Section 2.8 Linear Approximation and Differentials: V63.0121.002.2010Su, Calculus I

Section 2.
8
Linear Approximation and Differentials
V63.0121.002.2010Su, Calculus I
New York University
May 26, 2010
Announcements
Quiz 2 Thursday on Sections 1.52.5
No class Monday, May 31
Assignment 2 due Tuesday, June 1

. . . . . .
. . . . . .
Announcements
Quiz 2 Thursday on
Sections 1.52.5
No class Monday, May 31
Assignment 2 due
Tuesday, June 1
V63.0121.002.2010Su, Calculus I (NYU) Section 2.8 Linear Approximation May 26, 2010 2 / 27
. . . . . .
Objectives
Use tangent lines to make

linear approximations to a
function.
Given a function and a

point in the domain,
compute the
linearization of the
function at that point.
Use linearization to
approximate values of
functions
Given a function, compute

the differential of that
function
Use the differential

notation to estimate error
in linear approximations.
. . . . . .
Outline
The linear approximation of a function near a point
Examples
Questions
Differentials
Using differentials to estimate error
Advanced Examples
. . . . . .
The Big Idea
Question
Let f be differentiable at a. What linear function best approximates f
near a?
Answer
The tangent line, of course!
Question
What is the equation for the line tangent to y = f(x) at (a, f(a))?
Answer
L(x) = f(a) +f
(a)(x a)
. . . . . .
The Big Idea
Question
near a?
Answer
Question
Answer
L(x) = f(a) +f
(a)(x a)
. . . . . .
The Big Idea
Question
near a?
Answer
Question
Answer
L(x) = f(a) +f
(a)(x a)
. . . . . .
The Big Idea
Question
near a?
Answer
Question
Answer
L(x) = f(a) +f
(a)(x a)
. . . . . .
The tangent line is a linear approximation
L(x) = f(a) +f
(a)(x a)
is a decent approximation to f
near a.
How decent? The closer x is to
a, the better the approxmation
L(x) is to f(x)
.
.x
.y
.
.
.
.f(a)
.f(x)
.L(x)
.a .x
.x a
. . . . . .
The tangent line is a linear approximation
L(x) = f(a) +f
(a)(x a)
is a decent approximation to f
near a.
How decent? The closer x is to
a, the better the approxmation
L(x) is to f(x)
.
.x
.y
.
.
.
.f(a)
.f(x)
.L(x)
.a .x
.x a
. . . . . .
Example
.
.
Example
Estimate sin(61
) = sin(61/180) by using a linear approximation

(i) about a = 0 (ii) about a = 60
/3.
Solution (i)
If f(x) = sinx, then f(0) = 0

and f
(0) = 1.
So the linear approximation

near 0 is L(x) = 0 +1 x = x.
Thus
sin
_
61
180
_
61
180
1.06465
Solution (ii)
We have f
_
3
_
=
3
2
and
f
3
_
=
1
2
.
So L(x) =
3
2
+
1
2
_
x

3
_
Thus
sin
_
61
180
_
0.87475
Calculator check: sin(61
)
0.87462.
. . . . . .
Example
.
.
Example
Estimate sin(61

/3.
Solution (i)

and f
(0) = 1.

near 0 is L(x) = 0 +1 x = x.
Thus
sin
_
61
180
_
61
180
1.06465
Solution (ii)
We have f
_
3
_
=
3
2
and
f
3
_
=
1
2
.
So L(x) =
3
2
+
1
2
_
x

3
_
Thus
sin
_
61
180
_
0.87475
)
0.87462.
. . . . . .
Example
.
.
Example
Estimate sin(61

/3.
Solution (i)

and f
(0) = 1.

near 0 is L(x) = 0 +1 x = x.
Thus
sin
_
61
180
_
61
180
1.06465
Solution (ii)
We have f
_
3
_
=
3
2
and
f
3
_
=
1
2
.
So L(x) =
3
2
+
1
2
_
x

3
_
Thus
sin
_
61
180
_
0.87475
)
0.87462.
. . . . . .
Example
.
.
Example
Estimate sin(61

/3.
Solution (i)

and f
(0) = 1.

near 0 is L(x) = 0 +1 x = x.
Thus
sin
_
61
180
_
61
180
1.06465
Solution (ii)
We have f
_
3
_
=
3
2
and
f
3
_
=
1
2
.
So L(x) =
3
2
+
1
2
_
x

3
_
Thus
sin
_
61
180
_
0.87475
)
0.87462.
. . . . . .
Example
.
.
Example
Estimate sin(61

/3.
Solution (i)

and f
(0) = 1.

near 0 is L(x) = 0 +1 x = x.
Thus
sin
_
61
180
_
61
180
1.06465
Solution (ii)
We have f
_
3
_
=
3
2
and
f
3
_
=
1
2
.
So L(x) =
3
2
+
1
2
_
x

3
_
Thus
sin
_
61
180
_
0.87475
)
0.87462.
. . . . . .
Example
.
.
Example
Estimate sin(61

/3.
Solution (i)

and f
(0) = 1.

near 0 is L(x) = 0 +1 x = x.
Thus
sin
_
61
180
_
61
180
1.06465
Solution (ii)
We have f
_
3
_
=
3
2
and
f
3
_
=
1
2
.
So L(x) =
3
2
+
1
2
_
x

3
_
Thus
sin
_
61
180
_
0.87475
)
0.87462.
. . . . . .
Example
.
.
Example
Estimate sin(61

/3.
Solution (i)

and f
(0) = 1.

near 0 is L(x) = 0 +1 x = x.
Thus
sin
_
61
180
_
61
180
1.06465
Solution (ii)
We have f
_
3
_
=
3
2
and
f
3
_
=
1
2
.
So L(x) =
3
2
+
1
2
_
x

3
_
Thus
sin
_
61
180
_
0.87475
)
0.87462.
. . . . . .
Example
.
.
Example
Estimate sin(61

/3.
Solution (i)

and f
(0) = 1.

near 0 is L(x) = 0 +1 x = x.
Thus
sin
_
61
180
_
61
180
1.06465
Solution (ii)
We have f
_
3
_
=
3
2
and
f
3
_
=
1
2
.
So L(x) =
3
2
+
1
2
_
x

3
_
Thus
sin
_
61
180
_
0.87475
)
0.87462.
. . . . . .
Example
.
.
Example
Estimate sin(61

/3.
Solution (i)

and f
(0) = 1.

near 0 is L(x) = 0 +1 x = x.
Thus
sin
_
61
180
_
61
180
1.06465
Solution (ii)
We have f
_
3
_
=
3
2
and
f
3
_
=
1
2
.
So L(x) =
3
2
+
1
2
_
x

3
_
Thus
sin
_
61
180
_
0.87475
)
0.87462.
. . . . . .
Example
.
.
Example
Estimate sin(61

/3.
Solution (i)

and f
(0) = 1.

near 0 is L(x) = 0 +1 x = x.
Thus
sin
_
61
180
_
61
180
1.06465
Solution (ii)
We have f
_
3
_
=
3
2
and
f
3
_
=
1
2
.
So L(x) =
3
2
+
1
2
_
x

3
_
Thus
sin
_
61
180
_
0.87475
)
0.87462.
. . . . . .
Example
.
.
Example
Estimate sin(61

/3.
Solution (i)

and f
(0) = 1.

near 0 is L(x) = 0 +1 x = x.
Thus
sin
_
61
180
_
61
180
1.06465
Solution (ii)
We have f
_
3
_
=
3
2
and
f
3
_
=
1
2
.
So L(x) =
3
2
+
1
2
_
x

3
_
Thus
sin
_
61
180
_
0.87475
) 0.87462.
. . . . . .
Illustration
.
.x
.y
.y = sinx
.61
.y = L
1
(x) = x
.
.0
.
.big difference!
.y = L
2
(x) =
3
2
+
1
2
_
x

3
_
.
.
/3
.
.very little difference!
. . . . . .
Illustration
.
.x
.y
.y = sinx
.61
.y = L
1
(x) = x
.
.0
.
.big difference!
.y = L
2
(x) =
3
2
+
1
2
_
x

3
_
.
.
/3
.
. . . . . .
Illustration
.
.x
.y
.y = sinx
.61
.y = L
1
(x) = x
.
.0
.
.big difference!
.y = L
2
(x) =
3
2
+
1
2
_
x

3
_
.
.
/3
.
. . . . . .
Illustration
.
.x
.y
.y = sinx
.61
.y = L
1
(x) = x
.
.0
.
.big difference!
.y = L
2
(x) =
3
2
+
1
2
_
x

3
_
.
.
/3
.
. . . . . .
Illustration
.
.x
.y
.y = sinx
.61
.y = L
1
(x) = x
.
.0
.
.big difference!
.y = L
2
(x) =
3
2
+
1
2
_
x

3
_
.
.
/3
.
. . . . . .
Another Example
Example
Estimate
10 using the fact that 10 = 9 +1.

Solution
The key step is to use a linear approximation to f(x) =
x near a = 9
to estimate f(10) =
10.
10
9 +
d
dx
x=9
(1)
= 3 +
1
2 3
(1) =
19
6
3.167
Check:
_
19
6
_
2
=
361
36
.
. . . . . .
Another Example
Example
Estimate

Solution
x near a = 9
to estimate f(10) =
10.
10
9 +
d
dx
x=9
(1)
= 3 +
1
2 3
(1) =
19
6
3.167
Check:
_
19
6
_
2
=
361
36
.
. . . . . .
Another Example
Example
Estimate

Solution
x near a = 9
to estimate f(10) =
10.
10
9 +
d
dx
x=9
(1)
= 3 +
1
2 3
(1) =
19
6
3.167
Check:
_
19
6
_
2
=
361
36
.
. . . . . .
Another Example
Example
Estimate

Solution
x near a = 9
to estimate f(10) =
10.
10
9 +
d
dx
x=9
(1)
= 3 +
1
2 3
(1) =
19
6
3.167
Check:
_
19
6
_
2
=
361
36
.
. . . . . .
Another Example
Example
Estimate

Solution
x near a = 9
to estimate f(10) =
10.
10
9 +
d
dx
x=9
(1)
= 3 +
1
2 3
(1) =
19
6
3.167
Check:
_
19
6
_
2
=
361
36
.
. . . . . .
Dividing without dividing?
Example
Suppose I have an irrational fear of division and need to estimate
577 408. I write
577
408
= 1 +169
1
408
= 1 +169
1
4

1
102
.
But still I have to find
1
102
.
Solution
Let f(x) =
1
x
. We know f(100) and we want to estimate f(102).
f(102) f(100) +f
(100)(2) =
1
100

1
100
2
(2) = 0.0098
=
577
408
1.41405
Calculator check:
577
408
1.41422.
. . . . . .
Dividing without dividing?
Example
Suppose I have an irrational fear of division and need to estimate
577 408. I write
577
408
= 1 +169
1
408
= 1 +169
1
4

1
102
.
But still I have to find
1
102
.
Solution
Let f(x) =
1
x
. We know f(100) and we want to estimate f(102).
f(102) f(100) +f
(100)(2) =
1
100

1
100
2
(2) = 0.0098
=
577
408
1.41405
Calculator check:
577
408
1.41422.
. . . . . .
Questions
Example
Suppose we are traveling in a car and at noon our speed is 50
mi
/hr.
How far will we have traveled by 2:00pm? by 3:00pm? By midnight?
Example
Suppose our factory makes MP3 players and the marginal cost is
currently $50/lot. How much will it cost to make 2 more lots? 3 more
lots? 12 more lots?
Example
Suppose a line goes through the point (x
0
, y
0
) and has slope m. If the
point is moved horizontally by dx, while staying on the line, what is the
corresponding vertical movement?
. . . . . .
Answers
Example
mi
/hr.
Answer
100mi
150mi
600mi (?) (Is it reasonable to assume 12 hours at the same

speed?)
. . . . . .
Answers
Example
mi
/hr.
Answer
100mi
150mi
600mi (?) (Is it reasonable to assume 12 hours at the same

speed?)
. . . . . .
Questions
Example
mi
/hr.
Example
lots? 12 more lots?
Example
0
, y
0
. . . . . .
Answers
Example
lots? 12 more lots?
Answer
$100
$150
$600 (?)
. . . . . .
Questions
Example
mi
/hr.
Example
lots? 12 more lots?
Example
0
, y
0
. . . . . .
Answers
Example
0
, y
0
Answer
The slope of the line is
m =
rise
run
We are given a run of dx, so the corresponding rise is mdx.
. . . . . .
Answers
Example
0
, y
0
Answer
The slope of the line is
m =
rise
run
We are given a run of dx, so the corresponding rise is mdx.
. . . . . .
Outline
Examples
Questions
Differentials
Advanced Examples
. . . . . .
Differentials are another way to express derivatives
f(x +x) f(x)
. .
y
f
(x) x
. .
dy
Rename x = dx, so we can
write this as
y dy = f
(x)dx.
And this looks a lot like the
Leibniz-Newton identity
dy
dx
= f
(x)
.
.x
.y
.
.
.x .x +x
.dx = x
.y
.dy
Linear approximation means y dy = f
(x
0
) dx near x
0
.
. . . . . .
Differentials are another way to express derivatives
f(x +x) f(x)
. .
y
f
(x) x
. .
dy
Rename x = dx, so we can
write this as
y dy = f
(x)dx.
And this looks a lot like the
Leibniz-Newton identity
dy
dx
= f
(x)
.
.x
.y
.
.
.x .x +x
.dx = x
.y
.dy
Linear approximation means y dy = f
(x
0
) dx near x
0
.
. . . . . .
If y = f(x), x
0
and x is known,
and an estimate of y is
desired:
Approximate: y dy
Differentiate: dy = f
(x) dx
Evaluate at x = x
0
and
dx = x.
.
.x
.y
.
.
.x .x +x
.dx = x
.y
.dy
. . . . . .
Example
A sheet of plywood measures 8ft 4ft. Suppose our plywood-cutting
machine will cut a rectangle whose width is exactly half its length, but
the length is prone to errors. If the length is off by 1 in, how bad can the
area of the sheet be off by?
Solution
Write A() =
1
2
2
. We want to know A when = 8ft and = 1in.
(I) A( +) = A
_
97
12
_
=
9409
288
So A =
9409
288
32 0.6701.
(II)
dA
d
= , so dA = d, which should be a good estimate for .
When = 8 and d =
1
12
, we have dA =
8
12
=
2
3
0.667. So we
get estimates close to the hundredth of a square foot.
. . . . . .
Example
Solution
Write A() =
1
2
2
(I) A( +) = A
_
97
12
_
=
9409
288
So A =
9409
288
32 0.6701.
(II)
dA
d
When = 8 and d =
1
12
, we have dA =
8
12
=
2
3
0.667. So we
. . . . . .
Example
Solution
Write A() =
1
2
2
(I) A( +) = A
_
97
12
_
=
9409
288
So A =
9409
288
32 0.6701.
(II)
dA
d
When = 8 and d =
1
12
, we have dA =
8
12
=
2
3
0.667. So we
. . . . . .
Example
Solution
Write A() =
1
2
2
(I) A( +) = A
_
97
12
_
=
9409
288
So A =
9409
288
32 0.6701.
(II)
dA
d
When = 8 and d =
1
12
, we have dA =
8
12
=
2
3
0.667. So we
. . . . . .
Why?
Why use linear approximations dy when the actual difference y is
known?
Linear approximation is quick and reliable. Finding y exactly

depends on the function.
These examples are overly simple. See the Advanced Examples

later.
In real life, sometimes only f(a) and f
(a) are known, and not the

general f(x).
. . . . . .
Outline
Examples
Questions
Differentials
Advanced Examples
. . . . . .
Gravitation
Pencils down!
Example
Drop a 1 kg ball off the roof of the Silver Center (50m high). We
usually say that a falling object feels a force F = mg from gravity.
In fact, the force felt is

F(r) =
GMm
r
2
,
where M is the mass of the earth and r is the distance from the
center of the earth to the object. G is a constant.
At r = r
e
the force really is F(r
e
) =
GMm
r
2
e
= mg.
What is the maximum error in replacing the actual force felt at the
top of the building F(r
e
+r) by the force felt at ground level
F(r
e
)? The relative error? The percentage error?
. . . . . .
Gravitation
Pencils down!
Example
Drop a 1 kg ball off the roof of the Silver Center (50m high). We
usually say that a falling object feels a force F = mg from gravity.
In fact, the force felt is

F(r) =
GMm
r
2
,
where M is the mass of the earth and r is the distance from the
center of the earth to the object. G is a constant.
At r = r
e
the force really is F(r
e
) =
GMm
r
2
e
= mg.
What is the maximum error in replacing the actual force felt at the
top of the building F(r
e
+r) by the force felt at ground level
F(r
e
)? The relative error? The percentage error?
. . . . . .
Gravitation Solution
Solution
We wonder if F = F(r
e
+r) F(r
e
) is small.
Using a linear approximation,

F dF =
dF
dr
r
e
dr = 2
GMm
r
3
e
dr
=
_
GMm
r
2
e
_
dr
r
e
= 2mg
r
r
e
The relative error is

F
F
2
r
r
e
r
e
= 6378.1km. If r = 50m,
F
F
2
r
r
e
= 2
50
6378100
= 1.56 10
5
= 0.00156%
. . . . . .
Systematic linear approximation
2 is irrational, but

9
/4 is rational and
9
/4 is close to 2.
So
2 =
9
/4
1
/4
9
/4 +
1
2(
3
/2)
(
1
/4) =
17
12
This is a better approximation since (

17
/12)
2
=
289
/144
Do it again!
2 =
289
/144
1
/144
289
/144 +
1
2(
17
/12)
(
1
/144) =
577
/408
Now
_
577
408
_
2
=
332, 929
166, 464
which is
1
166, 464
away from 2.
. . . . . .

9
/4 is rational and
9
/4 is close to 2. So
2 =
9
/4
1
/4
9
/4 +
1
2(
3
/2)
(
1
/4) =
17
12

17
/12)
2
=
289
/144
Do it again!
2 =
289
/144
1
/144
289
/144 +
1
2(
17
/12)
(
1
/144) =
577
/408
Now
_
577
408
_
2
=
332, 929
166, 464
which is
1
166, 464
away from 2.
. . . . . .

9
/4 is rational and
9
2 =
9
/4
1
/4
9
/4 +
1
2(
3
/2)
(
1
/4) =
17
12

17
/12)
2
=
289
/144
Do it again!
2 =
289
/144
1
/144
289
/144 +
1
2(
17
/12)
(
1
/144) =
577
/408
Now
_
577
408
_
2
=
332, 929
166, 464
which is
1
166, 464
away from 2.
. . . . . .

9
/4 is rational and
9
2 =
9
/4
1
/4
9
/4 +
1
2(
3
/2)
(
1
/4) =
17
12

17
/12)
2
=
289
/144
Do it again!
2 =
289
/144
1
/144
289
/144 +
1
2(
17
/12)
(
1
/144) =
577
/408
Now
_
577
408
_
2
=
332, 929
166, 464
which is
1
166, 464
away from 2.
. . . . . .
Illustration of the previous example
.
.2
.
(
9
4
,
3
2
)
.
.(2,
17
12
)
. . . . . .
.
.2
.
(
9
4
,
3
2
)
.
.(2,
17
12
)
. . . . . .
.
.2
.
(
9
4
,
3
2
)
.
.(2,
17
12
)
. . . . . .
.
.2
.
(
9
4
,
3
2
)
.
.(2,
17
12
)
. . . . . .
.
.2
.
(
9
4
,
3
2
)
.
.(2,
17
12
)
. . . . . .
.
.2
.
(
9
4
,
3
2
)
.
.(2,
17
12
)
. . . . . .
.
.2
.
(
9
4
,
3
2
)
.
.(2,
17
12
)
. . . . . .
.
.2
.
.(
9
4
,
3
2
) .
.(2,
17
/12)
.
.
_
289
144
,
17
12
_
.
.
_
2,
577
408
_
. . . . . .
.
.2
.
.(
9
4
,
3
2
) .
.(2,
17
/12)
.
.
_
289
144
,
17
12
_
.
.
_
2,
577
408
_
. . . . . .
.
.2
.
.(
9
4
,
3
2
) .
.(2,
17
/12)
.
.
_
289
144
,
17
12
_
.
.
_
2,
577
408
_
. . . . . .
Summary
Linear approximation: If f is differentiable at a, the best linear

approximation to f near a is given by
L
f,a
(x) = f(a) +f
(a)(x a)
Differentials: If f is differentiable at x, a good approximation to

y = f(x +x) f(x) is
y dy =
dy
dx
dx =
dy
dx
x
Dont buy plywood from me.


Section 2.8 Linear Approximation and Differentials: V63.0121.002.2010Su, Calculus I

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Section 2.8 Linear Approximation and Differentials: V63.0121.002.2010Su, Calculus I

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Section 2.

Quiz 2 Thursday on Sections 1.52.5

No class Monday, May 31

Assignment 2 due Tuesday, June 1

No class Monday, May 31

Use tangent lines to make

Given a function and a

Given a function, compute

Use the differential

) = sin(61/180) by using a linear approximation

If f(x) = sinx, then f(0) = 0

So the linear approximation

) = sin(61/180) by using a linear approximation

If f(x) = sinx, then f(0) = 0

So the linear approximation

) = sin(61/180) by using a linear approximation

If f(x) = sinx, then f(0) = 0

So the linear approximation

) = sin(61/180) by using a linear approximation

If f(x) = sinx, then f(0) = 0

So the linear approximation

) = sin(61/180) by using a linear approximation

If f(x) = sinx, then f(0) = 0

So the linear approximation

) = sin(61/180) by using a linear approximation

If f(x) = sinx, then f(0) = 0

So the linear approximation

) = sin(61/180) by using a linear approximation

If f(x) = sinx, then f(0) = 0

So the linear approximation

) = sin(61/180) by using a linear approximation

If f(x) = sinx, then f(0) = 0

So the linear approximation

) = sin(61/180) by using a linear approximation

If f(x) = sinx, then f(0) = 0

So the linear approximation

) = sin(61/180) by using a linear approximation

If f(x) = sinx, then f(0) = 0

So the linear approximation

) = sin(61/180) by using a linear approximation

If f(x) = sinx, then f(0) = 0

So the linear approximation

10 using the fact that 10 = 9 +1.

10 using the fact that 10 = 9 +1.

10 using the fact that 10 = 9 +1.

10 using the fact that 10 = 9 +1.

10 using the fact that 10 = 9 +1.

600mi (?) (Is it reasonable to assume 12 hours at the same

600mi (?) (Is it reasonable to assume 12 hours at the same

Linear approximation is quick and reliable. Finding y exactly

These examples are overly simple. See the Advanced Examples

In real life, sometimes only f(a) and f

(a) are known, and not the

In fact, the force felt is

In fact, the force felt is

Using a linear approximation,

The relative error is

This is a better approximation since (

This is a better approximation since (

This is a better approximation since (

This is a better approximation since (

Linear approximation: If f is differentiable at a, the best linear

Differentials: If f is differentiable at x, a good approximation to