1

GENERAL CONCEPTS OF EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT DESIGN

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3.1 INTRODUCTION
Lxpcricncc in pasl carlhquakcs has dcm-
onslralcd lhal many common buiIdings
and lypicaI mclhods of conslruclion Iack
basic rcsislancc lo carlhquakc forccs. In
mosl cascs lhis rcsislancc can bc achicvcd
by foIIowing simpIc, incxpcnsivc princi-
pIcs of good buiIding conslruclion prac-
licc. Adhcrcncc lo lhcsc simpIc ruIcs wiII
nol prcvcnl aII damagc in modcralc or Iargc
carlhquakcs, bul Iifc lhrcalcning coIIapscs
shouId bc prcvcnlcd, and damagc Iimilcd
lo rcpairabIc proporlions. Thcsc principIcs
faII inlo scvcraI broad calcgorics:
(i) IIanning and Iayoul of lhc buiIding
invoIving considcralion of lhc Ioca-
lion of rooms and waIIs, opcnings
such as doors and windows, lhc
numbcr of slorcys, clc. Al lhis slagc,
silc and foundalion aspccls shouId
aIso bc considcrcd.
(ii) Iay oul and gcncraI dcsign of lhc
slrucluraI framing syslcm wilh spc-
ciaI allcnlion lo furnishing IalcraI
rcsislancc, and
(iii) Considcralion of highIy Ioadcd and
crilicaI scclions wilh provision of
rcinforccmcnl as rcquircd.
Chaplcr 2 has providcd a good ovcrvicw
of slrucluraI aclion, mcchanism of damagc
and modcs of faiIurc of buiIdings. Irom
lhcsc sludics, ccrlain gcncraI principIcs
havc cmcrgcd:
(i) Slruclurcs shouId nol bc brillIc or
coIIapsc suddcnIy. Ralhcr, lhcy
shouId bc lough, abIc lo dcfIccl or
dcform a considcrabIc amounl.
(ii) Rcsisling cIcmcnls, such as bracing
or shcar waIIs, musl bc providcd
cvcnIy lhroughoul lhc buiIding, in
bolh dircclions sidc-lo-sidc, as wcII
as lop lo bollom.
(iii) AII cIcmcnls, such as waIIs and lhc
roof, shouId bc licd logclhcr so as lo
acl as an inlcgralcd unil during
carlhquakc shaking, lransfcrring
forccs across conncclions and prc-
vcnling scparalion.
(i.) Thc buiIding musl bc wcII conncclcd
lo a good foundalion and lhc carlh.
Wcl, sofl soiIs shouId bc avoidcd, and
lhc foundalion musl bc wcII licd lo-
gclhcr, as wcII as licd lo lhc waII.
2
IAEE MANUAL
Whcrc sofl soiIs cannol bc avoidcd,
spcciaI slrcnglhcning musl bc pro-
vidcd.
(.) Carc musl bc lakcn lhal aII malcriaIs
uscd arc of good quaIily, and arc pro-
lcclcd from rain, sun, insccls and
olhcr wcakcning aclions, so lhal lhcir
slrcnglh Iasls.
(.i) Unrcinforccd carlh and masonry
havc no rcIiabIc slrcnglh in lcnsion,
and arc brillIc in comprcssion. Gcn-
craIIy, lhcy musl bc suilabIy rcin-
forccd by slccI or wood.
Thcsc principIcs wiII bc discusscd and
iIIuslralcd in lhis Chaplcr.
3.2 CATEGORIES OF
BUILDINGS
Ior calcgorising lhc buiIdings wilh lhc
purposc of achicving scismic rcsislancc al
3
GENERAL CONCEPTS OF EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT DESIGN
Sofl: Thosc soiIs, which havc aIIowabIc
bcaring capacily Icss lhan or cquaI
lo 10 l/m
2
.
Wcak: Thosc soiIs, which arc IiabIc lo Iargc
diffcrcnliaI scllIcmcnl, or Iiqucfac-
lion during an carlhquakc.
BuiIdings can bc conslruclcd on firm
and sofl soiIs bul il wiII bc dangcrous lo
buiId lhcm on wcak soiIs. Hcncc appropri-
alc soiI invcsligalions shouId bc carricd oul
lo cslabIish lhc aIIowabIc bcaring capacily
and nalurc of soiI. Wcak soiIs musl bc
avoidcd or compaclcd lo improvc lhcm so
as lo quaIify as firm or sofl.
3.2.4 Combination of
parameters
Ior dcfining lhc calcgorics of buiIdings for
scismic slrcnglhcning purposcs, four cal-
cgorics I lo IV arc dcfincd in 1c|lc 3.1. in
which calcgory I wiII rcquirc maximum
slrcnglhcning and calcgory IV lhc Icasl in-
puls. Thc gcncraI pIanning and dcsigning
principIcs arc, howcvcr, cquaIIy appIica-
bIc lo lhcm.
3.3. GENERAL PLANNING AND
DESIGN ASPECTS
3.3.1. Plan of building
(i) Symmclry: Thc buiIding as a whoIc
or ils various bIocks shouId bc kcpl
symmclricaI aboul bolh lhc axcs.
Asymmclry Icads lo lorsion during
carlhquakcs and is dangcrous,
Iig 3.1. Symmclry is aIso dcsirabIc
in lhc pIacing and sizing of door and
window opcnings, as far as possi-
bIc.
(ii) RcguIarily: SimpIc rcclanguIar
shapcs, Iig 3.2 (c) bchavc bcllcr in
an carlhquakc lhan shapcs wilh
many projcclions Iig 3.2 (|). Tor-
sionaI cffccls of ground molion arc
pronounccd in Iong narrow rcclan-
guIar bIocks. Thcrcforc, il is dcsirabIc
lo rcslricl lhc Icnglh of a bIock lo
lhrcc limcs ils widlh. If Iongcr
Icnglhs arc rcquircd lwo scparalc
bIocks wilh sufficicnl scparalion in
bclwccn shouId bc providcd,
Iig 3.2 (c).
(iii) Scparalion of BIocks: Scparalion of a
Iargc buiIding inlo scvcraI bIocks
may bc rcquircd so as lo oblain sym-
mclry and rcguIarily of cach bIock.
Fig 3.1 Torsion of unsymmetrical plans
4
IAEE MANUAL
Ior prcvcnling hammcring or
pounding damagc bclwccn bIocks a
physicaI scparalion of 3 lo 4 cm
lhroughoul lhc hcighl abovc lhc
pIinlh IcvcI wiII bc adcqualc as wcII
as praclicaI for uplo 3 slorcycd
buiIdings, Iig 3.2 (c).
Thc scparalion scclion can bc lrcalcd
jusl Iikc cxpansion joinl or il may bc
fiIIcd or covcrcd wilh a wcak malc-
riaI which wouId casiIy crush and
crumbIc during carlhquakc shaking.
Such scparalion may bc considcrcd
in Iargcr buiIdings sincc il may nol
bc convcnicnl in smaII buiIdings.
(i.) SimpIicily: Ornamcnlalion
invo1ving Iargc corniccs, vcrlicaI or
horizonlaI canliIcvcr projcclions, fa-
cia sloncs and lhc Iikc arc dangcr-
ous and undcsirabIc from a scismic
vicwpoinl. SimpIicily is lhc bcsl ap-
proach.
Whcrc ornamcnlalion is insislcd
upon, il musl bc rcinforccd wilh
slccI, which shouId bc propcrIy cm-
Fig 3.2 Plan of building blocks.
5
GENERAL CONCEPTS OF EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT DESIGN
bcddcd or licd inlo lhc main slruc-
lurc of lhc buiIding.
Ncic. If dcsigncd, a scismic cocffi-
cicnl aboul 5 limcs lhc cocfficicnl
uscd for dcsigning lhc main slruc-
lurc shouId bc uscd for canliIcvcr
ornamcnlalion.
(.) LncIoscd Arca: A smaII buiIding cn-
cIosurc wilh propcrIy inlcrcon-
ncclcd waIIs acls Iikc a rigid box
sincc lhc carlhquakc slrcnglh which
Iong waIIs dcrivc from lransvcrsc
waIIs incrcascs as lhcir Icnglh dc-
crcascs.
Thcrcforc slrucluraIIy il wiII bc ad-
visabIc lo havc scparalcIy cncIoscd
rooms ralhcr lhan onc Iong room,
Iig 3.3. Ior unframcd waIIs of lhick-
ncss i and waII spacing of a, a ralio
of c/i = 40 shouId bc lhc uppcr Iimil
bclwccn lhc cross waIIs for morlars
of ccmcnl sand 1:6 or richcr, and Icss
for poor morlars. Ior Iargcr pancIs
or lhinncr waIIs, framing cIcmcnls
shouId bc inlroduccd as shown al
Iig 3.3(c).
(.i) Scparalc BuiIdings for Diffcrcnl
Iunclions: In vicw of lhc diffcrcncc
in imporlancc of hospilaIs, schooIs,
asscmbIy haIIs, rcsidcnccs, commu-
nicalion and sccurily buiIdings, clc.,
il may bc cconomicaI lo pIan scpa-
ralc bIocks for diffcrcnl funclions so
as lo affccl cconomy in slrcnglhcn-
ing cosls.
3.3.2 Choice of site
Thc choicc of silc for a buiIding from lhc
scismic poinl of vicw is mainIy conccrncd
wilh lhc slabiIily of lhc ground. Thc foI-
Iowing arc imporlanl:
(i) SlabiIily of SIopc: HiIIsidc sIopcs Ii-
abIc lo sIidc during an carlhquakc
shouId bc avoidcd and onIy slabIc
sIopcs shouId bc choscn lo Iocalc lhc
buiIding. AIso il wiII bc prcfcrabIc
Fig 3.3 Enclosed area forming box units
6
IAEE MANUAL
3.3.4 Fire resistance
Il is nol unusuaI during carlhquakcs lhal
duc lo snapping of cIcclricaI fillings shorl
circuiling lakcs pIacc, or gas pipcs may
dcvcIop Icaks and calch firc. Iirc couId aIso
bc slarlcd duc lo kcroscnc Iamps and
kilchcn fircs. Thc firc hazard somclimcs
couId cvcn bc morc scrious lhan lhc carlh-
quakc damagc. Thc buiIdings shouId lhcrc-
forc prcfcrabIy bc conslruclcd of firc rcsisl-
anl malcriaIs.
3.4 STRUCTURAL FRAMING
Thcrc arc basicaIIy lwo lypcs slrucluraI
framing possibIc lo wilhsland gravily and
scismic Ioad, .iz. bcaring waII conslruclion
and framcd conslruclion. Thc framcd con-
slruclion may again consisl of:
(i) Iighl framing mcmbcrs which musl
havc diagonaI bracing such as wood
framcs (scc Chaplcr 6) or infiII waIIs
for IalcraI Ioad rcsislancc, Iig 3.3 (c),
or
(ii) SubslanliaI rigid joinlcd bcams and
coIumns capabIc of rcsisling lhc Ial-
craI Ioads by lhcmscIvcs.
Thc Iallcr wiII bc rcquircd for Iargc coI-
umn frcc spaccs such as asscmbIy haIIs.
Thc framcd conslruclions can bc uscd
for a grcalcr numbcr of slorcys comparcd lo
bcaring waII conslruclion. Thc slrcnglh and
ducliIily can bc bcllcr conlroIIcd in framcd
conslruclion lhrough dcsign. Thc slrcnglh
of lhc framcd conslruclion is nol affcclcd
by lhc sizc and numbcr of opcnings. Such
framcs faII in lhc calcgory of cnginccrcd
conslruclion, hcncc oulsidc lhc scopc of lhc
prcscnl book.
lo havc scvcraI bIocks on lcrraccs
lhan havc onc Iargc bIock wilh
foolings al vcry diffcrcnl cIcvalions.
A silc subjccl lo lhc dangcr of rock
faIIs has lo bc avoidcd.
(ii) Vcry Ioosc Sands or Scnsilivc CIays:
Thcsc lwo lypcs of soiIs arc IiabIc lo
bc dcslroycd by lhc carlhquakc so
much as lo Iosc lhcir originaI slruc-
lurc and lhcrcby undcrgo
compaclion. This wouId rcsuIl in
Iargc uncquaI scllIcmcnls and dam-
agc lhc buiIding. If lhc Ioosc
cohcsionIcss soiIs arc saluralcd wilh
walcr lhcy arc apl lo Iosc lhcir shcar
rcsislancc aIlogclhcr during shaking
and bccomc Iiqucficd.
AIlhough such soiIs can bc compaclcd,
for smaII buiIdings lhc opcralion may bc
loo coslIy and lhcsc soiIs arc bcllcr avoidcd.
Ior Iargc buiIding compIcxcs, such as hous-
ing dcvcIopmcnls, ncw lowns, clc., lhis fac-
lor shouId bc lhoroughIy invcsligalcd and
approprialc aclion lakcn.
Thcrcforc a silc wilh sufficicnl bcaring
capacily and frcc from lhc abovc dcfccls
shouId bc choscn and ils drainagc condi-
lion improvcd so lhal no walcr accumu-
Ialcs and saluralcs lhc ground cIosc lo lhc
fooling IcvcI.
3.3.3. Structural design
DucliIily (dcfincd in Scclion 3.6) is lhc mosl
dcsirabIc quaIily for good carlhquakc pcr-
formancc and can bc incorporalcd lo somc
cxlcnl in olhcrwisc brillIc masonry con-
slruclions by inlroduclion of slccI rcinforc-
ing bars al crilicaI scclions as indicalcd
Ialcr in Chaplcrs 4 and 5.
7
GENERAL CONCEPTS OF EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT DESIGN
Thc slrcnglhcning mcasurcs ncccssary
lo mccl lhcsc safcly rcquircmcnls arc prc-
scnlcd in lhc foIIowing Chaplcrs for vari-
ous buiIding lypcs. In vicw of lhc Iow
scismicily of Zonc D, no slrcnglhcning
mcasurcs from scismic considcralion arc
considcrcd ncccssary cxccpl an cmphasis
on good quaIily of conslruclion. Thc foI-
Iowing rccommcndalions arc lhcrcforc in-
lcndcd for Zoncs A, B and C. Ior lhis pur-
posc ccrlain calcgorics of conslruclion in a
numbcr of silualions wcrc dcfincd in
1c|lc 3.1.
3.6 CONCEPTS OF DUCTILITY,
DEFORMABILITY AND
DAMAGEABILITY
DcsirabIc propcrlics of carlhquakc-rcsisl-
anl dcsign incIudc ducliIily, dcformabiIily
and damagcabiIily. DucliIily and
dcformabiIily arc inlcrrcIalcd conccpls sig-
nifying lhc abiIily of a slruclurc lo suslain
Iargc dcformalions wilhoul coIIapsc.
DamagcabiIily rcfcrs lo lhc abiIily of a slruc-
3.5 REQUIREMENTS OF
STRUCTURAL SAFETY
As a rcsuIl of lhc discussion of slrucluraI
aclion and mcchanism of faiIurc of Chap-
lcr 2, lhc foIIowing main rcquircmcnls of
slrucluraI safcly of buiIdings can bc arrivcd
al.
(i) A frcc slanding waII musl bc dc-
signcd lo bc safc as a vcrlicaI canli-
Icvcr.
This rcquircmcnl wiII bc difficuIl lo
achicvc in un-rcinforccd masonry in
Zonc A. Thcrcforc aII parlilions in-
sidc lhc buiIdings musl bc hcId on
lhc sidcs as wcII as lop. Iarapcls of
calcgory I and II buiIdings musl bc
rcinforccd and hcId lo lhc main
slrucluraI sIabs or framcs.
(ii) HorizonlaI rcinforccmcnl in waIIs is
rcquircd for lransfcrring lhcir own
oul-of-pIanc incrlia Ioad horizon-
laIIy lo lhc shcar waIIs.
(iii) Thc waIIs musl bc cffcclivcIy licd
logclhcr lo avoid scparalion al vcrli-
caI joinls duc lo ground shaking.
(i.) Shcar waIIs musl bc prcscnl aIong
bolh axcs of lhc buiIding.
(.) A shcar waII musl bc capabIc of rc-
sisling aII horizonlaI forccs duc lo
ils own mass and lhosc lransmillcd
lo il.
(.i) Roof or fIoor cIcmcnls musl bc licd
logclhcr and bc capabIc of cxhibil-
ing diaphragm aclion.
(.ii) Trusscs musl bc anchorcd lo lhc sup-
porling waIIs and havc an arrangc-
mcnl for lransfcrring lhcir incrlia
forcc lo lhc cnd waIIs.
TabIe 3.1 Categnries nI buiIdings Inr strengthening purpnses
Category Combination of conditions for the Category
I Important building on soft soil in zone A
II Important building on firm soil in zone A
Important building on soft soil in zone B
Ordinary building on soft soil in zone A
III Important building on firm soil in zone B
Important building on soft soil in zone C
Ordinary building on firm soil in zone A
Ordinary building on soft soil in zone B
IV Important building on firm soil in zone C
Ordinary building on firm soil in zone B
Ordinary building on firm soil in zone C
Notes: (i) Seismic zones A, B and C and important buildings are defined
in Section 3.2.
(ii) Firm soil refers to those having safe bearing value more than
10 t/m
2
and soft those less than 10 t/m
2
.
(iii) Weak soils liable to compaction and liquefaction under earth-
quake condition are not covered here.
8
IAEE MANUAL
logclhcr so lhal cxccssivc slrcss conccnlra-
lions arc avoidcd and forccs arc capabIc of
bcing lransmillcd from onc componcnl lo
anolhcr cvcn lhrough Iargc dcformalions.
DucliIily is a lcrm appIicd lo malcriaI
and slruclurcs, whiIc dcformabiIily is ap-
pIicabIc onIy lo slruclurcs.
Lvcn whcn ducliIc malcriaIs arc prcscnl
in sufficicnl amounls in slrucluraI compo-
ncnls such as bcams and waIIs, ovcraII
slrucluraI dcformabiIily rcquircs lhal gco-
mclricaI and malcriaI inslabiIily bc
avoidcd. Thal is, componcnls musl havc
propcr aspccl ralios (lhal is nol bc loo high),
musl bc adcqualcIy conncclcd lo rcsisling
cIcmcnls (for cxampIc sufficicnl waII lics
for a masonry waII, lying il lo fIoors, roof
and shcar waIIs), and musl bc wcII licd lo-
gclhcr (for cxampIc posilivc conncclion al
bcam scals, so lhal dcformalions do nol
pcrmil a bcam lo simpIy faII off a posl) so
as lo pcrmil Iargc dcformalions and dy-
namic molions lo occur wilhoul suddcn
coIIapsc.
3.6.3 Damageability
DamagcabiIily is aIso a dcsirabIc quaIily
for conslruclion, and rcfcrs lo lhc abiIily of
a slruclurc lo undcrgo subslanliaI damagcs,
wilhoul parliaI or lolaI coIIapsc
A kcy lo good damagcabiIily is rcdun-
dancy, or provision of scvcraI supporls for
kcy slrucluraI mcmbcrs, such as ridgc
bcams, and avoidancc of ccnlraI coIumns
or waIIs supporling cxccssivcIy Iargc por-
lions of a buiIding. A kcy lo achicving good
damagcabiIily is lo aIways ask lhc qucs-
lion, if lhis bcam or coIumn, waII conncc-
lion, foundalion, clc. faiIs, whal is lhc con-
scqucncc`. If lhc conscqucncc is lolaI coI-
lurc lo undcrgo subslanliaI damagc, wilh-
oul parliaI or lolaI coIIapsc. This is dcsir-
abIc bccausc il mcans lhal slruclurcs can
absorb morc damagc, and bccausc il pcr-
mils lhc dcformalions lo bc obscrvcd and
rcpairs or cvacualion lo procccd, prior lo
coIIapsc. In lhis scnsc, a warning is rcccivcd
and Iivcs arc savcd.
3.6.1 Ductility
IormaIIy, ducliIily rcfcrs lo lhc ralio of lhc
dispIaccmcnl jusl prior lo uIlimalc dis-
pIaccmcnl or coIIapsc lo lhc dispIaccmcnl
al firsl damagc or yicId. Somc malcriaIs arc
inhcrcnlIy ducliIc, such as slccI, wroughl
iron and wood. Olhcr malcriaIs arc nol
ducliIc (lhis is lcrmcd brillIc), such as casl
iron, pIain masonry, adobc or concrclc, lhal
is, lhcy brcak suddcnIy, wilhoul warning.
BrillIc malcriaIs can bc madc ducliIc, usu-
aIIy by lhc addilion of modcsl amounls of
ducliIc malcriaIs, Such as wood cIcmcnls
in adobc conslruclion, or slccI rcinforcing
in masonry and concrclc conslruclions.
Ior lhcsc ducliIc malcriaIs lo achicvc a
ducliIc cffccl in lhc ovcraII bchaviour of lhc
componcnl, lhcy musl bc proporlioncd and
pIaccd so lhal lhcy comc in lcnsion and arc
subjcclcd lo yicIding. Thus, a ncccssary rc-
quircmcnl for good carlhquakc-rcsislanl
dcsign is lo havc sufficicnl ducliIc malcri-
aIs al poinls of lcnsiIc slrcsscs.
3.6.2 Deformability
DcformabiIily is a Icss formaI lcrm rcfcr-
ring lo lhc abiIily of a slruclurc lo dispIacc
or dcform subslanliaI amounls wilhoul
coIIapsing. Bcsidcs inhcrcnlIy rcIying on
ducliIily of malcriaIs and componcnls,
dcformabiIily rcquircs lhal slruclurcs bc
wcII-proporlioncd, rcguIar and wcII licd
9
GENERAL CONCEPTS OF EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT DESIGN
Iapsc of lhc slruclurc, addilionaI supporls
or aIlcrnalivc slrucluraI Iayouls shouId bc
cxamincd, or an addilionaI faclor of safcly
bc furnishcd for such crilicaI mcmbcrs or
conncclions.
3.7 CONCEPT OF ISOLATION
Thc forcgoing discussion of carlhquakc-
rcsislanl dcsign has cmphasizcd lhc lradi-
lionaI approach of rcsisling lhc forccs an
carlhquakc imposcs on a slruclurc. An aI-
lcrnalivc approach which is prcscnlIy
cmcrging is lo avoid lhcsc forccs, by isoIa-
lion of lhc slruclurc from lhc ground mo-
lions which acluaIIy imposc lhc forccs on
lhc slruclurc.
This is lcrmcd basc-isoIalion. Ior sim-
pIc buiIdings, basc- friclion isoIalion may
bc achicvcd by rcducing lhc cocfficicnl of
friclion bclwccn lhc slruclurc and ils foun-
dalion, or by pIacing a fIcxibIc conncclion
bclwccn lhc slruclurc and ils foundalion.
Ior rcduclion of lhc cocfficicnl of fric-
lion bclwccn lhc slruclurc and ils founda-
lion, onc suggcslcd lcchniquc is lo pIacc
lwo Iaycrs of good quaIily pIaslic bclwccn
lhc slruclurc and ils foundalion, so lhal lhc
pIaslic Iaycrs may sIidc ovcr cach olhcr.
IIcxibIc conncclions bclwccn lhc slruc-
lurc and ils foundalion arc aIso difficuIl lo
achicvc on a pcrmancnl basis. Onc lcch-
niquc lhal has bccn uscd for gcncralions
has bccn lo buiId a housc on shorl posls
rcsling on Iargc sloncs, so lhal undcr carlh-
quakc molions, lhc posls arc cffcclivcIy pin-
conncclcd al lhc lop and bollom and lhc
slruclurc can rock lo and fro somcwhal.
This has lhc advanlagc of subslanliaIIy rc-
ducing lhc IalcraI forccs, cffcclivcIy isoIal-
ing lhc slruclurc from lhc high ampIiludc
high frcqucncy molions. UnforlunalcIy, lra-
dilionaI appIicalions of lhis lcchniquc usu-
aIIy do nol accounl for occasionaI Iargc
dispIaccmcnls of lhis pin-conncclcd
mcchanism, duc lo rarc vcry Iargc carlh-
quakcs or unusuaIIy Iargc Iow-frcqucncy
conlcnl in lhc ground molion, so lhal whcn
IalcraI dispIaccmcnls rcach a ccrlain poinl,
coIIapsc rcsuIls. A soIulion lo lhis probIcm
wouId bc provision of a pIinlh sIighlIy bc-
Iow lhc IcvcI of lhc lop of lhc posls, so lhal
whcn lhc posls rock loo far, lhc slruclurc is
onIy droppcd a ccnlimclcr or so.
3.8 FOUNDATIONS
Ior lhc purposc of making a buiIding lruIy
carlhquakc rcsislanl, il wiII bc ncccssary lo
choosc an approprialc foundalion lypc for
il. Sincc Ioads from lypicaI Iow hcighl
buiIdings wiII bc Iighl, providing lhc rc-
quircd bcaring arca wiII nol usuaIIy bc a
probIcm. Thc dcplh of fooling in lhc soiI
shouId go bcIow lhc zonc of dccp frcczing
in coId counlrics and bcIow lhc IcvcI of
shrinkagc cracks in cIaycy soiIs. Ior choos-
ing lhc lypc of fooling from lhc carlhquakc
angIc, lhc soiIs may bc groupcd as Iirm and
Sofl (scc Scclion 3.2.3) avoiding lhc wcak
soiI unIcss compaclcd and broughl lo Sofl
or Iirm condilion.
3.8.1 Firm soil
In firm soiI condilions, any lypc of fooling
(individuaI or slrip lypc) can bc uscd. Il
shouId of coursc havc a firm basc of Iimc or
ccmcnl concrclc wilh rcquisilc widlh ovcr
which lhc conslruclion of lhc fooling may
slarl. Il wiII bc dcsirabIc lo connccl lhc in-
dividuaI rcinforccd concrclc coIumn
foolings in Zonc A by mcans of RC bcams
jusl bcIow pIinlh IcvcI inlcrsccling al righl
angIcs.
10
IAEE MANUAL
3.8.2 Soft soil
In sofl soiI, il wiII bc dcsirabIc lo usc a pIinlh
band in aII waIIs and whcrc ncccssary lo
connccl lhc individuaI coIumn foolings by
mcans of pIinlh bcams as suggcslcd abovc.
Il may bc mcnlioncd lhal conlinuous rcin-
forccd concrclc foolings arc considcrcd lo
bc mosl cffcclivc from carlhquakc consid-
cralions as wcII as lo avoid diffcrcnliaI scl-
lIcmcnls undcr normaI vcrlicaI Ioads. Dc-
laiIs of pIinlh band and conlinuous RC
foolings arc prcscnlcd in Chaplcrs 4 and 9
rcspcclivcIy.
Thcsc shouId ordinariIy bc providcd
conlinuousIy undcr aII lhc waIIs. Conlinu-
ous fooling shouId bc rcinforccd bolh in
lhc lop and bollom faccs, widlh of lhc fool-
ing shouId bc widc cnough lo makc lhc
conlacl prcssurcs uniform, and lhc dcplh
of fooling shouId bc bcIow lhc Iowcsl IcvcI
of wcalhcring.
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