Hyperspectral imaging notes

INDEX
1) INTRODUCTION ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 1 2) ACQUISITION AND ANALYSIS -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2

3) DIFFERENT HYPERSPECTRAL IMAGING TECHNOLOGIES ---------------------------------------- 2 -----Integrating a dispersive means (prism or grating) in an optical medium -----Optical band pass filters -----Fourier Transform spectroscopy 4) SCANNING TECHNIQUES ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 3 -----Wavelength Scanning (staring array) -----Image Scanning (push broom) -----sample internal setup of hyperspectral camera and digital camera 5) APPLICATIONS(Agriculture) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5 6) WAVELENGTH REGIONS FOR HYPERSPECTRAL IMAGING -------------------------------------- 6

7) REFLECTANCE SPECTRAL PLOTS --------------------------------------------------------------------- 6 8) Appendix ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 9 ----Basic terminology ----Parameters used in hyperspectral camera specifications

1 1)INTRODUCTION :

Hyperspectral imaging, like other spectral imaging, collects and processes information from across the electromagnetic spectrum. Much as the human eye sees visible light in three bands (red, green, and blue), spectral imaging divides the spectrum into many more bands. This technique of dividing images into bands can be extended beyond the visible.

Though Multispectral and Hyperspectral imaging work over a range of sprectral data, they are still quite different. This can be clearly seen from the following observations:

MULTISPECTRAL IMAGING It is at discrete coverage of the spectrum discrete and somewhat narrow band.

HYPERSPECTRAL IMAGING Hyperspectral deals with imaging narrow spectral bands over a continuous spectral range.

Spectral resolution is around 100 nm.

Spectral resolution around 10-40 nm

(So a sensor with 20 discrete bands covering the VIS, NIR, SWIR, MWIR, and LWIR would be considered multispectral.)

While a sensor with only 20 bands can also be hyperspectral when it covers the range from 500 to 700 nm with 20 bands each 10 nm wide.

Low information content compared to hyperspectral signals

Greater information content

2 2)Acquisition and analysis

Two-dimensional projection of a hyperspectral cube and a hyperspectal camera Hyperspectral sensors collect information as a set of 'images'. Each image represents a range of the electromagnetic spectrum and is also known as a spectral band. These 'images' are then combined and form a three-dimensional hyperspectral data cube for processing and analysis. Hyperspectral cubes are generated from airborne sensors like the NASA's Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS), or from satellites like NASA's Hyperion. However, for many development and validation studies, handheld sensors are used. The precision of these sensors is typically measured in spectral resolution, which is the width of each band of the spectrum that is captured. If the scanner detects a large number of fairly narrow frequency bands, it is possible to identify objects even if they are only captured in a handful of pixels. However, spatial resolution is a factor in addition to spectral resolution. If the pixels are too large, then multiple objects are captured in the same pixel and become difficult to identify. If the pixels are too small, then the energy captured by each sensor cell is low, and the decreased signalto-noise ratio reduces the reliability of measured features.

3)Different hyperspectral imaging technologies

There are basically three different techniques used to realize a hyperspectral imaging (HSI) device. A first class of HSI devices is obtained by integrating a dispersive means (a prism or a grating) in an optical system, with the drawback of having the image analyzed per lines (push broom scan) and some mechanical parts integrated in the optical train. The HSI devices belonging to the second class are based on optical band-pass filters (either tuneable or fixed) and the spectrum has to be scanned in steps. Both HSI techniques lead to good quality results but have low efficiency in term of light gathering power and long integration times are necessary to obtain a full HSI cube. A third method for HSI to obtain the spectrum of a light source is the so-called Fourier transform (FT) spectroscopy; in this technique the FT is applied to the interferogram acquired by a scanning

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interferometer in order to calculate the spectral composition of the light entering in the interferometer. There are two effects which make this type of spectrometers intrinsically faster:

There is no spectral scanning and all the spectral components are acquired at the same time (multiplex advantage). The aperture used in FTIR spectrometers has a larger area than the slits used in dispersive spectrometers, thus enabling higher throughput of radiation (throughput advantage).

There are two different types of interferometers that could be implemented: either the Michelson interferometer or the Fabry-Perot interferometer.

4)SCANNING TECHNIQUES
Hyperspectral cameras capture data sets known as hypercubes -- stacks of 2-D image data at different wavelengths. Since detectors can only capture two dimensions of data at one time, the third dimension of the hypercube must be obtained by scanning. The two established methods of capturing a hypercube are wavelength scanning in which 2-D images are captured at each wavelength in turn (see figure, a) and image scanning in which one image dimension and the wavelength dimension are captured simultaneously and the second image dimension is scanned (see figure, b). For wavelength scanning(staring array), electrooptical devices such as liquid crystal and acoustooptic tuneable filters (LCTF and AOTF) are incorporated into the camera to select the wavelength for each monochromatic image. For image scanning(push-broom), an imaging spectrograph disperses the spectrum across one dimension of the detector with an image of the spectrograph slit formed across the other dimension. The second dimension of the image is obtained by scanning the camera. The proposed method for the new hyperspectral imager developed at Aberystwyth University employs a hybrid of the image and wavelength scanning methods (see figure, c). An interference filter mounted at an angle in front of a monochrome camera disperses a region of the spectrum across the field Of view (FOV) so that an image is obtained with different regions captured at different wavelengths. By scanning the camera across the FOV, all regions are imaged at all wavelengths within the range. An extended wavelength range could be also obtained by employing a set of filters mounted in a tilted filter wheel. The method has a number of advantages over the existing methods including higher light throughput, no polarization sensitivity, low power consumption, lighter weight, a high degree of robustness and reliability, and relatively low cost

(Various Scanning techniques-illustration)

(Illustration depicting Hyperspectral and a digital cameras internal structure/process)

5)Applications
Agriculture Although the cost of acquiring hyperspectral images is typically high, for specific crops and in specific climates, hyperspectral remote sensing use is increasing for monitoring the development and health of crops. Furthermore, work is underway to use hyperspectral data to detect the chemical composition of plants, which can be used to detect the nutrient and water status of wheat in irrigated systems. Another application in agriculture is the detection of animal proteins in compound feeds to avoid mad-cow disease. Different studies have been done to propose alternative tools to the reference method of detection, (classical microscopy). One of the first alternatives is near infrared microscopy (NIR), which combines the advantages of microscopy and NIR. In 2004, the first study relating this problem with hyperspectral imaging was published. Hyperspectral libraries that are representative of the diversity of ingredients usually present in the preparation of compound feeds were constructed. These libraries can be used together with chemometric tools to investigate the limit of detection, specificity and reproducibility of the NIR hyperspectral imaging method for the detection and quantification of animal ingredients in feed.

Mineralogy
Geological samples, such as drill cores, can be rapidly mapped for nearly all minerals of commercial interest with hyperspectral imaging. Hyperspectral remote sensing of minerals is well developed. Many minerals can be identified from airborne images, and their relation to the presence of valuable minerals, such as gold and diamonds, is well understood. Currently, progress is towards understanding the relationship between oil and gas leakages from pipelines and natural wells, and their effects on the vegetation and the spectral signatures.

Surveillance
Hyperspectral surveillance is the implementation of hyperspectral scanning technology for surveillance purposes. Hyperspectral imaging is particularly useful in military surveillance because of countermeasures that military entities now take to avoid airborne surveillance. The idea that drives hyperspectral surveillance is that hyperspectral scanning draws information from such a large portion of the light spectrum that any given object should have a unique spectral signature in at least a few of the many bands that are scanned. The SEALs from DEVGRU who killed Osama bin Laden in May 2011 used this technology while conducting the raid (Operation Neptune's Spear) on Osama bin Laden's compound in Abbottabad , Pakistan.

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7)Reflectance Spectra (for Spectral plots)

Albedo is a term we are very familiar with in this class. It it a measure of the percentage light reflected off the surface of an object.

We have indicated albedo by a number ranging between 0.0 and 1.0. An albedo of 0.0 is very dark (no light reflected) and an albedo of 1.0 is very bright (all light reflected). Basalt has an albedo of about 0.11 The reflectance or reflectivity is thus the square of the magnitude of the reflection coefficient. The reflection coefficient can be expressed as a complex number as determined by the Fresnel equations for a single layer, whereas the reflectance (or reflectivity) is always a positive real number. The reflectance is the fraction of electromagnetic power reflected from a specific sample.

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Spectra Brightness

We can be more specific when we measure albedo by also keeping track of the specific wavelength of light at which we measure the albedo/reflectance. When we do this we can create a plot called a reflectance spectra. On the x-axis we plot the wavelength of light, on the y-axis we plot the albedo at that wavelength. We will almost always plot the x-axis with blue (short wavelengths) on the left and red (long wavelengths) on the right.

An example: Above are three spectra plots. The one on the right is a plot of the reflectance spectra of a sheet of white notebook paper. As you can see it reflects about 60% (0.6) of the light at all visible wavelengths. This is why it appears white. The middle plot is of a black piece of paper. It looks the same, only at a lower albedo 7% (0.07). Finally, on the right is a plot of the spectra of a grey piece of paper. The albedo of this, 38% (0.38) is in between that of white and black paper. In general, any object reflects light of all wavelengths equally is called a grey object. As you can see the position of the spectra relative to the y-axis is a measure of the brightness of the object.

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Spectra - Color

Of course not all objects are grey. When we say an object is a color what we are saying is that the object reflects more light in one part of the spectrum than the others. For example, the image on the left shows the spectra of a red ball. As you can see the spectra is higher (brighter) at the red part of the spectra. You can also see that the ball is fairly bright, the highest albedo is about 60% (0.6). The position of the brightest part of the spectra relative to the x-axis is a measure of the colour of the object. A reflectance spectra of an object contains information about both the colour and brightness of an object. All Wavelengths

Visible light is only a small fraction of the entire electromagnetic spectrum. Everything we have seen above can be generalized to all wavelengths of light. For example, we can measure the albedo of a sample in the infrared part of the spectrum, as well as the visible part. As a matter of fact, most of the interesting parts of the spectrum for rocks are generally in the infrared part of the spectrum. The spectra shows the reflectance spectra of two rock samples. Notice that the visible part of the spectra is only a small part of the range that is plotted. You can see that lots of interesting things are happening outside the visible part of the spectrum.

8)APPENDIX
Basic Terminology:
Basic terms Hyperspectral sensors Definition/explanation Hyperspectral sensors collect information as a set of 'images'. Each image represents a range of the electromagnetic spectrum and is also known as a spectral band It is the width of each band of the spectrum that is captured by the hyperspectral camera. This indicates precision of the sensor within the camera. The measure of how closely lines can be resolved in an image. For practical purposes the clarity of the image is decided by its spatial resolution. In effect, spatial resolution refers to the number of independent pixel values per unit length. Any of several optical, acoustic, or radio frequency instruments that use interference phenomena between a reference wave and an experimental wave or between two parts of an experimental wave to determine wavelengths and wave velocities, measure very small distances and thicknesses, and calculate indices of refraction. Hyperspectral cameras capture data sets known as hypercubes- stacks of 2-D image data at different wavelengths (wavelength-is the 3rd dimension obtained by scanning). In general, the Field Of View (FOV) describes the opening angle of a camera's optic. The reflectance is the fraction of electromagnetic power reflected from a specific sample exposed to electromagnetic radiation. These scans image the whole sample at the same time and step through the spectral wavelengths, one wavelength at a time, normally with a tunable filter. In contrast, a push-broom camera gathers a complete spectrum of each point on one spatial line. The area of the object is then scanned one line at a time. To image the whole sample, either the sample or the camera must move. The hypercube is collected by compiling the optical data from each spatial line. Plot of reflectance at different wavelengths. (On the x-axis we plot the wavelength of light, on

Spectral resolution

Spatial resolution

Interferometer

Hypercubes

FOV Reflectance

Wavelength scanning(staring array)

Image scanning(push broom)

Reflectance spectra

Brightness

the y-axis we plot the reflectance% at that wavelength) As you can see the position of the spectra relative to the y-axis of the reflectance spectra plot is a measure of the brightness of the object. Brightness is an attribute of visual perception in which a source appears to be radiating or reflecting light. In other words, brightness is the perception elicited by the luminance of a visual target. The position of the brightest part of the spectra relative to the x-axis of the reflectance spectra plot is a measure of the color of the object.

Color

Contrast

Spectral Signature

Remote Sensing

Contrast is the difference in luminance and/or color that makes an object (or its representation in an image or display) distinguishable. Spectral signatures are the specific combination of emitted, reflected or absorbed electromagnetic radiation (EM) at varying wavelengths which can uniquely identify an object. It is the acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon without making physical contact with the object. In modern usage, the term generally refers to the use of aerial sensor technologies to detect and classify objects on Earth (both on the surface, and in the atmosphere and oceans) by means of propagated signals (e.g. electromagnetic radiation emitted from aircraft or satellites).

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Parameters used in Hyperspectral camera specifications:

Parameter Detector(pixels used) Explanation This indicates the type of detector technology used(CCD ,CMOS ,InGaAs ,HgCdTe ) and the resolution This indicates the spectrum size used in wavelength(usually in 100x-1000x nm) No of individual pixels per unit length Field of view across the track in inches Pixels field of view in radians/ radians covered Size of the spectral sample analysed at a time in x nm Total no of regions into which the spectral range is divided for processing. Binning allows charges from adjacent pixels to be combined and this can offer benefits in faster readout speeds and improved signal to noise ratios albeit at the expense of reduced spatial resolution.(sample modes 1,2,4,8 indicate the number of bits for the bin used) For the purpose of storing image information in digital form, like a compact disc/data card, the normal continuous wave image signal (analog) must be converted to digital form (analog-todigital conversion) .(in x bits-indicates a range of 2^x) (In 100x frames/second) frequency at which the camera is able to take images or render images. In kgs Usually in x1 cm x y1 cm x z1 cm Power consideration for sensor is in watts Certain semi-conductor sensors use focal plane arrays integrated with the collimator at the focus. These sensors usually get heated and their respective temperature is the FPA temperature in k This is the interface which links the camera to computer for data transfer.(Camera Link and USB 2.0 are the most common)

Spectral Range Spatial pixels FOV across track* Pixel FOV across/-along track* Spectral sample. # of bands Binning modes

Digitization

Max frame rate** Sensor head weight. Sensor head dim.(lwh in cm) Sensor head pwr. Cons. FPA temperature

Camera Interface