating counters:
.asg .loop .byte .break .eval .endloop 1 , x x*10h x = 4 x+1, x ; ; ; ; ; ; x = 1 Begin conditional loop. Store value into current section. Break loop if x = 4. Increment x by 1. End conditional loop.
The .define directive assigns a character string to a substitution symbol. The value is stored in the substitution symbol table. When the assembler encounters a substitution symbol, it replaces the symbol with its character string value. Substitution symbols created with .define cannot be redefined. The .label directive defines a special symbol that refers to the load-time address within the current section. This is useful when a section loads at one address but runs at a different address. For example, you may want to load a block of performance-critical code into slower off-chip memory to save space and move the code to high-speed on-chip memory to run. See the .label topic for an example using a load-time address label. The .set and .equ directives set a constant value to a symbol. The symbol is stored in the symbol table and cannot be redefined; for example:
bval .set 0100h ; Set bval = 0100h .long bval, bval*2, bval+12 ; Store the values 0100h, 0200h, and 010Ch ; into consecutive words in current section.
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The .set and .equ directives produce no object code. The two directives are identical and can be used interchangeably. The .unasg directive turns off substitution symbol assignment made with .asg. The .undefine directive turns off substitution symbol assignment made with .define. The .var directive allows you to use substitution symbols as local variables within a macro.
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Directives Reference
.align
Syntax Description
Align SPC on the Next Boundary .align [size in bytes] The .align directive aligns the section program counter (SPC) on the next boundary, depending on the size in bytes parameter. The size can be any power of 2 between 20 and 215, inclusive. An operand of 2 aligns the SPC on the next word boundary, and this is the default if no size is given. For example: 2 aligns SPC to word boundary 4 aligns SPC to 2 word boundary 128 aligns SPC to 128-byte boundary Using the .align directive has two effects: The assembler aligns the SPC on an x-byte boundary within the current section. The assembler sets a flag that forces the linker to align the section so that individual alignments remain intact when a section is loaded into memory.
Example
This example shows several types of alignment, including .align 4, .align 8, and a default .align.
1 0000 0004 2 3 0002 0045 0003 0072 0004 0072 0005 006F 0006 0072 0007 0063 0008 006E 0009 0074 4 5 000a 0003 6 000a 002B 7 8 000c 0003 9 10 0010 0005 11 12 0012 0004 .byte 4 .align 2 .string "Errorcnt"
.align .field 3,3 .field 5,4 .align 2 .field 3,3 .align 8 .field 5,4 .align .byte 4
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.asg/.define/.eval
Syntax
Assign a Substitution Symbol .asg "character string",substitution symbol .define "character string",substitution symbol .eval well-defined expression,substitution symbol
Description
The .asg and .define directives assign character strings to substitution symbols. Substitution symbols are stored in the substitution symbol table. The .asg directive can be used in many of the same ways as the .set directive, but while .set assigns a constant value (which cannot be redefined) to a symbol, .asg assigns a character string (which can be redefined) to a substitution symbol. The assembler assigns the character string to the substitution symbol. The substitution symbol must be a valid symbol name. The substitution symbol is up to 128 characters long and must begin with a letter. Remaining characters of the symbol can be a combination of alphanumeric characters, the underscore (_), and the dollar sign ($). The .define directive functions in the same manner as the .asg directive, except that .define disallows creation of a substitution symbol that has the same name as a register symbol or mnemonic. It does not create a new symbol name space in the assembler, rather it uses the existing substitution symbol name space. The .define directive is used to prevent corruption of the assembly environment when converting C/C++ headers. See Chapter 12 for more information about using C/C++ headers in assembly source. The .eval directive performs arithmetic on substitution symbols, which are stored in the substitution symbol table. This directive evaluates the well-defined expression and assigns the string value of the result to the substitution symbol. The .eval directive is especially useful as a counter in .loop/.endloop blocks. The well-defined expression is an alphanumeric expression in which all symbols have been previously defined in the current source module, so that the result is an absolute. The substitution symbol must be a valid symbol name. The substitution symbol is up to 128 characters long and must begin with a letter. Remaining characters of the symbol can be a combination of alphanumeric characters, the underscore (_), and the dollar sign ($). See the .unasg/.undefine topic for information on turning off a substitution symbol.
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Directives Reference
Example
x x
0004 0001
x x
0006 0002
x x
0008 0003
x x
000a 0004
x x
000c 0005
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symbol
Description
The .asmfunc and .endasmfunc directives mark function boundaries. These directives are used with the compiler -g option (--symdebug:dwarf) to allow assembly code sections to be debugged in the same manner as C/C++ functions. You should not use the same directives generated by the compiler (see Appendix A) to accomplish assembly debugging; those directives should be used only by the compiler to generate symbolic debugging information for C/C++ source files. The .asmfunc and .endasmfunc directives cannot be used when invoking the compiler with the backwards-compatibility --symdebug:coff option. This option instructs the compiler to use the obsolete COFF symbolic debugging format, which does not support these directives. The symbol is a label that must appear in the label field. The .asmfunc directive has an optional parameter, stack_usage, which sets the stack to num bytes. Consecutive ranges of assembly code that are not enclosed within a pair of .asmfunc and .endasmfunc directives are given a default name in the following format: $ filename : beginning source line : ending source line $
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Directives Reference
.bss
Syntax Description
Reserve Space in the .bss Section .bss symbol, size in bytes[, alignment] The .bss directive reserves space for variables in the .bss section. This directive is usually used to allocate space in RAM. The symbol is a required parameter. It defines a label that points to the first location reserved by the directive. The symbol name must correspond to the variable that you are reserving space for. The size in bytes is a required parameter; it must be an absolute expression. The assembler allocates size bytes in the .bss section. There is no default size. The alignment is an optional parameter that ensures that the space allocated to the symbol occurs on the specified boundary. The boundary indicates the size of the alignment in bytes and must be set to a power of 2 between 20 and 215, inclusive. If the SPC is aligned at the specified boundary, it is not incremented. For more information about sections, see Chapter 2.
Example
In this example, the .bss directive allocates space for two variables, TEMP and ARRAY. The symbol TEMP points to four bytes of uninitialized space (at .bss SPC = 0). The symbol ARRAY points to 100 bytes of uninitialized space (at .bss SPC = 04h). Symbols declared with the .bss directive can be referenced in the same manner as other symbols and can also be declared external.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 *********************************************** ** Start assembling into the .text section. ** *********************************************** .text MOV #0, R10 *********************************************** ** Allocate 4 bytes in .bss for TEMP. ** *********************************************** Var_1: .bss TEMP, 4 *********************************************** ** Still in .text. ** *********************************************** ADD #56h, R11 ADD R12, R11
0000
*********************************************** ** Allocate 100 bytes in .bss for the symbol ** ** named ARRAY. ** *********************************************** .bss ARRAY, 100, 4 *********************************************** ** Assemble more code into .text. ** *********************************************** RET *********************************************** ** Declare external .bss symbols. ** *********************************************** .global ARRAY, TEMP .end
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.byte/.char
Syntax
Initialize Byte .byte value1[, ... , valuen ] .char value1[, ... , valuen ]
Description
The .byte and .char directives place one or more values into consecutive bytes of the current section. A value can be one of the following: An expression that the assembler evaluates and treats as an 8-bit signed number A character string enclosed in double quotes. Each character in a string represents a separate value, and values are stored in consecutive bytes. The entire string must be enclosed in quotes. The assembler truncates values greater than eight bits. If you use a label, it points to the location of the first byte that is initialized. When you use these directives in a .struct/.endstruct sequence, they define a member's size; they do not initialize memory. For more information, see the .struct/.endstruct/.tag topic.
Example
In this example, 8-bit values (10, -1, abc, and a) are placed into consecutive bytes in memory with .byte. Also, 8-bit values (8, -3, def, and b) are placed into consecutive bytes in memory with .char. The label STRX has the value 0h, which is the location of the first initialized byte. The label STRY has the value 6h, which is the first byte initialized by the .char directive.
1 0000 2 0100 000A 0101 00FF 0102 0061 0103 0062 0104 0063 0105 0061 3 0106 0008 0107 00FD 0108 0064 0109 0065 010a 0066 010b 0062 STRX .space .byte 100h 10, -1, "abc", 'a'
.char
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Directives Reference
.cdecls
Syntax
Share C Headers Between C and Assembly Code Single Line: .cdecls [options ,] " filename "[, " filename2 "[,...]]
Syntax
Multiple Lines: .cdecls [options] %{ /*---------------------------------------------------------------------------------*/ /* C/C++ code - Typically a list of #includes and a few defines */ /*---------------------------------------------------------------------------------*/ %}
Description
The .cdecls directive allows programmers in mixed assembly and C/C++ environments to share C headers containing declarations and prototypes between the C and assembly code. Any legal C/C++ can be used in a .cdecls block and the C/C++ declarations cause suitable assembly to be generated automatically, allowing you to reference the C/C++ constructs in assembly code; such as calling functions, allocating space, and accessing structure members; using the equivalent assembly mechanisms. While function and variable definitions are ignored, most common C/C++ elements are converted to assembly, for instance: enumerations, (non-function-like) macros, function and variable prototypes, structures, and unions. The .cdecls options control whether the code is treated as C or C++ code; and how the .cdecls block and converted code are presented. Options must be separated by commas; they can appear in any order: C CPP NOLIST LIST NOWARN WARN Treat the code in the .cdecls block as C source code (default). Treat the code in the .cdecls block as C++ source code. This is the opposite of the C option. Do not include the converted assembly code in any listing file generated for the containing assembly file (default). Include the converted assembly code in any listing file generated for the containing assembly file. This is the opposite of the NOLIST option. Do not emit warnings on STDERR about C/C++ constructs that cannot be converted while parsing the .cdecls source block (default). Generate warnings on STDERR about C/C++ constructs that cannot be converted while parsing the .cdecls source block. This is the opposite of the NOWARN option.
In the single-line format, the options are followed by one or more filenames to include. The filenames and options are separated by commas. Each file listed acts as if #include "filename" was specified in the multiple-line format. In the multiple-line format, the line following .cdecls must contain the opening .cdecls block indicator %{. Everything after the %{, up to the closing block indicator %}, is treated as C/C++ source and processed. Ordinary assembler processing then resumes on the line following the closing %}. The text within %{ and %} is passed to the C/C++ compiler to be converted into assembly language. Much of C language syntax, including function and variable definitions as well as function-like macros, is not supported and is ignored during the conversion. However, all of what traditionally appears in C header files is supported, including function and variable prototypes; structure and union declarations; non-function-like macros; enumerations; and #define's.
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The resulting assembly language is included in the assembly file at the point of the .cdecls directive. If the LIST option is used, the converted assembly statements are printed in the listing file. The assembly resulting from the .cdecls directive is treated similarly to a .include file. Therefore the .cdecls directive can be nested within a file being copied or included. The assembler limits nesting to ten levels; the host operating system may set additional restrictions. The assembler precedes the line numbers of copied files with a letter code to identify the level of copying. An A indicates the first copied file, B indicates a second copied file, etc. The .cdecls directive can appear anywhere in an assembly source file, and can occur multiple times within a file. However, the C/C++ environment created by one .cdecls is not inherited by a later .cdecls; the C/C++ environment starts new for each .cdecls. See Chapter 12 for more information on setting up and using the .cdecls directive with C header files.
Example
In this example, the .cdecls directive is used call the C header.h file. C header file:
#define WANT_ID 10 #define NAME "John\n" extern int a_variable; extern float cvt_integer(int src); struct myCstruct { int member_a; float member_b; }; enum status_enum { OK = 1, FAILED = 256, RUNNING = 0 };
Source file:
.cdecls C,LIST,"myheader.h" size: aoffset: boffset: okvalue: failval: id .int $sizeof(myCstruct) .int myCstruct.member_a .int myCstruct.member_b .int status_enum.OK .int status_enum.FAILED .if $$defined(WANT_ID) .cstring NAME .endif
Listing File:
1 A 1 A 2 A 3 A 4 A 5 A 6 A 7 A 8 A 9 A 10 A 11 A 12 0001 A 13 0100 A 14 0000 A 15 A 16 A 17 A 18 0000 bytes|16 bits) A 19 0002 bytes|32 bits) A 20 0006 A 21 74 .cdecls C,LIST,"myheader.h" ; -----------------------------------------; Assembly Generated from C/C++ Source Code ; -----------------------------------------; =========== MACRO DEFINITIONS =========== .define "1",WANT_ID .define """John\n""",NAME .define "1",_OPTIMIZE_FOR_SPACE ; =========== TYPE DEFINITIONS =========== status_enum .enum OK .emember 1 FAILED .emember 256 RUNNING .emember 0 .endenum myCstruct member_a member_b .struct 0,2 .field 16 .field 32 .endstruct ; struct size=(6 bytes|48 bits), alignment=2 ; int member_a - offset 0 bytes, size (2 ; float member_b - offset 2 bytes, size (4 ; final size=(6 bytes|48 bits)
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www.ti.com A A A A A 22 23 24 25 26 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ; =========== EXTERNAL FUNCTIONS =========== .global cvt_integer ; =========== EXTERNAL VARIABLES =========== .global a_variable 0000 0002 0004 0006 0008 000a 000b 000c 000d 000e 000f 0006 0000 0002 0001 0100 004A 006F 0068 006E 000A 0000 size: aoffset: boffset: okvalue: failval: id .int $sizeof(myCstruct) .int myCstruct.member_a .int myCstruct.member_b .int status_enum.OK .int status_enum.FAILED .if $defined(WANT_ID) .cstring NAME
Directives Reference
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.endif
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.clink
Syntax Description
Conditionally Leave Section Out of Object Module Output .clink The .clink directive enables conditional linking by telling the linker to leave a section out of the final object module output of the linker if there are no references found to any symbol in that section.. The .clink directive can be applied to initialized sections. The .clink directive applies to the current initialized section. It tells the linker to leave the section out of the final object module output of the linker if there are no references found in a linked section to any symbol defined in the specified section. The --absolute_exe linker option produces the final output in the form of an absolute, executable output module. A section in which the entry point of a C program is defined cannot be marked as a conditionally linked section.
Example
In this example, the Vars and Counts sections are set for conditional linking.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 ************************************************* ** Set Vars section for conditional linking. ** ************************************************* .sect "Vars" .clink X: .word 0AAh Y: .word 0AAh Z: .word 0AAh ************************************************* ** Set Counts section for conditional linking. ** ************************************************* .sect "Counts" .clink XCount: .word 0AAh YCount: .word 0AAh ZCount: .word 0AAh ************************************************* ** .text is unconditionally linked by default. ** ************************************************* .text MOV #X_addr, R11 MOV ADD @R11, R11 R11, R12
0000! X_addr: .field X, 32 0000 ************************************************* ** The reference to symbol X causes the Vars ** ** section to be linked into the COFF output. ** *************************************************
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Directives Reference
.copy/.include
Syntax
Description
The .copy and .include directives tell the assembler to read source statements from a different file. The statements that are assembled from a copy file are printed in the assembly listing. The statements that are assembled from an included file are not printed in the assembly listing, regardless of the number of .list/.nolist directives assembled. When a .copy or .include directive is assembled, the assembler: 1. Stops assembling statements in the current source file 2. Assembles the statements in the copied/included file 3. Resumes assembling statements in the main source file, starting with the statement that follows the .copy or .include directive The filename is a required parameter that names a source file. It is enclosed in double quotes and must follow operating system conventions. You can specify a full pathname (for example, /320tools/file1.asm). If you do not specify a full pathname, the assembler searches for the file in: 1. The directory that contains the current source file 2. Any directories named with the --include_path assembler option 3. Any directories specified by the MSP430_A_DIR environment variable 4. Any directories specified by the MSP430_C_DIR environment variable For more information about the --include_path option and MSP430_A_DIR, see Section 3.4. For more information about MSP430_C_DIR, see the MSP430 Optimizing C/C++ Compiler User's Guide. The .copy and .include directives can be nested within a file being copied or included. The assembler limits nesting to 32 levels; the host operating system may set additional restrictions. The assembler precedes the line numbers of copied files with a letter code to identify the level of copying. A indicates the first copied file, B indicates a second copied file, etc.
Example 1
In this example, the .copy directive is used to read and assemble source statements from other files; then, the assembler resumes assembling into the current file. The original file, copy.asm, contains a .copy statement copying the file byte.asm. When copy.asm assembles, the assembler copies byte.asm into its place in the listing (note listing below). The copy file byte.asm contains a .copy statement for a second file, word.asm. When it encounters the .copy statement for word.asm, the assembler switches to word.asm to continue copying and assembling. Then the assembler returns to its place in byte.asm to continue copying and assembling. After completing assembly of byte.asm, the assembler returns to copy.asm to assemble its remaining statement.
copy.asm (source file) .space 29 .copy "byte.asm" ** Back in original file .string "done" byte.asm (first copy file) ** In byte.asm .byte 32,1+ 'A' .copy "word.asm" ** Back in byte.asm .byte 67h + 3q word.asm (second copy file) ** In word.asm .word 0ABCDh, 56q
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Listing file:
A A A B B A A 1 0000 2 1 2 001d 0020 001e 0042 3 1 2 0020 ABCD 0022 002E 4 5 0024 006A 3 4 5 0025 0064 0026 006F 0027 006E 0028 0065 .space 29 .copy "byte.asm" ** In byte.asm .byte 32,1+ 'A' .copy "word.asm" ** In word.asm .word 0ABCDh, 56q ** Back in byte.asm .byte 67h + 3q ** Back in original file .string "done"
Example 2
In this example, the .include directive is used to read and assemble source statements from other files; then, the assembler resumes assembling into the current file. The mechanism is similar to the .copy directive, except that statements are not printed in the listing file.
include.asm (source file) .space 29 .include "byte2.asm" ** Back in original file .string "done" byte2.asm (first copy file) ** In byte2.asm .byte 32,1+ 'A' .include "word2.asm" ** Back in byte2.asm .byte 67h + 3q word2.asm (second copy file) ** In word2.asm .word 0ABCDh, 56q
Listing file:
1 0000 2 3 4 5 0025 0064 0026 006F 0027 006E 0028 0065 .space 29 .include "byte2.asm" **Back in original file .string "done"
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.data
Syntax Description
Assemble Into the .data Section .data The .data directive tells the assembler to begin assembling source code into the .data section; .data becomes the current section. The .data section is normally used to contain tables of data or preinitialized variables. For more information about sections, see Chapter 2.
Example
In this example, code is assembled into the .data and .text sections.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 0000 0000 ; Comments here .data .space 0xCC
; Comments here .text 00CC! con .field Table,16 421B MOV &con,R11 0002! 5B1C ADD 0(R11),R12 0000 .data
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.double/.float
Syntax
Initialize Single-Precision Floating-Point Value .double value1 [, ... , valuen] .float value [, ... , valuen ]
Description
The .double and .float directives place the IEEE single-precision floating-point representation of one or more floating-point values into the current section. Each value must be a floating-point constant or a symbol that has been equated to a floating-point constant. Each constant is converted to a floating-point value in IEEE single-precision 32-bit format. Floating point constants are aligned on word boundaries. The 32-bit value is stored exponent byte first, most significant byte of fraction second, and least significant byte of fraction third, in the format shown in Figure 4-5. Figure 4-5. Single-Precision Floating-Point Format
S E E E E E E E E MMMMMMMMMMMMM MMMMMMMMMM 31 23 0
value = (-1)S x (1.0 + mantissa) x (2)exponent-127 Legend: S = sign (1 bit) E = exponent (8-bit biased) M = mantissa (23-bit fraction)
When you use .double or .float in a .struct/.endstruct sequence, they define a member's size; they do not initialize memory. For more information, see the .struct/.endstruct/.tag topic.
Example
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.drlist/.drnolist
Syntax
Description
Two directives enable you to control the printing of assembler directives to the listing file: The .drlist directive enables the printing of all directives to the listing file. The .drnolist directive suppresses the printing of the following directives to the listing file. The .drnolist directive has no affect within macros. .asg .break .emsg .eval .fclist .fcnolist .mlist .mmsg .mnolist .sslist .ssnolist .var .wmsg
By default, the assembler acts as if the .drlist directive had been specified.
Example
This example shows how .drnolist inhibits the listing of the specified directives. Source file:
.asg 0, x .loop 2 .eval x+1, x .endloop .drnolist .asg 1, x .loop 3 .eval x+1, x .endloop
Listing file:
1 2 3 4 1 1 5 6 7 9 10 11 .asg 0, x .loop 2 .eval x+1, x .endloop .eval 0+1, x .eval 1+1, x .drnolist .loop 3 .eval x+1, x .endloop
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Description
These directives allow you to define your own error and warning messages. When you use these directives, the assembler tracks the number of errors and warnings it encounters and prints these numbers on the last line of the listing file. The .emsg directive sends an error message to the standard output device in the same manner as the assembler. It increments the error count and prevents the assembler from producing an object file. The .mmsg directive sends an assembly-time message to the standard output device in the same manner as the .emsg and .wmsg directives. It does not, however, set the error or warning counts, and it does not prevent the assembler from producing an object file. The .wmsg directive sends a warning message to the standard output device in the same manner as the .emsg directive. It increments the warning count rather than the error count, however. It does not prevent the assembler from producing an object file.
Example
In this example, the message ERROR -- MISSING PARAMETER is sent to the standard output device. Source file:
MSG_EX .macro .if .emsg .else ADD .endif .endm MSG_EX MSG_EX parm1 $$symlen(parm1) = 0 "ERROR -- MISSING PARAMETER" parm1, r7, r8
R11
Listing file:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0000 1 1 1 1 1 MSG_EX .macro .if .emsg .else ADD .endif .endm MSG_EX .if .emsg .else ADD .endif parm1 $symlen(parm1)=0 "ERROR -- MISSING PARAMETER" parm1, r7
MSG_EX .if $symlen(parm1)=0 .emsg "ERROR -- MISSING PARAMETER" at line 11: [ ***** USER ERROR ***** - ] ERROR --
In addition, the following messages are sent to standard output by the assembler:
*** ERROR! line 11: ***** USER ERROR ***** - : ERROR -- MISSING PARAMETER .emsg "ERROR -- MISSING PARAMETER" SLAU131E July 2010
Copyright 2010, Texas Instruments Incorporated
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.end
Syntax Description
End Assembly .end The .end directive is optional and terminates assembly. The assembler ignores any source statements that follow a .end directive. If you use the .end directive, it must be the last source statement of a program. This directive has the same effect as an end-of-file character. You can use .end when you are debugging and you want to stop assembling at a specific point in your code.
Ending a Macro NOTE: Do not use the .end directive to terminate a macro; use the .endm macro directive instead.
Example
This example shows how the .end directive terminates assembly. If any source statements follow the .end directive, the assembler ignores them. Source file:
START: TEMP LOCL_n .space .set .bss .word MOV MOV MOV .end .byte .word 300 15 LOC1,0x48 LOC1 #TEMP,R11 &LOCL_n,R12 0(R12),R13 4 0xCCC
Listing file:
1 2 3 4 5 0000 000F START: TEMP 0000 012c 012e 0130 6 0132 0134 7 0136 0138 8 .space .set .bss .word MOV MOV MOV .end 300 15 LOC1,0x48 LOC1 #TEMP,R11 &LOCL_n,R12 0(R12),R13
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.fclist/.fcnolist
Syntax
Description
Two directives enable you to control the listing of false conditional blocks: The .fclist directive allows the listing of false conditional blocks (conditional blocks that do not produce code). The .fcnolist directive suppresses the listing of false conditional blocks until a .fclist directive is encountered. With .fcnolist, only code in conditional blocks that are actually assembled appears in the listing. The .if, .elseif, .else, and .endif directives do not appear. By default, all conditional blocks are listed; the assembler acts as if the .fclist directive had been used.
Example
This example shows the assembly language and listing files for code with and without the conditional blocks listed. Source file:
AAA .set 1 BB .set 0 .fclist .if AAA ADD #1024,R11 .else ADD #1024*10,R11 .endif .fcnolist .if AAA ADD #1024,R11 .else ADD #1024*10,R11 .endif
Listing file:
1 2 3 4 5 0000 0002 6 7 8 9 11 0004 0006 0001 0000 AAA BB .set 1 .set 0 .fclist .if AAA ADD #1024,R11 .else ADD #1024*10,R11 .endif .fcnolist ADD #1024,R11
503B 0400
503B 0400
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.field
Syntax Description
Initialize Field .field value[, size in bits] The .field directive initializes a multiple-bit field within a single word (16 bits) of memory. This directive has two operands: The value is a required parameter; it is an expression that is evaluated and placed in the field. The value must be absolute. The size in bits is an optional parameter; it specifies a number from 1 to 32, which is the number of bits in the field. If you do not specify a size, the assembler assumes the size is 16 bits. If you specify a value that cannot fit in size in bits, the assembler truncates the value and issues a warning message. For example, .field 3,1 causes the assembler to truncate the value 3 to 1; the assembler also prints the message:
*** WARNING! line 21: W0001: Field value truncated to 1 .field 3, 1
Successive .field directives pack values into the specified number of bits. You can use the .align directive to force the next .field directive to begin packing into a new word. If you use a label, it points to the byte that contains the specified field. When you use .field in a .struct/.endstruct sequence, .field defines a member's size; it does not initialize memory. For more information, see the .struct/.endstruct/.tag topic.
Example
This example shows how fields are packed into a word. The SPC does not change until a word is filled and the next word is begun. Figure 4-6 shows how the directives in this example affect memory.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 ************************************ ** Initialize a 14-bit field. ** ************************************ .field 0ABCh, 14 ************************************ ** Initialize a 5-bit field ** ** in the same word. ** ************************************ L_F: .field 0Ah, 5 ************************************ ** Write out the word. ** ************************************ .align 4 ************************************ ** Initialize a 4-bit field. ** ** This fields starts a new word. ** ************************************ x: .field 0Ch, 4
0000 0ABC
0002 000A
0004 000C
************************************ ** 16-bit relocatable field ** ** in the next word. ** ************************************ 0006 0004! .field x ************************************ ** Initialize a 16-bit field. ** ************************************ .field 04321h, 16
0008 4321
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0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 14-bit field 15 0
0 1
.field
00Ah, 5
15 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
.field x
15 4 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 .field 04321, 16
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.global/.def/.ref
Syntax
Identify Global Symbols .global symbol1[, ... , symboln] .def symbol1[, ... , symboln] .ref symbol1[, ... , symboln]
Description
Three directives identify global symbols that are defined externally or can be referenced externally: The .def directive identifies a symbol that is defined in the current module and can be accessed by other files. The assembler places this symbol in the symbol table. The .ref directive identifies a symbol that is used in the current module but is defined in another module. The linker resolves this symbol's definition at link time. The .global directive acts as a .ref or a .def, as needed. A global symbol is defined in the same manner as any other symbol; that is, it appears as a label or is defined by the .set, .equ, .bss, or .usect directive. As with all symbols, if a global symbol is defined more than once, the linker issues a multiple-definition error. The .ref directive always creates a symbol table entry for a symbol, whether the module uses the symbol or not; .global, however, creates an entry only if the module actually uses the symbol. A symbol can be declared global for either of two reasons: If the symbol is not defined in the current module (which includes macro, copy, and include files), the .global or .ref directive tells the assembler that the symbol is defined in an external module. This prevents the assembler from issuing an unresolved reference error. At link time, the linker looks for the symbol's definition in other modules. If the symbol is defined in the current module, the .global or .def directive declares that the symbol and its definition can be used externally by other modules. These types of references are resolved at link time.
Example
This example shows four files. The file1.lst and file2.lst refer to each other for all symbols used; file3.lst and file4.lst are similarly related. The file1.lst and file3.lst files are equivalent. Both files define the symbol INIT and make it available to other modules; both files use the external symbols X, Y, and Z. Also, file1.lst uses the .global directive to identify these global symbols; file3.lst uses .ref and .def to identify the symbols. The file2.lst and file4.lst files are equivalent. Both files define the symbols X, Y, and Z and make them available to other modules; both files use the external symbol INIT. Also, file2.lst uses the .global directive to identify these global symbols; file4.lst uses .ref and .def to identify the symbols. file1.lst
1 2 3 4 5 0000 6 0000 503B 0002 0056 7 0004 0000! 8 9 10 11 ; Global symbol defined in this file .global INIT ; Global symbols defined in file2.lst .global X, Y, Z INIT: ADD #56h, R11 .word . . . .end X
; ; ;
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file2.lst
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 ; Global symbols defined in this file .global X, Y, Z ; Global symbol defined in file1.lst .global INIT X: .set 1 Y: .set 2 Z: .set 3 0000! .word INIT ; . ; . ; . .end
file3.lst
1 2 3 4 5 0000 6 0000 503B 0002 0056 7 0004 0000! 8 9 10 11 ; Global symbol defined in this file .def INIT ; Global symbols defined in file2.lst .ref X, Y, Z INIT: ADD #56h, R11 .word . . . .end X
; ; ;
file4.lst
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0000 9 10 11 12 ; Global symbols defined in this file .def X, Y, Z ; Global symbol defined in file3.lst .ref INIT 0001 X: .set 1 0002 Y: .set 2 0003 Z: .set 3 0000! .word INIT ; . ; . ; . .end
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.half/.short
Syntax
Initialize 16-Bit Integers .half value1[, ... , valuen ] .short value1[, ... , valuen ]
Description
The .half and .short directives place one or more values into consecutive halfwords in the current section. A value can be either: An expression that the assembler evaluates and treats as a 16-bit signed or unsigned number A character string enclosed in double quotes. Each character in a string represents a separate value and is stored alone in the least significant eight bits of a 16-bit field, which is padded with 0s. The assembler truncates values greater than 16 bits. If you use a label with .half or .short, it points to the location where the assembler places the first byte. These directives perform a word (16-bit) alignment before data is written to the section. When you use .half or .short in a .struct/.endstruct sequence, they define a member's size; they do not initialize memory. For more information, see the .struct/.endstruct/.tag topic.
Example
In this example, .half is used to place 16-bit values (10, -1, abc, and a) into consecutive halfwords in memory; .short is used to place 16-bit values (8, -3, def, and b) into consecutive halfwords in memory. The label STRN has the value 100ch, which is the location of the first initialized halfword for .short.
1 0000 2 1000 000A 1002 FFFF 1004 0061 1006 0062 1008 0063 100a 0061 3 100c 0008 100e FFFD 1010 0064 1012 0065 1014 0066 1016 0062 .space .half 100h * 16 10, -1, "abc", "a'
STRN
.short
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Description
Four directives provide conditional assembly: The .if directive marks the beginning of a conditional block. The well-defined expression is a required parameter. If the expression evaluates to true (nonzero), the assembler assembles the code that follows the expression (up to a .elseif, .else, or .endif). If the expression evaluates to false (0), the assembler assembles code that follows a .elseif (if present), .else (if present), or .endif (if no .elseif or .else is present). The .elseif directive identifies a block of code to be assembled when the .if expression is false (0) and the .elseif expression is true (nonzero). When the .elseif expression is false, the assembler continues to the next .elseif (if present), .else (if present), or .endif (if no .elseif or .else is present). The .elseif directive is optional in the conditional block, and more than one .elseif can be used. If an expression is false and there is no .elseif statement, the assembler continues with the code that follows a .else (if present) or a .endif. The .else directive identifies a block of code that the assembler assembles when the .if expression and all .elseif expressions are false (0). The .else directive is optional in the conditional block; if an expression is false and there is no .else statement, the assembler continues with the code that follows the .endif. The .endif directive terminates a conditional block. The .elseif and .else directives can be used in the same conditional assembly block, and the .elseif directive can be used more than once within a conditional assembly block. See Section 3.9.4 for information about relational operators.
Example
.if SYM1 <= 10 .byte 10 .else .byte SYM1 .endif .if .byte .else .byte .endif .if .byte .elseif .byte .endif
If_6:
SYM3 * SYM2 != SYM4 + SYM2 SYM3 * SYM2 ; Unequal value SYM4 + SYM4 ; Equal values
0002 0008
If_7:
0003 0005
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.int/.long
Syntax
Initialize 16-BitIntegers .int value1[, ... , valuen ] .long value1[, ... , valuen ]
Description
The .int and .long directives place one or more values into consecutive words in the current section. Each value is placed in a 16-bit word by itself and is aligned on a word boundary. A value can be either: An expression that the assembler evaluates and treats as a 16-bit signed or unsigned number A character string enclosed in double quotes. Each character in a string represents a separate value and is stored alone in the least significant eight bits of a 16-bit field, which is padded with 0s. A value can be either an absolute or a relocatable expression. If an expression is relocatable, the assembler generates a relocation entry that refers to the appropriate symbol; the linker can then correctly patch (relocate) the reference. This allows you to initialize memory with pointers to variables or labels. If you use a label with these directives, it points to the first word that is initialized. When you use these directives in a .struct/.endstruct sequence, they define a member's size; they do not initialize memory. See the .struct/.endstruct/.tag topic.
Example
In this example, the .int and .word directives are used to initialize words. The symbol WORDX points to the first word that is reserved by .word.
1 2 3 4 0000 0000 0080 0074 0076 5 0078 007a 007c 007e 0080 0082 0084 0086 6 0000 0002 0004 0006 .space .bss .bss MOV 73h PAGE, 128 SYMPTR, 4 #056h, R11 10, SYMPTR, -1, 35 + 'a', INST, "abc"
403B INST: 0056 000A .int 0080! FFFF 0084 0074! 0061 0062 0063 0C80 WORDX: .word 4242 FF51 0058
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.label
Syntax Description
Create a Load-Time Address Label .label symbol The .label directive defines a special symbol that refers to the load-time address rather than the run-time address within the current section. Most sections created by the assembler have relocatable addresses. The assembler assembles each section as if it started at 0, and the linker relocates it to the address at which it loads and runs. For some applications, it is desirable to have a section load at one address and run at a different address. For example, you may want to load a block of performance-critical code into slower memory to save space and then move the code to high-speed memory to run it. Such a section is assigned two addresses at link time: a load address and a run address. All labels defined in the section are relocated to refer to the run-time address so that references to the section (such as branches) are correct when the code runs. The .label directive creates a special label that refers to the load-time address. This function is useful primarily to designate where the section was loaded for purposes of the code that relocates the section.
Example
See Section 7.5.5 for more information about assigning run-time and load-time addresses in the linker.
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.length/.width
Syntax
Set Listing Page Size .length [page length] .width [page width]
Description
Two directives allow you to control the size of the output listing file. The .length directive sets the page length of the output listing file. It affects the current and following pages. You can reset the page length with another .length directive. Default length: 60 lines. If you do not use the .length directive or if you use the .length directive without specifying the page length, the output listing length defaults to 60 lines. Minimum length: 1 line Maximum length: 32 767 lines The .width directive sets the page width of the output listing file. It affects the next line assembled and the lines following. You can reset the page width with another .width directive. Default width: 132 characters. If you do not use the .width directive or if you use the .width directive without specifying a page width, the output listing width defaults to 132 characters. Minimum width: 80 characters Maximum width: 200 characters The width refers to a full line in a listing file; the line counter value, SPC value, and object code are counted as part of the width of a line. Comments and other portions of a source statement that extend beyond the page width are truncated in the listing. The assembler does not list the .width and .length directives.
Example
The following example shows how to change the page length and width.
******************************************** ** Page length = 65 lines ** ** Page width = 85 characters ** ******************************************** .length 65 .width 85 ******************************************** ** Page length = 55 lines ** ** Page width = 100 characters ** ******************************************** .length 55 .width 100
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.list/.nolist
Syntax
Description
Two directives enable you to control the printing of the source listing: The .list directive allows the printing of the source listing. The .nolist directive suppresses the source listing output until a .list directive is encountered. The .nolist directive can be used to reduce assembly time and the source listing size. It can be used in macro definitions to suppress the listing of the macro expansion. The assembler does not print the .list or .nolist directives or the source statements that appear after a .nolist directive. However, it continues to increment the line counter. You can nest the .list/.nolist directives; each .nolist needs a matching .list to restore the listing. By default, the source listing is printed to the listing file; the assembler acts as if the .list directive had been used. However, if you do not request a listing file when you invoke the assembler by including the --asm_listing option on the command line (see Section 3.3), the assembler ignores the .list directive.
Example
This example shows how the .copy directive inserts source statements from another file. The first time this directive is encountered, the assembler lists the copied source lines in the listing file. The second time this directive is encountered, the assembler does not list the copied source lines, because a .nolist directive was assembled. The .nolist, the second .copy, and the .list directives do not appear in the listing file. Also, the line counter is incremented, even when source statements are not listed. Source file:
* Back in original file NOP .nolist .copy "copy2.asm" .list * Back in original file .string "Done"
Listing file:
A A 1 1 2 0000 0002 2 3 0004 7 8 000a 000b 000c 000d 0020 0042 4303 0044 006F 006E 0065 .copy "copy2.asm" * In copy2.asm (copy file) .word 32, 1 + 'A' * Back in original file NOP * Back in original file .string "Done"
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.long
Syntax Description
Initialize 32-Bit Integer .long value1[, ... , valuen] The .long directive places one or more values into consecutive words in the current section. A value can be either: An expression that the assembler evaluates and treats as a 32-bit signed or unsigned number A character string enclosed in double quotes. Each character in a string represents a separate value and is stored alone in the least significant eight bits of a 32-bit field, which is padded with 0s. A value can be either an absolute or a relocatable expression. If an expression is relocatable, the assembler generates a relocation entry that refers to the appropriate symbol; the linker can then correctly patch (relocate) the reference. This allows you to initialize memory with pointers to variables or labels. The .long directive performs a word (16-bit) alignment before any data is written to the section. When you use .long directive in a .struct/.endstruct sequence, it defines a member's size; it does not initialize memory. See the .struct/.endstruct/.tag topic. Example
1 0000 0002 0004 0006 0008 000a 000c 000e 2 0010 0012 0014 0016 3 0018
This example shows how the .long directive initializes words. The symbol DAT1 points to the first word that is reserved.
ABCD DAT1: 0000 0141 0000 0067 0000 006F 0000 0000! 0000 CCDD AABB DAT2: .long 0ABCDh, 'A' + 100h, 'g', 'o'
.long
DAT1, 0AABBCCDDh
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Description
Three directives allow you to repeatedly assemble a block of code: The .loop directive begins a repeatable block of code. The optional expression evaluates to the loop count (the number of loops to be performed). If there is no well-defined expression, the loop count defaults to 1024, unless the assembler first encounters a .break directive with an expression that is true (nonzero) or omitted. The .break directive, along with its expression, is optional. This means that when you use the .loop construct, you do not have to use the .break construct. The .break directive terminates a repeatable block of code only if the well-defined expression is true (nonzero) or omitted, and the assembler breaks the loop and assembles the code after the .endloop directive. If the expression is false (evaluates to 0), the loop continues. The .endloop directive terminates a repeatable block of code; it executes when the .break directive is true (nonzero) or when the number of loops performed equals the loop count given by .loop.
Example
This example illustrates how these directives can be used with the .eval directive. The code in the first six lines expands to the code immediately following those six lines.
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0000 0000 .eval COEF .loop .word .eval .break .endloop .word .eval .break .word .eval .break .word .eval .break .word .eval .break .word .eval .break .word .eval .break 0,x x*100 x+1, x x = 6 0*100 0+1, x 1 = 6 1*100 1+1, x 2 = 6 2*100 2+1, x 3 = 6 3*100 3+1, x 4 = 6 4*100 4+1, x 5 = 6 5*100 5+1, x 6 = 6
0002 0064
0004 00C8
0006 012C
0008 0190
000a 01F4
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.macro/.endm
Syntax
Define Macro macname .macro [parameter1[, ... , parametern]] model statements or macro directives .endm
Description
The .macro and .endm directives are used to define macros. You can define a macro anywhere in your program, but you must define the macro before you can use it. Macros can be defined at the beginning of a source file, in an .include/.copy file, or in a macro library. macname .macro [parameters] model statements macro directives .endm names the macro. You must place the name in the source statement's label field. identifies the source statement as the first line of a macro definition. You must place .macro in the opcode field. are optional substitution symbols that appear as operands for the .macro directive. are instructions or assembler directives that are executed each time the macro is called. are used to control macro expansion. marks the end of the macro definition.
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.mlib
Syntax Description
Define Macro Library .mlib "filename" The .mlib directive provides the assembler with the filename of a macro library. A macro library is a collection of files that contain macro definitions. The macro definition files are bound into a single file (called a library or archive) by the archiver. Each file in a macro library contains one macro definition that corresponds to the name of the file. The filename of a macro library member must be the same as the macro name, and its extension must be .asm. The filename must follow host operating system conventions; it can be enclosed in double quotes. You can specify a full pathname (for example, c:\320tools\macs.lib). If you do not specify a full pathname, the assembler searches for the file in the following locations in the order given: 1. The directory that contains the current source file 2. Any directories named with the --include_path assembler option 3. Any directories specified by the MSP430_A_DIR environment variable 4. Any directories specified by the MSP430_C_DIR environment variable See Section 3.4 for more information about the --include_path option. When the assembler encounters a .mlib directive, it opens the library specified by the filename and creates a table of the library's contents. The assembler enters the names of the individual library members into the opcode table as library entries. This redefines any existing opcodes or macros that have the same name. If one of these macros is called, the assembler extracts the entry from the library and loads it into the macro table. The assembler expands the library entry in the same way it expands other macros, but it does not place the source code into the listing. Only macros that are actually called from the library are extracted, and they are extracted only once. See Chapter 5 for more information on macros and macro libraries.
Example
The code creates a macro library that defines two macros, inc4.asm and dec4.asm. The file inc4.asm contains the definition of inc4 and dec4.asm contains the definition of dec4.
inc4.asm * Macro for incrementing inc4 .macro reg ADD.W #1, reg ADD.W #1, reg ADD.W #1, reg ADD.W #1, reg .endm dec4.asm * Macro for decrementing dec4 .macro reg SUB.W #1, reg SUB.W #1, reg SUB.W #1, reg SUB.W #1, reg .endm
Now you can use the .mlib directive to reference the macro library and define the inc4.asm and dec4.asm macros:
1 2 3 4 0000 0000 0002 0004 0006 5 6 7 0008 0008 000a 000c 000e .mlist .mlib "mac.lib" ; Macro call inc4 R11, R12, R13, R14 ADD.W #1,R11 ADD.W #1,R12 ADD.W #1,R13 ADD.W #1,R14 ; Macro call dec4 R11, R12, R13, R14 SUB.W #1,R11 SUB.W #1,R12 SUB.W #1,R13 SUB.W #1,R14
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
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.mlist/.mnolist
Syntax
Description
Two directives enable you to control the listing of macro and repeatable block expansions in the listing file: The .mlist directive allows macro and .loop/.endloop block expansions in the listing file. The .mnolist directive suppresses macro and .loop/.endloop block expansions in the listing file. By default, the assembler behaves as if the .mlist directive had been specified. See Chapter 5 for more information on macros and macro libraries. See the .loop/.break/.endloop topic for information on conditional blocks.
Example
This example defines a macro named STR_3. The first time the macro is called, the macro expansion is listed (by default). The second time the macro is called, the macro expansion is not listed, because a .mnolist directive was assembled. The third time the macro is called, the macro expansion is again listed because a .mlist directive was assembled.
1 2 3 4 5 0000 0000 0001 0002 0003 0004 0005 0006 0007 0008 0009 000a 000b 6 7 000c 8 9 0018 0018 0019 001a 001b 001c 001d 001e 001f 0020 0021 0022 0023 STR_3 .macro P1, P2, P3 .string ":p1:", ":p2:", ":p3:" .endm STR_3 "as", "I", "am" ; Invoke STR_3 macro. .string ":p1:", ":p2:", ":p3:"
003A 0070 0031 003A 003A 0070 0032 003A 003A 0070 0033 003A
003A 0070 0031 003A 003A 0070 0032 003A 003A 0070 0033 003A
.mnolist STR_3 "as", "I", "am" .mlist STR_3 "as", "I", "am" .string ":p1:", ":p2:",
; Suppress expansion. ; Invoke STR_3 macro. ; Show macro expansion. ; Invoke STR_3 macro. ":p3:"
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.newblock
Syntax Description
Terminate Local Symbol Block .newblock The .newblock directive undefines any local labels currently defined. Local labels, by nature, are temporary; the .newblock directive resets them and terminates their scope. A local label is a label in the form $n, where n is a single decimal digit, or name?, where name is a legal symbol name. Unlike other labels, local labels are intended to be used locally, cannot be used in expressions, and do not qualify for branch expansion if used with a branch. They can be used only as operands in 8-bit jump instructions. Local labels are not included in the symbol table. After a local label has been defined and (perhaps) used, you should use the .newblock directive to reset it. The .text, .data, and .sect directives also reset local labels. Local labels that are defined within an include file are not valid outside of the include file. See Section 3.8.2 for more information on the use of local labels.
Example
This example shows how the local label $1 is declared, reset, and then declared again.
1 2 3 0000 0002 4 0004 0006 5 0008 6 000a 000c 7 000e 8 0010 0012 9 0014 0016 10 11 0018 12 001a 001c 13 001e .global ADDRA,ADDRB,ADDRC 403B Label1: MOV #ADDRA, R11 0000! 803B SUB #ADDRB, R11 0000! 3803 JL $1 403B MOV #ADDRB, R11 0000! 3C02 JMP $2 403B $1 MOV #ADDRA, R11 0000! 503B $2 ADD #ADDRC, R11 0000! .newblock 3C02 JMP $1 4B82 MOV R11,&ADDRC 0000! 4303 $1 NOP ; Load Address A to R11 ; Subtract Address B. ; If < 0, branch to $1 ; otherwise, load ADDRB to R11 ; and branch to $2 ; $1: load ADDRA to AC0. ; $2: add ADDRC. ; Undefine $1 so can be used again. ; If less than zero, branch to $1. ; Store AC0 low in ADDRC.
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.option
Syntax Description
Select Listing Options .option option1[, option2,. . .] The .option directive selects options for the assembler output listing. The options must be separated by commas; each option selects a listing feature. These are valid options: A B H L M N O R T W X turns on listing of all directives and data, and subsequent expansions, macros, and blocks. limits the listing of .byte and .char directives to one line. limits the listing of .half and .short directives to one line. limits the listing of .long directives to one line. turns off macro expansions in the listing. turns off listing (performs .nolist). turns on listing (performs .list). resets any B, H, M, T, and, W (turns off the limits of B, H, M, T, and, W). limits the listing of .string directives to one line. limits the listing of .word and .int directives to one line. produces a cross-reference listing of symbols. You can also obtain a cross-reference listing by invoking the assembler with the --cross_reference option (see Section 3.3).
This example shows how to limit the listings of the .byte, .char, .int, long, .word, and .string directives to one line each.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ***************************************************** ** Limit the listing of .byte, .char, .int, .long, ** ** .word, and .string directives to 1 line each. ** ***************************************************** .option B, W, T .byte -'C', 0B0h, 5 .char -'D', 0C0h, 6 .int 10, 35 + 'a', "abc" .long 0AABBCCDDh, 536 + 'A'
0000 0003 0006 0010 0012 0014 0016 10 0018 11 001c 12 13 14 15 16 17 002e 002f 0030 18 0031 0032 0033 19 0034 0036 0038 003a 003c 20 003e 0040 0042 0044 21 0046 0048 22 004a SLAU131E July 2010
.word 5546, 78h .string "Extended Registers" **************************************************** ** Reset the listing options. ** **************************************************** .option R .byte -'C', 0B0h, 5
00BD 00B0 0005 00BC 00C0 0006 000A 0084 0061 0062 0063 CCDD AABB 0259 0000 15AA 0078 0045
.char
-'D', 0C0h, 6
.int
.long
.word
5546, 78h
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004b 004c 004d 004e 004f 0050 0051 0052 0053 0054 0055 0056 0057 0058 0059 005a 005b 0078 0074 0065 006E 0064 0065 0064 0020 0052 0065 0067 0069 0073 0074 0065 0072 0073
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.page
Syntax Description
Eject Page in Listing .page The .page directive produces a page eject in the listing file. The .page directive is not printed in the source listing, but the assembler increments the line counter when it encounters the .page directive. Using the .page directive to divide the source listing into logical divisions improves program readability. This example shows how the .page directive causes the assembler to begin a new page of the source listing. Source file:
Source file (generic) .title "**** Page Directive Example ****" ; . ; . ; . .page
Example
Listing file:
MSP430 COFF Assembler PC vx.x.x Day Time Year Tools Copyright (c) 2003-2009 Texas Instruments Incorporated **** Page Directive Example **** 2 ; . 3 ; . 4 ; . MSP430 COFF Assembler PC vx.x.x
PAGE 1
Day
Time
Year
Tools Copyright (c) 2003-2009 Texas Instruments Incorporated **** Page Directive Example ****
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.sect
Syntax Description
Assemble Into Named Section .sect " section name " The .sect directive defines a named section that can be used like the default .text and .data sections. The .sect directive tells the assembler to begin assembling source code into the named section. The section name identifies the section. The section name must be enclosed in double quotes. A section name can contain a subsection name in the form section name : subsection name. See Chapter 2 for more information about sections.
Example
This example defines a special-purpose section named Vars and assembles code into it.
1 2 3 4 0000 5 0000 403B 0002 0078 6 0004 503B 0006 0078 7 8 9 10 0000 11 0000 CCCD 0002 3D4C 12 0004 00AA 13 14 15 16 0008 17 0008 5B0C 18 19 20 21 0006 22 0006 000D 23 0008 000A 24 000a 0010 *************************************************** ** Begin assembling into .text section. ** *************************************************** .text MOV #0x78,R11 ADD #0x78,R11 *************************************************** ** Begin assembling into Vars section. ** *************************************************** .sect "Vars" .float 0.05 X: .word 0xAA *************************************************** ** Resume assembling into .text section. ** *************************************************** .text ADD R11,R12 *************************************************** ** Resume assembling into Vars section. ** *************************************************** .sect "Vars" .field 13 .field 0xA .field 0x10
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.set /.equ
Syntax
Description
The .set and .equ directives equate a constant value to a symbol. The symbol can then be used in place of a value in assembly source. This allows you to equate meaningful names with constants and other values. The .set and .equ directives are identical and can be used interchangeably. The symbol is a label that must appear in the label field. The value must be a well-defined expression, that is, all symbols in the expression must be previously defined in the current source module. Undefined external symbols and symbols that are defined later in the module cannot be used in the expression. If the expression is relocatable, the symbol to which it is assigned is also relocatable. The value of the expression appears in the object field of the listing. This value is not part of the actual object code and is not written to the output file. Symbols defined with .set or .equ can be made externally visible with the .def or .global directive (see the .global/.def/.ref topic). In this way, you can define global absolute constants.
Example
This example shows how symbols can be assigned with .set and .equ .
1 2 3 4 5 000B 6 0000 401B 0002 0054 7 8 9 10 11 12 0035 13 0004 503B 0006 0035 14 15 16 17 18 19 0008 000A 20 0009! 21 22 23 24 25 26 0035 27 000a 0035 ***************************************************** ** Equate symbol ACCUM to register R11 and use ** ** it instead of the register. ** ***************************************************** ACCUM .set R11 MOV 0x56, ACCUM
***************************************************** ** Set symbol INDEX to an integer expression ** ** and use it as an immediate operand. ** ***************************************************** INDEX .equ 100/2 + 3 ADD #INDEX, ACCUM
***************************************************** ** Set symbol SYMTAB to a relocatable expression ** ** and use it as a relocatable operand. ** ***************************************************** LABEL .word 10 SYMTAB .set LABEL + 1 ***************************************************** ** Set symbol NSYMS equal to the symbol INDEX ** ** and use it as you would INDEX. ** ***************************************************** NSYMS .set INDEX .word NSYMS
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.space/.bes
Syntax
Reserve Space [label] .space size in bytes [label] .bes size in bytes
Description
The .space and .bes directives reserve the number of bytes given by size in bytes in the current section and fill them with 0s. The section program counter is incremented to point to the word following the reserved space. When you use a label with the .space directive, it points to the first byte reserved. When you use a label with the .bes directive, it points to the last byte reserved.
Example
This example shows how memory is reserved with the .space and .bes directives.
1 2 3 4 0000 5 6 7 8 9 0000 10 00f0 0100 00f2 0200 11 12 13 14 0000 15 0000 0049 0001 006E 0002 0020 0003 002E 0004 0064 0005 0061 0006 0074 0007 0061 16 17 18 19 20 21 0008 22 006c 000F 23 006e 0008! 24 25 26 27 28 29 0083 30 0084 0036 31 0086 0083! ************************************************** ** Begin assembling into the .text section. ** ************************************************** .text ************************************************** ** Reserve 0F0 bytes in the .text section. ** ************************************************** .space 0F0h .word 100h, 200h ************************************************** ** Begin assembling into the .data section. ** ************************************************** .data .string "In .data"
*************************************************** ** Reserve 100 bytes in the .data section; RES_1 ** ** points to the first byte that contains ** ** reserved bytes. ** *************************************************** RES_1: .space 100 .word 15 .word RES_1 *************************************************** ** Reserve 20 bits in the .data section; RES_2 ** ** points to the last byte that contains ** ** reserved bytes. ** *************************************************** RES_2: .bes 20 .word 36h .word RES_2
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.sslist/.ssnolist
Syntax
Description
Two directives allow you to control substitution symbol expansion in the listing file: The .sslist directive allows substitution symbol expansion in the listing file. The expanded line appears below the actual source line. The .ssnolist directive suppresses substitution symbol expansion in the listing file. By default, all substitution symbol expansion in the listing file is suppressed; the assembler acts as if the .ssnolist directive had been used. Lines with the pound (#) character denote expanded substitution symbols.
Example
This example shows code that, by default, suppresses the listing of substitution symbol expansion, and it shows the .sslist directive assembled, instructing the assembler to list substitution symbol code expansion.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0000 1 1 1 2 2 2 SHIFT .macro dst,amount .loop amount RLA dst .endloop .endm .global value SHIFT R5,3 .loop 3 RLA dst .endloop RLA R5 RLA R5 RLA R5 ADD R5,&value
.sslist SHIFT R5,3 .loop amount .loop 3 RLA dst .endloop RLA dst RLA R5 RLA dst RLA R5 RLA dst RLA R5
1 # 1 1 2 # 2 # 2 #
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.string/.cstring
Syntax
Initialize Text .string {expr1 | "string1"} [, ... , {exprn | "stringn"} ] .cstring {expr1 | "string1"} [, ... , {exprn | "stringn"} ]
Description
The .string and .cstring directives place 8-bit characters from a character string into the current section. The expr or string can be one of the following: An expression that the assembler evaluates and treats as an 8-bit signed number. A character string enclosed in double quotes. Each character in a string represents a separate value, and values are stored in consecutive bytes. The entire string must be enclosed in quotes. The .cstring directive adds a NUL character needed by C; the .string directive does not add a NUL character. In addition, .cstring interprets C escapes (\\ \a \b \f \n \r \t \v \<octal>). The assembler truncates any values that are greater than eight bits. Operands must fit on a single source statement line. If you use a label, it points to the location of the first byte that is initialized. When you use .string and .cstring in a .struct/.endstruct sequence, the directive only defines a member's size; it does not initialize memory. For more information, see the .struct/.endstruct/.tag topic.
Example
In this example, 8-bit values are placed into consecutive words in the current section.
1 0000 0001 0002 0003 2 0004 0005 0006 0007 3 0008 0009 000a 000b 000c 000d 000e 000f 0010 0011 0012 0013 0014 0015 0016 0017 0018 0019 001a 4 001b 0041 0042 0043 0044 0041 0042 0043 0044 0041 0075 0073 0074 0069 006E 0048 006F 0075 0073 0074 006F 006E 0044 0061 006C 006C 0061 0073 0030 Str_Ptr: .string "ABCD"
.string
.string
.string
36 + 12
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Description
The .struct directive assigns symbolic offsets to the elements of a data structure definition. This allows you to group similar data elements together and let the assembler calculate the element offset. This is similar to a C structure or a Pascal record. The .struct directive does not allocate memory; it merely creates a symbolic template that can be used repeatedly. The .endstruct directive terminates the structure definition. The .tag directive gives structure characteristics to a label, simplifying the symbolic representation and providing the ability to define structures that contain other structures. The .tag directive does not allocate memory. The structure tag (stag) of a .tag directive must have been previously defined. Following are descriptions of the parameters used with the .struct, .endstruct, and .tag directives: The stag is the structure's tag. Its value is associated with the beginning of the structure. If no stag is present, the assembler puts the structure members in the global symbol table with the value of their absolute offset from the top of the structure. A .stag is optional for .struct, but is required for .tag. The expr is an optional expression indicating the beginning offset of the structure. The default starting point for a structure is 0. The memn/N is an optional label for a member of the structure. This label is absolute and equates to the present offset from the beginning of the structure. A label for a structure member cannot be declared global. The element is one of the following descriptors: .byte, .char, .word, .int, .long, .string, .double, .float, .half, .short, .field, and .tag. All of these except .tag are typical directives that initialize memory. Following a .struct directive, these directives describe the structure element's size. They do not allocate memory. The .tag directive is a special case because stag must be used (as in the definition of stag). The exprn/N is an optional expression for the number of elements described. This value defaults to 1. A .string element is considered to be one byte in size, and a .field element is one bit. The size is an optional label for the total size of the structure.
Directives That Can Appear in a .struct/.endstruct Sequence NOTE: The only directives that can appear in a .struct/.endstruct sequence are element descriptors, conditional assembly directives, and the .align directive, which aligns the member offsets on word boundaries. Empty structures are illegal.
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The following examples show various uses of the .struct, .tag, and .endstruct directives.
Example 1
1 2 0000 3 0002 4 0004 5 6 0000 7 8 0000 9 0000 521B 0002 0002! 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 0000 0000 0004 0008 CPLX_REC REALI IMAGI CPLX_LEN COMPLEX 0004 0004 0004 521B 0006 0004! REAL_REC NOM DEN REAL_LEN .struct .int .int .endstruct .bss .text ADD.W REAL, REAL_LEN ;stag ;member1 = 0 ;member2 = 2 ;real_len = 4
&REAL + REAL_REC.DEN,R11
Example 2
.data .struct .tag REAL_REC .tag REAL_REC .endstruct .tag .bss CPLX_REC
COMPLEX, CPLX_LEN
Example 3
1 0000 2 3 4 0000 5 0002 6 0004 7 0006 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 0000 0000 0040 0040 0042 0044 0046
.data .struct X Y Z .int .int .int .endstruct .data .struct .string 64 .field 7 .field 9 .field 10 .int .endstruct .tag .bss .text ADD AND BIT_REC BITS, BIT_REC
; no stag puts mems into ; global symbol table ; create 3 dim templates
Example 4
0000
&BITS.BIT7,R11 #127,R11
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.symdepend
Syntax Description
Effect Symbol Linkage and Visibility .symdepend dst symbol name[, src symbol name] The .symdepend directive creates an artificial reference from the section defining src symbol name to the symbol dst symbol name. This prevents the linker from removing the section containing dst symbol name if the section defining src symbol name is included in the output module. If src symbol name is not specified, a reference from the current section is created. A global symbol is defined in the same manner as any other symbol; that is, it appears as a label or is defined by the .set, .equ, .bss, or .usect directive. As with all symbols, if a global symbol is defined more than once, the linker issues a multiple-definition error. The .symdepend directive creates an entry only if the module actually uses the symbol. If the symbol is defined in the current module, the .symdepend directive declares that the symbol and its definition can be used externally by other modules. These types of references are resolved at link time.
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.tab
Syntax Description
Define Tab Size .tab size The .tab directive defines the tab size. Tabs encountered in the source input are translated to size character spaces in the listing. The default tab size is eight spaces. In this example, each of the lines of code following a .tab statement consists of a single tab character followed by an NOP instruction. Source file:
; default tab size NOP NOP NOP .tab 4 NOP NOP NOP .tab 16 NOP NOP NOP
Example
Listing file:
1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 10 12 13 14 0000 4303 0002 4303 0004 4303 0006 4303 0008 4303 000a 4303 000c 4303 000e 4303 0010 4303 ; default tab size NOP NOP NOP NOP NOP NOP NOP NOP NOP
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.text
Syntax Description
Assemble Into the .text Section .text The .text directive tells the assembler to begin assembling into the .text section, which usually contains executable code. The section program counter is set to 0 if nothing has yet been assembled into the .text section. If code has already been assembled into the .text section, the section program counter is restored to its previous value in the section. The .text section is the default section. Therefore, at the beginning of an assembly, the assembler assembles code into the .text section unless you use a .data or .sect directive to specify a different section. For more information about sections, see Chapter 2.
Example
This example assembles code into the .text and .data sections.
1 2 3 4 0000 5 0000 000A 0001 000B 6 0002 0011 0004 0022 0006 0033 7 8 9 10 11 0000 12 0000 0041 0001 0042 0002 0043 13 0003 0058 0004 0059 0005 005A 14 0006 403A 0008 1234 15 000a 521A 000c 0003! 16 17 18 19 20 0008 21 0008 000C 0009 000D 22 23 24 25 26 000e 27 000e 0051 000f 0055 0010 0049 0011 0054 ******************************************** * Begin assembling into the .data section. * ******************************************** .data .byte 0Ah, 0Bh coeff .word 011h,0x22,0x33
******************************************** * Begin assembling into the .text section. * ******************************************** .text START: .string "A", "B", "C"
$END:
MOV.W ADD.W
#0x1234,R10 &coeff+1,R10
******************************************** * Resume assembling into .data section. * ******************************************** .data .byte 0Ch, 0Dh
******************************************** * Resume assembling into .text section. * ******************************************** .text .string "QUIT"
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.title
Syntax Description
Define Page Title .title "string" The .title directive supplies a title that is printed in the heading on each listing page. The source statement itself is not printed, but the line counter is incremented. The string is a quote-enclosed title of up to 64 characters. If you supply more than 64 characters, the assembler truncates the string and issues a warning:
*** WARNING! line x: W0001: String is too long - will be truncated
The assembler prints the title on the page that follows the directive and on subsequent pages until another .title directive is processed. If you want a title on the first page, the first source statement must contain a .title directive.
Example
In this example, one title is printed on the first page and a different title is printed on succeeding pages. Source file:
; ; ; .title . . . .title .page "**** Fast Fourier Transforms ****"
Listing file:
MSP430 COFF Assembler PC vx.x.x Day Time Year Tools Copyright (c) 2003-2004 Texas Instruments Incorporated **** Fast Fourier Transforms **** 2 ; . 3 ; . 4 ; . MSP430 COFF Assembler PC vx.x.x
PAGE 1
Day
Time
Year
Tools Copyright (c) 2003-2004 Texas Instruments Incorporated **** Floating-Point Routines ****
PAGE 2
No Errors, No Warnings
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.usect
Syntax Description
Reserve Uninitialized Space symbol .usect "section name", size in bytes[, alignment] The .usect directive reserves space for variables in an uninitialized, named section. This directive is similar to the .bss directive; both simply reserve space for data and that space has no contents. However, .usect defines additional sections that can be placed anywhere in memory, independently of the .bss section. The symbol points to the first location reserved by this invocation of the .usect directive. The symbol corresponds to the name of the variable for which you are reserving space. The section name must be enclosed in double quotes. This parameter names the uninitialized section. A section name can contain a subsection name in the form section name : subsection name. The size in bytes is an expression that defines the number of bytes that are reserved in section name. The alignment is an optional parameter that ensures that the space allocated to the symbol occurs on the specified boundary. The boundary indicates the size of the slot in bytes and can be set to a power of 2 between 20 and 215, inclusive. If the SPC is aligned at the specified boundary, it is not incremented. Initialized sections directives (.text, .data, and .sect) end the current section and tell the assembler to begin assembling into another section. A .usect or .bss directive encountered in the current section is simply assembled, and assembly continues in the current section. Variables that can be located contiguously in memory can be defined in the same specified section; to do so, repeat the .usect directive with the same section name and the subsequent symbol (variable name). For more information about sections, see Chapter 2.
Example
This example uses the .usect directive to define two uninitialized, named sections, var1 and var2. The symbol ptr points to the first byte reserved in the var1 section. The symbol array points to the first byte in a block of 100 bytes reserved in var1, and dflag points to the first byte in a block of 50 bytes in var1. The symbol vec points to the first byte reserved in the var2 section.
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Figure 4-7 shows how this example reserves space in two uninitialized sections, var1 and var2.
1 2 3 4 0000 5 0000 403B 0002 0003 6 7 8 9 10 0000 11 12 13 14 15 0002 16 17 0004 503B 0006 0025 18 19 20 21 22 0066 23 24 0008 503C 000a 0064 25 26 27 28 29 0000 30 31 000c 5C0B 32 33 34 35 36 ****************************************************** ** Assemble into the .text section. ** ****************************************************** .text MOV #0x3,R11
****************************************************** ** Reserve 2 bytes in the var1 section. ** ****************************************************** ptr .usect "var1",2 ****************************************************** ** Reserve 100 bytes in the var1 section. ** ****************************************************** array .usect "var1",100 ADD #37,R11
****************************************************** ** Reserve 50 bytes in the var1 section. ** ****************************************************** dflag .usect "var1",50 ADD #dflag-array,R12
****************************************************** ** Reserve 100 bytes in the var2 section. ** ****************************************************** vec .usect "var2",100 ADD R12,R11 ****************************************************** ** Declare a .usect symbol to be external. ** ****************************************************** .global array
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.unasg/.undefine
Syntax
Description
The .unasg and .undefine directives remove the definition of a substitution symbol created using .asg or .define. The named symbol will removed from the substitution symbol table from the point of the .undefine or .unasg to the end of the assembly file. These directives can be used to remove from the assembly environment any C/C++ macros that may cause a problem. See Chapter 12 for more information about using C/C++ headers in assembly source.
.var
Syntax Description
Use Substitution Symbols as Local Variables .var sym1 [, sym2 , ... , symn ] The .var directive allows you to use substitution symbols as local variables within a macro. With this directive, you can define up to 32 local macro substitution symbols (including parameters) per macro. The .var directive creates temporary substitution symbols with the initial value of the null string. These symbols are not passed in as parameters, and they are lost after expansion. See Chapter 5 for information on macros.
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Macro Description
The MSP430 assembler supports a macro language that enables you to create your own instructions. This is especially useful when a program executes a particular task several times. The macro language lets you: Define your own macros and redefine existing macros Simplify long or complicated assembly code Access macro libraries created with the archiver Define conditional and repeatable blocks within a macro Manipulate strings within a macro Control expansion listing
Topic
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Using Macros .................................................................................................. Defining Macros .............................................................................................. Macro Parameters/Substitution Symbols ............................................................ Macro Libraries ............................................................................................... Using Conditional Assembly in Macros .............................................................. Using Labels in Macros .................................................................................... Producing Messages in Macros ......................................................................... Using Directives to Format the Output Listing .................................................... Using Recursive and Nested Macros .................................................................. Macro Directives Summary ...............................................................................
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5.1
Using Macros
Programs often contain routines that are executed several times. Instead of repeating the source statements for a routine, you can define the routine as a macro, then call the macro in the places where you would normally repeat the routine. This simplifies and shortens your source program. If you want to call a macro several times but with different data each time, you can assign parameters within a macro. This enables you to pass different information to the macro each time you call it. The macro language supports a special symbol called a substitution symbol, which is used for macro parameters. See Section 5.3 for more information. Using a macro is a 3-step process. Step 1. Define the macro. You must define macros before you can use them in your program. There are two methods for defining macros: (a) Macros can be defined at the beginning of a source file or in a copy/include file. See Section 5.2, Defining Macros, for more information. (b) Macros can also be defined in a macro library. A macro library is a collection of files in archive format created by the archiver. Each member of the archive file (macro library) may contain one macro definition corresponding to the member name. You can access a macro library by using the .mlib directive. For more information, see Section 5.4. Step 2. Call the macro. After you have defined a macro, call it by using the macro name as a mnemonic in the source program. This is referred to as a macro call. Step 3. Expand the macro. The assembler expands your macros when the source program calls them. During expansion, the assembler passes arguments by variable to the macro parameters, replaces the macro call statement with the macro definition, then assembles the source code. By default, the macro expansions are printed in the listing file. You can turn off expansion listing by using the .mnolist directive. For more information, see Section 5.8. When the assembler encounters a macro definition, it places the macro name in the opcode table. This redefines any previously defined macro, library entry, directive, or instruction mnemonic that has the same name as the macro. This allows you to expand the functions of directives and instructions, as well as to add new instructions.
5.2
Defining Macros
You can define a macro anywhere in your program, but you must define the macro before you can use it. Macros can be defined at the beginning of a source file or in a .copy/.include file (see Copy Source File); they can also be defined in a macro library. For more information about macro libraries, see Section 5.4. Macro definitions can be nested, and they can call other macros, but all elements of the macro must be defined in the same file. Nested macros are discussed in Section 5.9. A macro definition is a series of source statements in the following format: macname .macro [.mexit] .endm macname names the macro. You must place the name in the source statement's label field. Only the first 128 characters of a macro name are significant. The assembler places the macro name in the internal opcode table, replacing any instruction or previous macro definition with the same name. is the directive that identifies the source statement as the first line of a macro definition. You must place .macro in the opcode field. are optional substitution symbols that appear as operands for the .macro directive. Parameters are discussed in Section 5.3. [parameter1 ] [, ... , parametern ]
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Defining Macros
.endm
are instructions or assembler directives that are executed each time the macro is called. are used to control macro expansion. is a directive that functions as a goto .endm. The .mexit directive is useful when error testing confirms that macro expansion fails and completing the rest of the macro is unnecessary. is the directive that terminates the macro definition.
If you want to include comments with your macro definition but do not want those comments to appear in the macro expansion, use an exclamation point to precede your comments. If you do want your comments to appear in the macro expansion, use an asterisk or semicolon. See Section 5.7 for more information about macro comments. Example 5-1 shows the definition, call, and expansion of a macro. Example 5-1. Macro Definition, Call, and Expansion Macro definition: The following code defines a macro, add3, with four parameters:
1 2 3 4 5 6 add3 .macro MOV ADD ADD ADD .endm P1,P2,P3,SUM #0,SUM P1,SUM P2,SUM P3,SUM
Macro call: The following code calls the add3 macro with four arguments:
7 8 0000 add3 R11,R12,R13,R14
Macro expansion: The following code shows the substitution of the macro definition for the macro call. The assembler substitutes R11, R12, R13, and R14 for the P1, P2, P3, and SUM parameters of add3.
1 1 1 1 0000 0002 0004 0006 430E 5B0E 5C0E 5D0E MOV ADD ADD ADD #0,R14 R11,R14 R12,R14 R13,R14
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5.3
Example 5-2. Calling a Macro With Varying Numbers of Arguments Macro definition:
Parms ; ; ; .macro a,b,c a = :a: b = :b: c = :c:
.endm
Parms
; ; ;
; ; ;
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The .eval directive performs arithmetic on numeric substitution symbols. The .eval directive evaluates the expression and assigns the string value of the result to the substitution symbol. If the expression is not well defined, the assembler generates an error and assigns the null string to the symbol. The syntax of the .eval directive is: .eval well-defined expression , substitution symbol
Example 5-4 shows arithmetic being performed on substitution symbols. Example 5-4. The .eval Directive
.asg 1,counter .loop 100 .word counter .eval counter + 1,counter .endloop
In Example 5-4, the .asg directive could be replaced with the .eval directive (.eval 1, counter) without changing the output. In simple cases like this, you can use .eval and .asg interchangeably. However, you must use .eval if you want to calculate a value from an expression. While .asg only assigns a character string to a substitution symbol, .eval evaluates an expression and then assigns the character string equivalent to a substitution symbol. See Assign a Substitution Symbol for more information about the .asg and .eval assembler directives.
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1 if string a is a valid symbol name 0 if string a is not a valid symbol name 1 if string a is a valid predefined register name 0 if string a is not a valid predefined register name
For more information about predefined register names, see Section 3.8.5.
Example 5-5 shows built-in substitution symbol functions. Example 5-5. Using Built-In Substitution Symbol Functions
.asg .if MOV .endif .asg .if SUB .endif label, ADDR ($symcmp(ADDR, "label") = 0) #ADDR, R4 "x,y,z" , list ($ismember(ADDR,list)) #4, R4 ; ADDR = label ; evaluates to true
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AUX:x:
force .asg 0,x .loop 8 AUX:x: .set x .eval x+1,x .endloop AUX0 .set 0 .eval 0+1,x AUX1 .set 1 .eval 1+1,x AUX2 .set 2 .eval 2+1,x AUX3 .set 3 .eval 3+1,x AUX4 .set 4 .eval 4+1,x AUX5 .set 5 .eval 5+1,x AUX6 .set 6 .eval 6+1,x AUX7 .set 7 .eval 7+1,x
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i + 1,i
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5.4
Macro Libraries
One way to define macros is by creating a macro library. A macro library is a collection of files that contain macro definitions. You must use the archiver to collect these files, or members, into a single file (called an archive). Each member of a macro library contains one macro definition. The files in a macro library must be unassembled source files. The macro name and the member name must be the same, and the macro filename's extension must be .asm. For example:
Macro Name simple add3 Filename in Macro Library simple.asm add3.asm
You can access the macro library by using the .mlib assembler directive (described in Define Macro Library). The syntax is: .mlib filename When the assembler encounters the .mlib directive, it opens the library named by filename and creates a table of the library's contents. The assembler enters the names of the individual members within the library into the opcode tables as library entries; this redefines any existing opcodes or macros that have the same name. If one of these macros is called, the assembler extracts the entry from the library and loads it into the macro table. The assembler expands the library entry in the same way it expands other macros. See Section 5.1 for how the assembler expands macros. You can control the listing of library entry expansions with the .mlist directive. For more information about the .mlist directive, see Section 5.8 and Start/Stop Macro Expansion Listing. Only macros that are actually called from the library are extracted, and they are extracted only once. You can use the archiver to create a macro library by including the desired files in an archive. A macro library is no different from any other archive, except that the assembler expects the macro library to contain macro definitions. The assembler expects only macro definitions in a macro library; putting object code or miscellaneous source files into the library may produce undesirable results. For information about creating a macro library archive, see Section 6.1.
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5.5
(x == 10)
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(x == 10) (x == 10)
Example 5-12. Built-In Substitution Symbol Functions in a Conditional Assembly Code Block
.fcnolist * Increment or decrement .macro .if ADD .elseif SUB .else .emsg .endif .endm OP,dst $symcmp(OP,"+") #1,dst $symcmp(OP,"-") #1,dst "Incorrect Operator Parameter"
INCDEC
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5.6
m1? m2?
1 1 1 1 1 1
m1? m2?
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5.7
.mmsg
.wmsg
Macro comments are comments that appear in the definition of the macro but do not show up in the expansion of the macro. An exclamation point in column 1 identifies a macro comment. If you want your comments to appear in the macro expansion, precede your comment with an asterisk or semicolon. Example 5-14 shows user messages in macros and macro comments that do not appear in the macro expansion. For more information about the .emsg, .mmsg, and .wmsg assembler directives, see Define Messages. Example 5-14. Producing Messages in a Macro
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 0000 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 15 16 0008 1 1 "macromsg.asm", ERROR! 1 17 18 1 Assembly Error, No Assembly Warnings MUL_I .macro x,y .if ($symlen(x) == 0) .emsg "ERROR -- Missing Parameter" .mexit .elseif ($symlen(y) == 0) .emsg "ERROR -- Missing Parameter" .mexit .else MOV x, R11 MOV y, R12 .endif .endm MUL_I #50, #51 .if ($symlen(x) == 0) .emsg "ERROR -- Missing Parameter" .mexit .elseif ($symlen(y) == 0) .emsg "ERROR -- Missing Parameter" .mexit .else MOV #50, R11 MOV .endif MUL_I .if ($symlen(x) == 0) .emsg "ERROR -- Missing Parameter" at line 16: [ ***** USER ERROR ***** - ] ERROR -- Missing Parameter .mexit #51, R12
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5.8
Macro Description
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5.9
out_block .macro x,y,z . ; visible parameters are x,y,z . in_block x,y ; macro call with x and y as arguments . . .endm out_block ; macro call
Example 5-16 shows recursive and fact macros. The fact macro produces assembly code necessary to calculate the factorial of n, where n is an immediate value. The result is placed in data memory address loc . The fact macro accomplishes this by calling fact1, which calls itself recursively. Example 5-16. Using Recursive Macros
fact .macro .if MOV .else MOV .eval fact1 .endif .endm .macro .if MOV MOV CALL MOV .eval fact1 .endif .endm .global fact_result .global MPY fact 5,fact_result N,loc N < 2 #1,&loc #N,&loc N-1,N
fact1
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Chapter 6
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Archiver Description
The MSP430 archiver lets you combine several individual files into a single archive file. For example, you can collect several macros into a macro library. The assembler searches the library and uses the members that are called as macros by the source file. You can also use the archiver to collect a group of object files into an object library. The linker includes in the library the members that resolve external references during the link. The archiver allows you to modify a library by deleting, replacing, extracting, or adding members.
Topic
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Archiver Overview ........................................................................................... The Archiver's Role in the Software Development Flow ........................................ Invoking the Archiver ....................................................................................... Archiver Examples ........................................................................................... Library Information Archiver Description ............................................................
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6.1
Archiver Overview
You can build libraries from any type of files. Both the assembler and the linker accept archive libraries as input; the assembler can use libraries that contain individual source files, and the linker can use libraries that contain individual object files. One of the most useful applications of the archiver is building libraries of object modules. For example, you can write several arithmetic routines, assemble them, and use the archiver to collect the object files into a single, logical group. You can then specify the object library as linker input. The linker searches the library and includes members that resolve external references. You can also use the archiver to build macro libraries. You can create several source files, each of which contains a single macro, and use the archiver to collect these macros into a single, functional group. You can use the .mlib directive during assembly to specify that macro library to be searched for the macros that you call. Chapter 5 discusses macros and macro libraries in detail, while this chapter explains how to use the archiver to build libraries.
6.2
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C/C++ compiler
Archiver
Assembler source
Macro library
Assembler
Archiver
Object files
Library-build process
Debugging tools
Linker
Run-timesupport library
EPROM programmer
Absolute lister
Cross-reference lister
MSP430
Archiver Description
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6.3
options
libname filenames
Naming Library Members NOTE: It is possible (but not desirable) for a library to contain several members with the same name. If you attempt to delete, replace, or extract a member whose name is the same as another library member, the archiver deletes, replaces, or extracts the first library member with that name.
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Archiver Examples
6.4
Archiver Examples
The following are examples of typical archiver operations: If you want to create a library called function.lib that contains the files sine.obj, cos.obj, and flt.obj, enter:
ar430 -a function sine.obj cos.obj flt.obj
You can print a table of contents of function.lib with the -t command, enter: The archiver responds as follows:
FILE NAME ---------------sine.obj cos.obj flt.obj SIZE ----300 300 300 DATE -----------------------Wed Jun 14 10:00:24 2006 Wed Jun 14 10:00:30 2006 Wed Jun 14 09:59:56 2006
ar430 -t function
If you want to add new members to the library, enter: The archiver responds as follows:
==> ==> ==> ==> ==> symbol defined: '_sin' symbol defined: '_cos' symbol defined: '_tan' symbol defined: '_atan building archive 'function.lib'
Because this example does not specify an extension for the libname, the archiver adds the files to the library called function.lib. If function.lib does not exist, the archiver creates it. (The -s option tells the archiver to list the global symbols that are defined in the library.) If you want to modify a library member, you can extract it, edit it, and replace it. In this example, assume there is a library named macros.lib that contains the members push.asm, pop.asm, and swap.asm.
ar430 -x macros push.asm
The archiver makes a copy of push.asm and places it in the current directory; it does not remove push.asm from the library. Now you can edit the extracted file. To replace the copy of push.asm in the library with the edited copy, enter:
ar430 -r macros push.asm
If you want to use a command file, specify the command filename after the -@ command. For example:
ar430 -@modules.cmd
Example 6-1 is the modules.cmd command file. The r command specifies that the filenames given in the command file replace files of the same name in the modules.lib library. The -u option specifies that these files are replaced only when the current file has a more recent revision date than the file that is in the library.
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6.5
libinfo430 options
libnames
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Using the library information archiver, you can create an index library called mylib.lib from the above libraries:
libinfo430 -o mylib.lib mylib_msp_small.lib mylib_mspx_small.lib mylib_mspx_restricted.lib mylib_mspx_large.lib
You can now specify mylib.lib as a library for the linker of an application. The linker uses the index library to choose the appropriate version of the library to use. If the --issue_remarks option is specified before the --run_linker option, the linker reports which library was chosen. Example 1 (MSP430X, Restricted data model):
cl470 -silicon_version=mspx -data_model=restricted --issue_remarks main.c -z -l lnk.cmd ./mylib.lib <Linking> remark: linking in "mylib_mspx_restricted.lib" in place of "mylib.lib"
In Example 2, a library with exception handling is linked in, since there is no large data model library without exception handling.
The indexed object file libraries have an additional .libinfo extension in the archiver listing. The __TI_$$LIBINFO member is a special member that designates mylib.lib as an index library, rather than a regular library. If the archivers -d command is used on an index library to delete a .libinfo member, the linker will no longer choose the corresponding library when the index library is specified. Using any other archiver option with an index library, or using -d to remove the __TI_$$LIBINFO member, results in undefined behavior, and is not supported.
6.5.4 Requirements
You must follow these requirements to use library index files: At least one of the applications object files must appear on the linker command line before the index library. Each object file library specified as input to the library information archiver must only contain object file members that are built with the same build options. The linker expects the index library and all of the libraries it indexes to be in a single directory.
Archiver Description
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Chapter 7
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Linker Description
The MSP430 linker creates executable modules by combining object modules. This chapter describes the linker options, directives, and statements used to create executable modules. Object libraries, command files, and other key concepts are discussed as well. The concept of sections is basic to linker operation; Chapter 2 discusses the object module sections in detail.
Topic
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Linker Overview .............................................................................................. The Linker's Role in the Software Development Flow ........................................... Invoking the Linker .......................................................................................... Linker Options ................................................................................................ Linker Command Files ..................................................................................... Object Libraries ............................................................................................... Default Allocation Algorithm ............................................................................. Linker-Generated Copy Tables .......................................................................... Partial (Incremental) Linking ............................................................................. Linking C/C++ Code ......................................................................................... Linker Example ...............................................................................................
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7.1
Linker Overview
The MSP430 linker allows you to configure system memory by allocating output sections efficiently into the memory map. As the linker combines object files, it performs the following tasks: Allocates sections into the target system's configured memory Relocates symbols and sections to assign them to final addresses Resolves undefined external references between input files The linker command language controls memory configuration, output section definition, and address binding. The language supports expression assignment and evaluation. You configure system memory by defining and creating a memory model that you design. Two powerful directives, MEMORY and SECTIONS, allow you to: Allocate sections into specific areas of memory Combine object file sections Define or redefine global symbols at link time
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7.2
C/C++ compiler
Archiver
Assembler source
Macro library
Assembler
Archiver
Object files
Library-build process
Debugging tools
Linker
Run-timesupport library
EPROM programmer
Absolute lister
Cross-reference lister
MSP430
Linker Description
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7.3
There are two methods for invoking the linker: Specify options and filenames on the command line. This example links two files, file1.obj and file2.obj, and creates an output module named link.out.
cl430 --run_linker file1.obj file2.obj --output_file=link.out
Put filenames and options in a link command file. Filenames that are specified inside a link command file must begin with a letter. For example, assume the file linker.cmd contains the following lines:
--output_file=link.out file1.obj file2.obj
Now you can invoke the linker from the command line; specify the command filename as an input file:
cl430 --run_linker linker.cmd
When you use a command file, you can also specify other options and files on the command line. For example, you could enter:
cl430 --run_linker --map_file=link.map linker.cmd file3.obj
The linker reads and processes a command file as soon as it encounters the filename on the command line, so it links the files in this order: file1.obj, file2.obj, and file3.obj. This example creates an output file called link.out and a map file called link.map. For information on invoking the linker for C/C++ files, see Section 7.10.
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Linker Options
7.4
Linker Options
Linker options control linking operations. They can be placed on the command line or in a command file. Linker options must be preceded by a hyphen (-). Options can be separated from arguments (if they have them) by an optional space. Table 7-1 summarizes the linker options. Table 7-1. Basic Options Summary
Description Names the executable output module. The default filename is a.out.
Produces a map or listing of the input and output sections, including holes, and Section 7.4.15 places the listing in filename Sets heap size (for the dynamic memory allocation in C) to size bytes and defines a global symbol that specifies the heap size. Default = 128 bytes Sets C system stack size to size bytes and defines a global symbol that specifies the stack size. Default = 128 bytes Replaces all references to the default integer/long multiply routine with the version of the multiply routine that uses the hardware multiplier support. Section 7.4.11 Section 7.4.24 Section 7.4.28
Linker Description
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Produces a map or listing of the input and output sections, including holes, and Section 7.4.15 places the listing in filename Produces an absolute, executable module. This is the default; if neither --absolute_exe nor --relocatable is specified, the linker acts as if --absolute_exe were specified. Writes a list of the dead functions that were removed by the linker to file fname. Controls the information that appears in the map file. Section 7.4.2.1
Section 7.4.10 Section 7.4.16 Section 7.4.2.2 Section 7.4.22 Section 7.4.30
Produces a nonexecutable, relocatable output module Produces an absolute listing file Generates a well-formed XML file containing detailed information about the result of a link
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Linker Options
SECTIONS { .fast_code: { *.obj(*fast*) } > FAST_MEM .vectors : { vectors.obj(.vector:part1:*) > 0xFFFFFF00 .str_code : { rts*.lib<str*.obj>(.text) } > S1ROM }
When you use the --absolute_exe option without the --relocatable option, the linker produces an absolute, executable output module. Absolute files contain no relocation information. Executable files contain the following: Special symbols defined by the linker (see Section 7.5.8.4) An optional header that describes information such as the program entry point No unresolved references The following example links file1.obj and file2.obj and creates an absolute output module called a.out:
cl430 --run_linker --absolute_exe file1.obj file2.obj
The --absolute_exe and --relocatable Options NOTE: If you do not use the --absolute_exe or the --relocatable option, the linker acts as if you specified --absolute_exe.
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7.4.2.2
When you use the -ar option, the linker retains relocation entries in the output module. If the output module is relocated (at load time) or relinked (by another linker execution), use --relocatable to retain the relocation entries. The linker produces a file that is not executable when you use the --relocatable option without the --absolute_exe option. A file that is not executable does not contain special linker symbols or an optional header. The file can contain unresolved references, but these references do not prevent creation of an output module. This example links file1.obj and file2.obj and creates a relocatable output module called a.out:
cl430 --run_linker --relocatable file1.obj file2.obj
The output file a.out can be relinked with other object files or relocated at load time. (Linking a file that will be relinked with other files is called partial linking. For more information, see Section 7.9.) 7.4.2.3 Producing an Executable, Relocatable Output Module (-ar Option)
If you invoke the linker with both the --absolute_exe and --relocatable options, the linker produces an executable, relocatable object module. The output file contains the special linker symbols, an optional header, and all resolved symbol references; however, the relocation information is retained. This example links file1.obj and file2.obj and creates an executable, relocatable output module called xr.out:
cl430 --run_linker -ar file1.obj file2.obj --output_file=xr.out
7.4.3 Allocate Memory for Use by the Loader to Pass Arguments (--arg_size Option)
The --arg_size option instructs the linker to allocate memory to be used by the loader to pass arguments from the command line of the loader to the program. The syntax of the --arg_size option is: --arg_size= size The size is a number representing the number of bytes to be allocated in target memory for command-line arguments. By default, the linker creates the __c_args__ symbol and sets it to -1. When you specify --arg_size=size, the following occur: The linker creates an uninitialized section named .args of size bytes. The __c_args__ symbol contains the address of the .args section. The loader and the target boot code use the .args section and the __c_args__ symbol to determine whether and how to pass arguments from the host to the target program. See the MSP430 Optimizing C/C++ Compiler User's Guide for information about the loader.
--diag_remark=num
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Linker Options
--diag_suppress=num
--diag_warning=num
--display_error_number
Suppresses the diagnostic identified by num. To determine the numeric identifier of a diagnostic message, use the --display_error_number option first in a separate link. Then use --diag_suppress=num to suppress the diagnostic. You can only suppress discretionary diagnostics. Categorizes the diagnostic identified by num as a warning. To determine the numeric identifier of a diagnostic message, use the --display_error_number option first in a separate link. Then use --diag_warning=num to recategorize the diagnostic as a warning. You can only alter the severity of discretionary diagnostics. Displays a diagnostic's numeric identifier along with its text. Use this option in determining which arguments you need to supply to the diagnostic suppression options (--diag_suppress, --diag_error, --diag_remark, and --diag_warning). This option also indicates whether a diagnostic is discretionary. A discretionary diagnostic is one whose severity can be overridden. A discretionary diagnostic includes the suffix -D; otherwise, no suffix is present. See the MSP430 Optimizing C/C++ Compiler User's Guide for more information on understanding diagnostic messages. Issues remarks (nonserious warnings), which are suppressed by default. Suppresses warning diagnostics (errors are still issued). Sets the error limit to num, which can be any decimal value. The linker abandons linking after this number of errors. (The default is 100.) Provides verbose diagnostics that display the original source with line-wrap and indicate the position of the error in the source line
7.4.7 Link Command File Preprocessing (--disable_pp, --define and --undefine Options)
The linker preprocesses link command files using a standard C preprocessor. Therefore, the command files can contain well-known preprocessing directives such as #define, #include, and #if / #endif. Three linker options control the preprocessor: --disable_pp --define=name[=val] --undefine=name Disables preprocessing for command files Predefines name as a preprocessor macro Removes the macro name
The compiler has --define and --undefine options with the same meanings. However, the linker options are distinct; only --define and --undefine options specified after --run_linker are passed to the linker. For example:
cl430 --define=FOO=1 main.c --run_linker --define=BAR=2 lnk.cmd
The linker sees only the --define for BAR; the compiler only sees the --define for FOO.
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When one command file #includes another, preprocessing context is carried from parent to child in the usual way (that is, macros defined in the parent are visible in the child). However, when a command file is invoked other than through #include, either on the command line or by the typical way of being named in another command file, preprocessing context is not carried into the nested file. The exception to this is --define and --undefine options, which apply globally from the point they are encountered. For example:
--define GLOBAL #define LOCAL #include "incfile.cmd" nestfile.cmd /* sees GLOBAL and LOCAL */ /* only sees GLOBAL */
Two cautions apply to the use of --define and --undefine in command files. First, they have global effect as mentioned above. Second, since they are not actually preprocessing directives themselves, they are subject to macro substitution, probably with unintended consequences. This effect can be defeated by quoting the symbol name. For example:
--define MYSYM=123 --undefine MYSYM --undefine "MYSYM" /* expands to --undefine 123 (!) */ /* ahh, that's better */
The linker uses the same search paths to find #include files as it does to find libraries. That is, #include files are searched in the following places: 1. If the #include file name is in quotes (rather than <brackets>), in the directory of the current file 2. In the list of directories specified with --Iibrary options or environment variables (see Section 7.4.13) There are two exceptions: relative pathnames (such as "../name") always search the current directory; and absolute pathnames (such as "/usr/tools/name") bypass search paths entirely. The linker has the standard built-in definitions for the macros __FILE__, __DATE__, and __TIME__. It does not, however, have the compiler-specific options for the target (__.MSP430__), version (__TI_COMPILER_VERSION__), run-time model, and so on.
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The linker creates the .sysmem section only if there is a .sysmem section in an input file. The linker also creates a global symbol __SYSMEM_SIZE and assigns it a value equal to the size of the heap. The default size is 128 bytes. For more information about C/C++ linking, see Section 7.10.
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A symbol is matched by only one pattern defined by either --hide or --unhide. A symbol is matched by the most restrictive pattern. Pattern A is considered more restrictive than Pattern B, if Pattern A matches a narrower set than Pattern B. It is an error if a symbol matches patterns from --hide and --unhide and if one does not supersede other. Pattern A supersedes pattern B if A can match everything B can, and some more. If Pattern A supersedes Pattern B, then Pattern B is said to more restrictive than Pattern A. These options affect final and partial linking.
In map files these symbols are listed under the Hidden Symbols heading.
7.4.13 Alter the Library Search Algorithm (--library Option, --search_path Option, and MSP430_C_DIR Environment Variable)
Usually, when you want to specify a file as linker input, you simply enter the filename; the linker looks for the file in the current directory. For example, suppose the current directory contains the library object.lib. Assume that this library defines symbols that are referenced in the file file1.obj. This is how you link the files:
cl430 --run_linker file1.obj object.lib
If you want to use a file that is not in the current directory, use the --library linker option. The --library option's short form is -l. The syntax for this option is: --library=[pathname] filename The filename is the name of an archive, an object file, or link command file. You can specify up to 128 search paths. The --library option is not required when one or more members of an object library are specified for input to an output section. For more information about allocating archive members, see Section 7.5.4.5. You can augment the linker's directory search algorithm by using the --search_path linker option or the MSP430_C_DIR environment variable. The linker searches for object libraries and command files in the following order: 1. It searches directories named with the --search_path linker option. The --search_path option must appear before the --Iibrary option on the command line or in a command file. 2. It searches directories named with MSP430_C_DIR. 3. If MSP430_C_DIR is not set, it searches directories named with the assembler's MSP430_A_DIR environment variable. 4. It searches the current directory. 7.4.13.1 Name an Alternate Library Directory (--search_path Option) The --search_path option names an alternate directory that contains input files. The --search_path option's short form is -I. The syntax for this option is: --search_path= pathname The pathname names a directory that contains input files. When the linker is searching for input files named with the --library option, it searches through directories named with --search_path first. Each --search_path option specifies only one directory, but you can have several --search_path options per invocation. When you use the --search_path option to name an alternate directory, it must precede any --library option used on the command line or in a command file. For example, assume that there are two archive libraries called r.lib and lib2.lib that reside in ld and ld2 directories. The table below shows the directories that r.lib and lib2.lib reside in, how to set environment variable, and how to use both libraries during a link. Select the row for your operating system:
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cl430 --run_linker f1.obj f2.obj --search_path=/ld --search_path=/ld2 --library=r.lib --library=lib2.lib cl430 --run_linker f1.obj f2.obj --search_path=\ld --search_path=\ld2 --library=r.lib --library=lib2.lib
7.4.13.2 Name an Alternate Library Directory ( MSP430_C_DIR Environment Variable) An environment variable is a system symbol that you define and assign a string to. The linker uses an environment variable named MSP430_C_DIR to name alternate directories that contain object libraries. The command syntaxes for assigning the environment variable are:
Operating System UNIX (Bourne shell) Windows Enter MSP430_C_DIR=" pathname1; pathname2; . . . "; export MSP430_C_DIR set MSP430_C_DIR= pathname1 ; pathname2 ; . . .
The pathnames are directories that contain input files. Use the --library linker option on the command line or in a command file to tell the linker which library or link command file to search for. The pathnames must follow these constraints: Pathnames must be separated with a semicolon. Spaces or tabs at the beginning or end of a path are ignored. For example the space before and after the semicolon in the following is ignored:
set MSP430_C_DIR= c:\path\one\to\tools ; c:\path\two\to\tools
Spaces and tabs are allowed within paths to accommodate Windows directories that contain spaces. For example, the pathnames in the following are valid:
set MSP430_C_DIR=c:\first path\to\tools;d:\second path\to\tools
In the example below, assume that two archive libraries called r.lib and lib2.lib reside in ld and ld2 directories. The table below shows how to set the environment variable, and how to use both libraries during a link. Select the row for your operating system:
Operating System UNIX (Bourne shell) Windows Invocation Command MSP430_C_DIR="/ld ;/ld2"; export MSP430_C_DIR; cl430 --run_linker f1.obj f2.obj --library=r.lib --library=lib2.lib MSP430_C_DIR=\ld;\ld2 cl430 --run linker f1.obj f2.obj --library=r.lib --library=lib2.lib
The environment variable remains set until you reboot the system or reset the variable by entering:
Operating System UNIX (Bourne shell) Windows Enter unset MSP430_C_DIR set MSP430_C_DIR=
The assembler uses an environment variable named MSP430_A_DIR to name alternate directories that contain copy/include files or macro libraries. If MSP430_C_DIR is not set, the linker searches for object libraries in the directories named with MSP430_A_DIR. For information about MSP430_A_DIR, see Section 3.4.2. For more information about object libraries, see Section 7.6.
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7.4.13.3 Exhaustively Read and Search Libraries (--reread_libs and --priority Options) There are two ways to exhaustively search for unresolved symbols: Reread libraries if you cannot resolve a symbol reference (--reread_libs). Search libraries in the order that they are specified (--priority). The linker normally reads input files, including archive libraries, only once when they are encountered on the command line or in the command file. When an archive is read, any members that resolve references to undefined symbols are included in the link. If an input file later references a symbol defined in a previously read archive library, the reference is not resolved. With the --reread_libs option, you can force the linker to reread all libraries. The linker rereads libraries until no more references can be resolved. Linking using --reread_libs may be slower, so you should use it only as needed. For example, if a.lib contains a reference to a symbol defined in b.lib, and b.lib contains a reference to a symbol defined in a.lib, you can resolve the mutual dependencies by listing one of the libraries twice, as in:
cl430 --run_linker --library=a.lib --library=b.lib --library=a.lib
The --priority option provides an alternate search mechanism for libraries. Using --priority causes each unresolved reference to be satisfied by the first library that contains a definition for that symbol. For example:
objfile lib1 lib2 references A defines B defines A, B; obj defining A references B
Under the existing model, objfile resolves its reference to A in lib2, pulling in a reference to B, which resolves to the B in lib2. Under --priority, objfile resolves its reference to A in lib2, pulling in a reference to B, but now B is resolved by searching the libraries in order and resolves B to the first definition it finds, namely the one in lib1. The --priority option is useful for libraries that provide overriding definitions for related sets of functions in other libraries without having to provide a complete version of the whole library. For example, suppose you want to override versions of malloc and free defined in the rts430.lib without providing a full replacement for rts430.lib. Using --priority and linking your new library before rts430.lib guarantees that all references to malloc and free resolve to the new library. The --priority option is intended to support linking programs with DSP/BIOS where situations like the one illustrated above occur.
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Linker Options
These options have the following properties: The --localize and --globalize options can be specified more than once on the command line. The order of --localize and --globalize options has no significance. A symbol is matched by only one pattern defined by either --localize or --globalize. A symbol is matched by the most restrictive pattern. Pattern A is considered more restrictive than Pattern B, if Pattern A matches a narrower set than Pattern B. It is an error if a symbol matches patterns from --localize and --globalize and if one does not supersede other. Pattern A supersedes pattern B if A can match everything B can, and some more. If Pattern A supersedes Pattern B, then Pattern B is said to more restrictive than Pattern A. These options affect final and partial linking. In map files these symbols are listed under the Localized Symbols heading. 7.4.14.1 Make All Global Symbols Static (--make_static Option) The --make_static option makes all global symbols static. Static symbols are not visible to externally linked modules. By making global symbols static, global symbols are essentially hidden. This allows external symbols with the same name (in different files) to be treated as unique. The --make_static option effectively nullifies all .global assembler directives. All symbols become local to the module in which they are defined, so no external references are possible. For example, assume file1.obj and file2.obj both define global symbols called EXT. By using the --make_static option, you can link these files without conflict. The symbol EXT defined in file1.obj is treated separately from the symbol EXT defined in file2.obj.
cl430 --run_linker --make_static file1.obj file2.obj
7.4.14.2 Make a Symbol Global (--make_global Option) The --make_static option makes all global symbols static. If you have a symbol that you want to remain global and you use the --make_static option, you can use the --make_global option to declare that symbol to be global. The --make_global option overrides the effect of the --make_static option for the symbol that you specify. The syntax for the --make_global option is: --make_global= global_symbol
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R W X I
For more information about the MEMORY directive, see Section 7.5.3. A table showing the linked addresses of each output section and the input sections that make up the output sections (section allocation map). This table has the following columns; this information is generated on the basis of the information in the SECTIONS directive in the link command file: Output section. This is the name of the output section specified with the SECTIONS directive. Origin. The first origin listed for each output section is the starting address of that output section. The indented origin value is the starting address of that portion of the output section. Length. The first length listed for each output section is the length of that output section. The indented length value is the length of that portion of the output section. Attributes/input sections. This lists the input file or value associated with an output section. If the input section could not be allocated, the map file will indicate this with "FAILED TO ALLOCATE". For more information about the SECTIONS directive, see Section 7.5.4. A table showing each external symbol and its address sorted by symbol name. A table showing each external symbol and its address sorted by symbol address.
This following example links file1.obj and file2.obj and creates a map file called map.out:
cl430 --run_linker file1.obj file2.obj --map_file=map.out
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The --mapfile_contents option controls display filter settings by specifying a comma-delimited list of display attributes. When prefixed with the word no, an attribute is disabled instead of enabled. For example:
--mapfile_contents=copytables,noentry --mapfile_contents=all,nocopytables --mapfile_contents=none,entry
By default, those sections that are currently included in the map file when the --map_file option is specified are included. The filters specified in the --mapfile_contents options are processed in the order that they appear in the command line. In the third example above, the first filter, none, clears all map file content. The second filter, entry, then enables information about entry points to be included in the generated map file. That is, when --mapfile_contents=none,entry is specified, the map file contains only information about entry points. There are two new filters included with the --mapfile_contents option, load_addr and sym_defs. These are both disabled by default. If you turn on the load_addr filter, the map file includes the load address of symbols that are included in the symbol list in addition to the run address (if the load address is different from the run address). The sym_defs filter can be used to include information about all static and global symbols defined in an application on a file by file basis. You may find it useful to replace the sym_name and sym_runaddr sections of the map file with the sym_defs section by specifying the following --mapfile_contents option:
--mapfile_contents=nosym_name,nosym_runaddr,sym_defs
The --no_demangle option disables the demangling of symbol names in diagnostics. For example: undefined symbol _ZN9ANewClass8getValueEv first referenced in file test.obj
When these files are compiled for debugging, both f1.obj and f2.obj have symbolic debugging entries to describe type XYZ. For the final output file, only one set of these entries is necessary. The linker eliminates the duplicate entries automatically. Use the COFF only --no_sym_merge option if you want the linker to keep such duplicate entries in COFF object files. Using the --no_sym_merge option has the effect of the linker running faster and using less host memory during linking, but the resulting executable file may be very large due to duplicated debug information.
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If you specified a different stack size in an input section, the input section stack size is ignored. Any symbols defined in the input section remain valid; only the stack size is different. When the linker defines the .stack section, it also defines a global symbol, __STACK_SIZE, and assigns it a value equal to the size of the section. The default software stack size is 128 bytes.
If you do not use --undef_sym, this member is not included, because there is no explicit reference to it in file1.obj or file2.obj.
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For more information regarding the hardware multiplier, see the MSP430x1xx Family Users Guide, the MSP430x3xx Family Users Guide, the MSP430x4xx Family Users Guide, and the MSP430x5xx Family Users Guide.
7.4.29 Display a Message When an Undefined Output Section Is Created (--warn_sections Option)
In a link command file, you can set up a SECTIONS directive that describes how input sections are combined into output sections. However, if the linker encounters one or more input sections that do not have a corresponding output section defined in the SECTIONS directive, the linker combines the input sections that have the same name into an output section with that name. By default, the linker does not display a message to tell you that this occurred. You can use the --warn_sections option to cause the linker to display a message when it creates a new output section. For more information about the SECTIONS directive, see Section 7.5.4. For more information about the default actions of the linker, see Section 7.7.
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7.5
The sample file in Example 7-1 contains only filenames and options. (You can place comments in a command file by delimiting them with /* and */.) To invoke the linker with this command file, enter:
cl430 --run_linker link.cmd
You can place other parameters on the command line when you use a command file:
cl430 --run_linker --relocatable link.cmd c.obj d.obj
The linker processes the command file as soon as it encounters the filename, so a.obj and b.obj are linked into the output module before c.obj and d.obj. You can specify multiple command files. If, for example, you have a file called names.lst that contains filenames and another file called dir.cmd that contains linker directives, you could enter:
cl430 --run_linker names.lst dir.cmd
One command file can call another command file; this type of nesting is limited to 16 levels. If a command file calls another command file as input, this statement must be the last statement in the calling command file. Blanks and blank lines are insignificant in a command file except as delimiters. This also applies to the format of linker directives in a command file. Example 7-2 shows a sample command file that contains linker directives.
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/* MEMORY directive origin = 0x0200 origin = 0x1000 length = 0x0100 length = 0x1000
*/
*/
For more information, see Section 7.5.3 for the MEMORY directive, and Section 7.5.4 for the SECTIONS directive.
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The assembler inserts a field in the output file's header, identifying the MSP430 device. The linker reads this information from the object file's header. If you do not use the MEMORY directive, the linker uses a default memory model specific to the named device. For more information about the default memory model, see Section 7.7 7.5.3.2 MEMORY Directive Syntax
The MEMORY directive identifies ranges of memory that are physically present in the target system and can be used by a program. Each range has several characteristics: Name Starting address Length Optional set of attributes Optional fill specification When you use the MEMORY directive, be sure to identify all memory ranges that are available for loading code. Memory defined by the MEMORY directive is configured; any memory that you do not explicitly account for with MEMORY is unconfigured. The linker does not place any part of a program into unconfigured memory. You can represent nonexistent memory spaces by simply not including an address range in a MEMORY directive statement. The MEMORY directive is specified in a command file by the word MEMORY (uppercase), followed by a list of memory range specifications enclosed in braces. The MEMORY directive in Example 7-3 defines a system that has The MEMORY directive in Example 7-3 defines a system that has 0xEEE0 bytes of flash memory at address 0x1100 and 0x0800 bytes of RAM at address 0x0200. Example 7-3. The MEMORY Directive
/*******************************************************/ /* Sample command file with MEMORY directive */ /*******************************************************/ file1.obj file2.obj /* Input files */ --output_file=prog.out /* Options */ MEMORY { FLASH (RX): RAM (RX): }
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The general syntax for the MEMORY directive is: MEMORY { name 1 [( attr )] : origin = constant , length = constant [, fill = constant] . . name n [( attr )] : origin = constant , length = constant [, fill = constant] } name names a memory range. A memory name can be one to 64 characters; valid characters include A-Z, a-z, $, ., and _. The names have no special significance to the linker; they simply identify memory ranges. Memory range names are internal to the linker and are not retained in the output file or in the symbol table. All memory ranges must have unique names and must not overlap. specifies one to four attributes associated with the named range. Attributes are optional; when used, they must be enclosed in parentheses. Attributes restrict the allocation of output sections into certain memory ranges. If you do not use any attributes, you can allocate any output section into any range with no restrictions. Any memory for which no attributes are specified (including all memory in the default model) has all four attributes. Valid attributes are: R specifies that the memory can be read. W specifies that the memory can be written to. X specifies that the memory can contain executable code. I specifies that the memory can be initialized. specifies the starting address of a memory range; enter as origin, org, or o. The value, specified in bytes, is a 16-bit constant and can be decimal, octal, or hexadecimal. specifies the length of a memory range; enter as length, len, or l. The value, specified in bytes, is a 32-bit constant and can be decimal, octal, or hexadecimal. specifies a fill character for the memory range; enter as fill or f. Fills are optional. The value is a integer constant and can be decimal, octal, or hexadecimal. The fill value is used to fill areas of the memory range that are not allocated to a section.
attr
Filling Memory Ranges NOTE: If you specify fill values for large memory ranges, your output file will be very large because filling a memory range (even with 0s) causes raw data to be generated for all unallocated blocks of memory in the range.
The following example specifies a memory range with the R and W attributes and a fill constant of 0FFFFh:
MEMORY { RFILE (RW) : o = 0x0020, l = 0x1000, f = 0x0FFFF }
You normally use the MEMORY directive in conjunction with the SECTIONS directive to control allocation of output sections. After you use MEMORY to specify the target system's memory model, you can use SECTIONS to allocate output sections into specific named memory ranges or into memory that has specific attributes. For example, you could allocate the .text and .data sections into the area named FLASH and allocate the .bss section into the area named RAM.
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The SECTIONS directive is specified in a command file by the word SECTIONS (uppercase), followed by a list of output section specifications enclosed in braces. The general syntax for the SECTIONS directive is: SECTIONS { name : [property [, property] [, property] . . . ] name : [property [, property] [, property] . . . ] name : [property [, property] [, property] . . . ] } Each section specification, beginning with name, defines an output section. (An output section is a section in the output file.) A section name can be a subsection specification. (See Section 7.5.4.4 for information on multi-level subsections.) After the section name is a list of properties that define the section's contents and how the section is allocated. The properties can be separated by optional commas. Possible properties for a section are as follows: Load allocation defines where in memory the section is to be loaded. Syntax: load = allocation or allocation or > allocation Run allocation defines where in memory the section is to be run. Syntax: run = allocation or run > allocation Input sections defines the input sections (object files) that constitute the output section. Syntax: { input_sections } Section type defines flags for special section types. See Section 7.5.7 Syntax: type = COPY or type = DSECT or type = NOLOAD Fill value defines the value used to fill uninitialized holes. See Section 7.5.9. Syntax: fill = value or name : [properties = value]
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Example 7-4 shows a SECTIONS directive in a sample link command file. Example 7-4. The SECTIONS Directive
/*******************************************************/ /* Sample command file with SECTIONS directive */ /*******************************************************/ file1.obj file2.obj /* Input files */ --output_file=progr.out /* Options */ SECTIONS { .bss .text .const
.vectors : load = 0xFFE0 { t1.obj (.intvec1) t2.obj (.intvec2) } .data:alpha : align = 16 .data:beta : align = 16 }
Figure 7-2 shows the six output sections defined by the SECTIONS directive in Example 7-4 (.vectors, .text, .const, .bss, .data:alpha, and .data:beta) and shows how these sections are allocated in memory. Figure 7-2. Section Allocation Defined by Example 7-4
0x0000 0x0200 .bss SFR/peripherals
RAM Allocated in RAM Aligned on 16-byte boundary Aligned on 16-byte boundary The .bss section combines the .bss sections from file1.obj and file2.obj. The .data:alpha subsection combines the .data:alpha subsections from file1.obj and file2.obj. The .data:beta subsection combines the .data:beta subsections from file1.obj and file2.obj. The link step places the subsections anywhere there is space for them (in RAM in this illustration) and aligns each on a 16-byte boundary.
.data:alpha
.data:beta
0x1110 .text
FLASH Allocated in FLASH Allocated in FLASH The .text section combines the .text sections from file1.obj and file2.obj. The link step combines all sections named .text into this section. The .const section combines the .const sections from file1.obj and file2.obj.
.const
0xFFE0 .vectors 0xFFFF Bound at 0xFFE0 The .vectors section is composed of the .intvec1 section from t1.obj and the .intvec2 section from t2.obj.
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7.5.4.2
Allocation
The linker assigns each output section two locations in target memory: the location where the section will be loaded and the location where it will be run. Usually, these are the same, and you can think of each section as having only a single address. The process of locating the output section in the target's memory and assigning its address(es) is called allocation. For more information about using separate load and run allocation, see Section 7.5.5. If you do not tell the linker how a section is to be allocated, it uses a default algorithm to allocate the section. Generally, the linker puts sections wherever they fit into configured memory. You can override this default allocation for a section by defining it within a SECTIONS directive and providing instructions on how to allocate it. You control allocation by specifying one or more allocation parameters. Each parameter consists of a keyword, an optional equal sign or greater-than sign, and a value optionally enclosed in parentheses. If load and run allocation are separate, all parameters following the keyword LOAD apply to load allocation, and those following the keyword RUN apply to run allocation. The allocation parameters are: Binding Named memory allocates a section at a specific address.
.text: load = 0x1000
allocates the section into a range defined in the MEMORY directive with the specified name (like SLOW_MEM) or attributes.
.text: load > SLOW_MEM
Alignment
uses the align or palign keyword to specify that the section must start on an address boundary.
.text: align = 0x100
Blocking
uses the block keyword to specify that the section must fit between two address boundaries: if the section is too big, it starts on an address boundary.
.text: block(0x100)
For the load (usually the only) allocation, you can simply use a greater-than sign and omit the load keyword:
text: > SLOW_MEM .text: > 0x4000 .text: {...} > SLOW_MEM
If more than one parameter is used, you can string them together as follows:
.text: > SLOW_MEM align 16
You can also use an input section specification to identify the sections from input files that are combined to form an output section. See Section 7.5.4.3. 7.5.4.2.1 Binding You can supply a specific starting address for an output section by following the section name with an address:
.text: 0x00001000
This example specifies that the .text section must begin at location 0x1000. The binding address must be a 16-bit constant. Output sections can be bound anywhere in configured memory (assuming there is enough space), but they cannot overlap. If there is not enough space to bind a section to a specified address, the linker issues an error message.
Binding is Incompatible With Alignment and Named Memory NOTE: You cannot bind a section to an address if you use alignment or named memory. If you try to do this, the linker issues an error message.
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7.5.4.2.2 Named Memory You can allocate a section into a memory range that is defined by the MEMORY directive (see Section 7.5.3). This example names ranges and links sections into them:
MEMORY { SLOW_MEM (RIX) : origin = 0x00000000, FAST_MEM (RWIX) : origin = 0x30000000, } SECTIONS { .text .data .bss } length = 0x00001000 length = 0x00000300
: : :
In this example, the linker places .text into the area called SLOW_MEM. The .data and .bss output sections are allocated into FAST_MEM. You can align a section within a named memory range; the .data section is aligned on a 128-byte boundary within the FAST_MEM range. Similarly, you can link a section into an area of memory that has particular attributes. To do this, specify a set of attributes (enclosed in parentheses) instead of a memory name. Using the same MEMORY directive declaration, you can specify:
SECTIONS { .text: > (X) .data: > (RI) .bss : > (RW) } /* .text --> executable memory /* .data --> read or init memory /* .bss --> read or write memory */ */ */
In this example, the .text output section can be linked into either the SLOW_MEM or FAST_MEM area because both areas have the X attribute. The .data section can also go into either SLOW_MEM or FAST_MEM because both areas have the R and I attributes. The .bss output section, however, must go into the FAST_MEM area because only FAST_MEM is declared with the W attribute. You cannot control where in a named memory range a section is allocated, although the linker uses lower memory addresses first and avoids fragmentation when possible. In the preceding examples, assuming no conflicting assignments exist, the .text section starts at address 0. If a section must start on a specific address, use binding instead of named memory. 7.5.4.2.3 Controlling Allocation Using The HIGH Location Specifier The linker allocates output sections from low to high addresses within a designated memory range by default. Alternatively, you can cause the linker to allocate a section from high to low addresses within a memory range by using the HIGH location specifier in the SECTION directive declaration. For example, given this MEMORY directive:
MEMORY { RAM FLASH VECTORS RESET } : : : : origin origin origin origin = = = = 0x0200, 0x1100, 0xFFE0, 0xFFFE, length length length length = = = = 0x0800 0xEEE0 0x001E 0x0002
The HIGH specifier used on the .stack section allocation causes the linker to attempt to allocate .stack into the higher addresses within the RAM memory range. The .bss and .sysmem sections are allocated into the lower addresses within RAM. Example 7-5 illustrates a portion of a map file that shows where the given sections are allocated within RAM for a typical program.
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.sysmem
.stack
As shown in Example 7-5 , the .bss and .sysmem sections are allocated at the lower addresses of RAM (0x0200 - 0x0590) and the .stack section is allocated at address 0x08c0, even though lower addresses are available. Without using the HIGH specifier, the linker allocation would result in the code shown in Example 7-6 The HIGH specifier is ignored if it is used with specific address binding or automatic section splitting (>> operator). Example 7-6. Linker Allocation Without HIGH Specifier
.bss 0 00000200 00000200 0000031a 000003a2 0000041a 00000460 00000468 0000046c 0000046e 00000470 00000470 000005b0 000005b0 00000270 0000011a 00000088 00000078 00000046 00000008 00000004 00000002 00000002 00000140 00000002 00000120 00000004 UNINITIALIZED rtsxxx.lib : defs.obj (.bss) : trgdrv.obj (.bss) : lowlev.obj (.bss) : exit.obj (.bss) : memory.obj (.bss) : _lock.obj (.bss) : fopen.obj (.bss) hello.obj (.bss) UNINITIALIZED rtsxxx.lib : boot.obj (.stack) UNINITIALIZED rtsxxx.lib : memory.obj (.sysmem)
.stack
.sysmem
7.5.4.2.4 Alignment and Blocking You can tell the linker to place an output section at an address that falls on an n-byte boundary, where n is a power of 2, by using the align keyword. For example, the following code allocates .text so that it falls on a 32-byte boundary:
.text: load = align(32)
You can specify the same alignment with the palign keyword. In addition, palign ensures the section's size is a multiple of its placement alignment restrictions, padding the section size up to such a boundary, as needed. Blocking is a weaker form of alignment that allocates a section anywhere within a block of size n. The specified block size must be a power of 2. For example, the following code allocates .bss so that the entire section is contained in a single 128-byte page or begins on that boundary:
bss: load = block(0x0080)
You can use alignment or blocking alone or in conjunction with a memory area, but alignment and blocking cannot be used together.
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7.5.4.2.5 Alignment With Padding As with align, you can tell the linker to place an output section at an address that falls on an n-byte boundary, where n is a power of 2, by using the palign keyword. In addition, palign ensures that the size of the section is a multiple of its placement alignment restrictions, padding the section size up to such a boundary, as needed. For example, the following code lines allocate .text on a 2-byte boundary within the PMEM area. The .text section size is guaranteed to be a multiple of 2 bytes. Both statements are equivalent:
.text: palign(2) {} > PMEM .text: palign = 2 {} > PMEM
If the linker adds padding to an initialized output section then the padding space is also initialized. By default, padding space is filled with a value of 0 (zero). However, if a fill value is specified for the output section then any padding for the section is also filled with that fill value. For example, consider the following section specification:
.mytext: palign(8), fill = 0xffffffff {} > PMEM
In this example, the length of the .mytext section is 6 bytes before the palign operator is applied. The contents of .mytext are as follows:
addr ---0000 0002 0004 content ------0x1234 0x1234 0x1234
After the palign operator is applied, the length of .mytext is 8 bytes, and its contents are as follows:
addr ---0000 0002 0004 0006 content ------0x1234 0x1234 0x1234 0xffff
The size of .mytext has been bumped to a multiple of 8 bytes and the padding created by the linker has been filled with 0xff. The fill value specified in the linker command file is interpreted as a 16-bit constant, so if you specify this code:
.mytext: palign(8), fill = 0xff {} > PMEM
The fill value assumed by the linker is 0x00ff, and .mytext will then have the following contents:
addr ---0000 0002 0004 0006 0008 000a content ------0x1234 0x1234 0x1234 0xffff 0x00ff 0x00ff
If the palign operator is applied to an uninitialized section, then the size of the section is bumped to the appropriate boundary, as needed, but any padding created is not initialized. The palign operator can also take a parameter of power2. This parameter tells the linker to add padding to increase the section's size to the next power of two boundary. In addition, the section is aligned on that power of 2 as well. For example, consider the following section specification:
.mytext: palign(power2) {} > PMEM
Assume that the size of the .mytext section is 120 bytes and PMEM starts at address 0x10020. After applying the palign(power2) operator, the .mytext output section will have the following properties:
name ------.mytext addr ---------0x00010080 size ----0x80 align ----128
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7.5.4.3
An input section specification identifies the sections from input files that are combined to form an output section. In general, the linker combines input sections by concatenating them in the order in which they are specified. However, if alignment or blocking is specified for an input section, all of the input sections within the output section are ordered as follows: All aligned sections, from largest to smallest All blocked sections, from largest to smallest All other sections, from largest to smallest The size of an output section is the sum of the sizes of the input sections that it comprises. Example 7-7 shows the most common type of section specification; note that no input sections are listed. Example 7-7. The Most Common Method of Specifying Section Contents
SECTIONS { .text: .data: .bss: }
In Example 7-7, the linker takes all the .text sections from the input files and combines them into the .text output section. The linker concatenates the .text input sections in the order that it encounters them in the input files. The linker performs similar operations with the .data and .bss sections. You can use this type of specification for any output section. You can explicitly specify the input sections that form an output section. Each input section is identified by its filename and section name:
SECTIONS { .text : { f1.obj(.text) f2.obj(sec1) f3.obj f4.obj(.text,sec2) } } /* Build .text output section /* /* /* /* Link Link Link Link .text section from f1.obj sec1 section from f2.obj ALL sections from f3.obj .text and sec2 from f4.obj */ */ */ */ */
It is not necessary for input sections to have the same name as each other or as the output section they become part of. If a file is listed with no sections,all of its sections are included in the output section. If any additional input sections have the same name as an output section but are not explicitly specified by the SECTIONS directive, they are automatically linked in at the end of the output section. For example, if the linker found more .text sections in the preceding example and these .text sections were not specified anywhere in the SECTIONS directive, the linker would concatenate these extra sections after f4.obj(sec2). The specifications in Example 7-7 are actually a shorthand method for the following:
SECTIONS { .text: { *(.text) } .data: { *(.data) } .bss: { *(.bss) } }
The specification *(.text) means the unallocated .text sections from all the input files. This format is useful when: You want the output section to contain all input sections that have a specified name, but the output section name is different from the input sections' name. You want the linker to allocate the input sections before it processes additional input sections or commands within the braces.
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In this example, the .text output section contains a named section xqt from file abc.obj, which is followed by all the .text input sections. The .data section contains all the .data input sections, followed by a named section table from the file fil.obj. This method includes all the unallocated sections. For example, if one of the .text input sections was already included in another output section when the linker encountered *(.text), the linker could not include that first .text input section in the second output section. 7.5.4.4 Using Multi-Level Subsections
Subsections can be identified with the base section name and one or more subsection names separated by colons. For example, A:B and A:B:C name subsections of the base section A. In certain places in a link command file specifying a base name, such as A, selects the section A as well as any subsections of A, such as A:B or A:C:D. A name such as A:B can be used to specify a (sub)section of that name as well as any (multi-level) subsections beginning with that name, such as A:B:C, A:B:OTHER, etc. All the subsections of A:B are also subsections of A. A and A:B are supersections of A:B:C. Among a group of supersections of a subsection, the nearest supersection is the supersection with the longest name. Thus, among {A, A:B} the nearest supersection of A:B:C:D is A:B. With multiple levels of subsections, the constraints are the following: 1. When specifying input sections within a file (or library unit) the section name selects an input section of the same name and any subsections of that name. 2. Input sections that are not explicitly allocated are allocated in an existing output section of the same name or in the nearest existing supersection of such an output section. An exception to this rule is that during a partial link (specified by the --relocatable linker option) a subsection is allocated only to an existing output section of the same name. 3. If no such output section described in 2) is defined, the input section is put in a newly created output section with the same name as the base name of the input section Consider linking input sections with the following names: europe:north:norway europe:central:france europe:north:sweden europe:central:germany europe:north:finland europe:central:denmark europe:north:iceland
This SECTIONS specification allocates the input sections as indicated in the comments:
SECTIONS { nordic: {*(europe:north) *(europe:central:denmark)} /* the nordic countries */ central: {*(europe:central)} /* france, germany */ therest: {*(europe)} /* spain, italy, malta */ }
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This SECTIONS specification allocates the input sections as indicated in the comments:
SECTIONS { islands: {*(europe:south:malta) *(europe:north:iceland)} europe:north:finland : {} europe:north : {} europe:central : {} europe:central:france: {} /* /* /* /* /* malta, iceland finland norway, sweden germany, denmark france */ */ */ */ */
Upward Compatibility of Multi-Level Subsections NOTE: Existing linker commands that use the existing single-level subsection features and which do not contain section names containing multiple colon characters continue to behave as before. However, if section names in a link command file or in the input sections supplied to the linker contain multiple colon characters, some change in behavior could be possible. You should carefully consider the impact of the new rules for multiple levels to see if it affects a particular system link.
7.5.4.5
You can specify one or more members of an object library or archive for input to an output section. Consider this SECTIONS directive: Example 7-8. Archive Members to Output Sections
SECTIONS { boot { > BOOT1
-l=rtsXX.lib<boot.obj> (.text) -l=rtsXX.lib<exit.obj strcpy.obj> (.text) } .rts { } .text { } } > * (.text) RAM > BOOT2
-l=rtsXX.lib (.text)
In Example 7-8, the .text sections of boot.obj, exit.obj, and strcpy.obj are extracted from the run-time-support library and placed in the .boot output section. The remainder of the run-time-support library object that is referenced is allocated to the .rts output section. Finally, the remainder of all other .text sections are to be placed in section .text. An archive member or a list of members is specified by surrounding the member name(s) with angle brackets < and > after the library name. Any object files separated by commas or spaces from the specified archive file are legal within the angle brackets. The --library option (which normally implies a library path search be made for the named file following the option) listed before each library in Example 7-8 is optional when listing specific archive members inside < >. Using < > implies that you are referring to a library.
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To collect a set of the input sections from a library in one place, use the --library option within the SECTIONS directive. For example, the following collects all the .text sections from rts430.lib into the .rtstest section:
SECTIONS { .rtstest { -l=rts430.lib(.text) } > RAM }
SECTIONS Directive Effect on --priority NOTE: Specifying a library in a SECTIONS directive causes that library to be entered in the list of libraries that the linker searches to resolve references. If you use the --priority option, the first library specified in the command file will be searched first.
7.5.4.6
The linker allows you to specify an explicit list of memory ranges into which an output section can be allocated. Consider the following example:
MEMORY { P_MEM1 P_MEM2 P_MEM3 P_MEM4 } SECTIONS { .text } : : : : origin origin origin origin = = = = 0x02000, 0x04000, 0x06000, 0x08000, length length length length = = = = 0x01000 0x01000 0x01000 0x01000
The | operator is used to specify the multiple memory ranges. The .text output section is allocated as a whole into the first memory range in which it fits. The memory ranges are accessed in the order specified. In this example, the linker first tries to allocate the section in P_MEM1. If that attempt fails, the linker tries to place the section into P_MEM2, and so on. If the output section is not successfully allocated in any of the named memory ranges, the linker issues an error message. With this type of SECTIONS directive specification, the linker can seamlessly handle an output section that grows beyond the available space of the memory range in which it is originally allocated. Instead of modifying the link command file, you can let the linker move the section into one of the other areas. 7.5.4.7 Automatic Splitting of Output Sections Among Non-Contiguous Memory Ranges
The linker can split output sections among multiple memory ranges to achieve an efficient allocation. Use the >> operator to indicate that an output section can be split, if necessary, into the specified memory ranges. For example:
MEMORY { P_MEM1 P_MEM2 P_MEM3 P_MEM4 } : : : : origin origin origin origin = = = = 0x2000, 0x4000, 0x6000, 0x8000, length length length length = = = = 0x1000 0x1000 0x1000 0x1000
In this example, the >> operator indicates that the .text output section can be split among any of the listed memory areas. If the .text section grows beyond the available memory in P_MEM1, it is split on an input section boundary, and the remainder of the output section is allocated to P_MEM2 | P_MEM3 | P_MEM4. The | operator is used to specify the list of multiple memory ranges.
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You can also use the >> operator to indicate that an output section can be split within a single memory range. This functionality is useful when several output sections must be allocated into the same memory range, but the restrictions of one output section cause the memory range to be partitioned. Consider the following example:
MEMORY { RAM : } origin = 0x1000, length = 0x8000
The .special output section is allocated near the middle of the RAM memory range. This leaves two unused areas in RAM: from 0x1000 to 0x4000, and from the end of f1.obj(.text) to 0x8000. The specification for the .text section allows the linker to split the .text section around the .special section and use the available space in RAM on either side of .special. The >> operator can also be used to split an output section among all memory ranges that match a specified attribute combination. For example:
MEMORY { P_MEM1 (RWX) : origin = 0x1000, P_MEM2 (RWI) : origin = 0x4000, } SECTIONS { .text: { *(.text) } >> (RW) } length = 0x2000 length = 0x1000
The linker attempts to allocate all or part of the output section into any memory range whose attributes match the attributes specified in the SECTIONS directive. This SECTIONS directive has the same effect as:
SECTIONS { .text: { *(.text) } >> P_MEM1 | P_MEM2} }
Certain sections should not be split: Certain sections created by the compiler, including The .cinit section, which contains the autoinitialization table for C/C++ programs The .pinit section, which contains the list of global constructors for C++ programs The .bss section, which defines global variables An output section with an input section specification that includes an expression to be evaluated. The expression may define a symbol that is used in the program to manage the output section at run time. An output section that has a START(), END(), OR SIZE() operator applied to it. These operators provide information about a section's load or run address, and size. Splitting the section may compromise the integrity of the operation. The run allocation of a UNION. (Splitting the load allocation of a UNION is allowed.) If you use the >> operator on any of these sections, the linker issues a warning and ignores the operator.
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Use the load keyword for the load address and the run keyword for the run address. See Section 2.5 for an overview on run-time relocation. 7.5.5.1 Specifying Load and Run Addresses
The load address determines where a loader places the raw data for the section. Any references to the section (such as labels in it) refer to its run address. The application must copy the section from its load address to its run address; this does not happen automatically when you specify a separate run address. If you provide only one allocation (either load or run) for a section, the section is allocated only once and loads and runs at the same address. If you provide both allocations, the section is allocated as if it were two sections of the same size. This means that both allocations occupy space in the memory map and cannot overlay each other or other sections. (The UNION directive provides a way to overlay sections; see Section 7.5.6.1.) If either the load or run address has additional parameters, such as alignment or blocking, list them after the appropriate keyword. Everything related to allocation after the keyword load affects the load address until the keyword run is seen, after which, everything affects the run address. The load and run allocations are completely independent, so any qualification of one (such as alignment) has no effect on the other. You can also specify run first, then load. Use parentheses to improve readability. The examples below specify load and run addresses:
.data: load = SLOW_MEM, align = 32, run = FAST_MEM
(align 32 in FAST_MEM for run; align 16 anywhere for load) 7.5.5.2 Uninitialized Sections
Uninitialized sections (such as .bss) are not loaded, so their only significant address is the run address. The linker allocates uninitialized sections only once: if you specify both run and load addresses, the linker warns you and ignores the load address. Otherwise, if you specify only one address, the linker treats it as a run address, regardless of whether you call it load or run. This example specifies load and run addresses for an uninitialized section:
.bss: load = 0x1000, run = FAST_MEM
A warning is issued, load is ignored, and space is allocated in FAST_MEM. All of the following examples have the same effect. The .bss section is allocated in FAST_MEM.
.bss: load = FAST_MEM .bss: run = FAST_MEM .bss: > FAST_MEM
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7.5.5.3
Normally, any reference to a symbol in a section refers to its run-time address. However, it may be necessary at run time to refer to a load-time address. Specifically, the code that copies a section from its load address to its run address must have access to the load address. The .label directive defines a special symbol that refers to the section's load address. Thus, whereas normal symbols are relocated with respect to the run address, .label symbols are relocated with respect to the load address. See Create a Load-Time Address Label for more information on the .label directive. Example 7-9 and Example 7-10 show the use of the .label directive to copy a section from its load address in EXT_MEM to its run address in P_MEM. Figure 7-3 illustrates the run-time execution of Example 7-9. Example 7-9. Copying Section Assembly Language File
* Define a section to be copied from load to run address .sect ".fir" .label fir_src fir: * < code here> ;code for section .label fir_end * Copy .fir section from load address to run address .text MOV MOV MOV LOOP: CMP JL MOV INC JMP Copy_Done: &fir_s,R11 &fir_e,R12 #fir,R13 R11,R12 Copy_Done @R11+,0(R13) R13 LOOP
* Jump to fir routine, now at run address JMP fir_s fir_e .word .word fir fir_src fir_end
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0x2000
0x2500
0x3000
0x3500 0xFFFF
For some applications, you may want to allocate more than one section to run at the same address. For example, you may have several routines you want in fast external memory at various stages of execution. Or you may want several data objects that are not active at the same time to share a block of memory. The UNION statement within the SECTIONS directive provides a way to allocate several sections at the same run-time address. In Example 7-11, the .bss sections from file1.obj and file2.obj are allocated at the same address in FAST_MEM. In the memory map, the union occupies as much space as its largest component. The components of a union remain independent sections; they are simply allocated together as a unit. Example 7-11. The UNION Statement
SECTIONS { .text: load = SLOW_MEM UNION: run = FAST_MEM { .bss:part1: { file1.obj(.bss) } .bss:part2: { file2.obj(.bss) } } .bss:part3: run = FAST_MEM { globals.obj(.bss) } }
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Allocation of a section as part of a union affects only its run address. Under no circumstances can sections be overlaid for loading. If an initialized section is a union member (an initialized section, such as .text, has raw data), its load allocation must be separately specified. See Example 7-12. Example 7-12. Separate Load Addresses for UNION Sections
UNION run = FAST_MEM { .text:part1: load = SLOW_MEM, { file1.obj(.text) } .text:part2: load = SLOW_MEM, { file2.obj(.text) } }
Figure 7-4. Memory Allocation Shown in Example 7-11 and Example 7-12
FAST_MEM .bss:part2 .bss:part1 Sections can run as a union. This is run-time allocation only. FAST_MEM .text 2 (run) .text 1 (run) Copies at run time
.bss:part3
.bss:part3
.text 2 (load)
Since the .text sections contain data, they cannot load as a union, although they can be run as a union. Therefore, each requires its own load address. If you fail to provide a load allocation for an initialized section within a UNION, the linker issues a warning and allocates load space anywhere it can in configured memory. Uninitialized sections are not loaded and do not require load addresses. The UNION statement applies only to allocation of run addresses, so it is meaningless to specify a load address for the union itself. For purposes of allocation, the union is treated as an uninitialized section: any one allocation specified is considered a run address, and if both run and load addresses are specified, the linker issues a warning and ignores the load address.
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7.5.6.2
The SECTIONS directive's GROUP option forces several output sections to be allocated contiguously. For example, assume that a section named term_rec contains a termination record for a table in the .data section. You can force the linker to allocate .data and term_rec together: Example 7-13. Allocate Sections Together
SECTIONS { .text /* .bss /* GROUP 0x00001000 : { .data /* term_rec /* } }
*/ */ */
You can use binding, alignment, or named memory to allocate a GROUP in the same manner as a single output section. In the preceding example, the GROUP is bound to address 0x1000. This means that .data is allocated at 0x1000, and term_rec follows it in memory.
You Cannot Specify Addresses for Sections Within a GROUP NOTE: When you use the GROUP option, binding, alignment, or allocation into named memory can be specified for the group only. You cannot use binding, named memory, or alignment for sections within a group.
7.5.6.3
The linker allows arbitrary nesting of GROUP and UNION statements with the SECTIONS directive. By nesting GROUP and UNION statements, you can express hierarchical overlays and groupings of sections. Example 7-14 shows how two overlays can be grouped together. Example 7-14. Nesting GROUP and UNION Statements
SECTIONS { GROUP 0x1000 : { UNION: { mysect1: mysect2: } UNION: { mysect3: mysect4: } } }
run = FAST_MEM
For this example, the linker performs the following allocations: The four sections (mysect1, mysect2, mysect3, mysect4) are assigned unique, non-overlapping load addresses. The name you defined is used in the SLOW_MEM memory region. This assignment is determined by the particular load allocations given for each section. Sections mysect1 and mysect2 are assigned the same run address in FAST_MEM. Sections mysect3 and mysect4 are assigned the same run address in FAST_MEM.
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The run addresses of mysect1/mysect2 and mysect3/mysect4 are allocated contiguously, as directed by the GROUP statement (subject to alignment and blocking restrictions).
To refer to groups and unions, linker diagnostic messages use the notation: GROUP_n UNION_n In this notation, n is a sequential number (beginning at 1) that represents the lexical ordering of the group or union in the linker control file, without regard to nesting. Groups and unions each have their own counter. 7.5.6.4 Checking the Consistency of Allocators
The linker checks the consistency of load and run allocations specified for unions, groups, and sections. The following rules are used: Run allocations are only allowed for top-level sections, groups, or unions (sections, groups, or unions that are not nested under any other groups or unions). The linker uses the run address of the top-level structure to compute the run addresses of the components within groups and unions. The linker does not accept a load allocation for UNIONs. The linker does not accept a load allocation for uninitialized sections. In most cases, you must provide a load allocation for an initialized section. However, the linker does not accept a load allocation for an initialized section that is located within a group that already defines a load allocator. As a shortcut, you can specify a load allocation for an entire group, to determine the load allocations for every initialized section or subgroup nested within the group. However, a load allocation is accepted for an entire group only if all of the following conditions are true: The group is initialized (that is, it has at least one initialized member). The group is not nested inside another group that has a load allocator. The group does not contain a union containing initialized sections. If the group contains a union with initialized sections, it is necessary to specify the load allocation for each initialized section nested within the group. Consider the following example:
SECTIONS { GROUP: load = SLOW_MEM, run = SLOW_MEM { .text1: UNION: { .text2: .text3: } } }
The load allocator given for the group does not uniquely specify the load allocation for the elements within the union: .text2 and .text3. In this case, the linker issues a diagnostic message to request that these load allocations be specified explicitly.
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7.5.6.5
You can give a name to a UNION or GROUP by entering the name in parentheses after the declaration. For example:
GROUP(BSS_SYSMEM_STACK_GROUP) { .bss :{} .sysmem :{} .stack :{} } load=D_MEM, run=D_MEM
The name you defined is used in diagnostics for easy identification of the problem LCF area. For example:
warning: LOAD placement ignored for "BSS_SYSMEM_STACK_GROUP": object is uninitialized UNION(TEXT_CINIT_UNION) { .const :{}load=D_MEM, table(table1) .pinit :{}load=D_MEM, table(table1) }run=P_MEM warning:table(table1) operator ignored: table(table1) has already been applied to a section in the "UNION(TEXT_CINIT_UNION)" in which ".pinit" is a descendant
The DSECT type creates a dummy section with the following characteristics: It is not included in the output section memory allocation. It takes up no memory and is not included in the memory map listing. It can overlay other output sections, other DSECTs, and unconfigured memory. Global symbols defined in a dummy section are relocated normally. They appear in the output module's symbol table with the same value they would have if the DSECT had actually been loaded. These symbols can be referenced by other input sections. Undefined external symbols found in a DSECT cause specified archive libraries to be searched. The section's contents, relocation information, and line number information are not placed in the output module. In the preceding example, none of the sections from f1.obj are allocated, but all the symbols are relocated as though the sections were linked at address 0x2000. The other sections can refer to any of the global symbols in sec1. A COPY section is similar to a DSECT section, except that its contents and associated information are written to the output module. The .cinit section that contains initialization tables for the MSP430 C/C++ compiler has this attribute under the run-time initialization model. A NOLOAD section differs from a normal output section in one respect: the section's contents, relocation information, and line number information are not placed in the output module. The linker allocates space for the section, and it appears in the memory map listing.
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The syntax of assignment statements in the linker is similar to that of assignment statements in the C language: symbol symbol symbol symbol symbol = += -= *= /= expression; expression; expression; expression; expression; assigns the value of expression to symbol adds the value of expression to symbol subtracts the value of expression from symbol multiplies symbol by expression divides symbol by expression
The symbol should be defined externally. If it is not, the linker defines a new symbol and enters it into the symbol table. The expression must follow the rules defined in Section 7.5.8.3. Assignment statements must terminate with a semicolon. The linker processes assignment statements after it allocates all the output sections. Therefore, if an expression contains a symbol, the address used for that symbol reflects the symbol's address in the executable output file. For example, suppose a program reads data from one of two tables identified by two external symbols, Table1 and Table2. The program uses the symbol cur_tab as the address of the current table. The cur_tab symbol must point to either Table1 or Table2. You could accomplish this in the assembly code, but you would need to reassemble the program to change tables. Instead, you can use a linker assignment statement to assign cur_tab at link time:
prog.obj cur_tab = Table1; /* Input file */ /* Assign cur_tab to one of the tables */
7.5.8.2
A special symbol, denoted by a dot (.), represents the current value of the section program counter (SPC) during allocation. The SPC keeps track of the current location within a section. The linker's . symbol is analogous to the assembler's $ symbol. The . symbol can be used only in assignment statements within a SECTIONS directive because . is meaningful only during allocation and SECTIONS controls the allocation process. (See Section 7.5.4.) The . symbol refers to the current run address, not the current load address, of the section. For example, suppose a program needs to know the address of the beginning of the .data section. By using the .global directive (see Identify Global Symbols), you can create an external undefined variable called Dstart in the program. Then, assign the value of . to Dstart:
SECTIONS { .text: .data: .bss : } {} {Dstart = .;} {}
This defines Dstart to be the first linked address of the .data section. (Dstart is assigned before .data is allocated.) The linker relocates all references to Dstart. A special type of assignment assigns a value to the . symbol. This adjusts the SPC within an output section and creates a hole between two input sections. Any value assigned to . to create a hole is relative to the beginning of the section, not to the address actually represented by the . symbol. Holes and assignments to . are described in Section 7.5.9.
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7.5.8.3
Assignment Expressions
These rules apply to linker expressions: Expressions can contain global symbols, constants, and the C language operators listed in . All numbers are treated as long (32-bit) integers. Constants are identified by the linker in the same way as by the assembler. That is, numbers are recognized as decimal unless they have a suffix (H or h for hexadecimal and Q or q for octal). C language prefixes are also recognized (0 for octal and 0x for hex). Hexadecimal constants must begin with a digit. No binary constants are allowed. Symbols within an expression have only the value of the symbol's address. No type-checking is performed. Linker expressions can be absolute or relocatable. If an expression contains any relocatable symbols (and 0 or more constants or absolute symbols), it is relocatable. Otherwise, the expression is absolute. If a symbol is assigned the value of a relocatable expression, it is relocatable; if it is assigned the value of an absolute expression, it is absolute. The linker supports the C language operators listed in Table 7-9 in order of precedence. Operators in the same group have the same precedence. Besides the operators listed in , the linker also has an align operator that allows a symbol to be aligned on an n-byte boundary within an output section (n is a power of 2). For example, the following expression aligns the SPC within the current section on the next 16-byte boundary. Because the align operator is a function of the current SPC, it can be used only in the same context as . that is, within a SECTIONS directive.
. = align(16);
Group 7 Bitwise OR
Group 8 Logical AND Group 9 Logical OR Group 10 (Lowest Precedence) Assignment A+=B"A=A+B A-=B"A=A-B A*=B"A=A*B A/=B"A=A/B
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7.5.8.4
The linker automatically defines several symbols based on which sections are used in your assembly source. A program can use these symbols at run time to determine where a section is linked. Since these symbols are external, they appear in the linker map. Each symbol can be accessed in any assembly language module if it is declared with a .global directive (see Identify Global Symbols). You must have used the corresponding section in a source module for the symbol to be created. Values are assigned to these symbols as follows: .text etext .data edata .bss end is assigned the first address of the .text output section. (It marks the beginning of executable code.) is assigned the first address following the .text output section. (It marks the end of executable code.) is assigned the first address of the .data output section. (It marks the beginning of initialized data tables.) is assigned the first address following the .data output section. (It marks the end of initialized data tables.) is assigned the first address of the .bss output section. (It marks the beginning of uninitialized data.) is assigned the first address following the .bss output section. (It marks the end of uninitialized data.)
The following symbols are defined only for C/C++ support when the --ram_model or --rom_model option is used. __STACK_END __STACK_SIZE __SYSMEM_SIZE is assigned the end of the .stack size. is assigned the size of the .stack section. is assigned the size of the .sysmem section.
7.5.8.5
The code generation tools currently support the ability to load program code in one area of (slow) memory and run it in another (faster) area. This is done by specifying separate load and run addresses for an output section or group in the link command file. Then execute a sequence of instructions (the copying code in Example 7-9) that moves the program code from its load area to its run area before it is needed. There are several responsibilities that a programmer must take on when setting up a system with this feature. One of these responsibilities is to determine the size and run-time address of the program code to be moved. The current mechanisms to do this involve use of the .label directives in the copying code. A simple example is illustrated Example 7-9. This method of specifying the size and load address of the program code has limitations. While it works fine for an individual input section that is contained entirely within one source file, this method becomes more complicated if the program code is spread over several source files or if the programmer wants to copy an entire output section from load space to run space. Another problem with this method is that it does not account for the possibility that the section being moved may have an associated far call trampoline section that needs to be moved with it.
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7.5.8.6
The dot operator (.) is used to define symbols at link-time with a particular address inside of an output section. It is interpreted like a PC. Whatever the current offset within the current section is, that is the value associated with the dot. Consider an output section specification within a SECTIONS directive:
outsect: { s1.obj(.text) end_of_s1 = .; start_of_s2 = .; s2.obj(.text) end_of_s2 = .; }
This statement creates three symbols: end_of_s1the end address of .text in s1.obj start_of_s2the start address of .text in s2.obj end_of_s2the end address of .text in s2.obj Suppose there is padding between s1.obj and s2.obj that is created as a result of alignment. Then start_of_s2 is not really the start address of the .text section in s2.obj, but it is the address before the padding needed to align the .text section in s2.obj. This is due to the linker's interpretation of the dot operator as the current PC. It is also due to the fact that the dot operator is evaluated independently of the input sections around it. Another potential problem in the above example is that end_of_s2 may not account for any padding that was required at the end of the output section. You cannot reliably use end_of_s2 as the end address of the output section. One way to get around this problem is to create a dummy section immediately after the output section in question. For example:
GROUP { outsect: { start_of_outsect = .; ... } dummy: { size_of_outsect = . - start_of_outsect; } }
7.5.8.7
Six new operators have been added to the link command file syntax: LOAD_START( sym ) START( sym ) LOAD_END( sym ) END( sym ) LOAD_SIZE( sym ) SIZE( sym ) RUN_START( sym ) RUN_END( sym ) RUN_SIZE(sym ) Defines sym with the load-time start address of related allocation unit Defines sym with the load-time end address of related allocation unit Defines sym with the load-time size of related allocation unit Defines sym with the run-time start address of related allocation unit Defines sym with the run-time end address of related allocation unit Defines sym with the run-time size of related allocation unit
Linker Command File Operator Equivalencies NOTE: LOAD_START() and START() are equivalent, as are LOAD_END()/END() and LOAD_SIZE()/SIZE(). The LOAD names are recommended for clarity.
The new address and dimension operators can be associated with several different kinds of allocation units, including input items, output sections, GROUPs, and UNIONs. The following sections provide some examples of how the operators can be used in each case.
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7.5.8.7.1 Input Items Consider an output section specification within a SECTIONS directive:
outsect: { s1.obj(.text) end_of_s1 = .; start_of_s2 = .; s2.obj(.text) end_of_s2 = .; }
This can be rewritten using the START and END operators as follows:
outsect: { s1.obj(.text) { END(end_of_s1) } s2.obj(.text) { START(start_of_s2), END(end_of_s2) } }
The values of end_of_s1 and end_of_s2 will be the same as if you had used the dot operator in the original example, but start_of_s2 would be defined after any necessary padding that needs to be added between the two .text sections. Remember that the dot operator would cause start_of_s2 to be defined before any necessary padding is inserted between the two input sections. The syntax for using these operators in association with input sections calls for braces { } to enclose the operator list. The operators in the list are applied to the input item that occurs immediately before the list. 7.5.8.7.2 Output Section The START, END, and SIZE operators can also be associated with an output section. Here is an example:
outsect: START(start_of_outsect), SIZE(size_of_outsect) { <list of input items> }
In this case, the SIZE operator defines size_of_outsect to incorporate any padding that is required in the output section to conform to any alignment requirements that are imposed. The syntax for specifying the operators with an output section do not require braces to enclose the operator list. The operator list is simply included as part of the allocation specification for an output section. 7.5.8.7.3 GROUPs Here is another use of the START and SIZE operators in the context of a GROUP specification:
GROUP { outsect1: { ... } outsect2: { ... } } load = ROM, run = RAM, START(group_start), SIZE(group_size);
This can be useful if the whole GROUP is to be loaded in one location and run in another. The copying code can use group_start and group_size as parameters for where to copy from and how much is to be copied. This makes the use of .label in the source code unnecessary.
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7.5.8.7.4 UNIONs The RUN_SIZE and LOAD_SIZE operators provide a mechanism to distinguish between the size of a UNION's load space and the size of the space where its constituents are going to be copied before they are run. Here is an example:
UNION: run = RAM, LOAD_START(union_load_addr), LOAD_SIZE(union_ld_sz), RUN_SIZE(union_run_sz) { .text1: load = ROM, SIZE(text1_size) { f1.obj(.text) } .text2: load = ROM, SIZE(text2_size) { f2.obj(.text) } }
Here union_ld_sz is going to be equal to the sum of the sizes of all output sections placed in the union. The union_run_sz value is equivalent to the largest output section in the union. Both of these symbols incorporate any padding due to blocking or alignment requirements.
There are two rules to remember about the contents of output sections. An output section contains either: Raw data for the entire section No raw data A section that has raw data is referred to as initialized. This means that the object file contains the actual memory image contents of the section. When the section is loaded, this image is loaded into memory at the section's specified starting address. The .text and .data sections always have raw data if anything was assembled into them. Named sections defined with the .sect assembler directive also have raw data. By default, the .bss section (see Reserve Space in the .bss Section) and sections defined with the .usect directive (see Reserve Uninitialized Space) have no raw data (they are uninitialized). They occupy space in the memory map but have no actual contents. Uninitialized sections typically reserve space in fast external memory for variables. In the object file, an uninitialized section has a normal section header and can have symbols defined in it; no memory image, however, is stored in the section. 7.5.9.2 Creating Holes
You can create a hole in an initialized output section. A hole is created when you force the linker to leave extra space between input sections within an output section. When such a hole is created, the linker must supply raw data for the hole. Holes can be created only within output sections. Space can exist between output sections, but such space is not a hole. To fill the space between output sections, see Section 7.5.3.2. To create a hole in an output section, you must use a special type of linker assignment statement within an output section definition. The assignment statement modifies the SPC (denoted by .) by adding to it, assigning a greater value to it, or aligning it on an address boundary. The operators, expressions, and syntaxes of assignment statements are described in Section 7.5.8.
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The following example uses assignment statements to create holes in output sections:
SECTIONS { outsect: { file1.obj(.text) . += 0x0100 /* Create a hole with size 0x0100 */ file2.obj(.text) . = align(16); /* Create a hole to align the SPC */ file3.obj(.text) } }
The output section outsect is built as follows: 1. The .text section from file1.obj is linked in. 2. The linker creates a 256-byte hole. 3. The .text section from file2.obj is linked in after the hole. 4. The linker creates another hole by aligning the SPC on a 16-byte boundary. 5. Finally, the .text section from file3.obj is linked in. All values assigned to the . symbol within a section refer to the relative address within the section. The linker handles assignments to the . symbol as if the section started at address 0 (even if you have specified a binding address). Consider the statement . = align(16) in the example. This statement effectively aligns the file3.obj .text section to start on a 16-byte boundary within outsect. If outsect is ultimately allocated to start on an address that is not aligned, the file3.obj .text section will not be aligned either. The . symbol refers to the current run address, not the current load address, of the section. Expressions that decrement the . symbol are illegal. For example, it is invalid to use the -= operator in an assignment to the . symbol. The most common operators used in assignments to the . symbol are += and align. If an output section contains all input sections of a certain type (such as .text), you can use the following statements to create a hole at the beginning or end of the output section.
.text: .data: { { .+= 0x0100; } *(.data) . += 0x0100; } /* Hole at the beginning */ /* Hole at the end */
Another way to create a hole in an output section is to combine an uninitialized section with an initialized section to form a single output section. In this case, the linker treats the uninitialized section as a hole and supplies data for it. The following example illustrates this method:
SECTIONS { outsect: { file1.obj(.text) file1.obj(.bss) } }
Because the .text section has raw data, all of outsect must also contain raw data. Therefore, the uninitialized .bss section becomes a hole. Uninitialized sections become holes only when they are combined with initialized sections. If several uninitialized sections are linked together, the resulting output section is also uninitialized.
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7.5.9.3
Filling Holes
When a hole exists in an initialized output section, the linker must supply raw data to fill it. The linker fills holes with a 32-bit fill value that is replicated through memory until it fills the hole. The linker determines the fill value as follows: 1. If the hole is formed by combining an uninitialized section with an initialized section, you can specify a fill value for the uninitialized section. Follow the section name with an = sign and a 32-bit constant. For example:
SECTIONS { outsect: { file1.obj(.text) file2.obj(.bss)= 0xFF00FF00 } }
2. You can also specify a fill value for all the holes in an output section by supplying the fill value after the section definition:
SECTIONS { outsect:fill = 0xFF00FF00 { . += 0x0010; file1.obj(.text) file1.obj(.bss) } } /* Fills holes with 0xFF00FF00 */ /* This creates a hole /* This creates another hole */ */
3. If you do not specify an initialization value for a hole, the linker fills the hole with the value specified with the --fill_value option (see Section 7.4.9). For example, suppose the command file link.cmd contains the following SECTIONS directive:
SECTIONS { .text: { .= 0x0100; } /* Create a 100 word hole */ }
This fills the hole with 0xFFFFFFFF. 4. If you do not invoke the linker with the --fill_value option or otherwise specify a fill value, the linker fills holes with 0s. Whenever a hole is created and filled in an initialized output section, the hole is identified in the link map along with the value the linker uses to fill it. 7.5.9.4 Explicit Initialization of Uninitialized Sections
You can force the linker to initialize an uninitialized section by specifying an explicit fill value for it in the SECTIONS directive. This causes the entire section to have raw data (the fill value). For example:
SECTIONS { .bss: fill = 0x12341234 /* Fills .bss with 0x12341234 */ }
Filling Sections NOTE: Because filling a section (even with 0s) causes raw data to be generated for the entire section in the output file, your output file will be very large if you specify fill values for large sections or holes.
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Object Libraries
7.6
Object Libraries
An object library is a partitioned archive file that contains object files as members. Usually, a group of related modules are grouped together into a library. When you specify an object library as linker input, the linker includes any members of the library that define existing unresolved symbol references. You can use the archiver to build and maintain libraries. Section 6.1 contains more information about the archiver. Using object libraries can reduce link time and the size of the executable module. Normally, if an object file that contains a function is specified at link time, the file is linked whether the function is used or not; however, if that same function is placed in an archive library, the file is included only if the function is referenced. The order in which libraries are specified is important, because the linker includes only those members that resolve symbols that are undefined at the time the library is searched. The same library can be specified as often as necessary; it is searched each time it is included. Alternatively, you can use the --reread_libs option to reread libraries until no more references can be resolved (see Section 7.4.13.3). A library has a table that lists all external symbols defined in the library; the linker searches through the table until it determines that it cannot use the library to resolve any more references. The following examples link several files and libraries, using these assumptions: Input files f1.obj and f2.obj both reference an external function named clrscr. Input file f1.obj references the symbol origin. Input file f2.obj references the symbol fillclr. Member 0 of library libc.lib contains a definition of origin. Member 3 of library liba.lib contains a definition of fillclr. Member 1 of both libraries defines clrscr. If you enter:
cl430 --run_linker f1.obj f2.obj liba.lib libc.lib
then: Member 1 of liba.lib satisfies the f1.obj and f2.obj references to clrscr because the library is searched and the definition of clrscr is found. Member 0 of libc.lib satisfies the reference to origin. Member 3 of liba.lib satisfies the reference to fillclr. If, however, you enter:
cl430 --run_linker f1.obj f2.obj libc.lib liba.lib
then the references to clrscr are satisfied by member 1 of libc.lib. If none of the linked files reference symbols defined in a library, you can use the --undef_sym option to force the linker to include a library member. (See Section 7.4.27.) The next example creates an undefined symbol rout1 in the linker's global symbol table:
cl430 --run_linker --undef_sym=rout1 libc.lib
If any member of libc.lib defines rout1, the linker includes that member. Library members are allocated according to the SECTIONS directive default allocation algorithm; see Section 7.5.4. Section 7.4.13 describes methods for specifying directories that contain object libraries.
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7.7
: : : :
{} {} {} {}
> RESET {} > MEM {} > MEM ;cflag option only ;cflag option only
All .text input sections are concatenated to form a .text output section in the executable output file, and all .data input sections are combined to form a .data output section. If you use a SECTIONS directive, the linker performs no part of the default allocation. Allocation is performed according to the rules specified by the SECTIONS directive and the general algorithm described next in Section 7.7.1.
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7.8
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In this example, the LOAD_START(), RUN_START(), and SIZE() operators instruct the linker to create three symbols:
Symbol _flash_code_ld_start _flash_code_rn_start _flash_code_size Description Load address of .flashcode section Run address of .flashcode section Size of .flashcode section
These symbols can then be referenced from the copy table. The actual data in the copy table will be updated automatically each time the application is linked. This approach removes step 1 of the process described in Section 7.8.1. While maintenance of the copy table is reduced markedly, you must still carry the burden of keeping the copy table contents in sync with the symbols that are defined in the link command file. Ideally, the linker would generate the boot copy table automatically. This would avoid having to build the application twice and free you from having to explicitly manage the contents of the boot copy table. For more information on the LOAD_START(), RUN_START(), and SIZE() operators, see Section 7.5.8.7.
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The application must manage the contents of the memory overlay at run time. That is, whenever any services from .task1 or .task2 are needed, the application must first ensure that .task1 and .task2 are resident in the memory overlay. Similarly for .task3 and .task4. To affect a copy of .task1 and .task2 from ROM to RAM at run time, the application must first gain access to the load address of the tasks (_task12_load_start), the run address (_task_run_start), and the size (_task12_size). Then this information is used to perform the actual code copy.
Using the SECTIONS directive from Example 7-17 in the link command file, the linker generates two copy tables named: _task12_copy_table and _task34_copy_table. Each copy table provides the load address, run address, and size of the GROUP that is associated with the copy table. This information is accessible from application source code using the linker-generated symbols, _task12_copy_table and _task34_copy_table, which provide the addresses of the two copy tables, respectively. Using this method, you do not have to worry about the creation or maintenance of a copy table. You can reference the address of any copy table generated by the linker in C/C++ or assembly source code, passing that value to a general purpose copy routine which will process the copy table and affect the actual copy.
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For this example, the linker creates a copy table that can be accessed through a special linker-generated symbol, ___binit__, which contains the list of all object components that need to be copied from their load location to their run location at boot-time. If a link command file does not contain any uses of table(BINIT), then the ___binit__ symbol is given a value of -1 to indicate that a boot-time copy table does not exist for a particular application. You can apply the table(BINIT) specification to an output section, GROUP, or UNION member. If used in the context of a UNION, only one member of the UNION can be designated with table(BINIT). If applied to a GROUP, then none of that GROUP's members may be marked with table(BINIT).The linker detects violations of these rules and reports them as warnings, ignoring each offending use of the table(BINIT) specification.
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In this example, the output sections .first and .extra are copied from external memory (EMEM) into program memory (PMEM) at boot time while processing the BINIT copy table. After the application has started executing its main thread, it can then manage the contents of the overlay using the two overlay copy tables named: _first_ctbl and _second_ctbl.
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For each object component that is marked for a copy, the linker creates a COPY_RECORD object for it. Each COPY_RECORD contains at least the following information for the object component: The load address The run address The size The linker collects all COPY_RECORDs that are associated with the same copy table into a COPY_TABLE object. The COPY_TABLE object contains the size of a given COPY_RECORD, the number of COPY_RECORDs in the table, and the array of COPY_RECORDs in the table. For instance, in the BINIT example in Section 7.8.6, the .first and .extra output sections will each have their own COPY_RECORD entries in the BINIT copy table. The BINIT copy table will then look like this:
COPY_TABLE __binit__ = { 12, 2, { <load address of .first>, <run address of .first>, <size of .first> }, { <load address of .extra>, <run address of .extra>, <size of .extra> } };
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For the link command file in Example 7-21, the boot-time copy table is generated into a .binit input section, which is collected into the .binit output section, which is mapped to an address in the BMEM memory area. The _first_ctbl is generated into the .ovly:_first_ctbl input section and the _second_ctbl is generated into the .ovly:_second_ctbl input section. Since the base names of these input sections match the name of the .ovly output section, the input sections are collected into the .ovly output section, which is then mapped to an address in the BMEM memory area. If you do not provide explicit placement instructions for the linker-generated copy table sections, they are allocated according to the linker's default placement algorithm. The linker does not allow other types of input sections to be combined with a copy table input section in the same output section. The linker does not allow a copy table section that was created from a partial link session to be used as input to a succeeding link session.
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For example, consider an application which has seven tasks. Tasks 1 through 3 are overlaid with tasks 4 through 7 (using a UNION directive). The load placement of all of the tasks is split among four different memory areas (LMEM1, LMEM2, LMEM3, and LMEM4). The overlay is defined as part of memory area PMEM. You must move each set of tasks into the overlay at run time before any services from the set are used. You can use table() operators in combination with splitting operators, >>, to create copy tables that have all the information needed to move either group of tasks into the memory overlay as shown in Example 7-22. Example 7-23 illustrates a possible driver for such an application. Example 7-22. Creating a Copy Table to Access a Split Object Component
SECTIONS { UNION { .task1to3: { *(.task1), *(.task2), *(.task3) } load >> LMEM1 | LMEM2 | LMEM4, table(_task13_ctbl) GROUP { .task4: .task5: .task6: .task7:
{ { { {
} } } }
} load >> LMEM1 | LMEM3 | LMEM4, table(_task47_ctbl) } run = PMEM ... .ovly: > LMEM4 }
You must declare a COPY_TABLE object as far to allow the overlay copy table section placement to be independent from the other sections containing data objects (such as .bss).
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The contents of the .task1to3 section are split in the section's load space and contiguous in its run space. The linker-generated copy table, _task13_ctbl, contains a separate COPY_RECORD for each piece of the split section .task1to3. When the address of _task13_ctbl is passed to copy_in(), each piece of .task1to3 is copied from its load location into the run location. The contents of the GROUP containing tasks 4 through 7 are also split in load space. The linker performs the GROUP split by applying the split operator to each member of the GROUP in order. The copy table for the GROUP then contains a COPY_RECORD entry for every piece of every member of the GROUP. These pieces are copied into the memory overlay when the _task47_ctbl is processed by copy_in(). The split operator can be applied to an output section, GROUP, or the load placement of a UNION or UNION member. The linker does not permit a split operator to be applied to the run placement of either a UNION or of a UNION member. The linker detects such violations, emits a warning, and ignores the offending split operator usage.
7.9
file1.com contains:
SECTIONS { . ss1: { fn.obj f1.obj } } f2.obj . .
Step 2:
Link the file file2.com; use the --relocatable option to retain relocation information in the output file tempout2.out.
cl430 --run_linker --relocatable --output_file=tempout2 file2.com
file2.com contains:
SECTIONS { . ss2: { gn.obj g1.obj } } g2.obj . .
Step 3:
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The --rom_model option tells the linker to use special conventions that are defined by the C/C++ environment. The archive libraries shipped by TI contain C/C++ run-time-support functions. C, C++, and mixed C and C++ programs can use the same run-time-support library. Run-time-support functions and variables that can be called and referenced from both C and C++ will have the same linkage. For more information about the MSP430 C/C++ language, including the run-time environment and run-time-support functions, see the MSP430 Optimizing C/C++ Compiler User's Guide.
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.cinit section
cint Loader
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.cinit
Loader
.bss
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Linker Example
The output sections are constructed in the following manner: Executable code, contained in the .text sections of demo.obj, fft.obj, and tables.obj, is linked into program memory ROM. Variables, contained in the var_defs section of demo.obj, are linked into data memory in block FAST_MEM_2. Tables of coefficients in the .data sections of demo.obj, tables.obj, and fft.obj are linked into FAST_MEM_1. A hole is created with a length of 100 and a fill value of 0x07A1C. The xy section form demo.obj, which contains buffers and variables, is linked by default into page 1 of the block STACK, since it is not explicitly linked. Executable code, contained in the .text sections of demo.obj, ctrl.obj, and tables.obj, must be linked into FLASH. A set of interrupt vectors, contained in the .intvecs section of tables.obj, must be linked at address 0xFFE0. A table of coefficients, contained in the .data section of tables.obj, must be linked into FLASH. The remainder of block FLASH must be initialized to the value 0xFF00. A set of variables, contained in the .bss section of ctrl.obj, must be linked into RAM and preinitialized to 0x0100. Another .bss section in ctrl.obj must be linked into RAM. Example 7-24 shows the link command file for this example. Example 7-25 shows the map file.
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= = = = = = = = =
= = = = = = = = =
/****************************************************************************/ /* Specify Output Sections */ /****************************************************************************/ SECTIONS { .text : {} > FLASH /* Link all .text section into flash */ .intvecs : {} > 0xFFE0 /* Link interrupt vectors. at 0xFFE0 */ .data : /* Link .data sections */ { tables.obj(.data) . = 0x400; /* Create hole at end of block */ } = 0xFF00 > FLASH /* Fill and link into FLASH */ ctrl_vars : { ctrl.obj(.bss) } = 0x0100 > RAM .bss } /****************************************************************************/ /* End of Command File */ /****************************************************************************/ : {} > RAM /* Create new sections for ctrl variables */
/* Fill with 0x0100 and link into RAM /* Link remaining .bss sections into RAM
*/ */
This creates the map file shown in Example 7-25 and an output file called demo.out that can be run on an MSP430.
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SECTION ALLOCATION MAP output section -------.text attributes/ input sections ---------------ctrl.obj (.text) tables.obj (.text) demo.obj (.text)
page ---0
origin ---------00000020 00000020 000000c0 000000c0 00000000 00000000 08000000 08000000 08000168 08000400 08000400 00001000 00001000 00001500 00001500 00001600
length ---------00000138 000000a0 00000000 00000098 00000020 00000020 00000400 00000168 00000298 00000000 00000000 00000500 00000500 00000100 00000100 00000000
.intvecs
tables.obj (.intvecs)
.data
ctrl_var
.bss
GLOBAL SYMBOLS address name -------- ---00001500 .bss 08000000 .data 00000020 .text 000000d4 SETUP 00000020 clear 08000400 edata 00001600 end 00000158 etext 000000b8 set 000000c0 x42 [10 symbols]
address -------00000020 00000020 000000b8 000000c0 000000d4 00000158 00001500 00001600 08000000 08000400
name ---clear .text set x42 SETUP etext .bss end .data edata
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The MSP430 absolute lister is a debugging tool that accepts linked object files as input and creates .abs files as output. These .abs files can be assembled to produce a listing that shows the absolute addresses of object code. Manually, this could be a tedious process requiring many operations; however, the absolute lister utility performs these operations automatically.
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Producing an Absolute Listing .......................................................................... 212 Invoking the Absolute Lister ............................................................................. 213 Absolute Lister Example ................................................................................... 214
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8.1
Assembler
Object file Step 2: Link step Link the resulting object file.
Linked object file Step 3: Absolute lister Invoke the absolute lister; use the linked object file as input. This creates a file with an .abs extension.
.abs file Step 4: Assembler Finally, assemble the .abs file; you must invoke the assembler with the compiler --absolute_listing option. This produces a listing file that contains absolute addresses.
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input file
The absolute lister produces an output file for each file that was linked. These files are named with the input filenames and an extension of .abs. Header files, however, do not generate a corresponding .abs file. Assemble these files with the --absolute_listing assembler option as follows to create the absolute listing: cl430 --absolute_listing filename .abs The -e options affect both the interpretation of filenames on the command line and the names of the output files. They should always precede any filename on the command line. The -e options are useful when the linked object file was created from C files compiled with the debugging option (--symdebug:dwarf compiler option). When the debugging option is set, the resulting linked object file contains the name of the source files used to build it. In this case, the absolute lister does not generate a corresponding .abs file for the C header files. Also, the .abs file corresponding to a C source file uses the assembly file generated from the C source file rather than the C source file itself. For example, suppose the C source file hello.csr is compiled with the debugging option set; the debugging option generates the assembly file hello.s. The hello.csr file includes hello.hsr. Assuming the executable file created is called hello.out, the following command generates the proper .abs file:
abs430 -ea s -ec csr -eh hsr hello.out
An .abs file is not created for hello.hsr (the header file), and hello.abs includes the assembly file hello.s, not the C source file hello.csr.
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8.3
module2.asm
.global dflag .global array .global offset .bss .text MOV offset,1
&offset,R14
globals.def
.global dflag .global array .global offset
The following steps create absolute listings for the files module1.asm and module2.asm: Step 1: First, assemble module1.asm and module2.asm:
cl430 module1 cl430 module2
Step 2:
This creates two object files called module1.obj and module2.obj. Next, link module1.obj and module2.obj using the following linker command file, called bttest.cmd:
--output_file=bttest.out --map_file=bttest.map module1.obj module2.obj MEMORY { RAM: origin=0x0200, length=0x0800 FLASH: origin=0x1100, length=0xEEE0 } SECTIONS { .bss: >RAM .text: >FLASH }
This command creates an executable object file called bttest.out; use this new file as input for the absolute lister.
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Step 3:
This command creates two files called module1.abs and module2.abs: module1.abs:
.text __text__ etext __etext__ .bss __bss__ end __end__ array dflag offset .nolist .setsym .setsym .setsym .setsym .setsym .setsym .setsym .setsym .setsym .setsym .setsym .setsect .setsect .setsect .list .text .copy 000001100h 000001100h 000001112h 000001112h 000000200h 000000200h 000000266h 000000266h 000000201h 000000200h 000000265h ".text",000001100h ".bss",000000200h ".debug_line",000000000h
"module1.asm"
module2.abs:
.text __text__ etext __etext__ .bss __bss__ end __end__ array dflag offset .nolist .setsym .setsym .setsym .setsym .setsym .setsym .setsym .setsym .setsym .setsym .setsym .setsect .setsect .setsect .setsect .list .text .copy 000001100h 000001100h 000001112h 000001112h 000000200h 000000200h 000000266h 000000266h 000000201h 000000200h 000000265h ".text",00000110eh ".bss",000000265h ".debug_line",00000003ah ".debug_info",00000014fh
"module2.asm"
Step 4:
These files contain the following information that the assembler needs for Step 4: They contain .setsym directives, which equate values to global symbols. Both files contain global equates for the symbol dflag. The symbol dflag was defined in the file globals.def, which was included in module1.asm and module2.asm. They contain .setsect directives, which define the absolute addresses for sections. They contain .copy directives, which defines the assembly language source file to include. The .setsym and .setsect directives are useful only for creating absolute listings, not normal assembly. Finally, assemble the .abs files created by the absolute lister (remember that you must use the --absolute_listing option when you invoke the assembler):
cl430 --absolute_listing module1.abs cl430 --absolute_listing module2.abs
This command sequence creates two listing files called module1.lst and module2.lst; no object code is produced. These listing files are similar to normal listing files; however, the addresses shown are absolute addresses. The absolute listing files created are module1.lst (see Example 8-1 ) and module2.lst (see Example 8-2).
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A A A A A A A A A A
000200 000201 001100 001100 001102 8 001104 001106 9 001108 10 00110a 00110c
A A A A A A
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The MSP430 cross-reference lister is a debugging tool. This utility accepts linked object files as input and produces a cross-reference listing as output. This listing shows symbols, their definitions, and their references in the linked source files.
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Producing a Cross-Reference Listing ................................................................. 218 Invoking the Cross-Reference Lister .................................................................. 219 Cross-Reference Listing Example ...................................................................... 220
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9.1
Assembler
Linked object file Step 3: Cross-reference lister Invoke the cross-reference lister. The following section provides the command syntax for invoking the cross-reference lister utility.
Cross-reference listing
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xref430 options
identifies the cross-reference lister options you want to use. Options are not case sensitive and can appear anywhere on the command line following the command. -l (lowercase L) specifies the number of lines per page for the output file. The format of the -l option is -lnum, where num is a decimal constant. For example, -l30 sets the number of lines per page in the output file to 30. The space between the option and the decimal constant is optional. The default is 60 lines per page. -q suppresses the banner and all progress information (run quiet). input filename is a linked object file. If you omit the input filename, the utility prompts for a filename. output filename is the name of the cross-reference listing file. If you omit the output filename, the default filename is the input filename with an .xrf extension.
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================================================================================
================================================================================ Symbol: array Filename ________ module1.asm RTYP ____ EDEF AsmVal ________ -0001 LnkVal ________ 0201 DefLn ______ 5 RefLn _______ 2 RefLn _______ 7 RefLn _______
================================================================================
================================================================================ Symbol: dflag Filename ________ module1.asm RTYP ____ EDEF AsmVal ________ -0000 LnkVal ________ 0200 DefLn ______ 4 RefLn _______ 1 RefLn _______ 10 RefLn _______
================================================================================
================================================================================ Symbol: offset Filename RTYP AsmVal LnkVal DefLn RefLn RefLn RefLn ________ ____ ________ ________ ______ _______ _______ _______ module1.asm EREF 0000 0265 3 8 module2.asm EDEF -0000 0265 4 3 6 ================================================================================
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The terms defined below appear in the preceding cross-reference listing: Symbol Filename RTYP Name of the symbol listed Name of the file where the symbol appears The symbol's reference type in this file. The possible reference types are: STAT The symbol is defined in this file and is not declared as global. EDEF The symbol is defined in this file and is declared as global. EREF The symbol is not defined in this file but is referenced as global. UNDF The symbol is not defined in this file and is not declared as global. This hexadecimal number is the value assigned to the symbol at assembly time. A value may also be preceded by a character that describes the symbol's attributes. Table 9-1 lists these characters and names. This hexadecimal number is the value assigned to the symbol after linking. The statement number where the symbol is defined. The line number where the symbol is referenced. If the line number is followed by an asterisk (*), then that reference can modify the contents of the object. A blank in this column indicates that the symbol was never used. Table 9-1. Symbol Attributes in Cross-Reference Listing
Character ' " + Meaning Symbol defined in a .text section Symbol defined in a .data section Symbol defined in a .sect section Symbol defined in a .bss or .usect section
AsmVal
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This chapter describes how to invoke the following miscellaneous utilities: The object file display utility prints the contents of object files, executable files, and/or archive libraries in both text and XML formats. The disassembler accepts object files and executable files as input and produces an assembly listing as output. This listing shows assembly instructions, their opcodes, and the section program counter values. The name utility prints a list of names defined and referenced in an object file, executable files, and/or archive libraries. The strip utility removes symbol table and debugging information from object and executable files.
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Invoking Invoking Invoking Invoking the the the the Object File Display Utility ............................................................... Disassembler ................................................................................ Name Utility .................................................................................. Strip Utility ...................................................................................
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If an archive file is given as input to the object file display utility, each object file member of the archive is processed as if it was passed on the command line. The object file members are processed in the order in which they appear in the archive file. If the object file display utility is invoked without any options, it displays information about the contents of the input files on the console screen.
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Invoking the Disassembler Object File Display Format NOTE: The object file display utility produces data in a text format by default. This data is not intended to be used as input to programs for further processing of the information. XML format should be used for mechanical processing..
input filename[.ext]
output filename
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The MSP430 assembler and linker create object files which are in binary formats that encourage modular programming and provide powerful and flexible methods for managing code segments and target system memory. Most EPROM programmers do not accept object files as input. The hex conversion utility converts an object file into one of several standard ASCII hexadecimal formats, suitable for loading into an EPROM programmer. The utility is also useful in other applications requiring hexadecimal conversion of an object file (for example, when using debuggers and loaders). The hex conversion utility can produce these output file formats: ASCII-Hex, supporting 16-bit addresses Extended Tektronix (Tektronix) Intel MCS-86 (Intel) Motorola Exorciser (Motorola-S), supporting 16-bit addresses Texas Instruments SDSMAC (TI-Tagged), supporting 16-bit addresses Texas Instruments TI-TXT format, supporting 16-bit addresses
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The Hex Conversion Utility's Role in the Software Development Flow .................... Invoking the Hex Conversion Utility ................................................................... Understanding Memory Widths ......................................................................... The ROMS Directive ......................................................................................... The SECTIONS Directive ................................................................................... The Load Image Format (--load_image Option) .................................................... Excluding a Specified Section ........................................................................... Assigning Output Filenames ............................................................................. Image Mode and the --fill Option ........................................................................ Controlling the ROM Device Address ................................................................ Control Hex Conversion Utility Diagnostics ....................................................... Description of the Object Formats ....................................................................
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11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 11.8 11.9 11.10 11.11 11.12
228 229 232 236 240 241 242 242 243 244 245 246
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11.1 The Hex Conversion Utility's Role in the Software Development Flow
Figure 11-1 highlights the role of the hex conversion utility in the software development process. Figure 11-1. The Hex Conversion Utility in the MSP430 Software Development Flow
C/C++ source files Macro source files
C/C++ compiler
Archiver
Assembler source
Macro library
Assembler
Archiver
Object files
Library-build process
Debugging tools
Linker
Run-timesupport library
EPROM programmer
Absolute lister
Cross-reference lister
MSP430
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Specify the options and filenames in a command file. You can create a file that stores command line options and filenames for invoking the hex conversion utility. The following example invokes the utility using a command file called hexutil.cmd:
hex430 hexutil.cmd
In addition to regular command line information, you can use the hex conversion utility ROMS and SECTIONS directives in a command file.
11.2.1 Invoking the Hex Conversion Utility From the Command Line
To invoke the hex conversion utility, enter: hex430 [options] filename hex430 options is the command that invokes the hex conversion utility. supplies additional information that controls the hex conversion process. You can use options on the command line or in a command file. Table 11-1 lists the basic options. All options are preceded by a hyphen and are not case sensitive. Several options have an additional parameter that must be separated from the option by at least one space. Options with multi-character names must be spelled exactly as shown in this document; no abbreviations are allowed. Options are not affected by the order in which they are used. The exception to this rule is the --quiet option, which must be used before any other options. names an object file or a command file (for more information, see Section 11.2.2). Table 11-1. Basic Hex Conversion Utility Options
Option Alias Description General Options --byte --exclude={fname(sname) | sname} --fill=value --help --image --linkerfill --map=filename --memwidth=value --olength=value --order={LS|MS} --outfile=filename --quiet --romwidth=value -byte -exclude -fill -options, -h -image -linkerfill -map -memwidth -olength -order -o -q -romwidth Number output locations by bytes rather than by target addressing If the filename (fname) is omitted, all sections matching sname will be excluded. Fill holes with value Display the syntax for invoking the utility and list available options. If the option is followed by another option or phrase, detailed information about that option or phrase is displayed. Select image mode Include linker fill sections in images Generate a map file Define the system memory word width (default 16 bits) Specify maximum number of data items per line of output Specify data ordering (endianness) Specify an output filename Run quietly (when used, it must appear before other options) Specify the ROM device width (default depends on format used) -Section 11.7 Section 11.9.2 Section 11.2.2 Section 11.9.1 -Section 11.4.2 Section 11.3.2 -Section 11.3.4 Section 11.8 Section 11.2.2 Section 11.3.3 See
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To invoke the utility and use the options you defined in a command file, enter: hex430 command_filename You can also specify other options and files on the command line. For example, you could invoke the utility by using both a command file and command line options:
hex430 firmware.cmd --map=firmware.mxp
The order in which these options and filenames appear is not important. The utility reads all input from the command line and all information from the command file before starting the conversion process. However, if you are using the -q option, it must appear as the first option on the command line or in a command file. The --help option displays the syntax for invoking the compiler and lists available options. If the --help option is followed by another option or phrase, detailed information about the option or phrase is displayed. For example, to see information about options associated with generating a boot table use --help boot. The --quiet option suppresses the hex conversion utility's normal banner and progress information. Assume that a command file named firmware.cmd contains these lines:
firmware.out --ti-tagged --outfile=firm.lsb --outfile=firm.msb hex430 firmware.cmd /* /* /* /* input file TI-Tagged output file output file */ */ */ */
You can invoke the hex conversion utility by entering: This example shows how to convert a file called appl.out into eight hex files in Intel format. Each output file is one byte wide and 4K bytes long.
appl.out --intel --map=appl.mxp /* input file */ /* Intel format */ /* map file */
ROMS { ROW1: origin=0x00000000 len=0x4000 romwidth=8 files={ appl.u0 appl.u1 app1.u2 appl.u3 } ROW2: origin=0x00004000 len=0x4000 romwidth=8 files={ app1.u4 appl.u5 appl.u6 appl.u7 } } SECTIONS { .text, .data, .cinit, .sect1, .vectors, .const: }
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Input file
Phase I
The raw data in the object file is grouped into words according to the size specified by the --memwidth option.
Phase II
The memwidth-sized words are broken up according to the size specified by the --romwidth option and are written to a file(s) according to the specified format (i.e., Intel, Tektronix, etc.).
Output file(s)
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Figure 11-3 demonstrates how the memory width is related to object file data. Figure 11-3. Object File Data and Memory Widths
Source file .word 0AABBh .word 01122h . . . Data width = 16 (fixed) 0AABBh 01122h . . .
Memory widths (variable) data width = 16 --memwidth=16 (default) Data after phase I of hex430 AABB 1122 . . . --memwidth=8 BB AA 22 11 . . .
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TI-TXT Format is 8 Bits Wide NOTE: You cannot change the ROM width of the TI-TXT format. The TI-TXT hex format supports only an 8-bit ROM width.
You can change ROM width (except for TI-Tagged and TI-TXT formats) by: Using the --romwidth option. This option changes the ROM width value for the entire object file. Setting the romwidth parameter of the ROMS directive. This parameter changes the ROM width value for a specific ROM address range and overrides the --romwidth option for that range. See Section 11.4. For both methods, use a value that is a power of 2 greater than or equal to 8. If you select a ROM width that is wider than the natural size of the output format (16 bits for TI-Tagged or 8 bits for all others), the utility simply writes multibyte fields into the file. Figure 11-4 illustrates how the object file data, memory, and ROM widths are related to one another.
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--romwidth=8 --outfile=file.b0
--outfile=file.b1 --romwidth=8 --outfile=file.byt
BB 22 AA 11
. . . . . .
BBAA2211
. . .
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romname :
... } ROMS romname begins the directive definition. identifies a memory range. The name of the memory range can be one to eight characters in length. The name has no significance to the program; it simply identifies the range, except when the output is for a load image in which case it denotes the section name. (Duplicate memory range names are allowed.) specifies the starting address of a memory range. It can be entered as origin, org, or o. The associated value must be a decimal, octal, or hexadecimal constant. If you omit the origin value, the origin defaults to 0. The following table summarizes the notation you can use to specify a decimal, octal, or hexadecimal constant:
Notation 0x prefix or h suffix 0 prefix No prefix or suffix Example 0x77 or 077h 077 77
origin
length
romwidth
memwidth
fill
specifies the length of a memory range as the physical length of the ROM device. It can be entered as length, len, or l. The value must be a decimal, octal, or hexadecimal constant. If you omit the length value, it defaults to the length of the entire address space. specifies the physical ROM width of the range in bits (see Section 11.3.3). Any value you specify here overrides the --romwidth option. The value must be a decimal, octal, or hexadecimal constant that is a power of 2 greater than or equal to 8. specifies the memory width of the range in bits (see Section 11.3.2). Any value you specify here overrides the --memwidth option. The value must be a decimal, octal, or hexadecimal constant that is a power of 2 greater than or equal to 8. When using the memwidth parameter, you must also specify the paddr parameter for each section in the SECTIONS directive. (See Section 11.5.) specifies a fill value to use for the range. In image mode, the hex conversion utility uses this value to fill any holes between sections in a range. A hole is an area between the input sections that comprises an output section that contains no actual code or data. The fill value must be a decimal, octal, or hexadecimal constant with a width equal to the target width. Any value you specify here overrides the --fill option. When using fill, you must also use the --image command line option. (See Section 11.9.2.)
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files
identifies the names of the output files that correspond to this range. Enclose the list of names in curly braces and order them from least significant to most significant output file, where the bits of the memory word are numbered from right to left. The number of file names must equal the number of output files that the range generates. To calculate the number of output files, see Section 11.3.3. The utility warns you if you list too many or too few filenames.
Unless you are using the --image option, all of the parameters that define a range are optional; the commas and equal signs are also optional. A range with no origin or length defines the entire address space. In image mode, an origin and length are required for all ranges. Ranges must not overlap and must be listed in order of ascending address.
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Figure 11-5. The infile.out File Partitioned Into Four Output Files
COFF file: infile.out 0x4000 .text 0x487F 0x5B80 .data 0x633F 0x6700 .table 0x7C7F 0x5FFF Width = 8 bits len = 2000h (8K) EPROM2 rom6000.b0 rom6000.b1 0x6000 0x6340 0x6700 .data FFh .table 0x7C80 0x7FFF FFh .data 00h .table 00h 0x5B80 .data .data 0x4000 (org) 0x4880 0h 0h Output files: EPROM1 rom4000.b0 rom4000.b1 .text .text
The map file (specified with the --map option) is advantageous when you use the ROMS directive with multiple ranges. The map file shows each range, its parameters, names of associated output files, and a list of contents (section names and fill values) broken down by address. Example 11-2 is a segment of the map file resulting from the example in Example 11-1.
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Example 11-2. Map File Output From Example 11-1 Showing Memory Ranges
----------------------------------------------------4000..5fff Page=0 Width=8 "EPROM1" ----------------------------------------------------OUTPUT FILES: rom4000.b0 [b0..b7] rom4000.b1 [b8..b15] CONTENTS: 4000..487f .text 4880..5b7f FILL = 0000 5b80..5fff .data ----------------------------------------------------6000..7fff Page=0 Width=8 "EPROM2" ----------------------------------------------------OUTPUT FILES: rom6000.b0 [b0..b7] rom6000.b1 [b8..b15] CONTENTS: 6000..633f .data 6340..66ff FILL = ff00 6700..7c7f .table 7c80..7fff FILL = ff00
EPROM1 defines the address range from 0x4000 through 0x5FFF with the following sections:
This section ... .text .data Has this range ... 0x4000 through 0x487F 0x5B80 through 0x5FFF
The rest of the range is filled with 0h (the default fill value), converted into two output files: rom4000.b0 contains bits 0 through 7 rom4000.b1 contains bits 8 through 15 EPROM2 defines the address range from 0x6000 through 0x7FFF with the following sections:
This section ... .data .table Has this range ... 0x6000 through 0x633F 0x6700 through 0x7C7F
The rest of the range is filled with 0xFF00 (from the specified fill value). The data from this range is converted into two output files: rom6000.b0 contains bits 0 through 7 rom6000.b1 contains bits 8 through 15
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Use the SECTIONS directive in a command file. (See Section 11.2.2.) The general syntax for the SECTIONS directive is: SECTIONS { oname(sname)[:] [paddr=value][,] oname(sname)[:] [paddr= value][,] ... } SECTIONS oname sname paddr=value begins the directive definition. identifies the object filename the section is located within. The filename is optional when only a single input file is given, but required otherwise. identifies a section in the input file. If you specify a section that does not exist, the utility issues a warning and ignores the name. specifies the physical ROM address at which this section should be located. This value overrides the section load address given by the linker. This value must be a decimal, octal, or hexadecimal constant. If your file contains multiple sections, and if one section uses a paddr parameter, then all sections must use a paddr parameter.
For more similarity with the linker's SECTIONS directive, you can use colons after the section names. For example, the data in your application (section partB) must be loaded on the EPROM at address 0x0. Use the paddr option with the SECTIONS directive to specify this:
SECTIONS { partB: } paddr = 0x0
The commas separating section names are optional. For example, the COFF file contains six initialized sections: .text, .data, .const, .vectors, .coeff, and .tables. Suppose you want only .text and .data to be converted. Use a SECTIONS directive to specify this:
SECTIONS { .text, .data }
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If a boot table is being created, either using the SECTIONS directive or the --boot option, the ROMS directive must be used.
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The utility creates the output files by writing the least significant bits to xyz.b0 and the most significant bits to xyz.b1. 2. It looks for the --outfile options. You can specify names for the output files by using the --outfile option. If no filenames are listed in the ROMS directive and you use --outfile options, the utility takes the filename from the list of --outfile options. The following line has the same effect as the example above using the ROMS directive:
--outfile=xyz.b0 --outfile=xyz.b1
If both the ROMS directive and --outfile options are used together, the ROMS directive overrides the --outfile options. 3. It assigns a default filename. If you specify no filenames or fewer names than output files, the utility assigns a default filename. A default filename consists of the base name from the input file plus a 2- to 3-character extension. The extension has three parts: (a) A format character, based on the output format (see Section 11.12): a i m t x for ASCII-Hex for Intel for Motorola-S for TI-Tagged for Tektronix
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(b) The range number in the ROMS directive. Ranges are numbered starting with 0. If there is no ROMS directive, or only one range, the utility omits this character. (c) The file number in the set of files for the range, starting with 0 for the least significant file. For example, assume a.out is for a 16-bit target processor and you are creating Intel format output. With no output filenames specified, the utility produces two output files named a.i0, a.i1, a.i2, a.i3. If you include the following ROMS directive when you invoke the hex conversion utility, you would have four output files:
ROMS { range1: o = 0x1000 l = 0x1000 range2: o = 0x2000 l = 0x1000 } These output files ... a.i00 and a.i01 a.i10 and a.i11 Contain data in these locations ... 0x1000 through 0x1FFF 0x2000 through 0x2FFF
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--diag_remark=id
--diag_suppress=id
--diag_warning=id
--display_error_number
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Address bits determine how many bits of the address information the format supports. Formats with 16-bit addresses support addresses up to 64K only. The utility truncates target addresses to fit in the number of available bits. The default width determines the default output width of the format. You can change the default width by using the --romwidth option or by using the romwidth parameter in the ROMS directive. You cannot change the default width of the TI-Tagged format, which supports a 16-bit width only.
The file begins with an ASCII STX character (ctrl-B, 02h) and ends with an ASCII ETX character (ctrl-C, 03h). Address records are indicated with $AXXXXXXX, in which XXXXXXXX is a 8-digit (16-bit) hexadecimal address. The address records are present only in the following situations: When discontinuities occur When the byte stream does not begin at address 0 You can avoid all discontinuities and any address records by using the --image and --zero options. This creates output that is simply a list of byte values.
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Record type00, the data record, begins with a colon ( : ) and is followed by the byte count, the address of the first data byte, the record type (00), and the checksum. The address is the least significant 16 bits of a 32-bit address; this value is concatenated with the value from the most recent 04 (extended linear address) record to create a full 32-bit address. The checksum is the 2s complement (in binary form) of the preceding bytes in the record, including byte count, address, and data bytes. Record type 01, the end-of-file record, also begins with a colon ( : ), followed by the byte count, the address, the record type (01), and the checksum. Record type 04, the extended linear address record, specifies the upper 16 address bits. It begins with a colon ( : ), followed by the byte count, a dummy address of 0h, the record type (04), the most significant 16 bits of the address, and the checksum. The subsequent address fields in the data records contain the least significant bytes of the address. Figure 11-7 illustrates the Intel hexadecimal object format. Figure 11-7. Intel Hexadecimal Object Format
Start character Address Extended linear address record Most significant 16 bits
Data records
:00000001FF
Byte Record count type Checksum End-of-file record
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The byte count is the character pair count in the record, excluding the type and byte count itself. The checksum is the least significant byte of the 1s complement of the sum of the values represented by the pairs of characters making up the byte count, address, and the code/data fields. Figure 11-8 illustrates the Motorola-S object format. Figure 11-8. Motorola-S Format
Record type Address Checksum Header record Data records Termination record
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The header field in the data record contains the following information:
Item % Block length Block type Checksum Number of ASCII Characters 1 2 1 2 Description Data type is Tektronix format Number of characters in the record, minus the % 6 = data record 8 = termination record A 2-digit hex sum modulo 256 of all values in the record except the % and the checksum itself.
The load address in the data record specifies where the object code will be located. The first digit specifies the address length; this is always 8. The remaining characters of the data record contain the object code, two characters per byte. Figure 11-9 illustrates the Tektronix object format. Figure 11-9. Extended Tektronix Object Format
Checksum: 21h = 0+ Block length 1ah = 26 0 1+5+6+8+1+0+0+0+0+0+0+ 2+0+2+0+2+0+2+0+2+0+2+ Object code: 6 bytes
Header character
%15621810000000202020202020
Load address: 10000000h Block type: 6 (data) Length of load address
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Figure 11-10 illustrates the tag characters and fields in TI-Tagged object format. Figure 11-10. TI-Tagged Object Format
Start-of-file record Program identifier Load address Tag characters
BFFFFBFFFFBFFFFBFFFFBFFFFBFFFFBFFFFBFFFFBFFFFBFFFF7F245F :
Data records
End-of-file record
Data words
Checksum
If any data fields appear before the first address, the first field is assigned address 0000h. Address fields may be expressed but not required for any data byte. The checksum field, preceded by the tag character 7, is the 2s complement of the sum of the 8-bit ASCII values of characters, beginning with the first tag character and ending with the checksum tag character (7 or 8). The end-of-file record is a colon ( : ).
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@ADDR1 DATA01 DATA02 ........ DATA16 DATA17 DATA32 ........ DATA32 DATAm ........ DATAn @ADDR2 DATA01 .................... DATAn q
End-of-line character Data bytes
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You can use the .cdecls assembler directive to share C headers containing declarations and prototypes between C and assembly code. Any legal C/C++ can be used in a .cdecls block and the C/C++ declarations will cause suitable assembly to be generated automatically, allowing you to reference the C/C++ constructs in assembly code.
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Overview of the .cdecls Directive ....................................................................... Notes on C/C++ Conversions ............................................................................ Notes on C++ Specific Conversions ................................................................... Special Assembler Support ...............................................................................
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/* will be issued */
Therefore, a typical use of the .cdecls block is expected to be a single usage near the beginning of the assembly source file, in which all necessary C/C++ header files are included. Use the compiler --include_path=path options to specify additional include file paths needed for the header files used in assembly, as you would when compiling C files. Any C/C++ errors or warnings generated by the code of the .cdecls are emitted as they normally would for the C/C++ source code. C/C++ errors cause the directive to fail, and any resulting converted assembly is not included. C/C++ constructs that cannot be converted, such as function-like macros or variable definitions, cause a comment to be output to the converted assembly file. For example:
; ASM HEADER WARNING - variable definition 'ABCD' ignored
The prefix ASM HEADER WARNING appears at the beginning of each message. To see the warnings, either the WARN parameter needs to be specified so the messages are displayed on STDERR, or else the LIST parameter needs to be specified so the warnings appear in the listing file, if any. Finally, note that the converted assembly code does not appear in the same order as the original C/C++ source code and C/C++ constructs may be simplified to a normalized form during the conversion process, but this should not affect their final usage.
12.2.1 Comments
Comments are consumed entirely at the C level, and do not appear in the resulting converted assembly file.
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12.2.3 Pragmas
Pragmas found in the C/C++ source code cause a warning to be generated as they are not converted. They have no other effect on the resulting assembly file. See the .cdecls topic for the WARN and NOWARN parameter discussion for where these warnings are created.
Some macros, while they are converted, have no functional use in the containing assembly file. For example, the following results in the assembly substitution symbol FOREVER being set to the value while(1), although this has no useful use in assembly because while(1) is not legal assembly code.
#define FOREVER while(1)
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Macro values are not interpreted as they are converted. For example, the following results in the assembler substitution symbol OFFSET being set to the literal string value 5+12 and not the value 17. This happens because the semantics of the C/C++ language require that macros are evaluated in context and not when they are parsed.
#define OFFSET 5+12
Because macros in C/C++ are evaluated in their usage context, C/C++ printf escape sequences such as \n are not converted to a single character in the converted assembly macro. See Section 12.2.11 for suggestions on how to use C/C++ macro strings. Macros are converted using the new .define directive (see Section 12.4.2), which functions similarly to the .asg assembler directive. The exception is that .define disallows redefinitions of register symbols and mnemonics to prevent the conversion from corrupting the basic assembly environment. To remove a macro from the assembly scope, .undef can be used following the .cdecls that defines it (see Section 12.4.3). The macro functionality of # (stringize operator) is only useful within functional macros. Since functional macros are not supported by this process, # is not supported either. The concatenation operator ## is only useful in a functional context, but can be used degenerately to concatenate two strings and so it is supported in that context.
12.2.10 Enumerations
Enumeration members are converted to .enum elements in assembly. For example:
enum state { ACTIVE=0x10, SLEEPING=0x01, INTERRUPT=0x100, POWEROFF, LAST};
The members are used via the pseudo-scoping created by the .enum directive. The usage is similar to that for accessing structure members, enum_name.member. This pseudo-scoping is used to prevent enumeration member names from corrupting other symbols within the assembly environment.
12.2.11 C Strings
Because C string escapes such as \n and \t are not converted to hex characters 0x0A and 0x09 until their use in a string constant in a C/C++ program, C macros whose values are strings cannot be represented as expected in assembly substitution symbols. For example:
#define MSG "\tHI\n"
becomes, in assembly:
.define """\tHI\n""",MSG ; 6 quoted characters! not 5!
When used in a C string context, you expect this statement to be converted to 5 characters (tab, H, I, newline, NULL), but the .string assembler directive does not know how to perform the C escape conversions. You can use the .cstring directive to cause the escape sequences and NULL termination to be properly handled as they would in C/C++. Using the above symbol MSG with a .cstring directive results in 5 characters of memory being allocated, the same characters as would result if used in a C/C++ strong context. (See Section 12.4.7 for the .cstring directive syntax.)
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The conversion processes the above statements in the same manner: generating a temporary name for the structure and then using .define to output a typedef from the temporary name to the user name. You should use your mystrname in assembly the same as you would in C/C++, but do not be confused by the assembly structure definition in the list, which contains the temporary name. You can avoid the temporary name by specifying a name for the structure, as in:
typedef struct a_st_name { ... } mystrname;
If a shorthand method is used in C to declare a variable with a particular structure, for example:
extern struct a_name { int a_member; } a_variable;
Then after the structure is converted to assembly, a .tag directive is generated to declare the structure of the external variable, such as:
_a_variable .tag a_st_name
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The above format is the short method for declaring a single function. To use this method for multiple functions, you can also use the following syntax:
extern "C" { void somefunc(int arg); int anotherfunc(int arg); ... }
In C++ code, the class derived would contain both integers b1 and d1. In the converted assembly structure "derived", the members of the base class must be accessed using the name of the base class, such as derived.__b_base.b1 rather than the expected derived.b1. A non-virtual, non-empty base class will have __b_ prepended to its name within the derived class to signify it is a base class name. That is why the example above is derived.__b_base.b1 and not simply derived.base.b1.
12.3.3 Templates
No support exists for templates.
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See Section 12.2.11 for more information on the new .cstring directive.
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The assembler supports several directives that the MSP430 C/C++ compiler uses for symbolic debugging. These directives differ for the two debugging formats, DWARF and COFF. These directives are not meant for use by assembly-language programmers. They require arguments that can be difficult to calculate manually, and their usage must conform to a predetermined agreement between the compiler, the assembler, and the debugger. This appendix documents these directives for informational purposes only.
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DWARF Debugging Format ............................................................................... 262 COFF Debugging Format .................................................................................. 262 Debug Directive Syntax .................................................................................... 263
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A.1
The --keep_asm option instructs the compiler to retain the generated assembly file. To disable the generation of all symbolic debug directives, invoke the compiler with the -symdebug:none option:
cl430 --symdebug:none --keep_asm input_file
The DWARF debugging format consists of the following directives: The .dwtag and .dwendtag directives define a Debug Information Entry (DIE) in the .debug_info section. The .dwattr directive adds an attribute to an existing DIE. The .dwpsn directive identifies the source position of a C/C++ statement. The .dwcie and .dwendentry directives define a Common Information Entry (CIE) in the .debug_frame section. The .dwfde and .dwendentry directives define a Frame Description Entry (FDE) in the .debug_frame section. The .dwcfi directive defines a call frame instruction for a CIE or FDE.
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The MSP430 linker supports the generation of an XML link information file via the --xml_link_info file option. This option causes the linker to generate a well-formed XML file containing detailed information about the result of a link. The information included in this file includes all of the information that is currently produced in a linker-generated map file. As the linker evolves, the XML link information file may be extended to include additional information that could be useful for static analysis of linker results. This appendix enumerates all of the elements that are generated by the linker into the XML link information file.
Topic
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B.1 B.2
XML Information File Element Types .................................................................. 266 Document Elements ......................................................................................... 266
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B.1
B.2
Document Elements
The root element, or the document element, is <link_info>. All other elements contained in the XML link information file are children of the <link_info> element. The following sections describe the elements that an XML information file can contain.
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Example B-4. Logical Group List for the fl-4 Input File
<logical_group_list> ... <logical_group id="lg-7"> <name>.text</name> <load_address>0x20</load_address> <run_address>0x20</run_address> <size>0xb240</size> <contents> <object_component_ref idref="oc-34"/> <object_component_ref idref="oc-108"/> <object_component_ref idref="oc-e2"/> ... </contents> </logical_group> ... <overlay id="lg-b"> <name>UNION_1</name> <run_address>0xb600</run_address> <size>0xc0</size> <contents> <object_component_ref idref="oc-45"/> <logical_group_ref idref="lg-8"/> </contents> </overlay> ... <split_section id="lg-12"> <name>.task_scn</name> <size>0x120</size> <contents> <logical_group_ref idref="lg-10"/> <logical_group_ref idref="lg-11"/> </contents> ... </logical_group_list>
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Glossary
ABI Application binary interface. absolute address An address that is permanently assigned to a MSP430 memory location. absolute lister A debugging tool that allows you to create assembler listings that contain absolute addresses. alignment A process in which the linker places an output section at an address that falls on an n-byte boundary, where n is a power of 2. You can specify alignment with the SECTIONS linker directive. allocation A process in which the linker calculates the final memory addresses of output sections. ANSI American National Standards Institute; an organization that establishes standards voluntarily followed by industries. archive library A collection of individual files grouped into a single file by the archiver. archiver A software program that collects several individual files into a single file called an archive library. With the archiver, you can add, delete, extract, or replace members of the archive library. ASCII American Standard Code for Information Interchange; a standard computer code for representing and exchanging alphanumeric information. assembler A software program that creates a machine-language program from a source file that contains assembly language instructions, directives, and macro definitions. The assembler substitutes absolute operation codes for symbolic operation codes and absolute or relocatable addresses for symbolic addresses. assembly-time constant A symbol that is assigned a constant value with the .set directive. big endian An addressing protocol in which bytes are numbered from left to right within a word. More significant bytes in a word have lower numbered addresses. Endian ordering is hardware-specific and is determined at reset. See also little endian binding A process in which you specify a distinct address for an output section or a symbol. BIS Bit instruction set. block A set of statements that are grouped together within braces and treated as an entity. .bss section One of the default object file sections. You use the assembler .bss directive to reserve a specified amount of space in the memory map that you can use later for storing data. The .bss section is uninitialized. byte Per ANSI/ISO C, the smallest addressable unit that can hold a character. C/C++ compiler A software program that translates C source statements into assembly language source statements. COFF Common object file format; a system of object files configured according to a standard developed by AT&T. These files are relocatable in memory space. command file A file that contains options, filenames, directives, or commands for the linker or hex conversion utility.
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comment A source statement (or portion of a source statement) that documents or improves readability of a source file. Comments are not compiled, assembled, or linked; they have no effect on the object file. compiler program A utility that lets you compile, assemble, and optionally link in one step. The compiler runs one or more source modules through the compiler (including the parser, optimizer, and code generator), the assembler, and the linker. conditional processing A method of processing one block of source code or an alternate block of source code, according to the evaluation of a specified expression. configured memory Memory that the linker has specified for allocation. constant A type whose value cannot change. cross-reference lister A utility that produces an output file that lists the symbols that were defined, what file they were defined in, what reference type they are, what line they were defined on, which lines referenced them, and their assembler and linker final values. The cross-reference lister uses linked object files as input. cross-reference listing An output file created by the assembler that lists the symbols that were defined, what line they were defined on, which lines referenced them, and their final values. .data section One of the default object file sections. The .data section is an initialized section that contains initialized data. You can use the .data directive to assemble code into the .data section. directives Special-purpose commands that control the actions and functions of a software tool (as opposed to assembly language instructions, which control the actions of a device). ELF Executable and linking format; a system of object files configured according to the System V Application Binary Interface specification. emulator A hardware development system that duplicates the MSP430 operation. entry point A point in target memory where execution starts. environment variable A system symbol that you define and assign to a string. Environmental variables are often included in Windows batch files or UNIX shell scripts such as .cshrc or .profile. epilog The portion of code in a function that restores the stack and returns. executable module A linked object file that can be executed in a target system. expression A constant, a symbol, or a series of constants and symbols separated by arithmetic operators. external symbol A symbol that is used in the current program module but defined or declared in a different program module. field For the MSP430, a software-configurable data type whose length can be programmed to be any value in the range of 1-16 bits. global symbol A symbol that is either defined in the current module and accessed in another, or accessed in the current module but defined in another. GROUP An option of the SECTIONS directive that forces specified output sections to be allocated contiguously (as a group). hex conversion utility A utility that converts object files into one of several standard ASCII hexadecimal formats, suitable for loading into an EPROM programmer. high-level language debugging The ability of a compiler to retain symbolic and high-level language information (such as type and function definitions) so that a debugging tool can use this information.
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Appendix C
hole An area between the input sections that compose an output section that contains no code. incremental linking Linking files in several passes. Incremental linking is useful for large applications, because you can partition the application, link the parts separately, and then link all of the parts together. initialization at load time An autoinitialization method used by the linker when linking C/C++ code. The linker uses this method when you invoke it with the --ram_model link option. This method initializes variables at load time instead of run time. initialized section A section from an object file that will be linked into an executable module. input section A section from an object file that will be linked into an executable module. ISO International Organization for Standardization; a worldwide federation of national standards bodies, which establishes international standards voluntarily followed by industries. label A symbol that begins in column 1 of an assembler source statement and corresponds to the address of that statement. A label is the only assembler statement that can begin in column 1. linker A software program that combines object files to form an object module that can be allocated into system memory and executed by the device. listing file An output file, created by the assembler, that lists source statements, their line numbers, and their effects on the section program counter (SPC). little endian An addressing protocol in which bytes are numbered from right to left within a word. More significant bytes in a word have higher numbered addresses. Endian ordering is hardware-specific and is determined at reset. See also big endian loader A device that places an executable module into system memory. macro A user-defined routine that can be used as an instruction. macro call The process of invoking a macro. macro definition A block of source statements that define the name and the code that make up a macro. macro expansion The process of inserting source statements into your code in place of a macro call. macro library An archive library composed of macros. Each file in the library must contain one macro; its name must be the same as the macro name it defines, and it must have an extension of .asm. map file An output file, created by the linker, that shows the memory configuration, section composition, section allocation, symbol definitions and the addresses at which the symbols were defined for your program. member The elements or variables of a structure, union, archive, or enumeration. memory map A map of target system memory space that is partitioned into functional blocks. mnemonic An instruction name that the assembler translates into machine code. model statement Instructions or assembler directives in a macro definition that are assembled each time a macro is invoked. named section An initialized section that is defined with a .sect directive. object file An assembled or linked file that contains machine-language object code. object library An archive library made up of individual object files. object module A linked, executable object file that can be downloaded and executed on a target system.
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operand An argument of an assembly language instruction, assembler directive, or macro directive that supplies information to the operation performed by the instruction or directive. optimizer A software tool that improves the execution speed and reduces the size of C programs. options Command-line parameters that allow you to request additional or specific functions when you invoke a software tool. output module A linked, executable object file that is downloaded and executed on a target system. output section A final, allocated section in a linked, executable module. partial linking Linking files in several passes. Incremental linking is useful for large applications because you can partition the application, link the parts separately, and then link all of the parts together. quiet run An option that suppresses the normal banner and the progress information. raw data Executable code or initialized data in an output section. relocation A process in which the linker adjusts all the references to a symbol when the symbol's address changes. ROM width The width (in bits) of each output file, or, more specifically, the width of a single data value in the hex conversion utility file. The ROM width determines how the utility partitions the data into output files. After the target words are mapped to memory words, the memory words are broken into one or more output files. The number of output files is determined by the ROM width. run address The address where a section runs. run-time-support library A library file, rts.src, that contains the source for the run time-support functions. section A relocatable block of code or data that ultimately will be contiguous with other sections in the memory map. section program counter (SPC) An element that keeps track of the current location within a section; each section has its own SPC. sign extend A process that fills the unused MSBs of a value with the value's sign bit. simulator A software development system that simulates MSP430 operation. source file A file that contains C/C++ code or assembly language code that is compiled or assembled to form an object file. static variable A variable whose scope is confined to a function or a program. The values of static variables are not discarded when the function or program is exited; their previous value is resumed when the function or program is reentered. storage class An entry in the symbol table that indicates how to access a symbol. string table A table that stores symbol names that are longer than eight characters (symbol names of eight characters or longer cannot be stored in the symbol table; instead they are stored in the string table). The name portion of the symbol's entry points to the location of the string in the string table. structure A collection of one or more variables grouped together under a single name. subsection A relocatable block of code or data that ultimately will occupy continuous space in the memory map. Subsections are smaller sections within larger sections. Subsections give you tighter control of the memory map. symbol A string of alphanumeric characters that represents an address or a value. symbolic debugging The ability of a software tool to retain symbolic information that can be used by a debugging tool such as a simulator or an emulator.
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Appendix C
tag An optional type name that can be assigned to a structure, union, or enumeration. target memory Physical memory in a system into which executable object code is loaded. .text section One of the default object file sections. The .text section is initialized and contains executable code. You can use the .text directive to assemble code into the .text section. unconfigured memory Memory that is not defined as part of the memory map and cannot be loaded with code or data. uninitialized section A object file section that reserves space in the memory map but that has no actual contents. These sections are built with the .bss and .usect directives. UNION An option of the SECTIONS directive that causes the linker to allocate the same address to multiple sections. union A variable that can hold objects of different types and sizes. unsigned value A value that is treated as a nonnegative number, regardless of its actual sign. variable A symbol representing a quantity that can assume any of a set of values. veneer A sequence of instructions that serves as an alternate entry point into a routine if a state change is required. well-defined expression A term or group of terms that contains only symbols or assembly-time constants that have been defined before they appear in the expression. word A 16-bit addressable location in target memory
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