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Pavement Maintenance
by
PREFACE
Millions of dollars are spent each year maintaining and repairing pavements all over New York State. Since inadequate drainage is the source of many of the problems, the Cornell Local Roads Program offers a one-day course devoted exclusively to drainage. I was fortunate to develop that course, Roadway and Roadside Drainage, in 1997. Another issue I have seen in my travels around the state is that of selecting the correct pavement repair, particularly with regard to pavement surviving winter weather and heavy traffic. In many textbooks and training manuals, there is a concentration either on the management of the pavement or on the specific repair. While these items are important, I feel it is essential to focus on the selection of the repair. Management of highway systems can only be accomplished with a thorough knowledge of why pavements fail and what it takes to fix them. To this end, this class on Pavement Maintenance was developed. We considered other titles such as Pavement Preservation and Pavement Fixes. This manual discusses choosing the proper repair techniques for paved and unpaved roads. It also goes into more detail on some of the most common asphalt pavement maintenance techniques such as patching and chip seals. It is not intended to provide all of the training needed to properly select and perform pavement maintenance. It is intended to answer the most common questions and to help you get what you expect when it comes to pavement repair. David P. Orr, P.E. Senior Engineer Cornell Local Roads Program Ithaca, New York March 2006
Pavement Maintenance
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to thank several people for helping out with this manual. Some of them may not even realize that they played a role. In 1996, just after I joined the Cornell Local Roads Program, Jim Dean, the Town of Orangetown Highway Superintendent, asked me to teach a class on pavement maintenance. That class was repeated and upgraded several times, and has evolved into this manual and workshop. Ken Osborne and the members of the Liquid Asphalt Distributors Association (LADA) have provided insight and help with getting materials and examples. Chris Blades and Ed Kearney teach our class on Asphalt Paving Principles. That workshop and this one work well as a pair. Finally, I need to thank Lynne Irwin, Director of the Cornell Local Roads Program. His lecture in a class on Pavement Engineering gave me the idea of developing a class that focusses on understanding the solutions to repairing pavements.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1. Introduction............................................................................................................................ 1 2. Why Roads Fail Prematurely ................................................................................................. 5 3. Repair Techniques ............................................................................................................... 13 4. Pavement Distresses............................................................................................................. 17 5. Choosing the Right Repair................................................................................................... 29 6. Crack Repairs....................................................................................................................... 33 7. Patching................................................................................................................................ 41 8. Thin Wearing Courses ......................................................................................................... 47 Appendix A Appendix B Appendix C Appendix D Appendix E Appendix F Crack Treatment Materials ..............................................................................63 Publications......................................................................................................64 Videos ..............................................................................................................65 Resources .........................................................................................................66 NYSDOT Regional Offices .............................................................................68 Glossary ...........................................................................................................69
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Pavement Maintenance
List of Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 Figure 13 Figure 14 Figure 15 Figure 16 Figure 17 Figure 18 Figure 19 Figure 20 Figure 21 Figure 22 Figure 23 Figure 24 Figure 25 Figure 26 Figure 27 Figure 28 Figure 29 Figure 30 Figure 31 Figure 32 Figure 33 Figure 34 Figure 35 Figure 36 Figure 37 Figure 38 Figure 39
Map of NY State towns & cities by population - 2000......................................1 Spread of wheel load pressure through the pavement .......................................5 Pavement deflection...........................................................................................6 High severity alligator cracking.......................................................................18 Sealed longitudinal cracks ...............................................................................19 Low severity transverse crack..........................................................................19 Medium to high severity block cracking .........................................................20 High severity edge cracking.............................................................................21 Medium severity rutting...................................................................................22 Shoving of asphalt surface ...............................................................................23 Potholes caused by poor drainage....................................................................24 High severity ravelling of asphalt surface .......................................................25 Bleeding during hot weather............................................................................26 Polishing of asphalt surface .............................................................................26 Overlay delamination.......................................................................................27 Pavement deterioration curve ..........................................................................30 Pavement repair alternatives ............................................................................31 Crack with high level of edge deterioration.....................................................33 Basic crack repair configurations.....................................................................35 Crack sealing creating a safety hazard.............................................................36 Crack routing ...................................................................................................38 Heat lance.........................................................................................................39 Basic wand application of crack sealer............................................................39 Finishing a crack with a squeegee ...................................................................40 Cut boundaries .................................................................................................42 Finished patch ..................................................................................................43 Self contained spray patch truck ......................................................................44 'Rolling' a cold mix patch.................................................................................46 Spreading stone for chip seal ...........................................................................47 Proper spacing of emulsion and chip spreader ...............................................48 Slurry seal equipment schematic .....................................................................49 Micropaving equipment schematic ..................................................................50 Chip seal placement .........................................................................................55 Residual asphalt ...............................................................................................56 Average Least Dimension of chip seal after curing.........................................57 Self propelled aggregate spreader....................................................................59 Spray bar alignment .........................................................................................59 Spray lap coverage...........................................................................................59 Improper spacing of emulsion and chip spreader ............................................60
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List of Tables Table 1 Table 2 Table 3 Table 4 Table 5 Table 6 Table 7 Table 8 Table 9 Table 10 Table 11 Table 12 Table 13 Table 14
Average distribution of government expenditures on highways in NY ............2 Pavement repair techniques ...............................................................................2 Maintenance activities .....................................................................................29 Pavement repair matrix ....................................................................................32 Determining the type of maintenance for cracks .............................................34 Guidelines for crack repairs .............................................................................35 Properties of crack filling materials.................................................................37 Proprietary cold patches on NYS OGS bids, 2005 ..........................................45 Cost effectiveness of various demand patching methods ................................46 Distresses repaired by selected thin wearing courses ......................................48 Aggregate gradations used for slurry seals (ISSA 1998).................................49 Sieve sizes for common chip seal aggregates (NYSDOT spec.) .....................52 Asphalt emulsions and residual asphalt content ..............................................53 Emulsion application rate adjustments ............................................................58
1 - Introduction
_____________________________________________________________ Pavement MANAGEMENT: Doing the right repair in the right place, at the right time. Pavement MAINTENANCE: Doing inexpensive repairs on good roads to keep them good. - Foundation for Pavement Preservation The proper maintenance of roads, considering the State at large, is unquestionably of more importance than any of the problems that are solved and to be solved either in construction or maintenance of more expensive roads. - State of New York Department of Highways, 1910 The pressure on highway and street departments to do more with less is always a concern. Whether in the largest city (New York) or the smallest town (Montague in Lewis County), the cost of construction and maintenance of highways can be a sore subject. As shown in Table 1, the average distribution of government moneys spent on highways in 1997 varies from 2.8 percent for counties to almost 20 percent for towns. Not too many years ago, the highway department was the largest department in many towns and counties and a substantial portion of the budget in villages and cities.
Number of Persons
Under 2,500 2,500 to 9,999 10,000 to 19,999 20,000 to 49,999 50,000 and over
Figure 1 - Map of New York State towns and cities by population, 2000, source: New York State Department of Transportation
Pavement Maintenance
Table 1 - Average distribution of government expenditures on highways in New York State, 1997, source: Local Government Handbook Function Highways Counties 2.8% Cities 5.5% Towns 19.8% Villages 10.2%
While the portion of the budget spent on highways and streets has decreased, traffic levels have increased and the public continues to demand better roads. It is critical that we get the most out of every dollar we spend. We must spend these limited funds wisely. In many books and manuals, this is defined as pavement management. While it is important to do the right repair at the right place at the right time, it is cheaper to maintain roads in good shape than it is to fix roads that are broken. Pavement maintenance is doing repairs on good roads to keep them good. A good pavement maintenance program is usually part of an overall management plan. It can also be used as the starting point to develop such a plan. One of the most important keys to successful pavement maintenance is to know what the proper repair is. This can range from doing nothing to reconstructing the entire road. It may be better to do nothing rather than to make a repair that fails prematurely. We have all had to make a repair, even when it was not our first choice. In such a case, it is important to know what may go wrong and how to reduce the chances of it happening again. Understanding the reasons is important to making the correct choice. There are many different pavement maintenance techniques. There are even different ways to list them. Table 2 shows possible repair techniques for asphalt and gravel surface roads, listed in order of increasing cost and durability. Concrete and brick streets are not addressed. Table 2 - Pavement repair techniques Asphalt concrete surfaced pavements Do nothing Drainage maintenance Crack treatment Patching Area repairs Wearing courses Overlays Recycling Reclamation Total reconstruction Gravel surfaced pavements Do nothing Drainage maintenance Blading or grading Reshaping Patching Wearing courses Recycling Reclamation Total reconstruction
1 - Introduction
This manual focusses mainly on asphalt surface-treated roadways. Almost forty percent of the roads in the United States are gravel, but much of the discussion on why roads fail prematurely is applicable for all types of road surfaces. For more details on gravel road maintenance, the Gravel Roads Maintenance and Design Manual from the South Dakota LTAP Center is a good resource. See Appendix B for the the complete publication information, and Appendix D for the SD LTAP contact information.
Figure 2 - Spread of wheel load pressure through the pavement The amount of deflection and stress in the pavement is also related to the amount of moisture in the subgrade soils. If the subgrade soils are wet, there will be a great deal of deflection under the wheel loads. The deflection will be much less for the same soil when it is well drained. The excess moisture in spring thaw will result in higher stresses in the pavement. Larger loads and thinner pavements result in more stress on the pavement. Pavements will fail sooner than expected if: There are heavier loads than expected There are more loads than expected The pavement is too thin for the traffic loads The materials used in the pavement are weaker than expected
Pavement Maintenance
Understanding fatigue
Fatigue is the failure of a material due to repetition of many loads. The larger the load, the fewer the number of cycles needed to cause failure. In a pavement, the result is typically cracking or rutting. Roads with heavier trucks or weakened pavement during spring thaw are more susceptible to fatigue failure. To understand this, take a paper clip and bend it back and forth until it fails. To simulate the summer, bend it to 45 each time. Count how many cycles it takes to fatigue the paper clip. To simulate spring thaw, bend to 90. A very weak pavement with heavy loads might be like bending the paper clip to 180.
45
90
180
We need to build pavements to handle the loads. If the loads are heavy and frequent, we need to build a thick, well-drained pavement that does not bend as much. Premature failure Pavements fail prematurely because of many factors. When boiled down to the basics, there are four primary reasons pavements fail prematurely: Failure in design Failure in construction Failure in materials Failure in maintenance
Generally when a road or street fails before we expect it to, one of these four factors is the primary cause. Multiple factors can occur, but usually one of the four is the most critical.
Pavement Maintenance
Construction Just as design can lead to premature failure, poor quality construction can cause a roadway to fail early. Many construction failures do not appear as defects for several years, so it can be difficult to determine the reason for the failure. Whether the work is done in-house or by contract, it is important to get the job done right. If you are doing the work yourself, are you ready? Has the crew been trained? What training do they need and where can you get the training? Municipalities have some of the best snowplow crews anywhere. Part of that expertise is experience. You do something enough and you get pretty good at it. Part of the expertise is training. Riding with that old-timer can be some of the best training you can get. If you are contracting the work, are you ready? Do you need an inspector for the work? Is the inspector trained and ready to make sure the municipality gets what they pay for? What kind of contract are you using? Construction may be the most difficult step because there are so many questions to be asked and answered. The problem with not asking the questions is that we usually do not get a second chance to do the work again. Fortunately, experience is a great teacher, and for most operations some basic training and practice is enough to make sure the work is done right. Complicated and specialized work can still be problematic and failures due to construction can occur. Poor workmanship The best laid plans often go astray. If the work is not done properly then it may not last. A very common problem in culvert installation is the failure to compact the backfill in thin even lifts. It may be faster to put in thick lifts, but coming back to fix the problem after settlement occurs is not a good alternative. Training and pride in your work go a long way towards overcoming workmanship issues. Using incorrect equipment Everyone knows you should hit a nail with a hammer, yet how many of us have used a wrench instead? Using the wrong tool in pavement maintenance can lead to premature failure. A rubber-tired roller should be used on a chip seal. A steel drum roller can crush and break the aggregate. NOT using a piece of equipment can also cause problems. Leaving gravel unrolled because no roller is available is a bad solution.
Using equipment improperly Even if you have the right piece of equipment, it is important to use it correctly. A distributor with misaligned fans will lead to streaking. Using a compressor to blow out cracks can put water into the cracks. Know what a piece of equipment is for and how to use it properly. Failure to follow plans Do you have plans? Engineering drawings are not required for pavement maintenance, but writing down the steps and having a plan is a valuable tool. Examples of items in a good plan include stakeout, detours, materials, construction steps, and plans in case of poor weather. Without a plan, how do you know whether anything was done incorrectly? Lack of training Lynne Irwin likes to say: How do you know what you dont know, if you dont know that you don't know it? A crew cannot be expected to do something if they do not know how. Provide training for everyone. It can be on-the-job, tailgate talks over breaks, hourlong training at an association meeting, or all-day training from the Cornell Local Roads Program or a vendor. Wrong time of year or poor weather We cannot control the weather, but we can account for it. A surface treatment placed in October is not likely to work as well as one placed in July. On the other hand, if it rained during construction in July, it is not likely to do very well either. Know the limitations for the repair. You may have to do the work anyway, but you will be better prepared to overcome the problems that may arise.
Pavement Maintenance
Materials Using the wrong material in the right place or the right material in the wrong place can lead to premature failure. Sometimes the problems are obvious. Sometimes the problem does not appear to be related to the material choice. Backfilling an underdrain trench with large stone is actually a materials problem. The stones will retain silt particles brought in by the drained water and will lead to premature plugging of the pipe. Be sure to select the correct material for the job. Wrong material The wrong material will lead to premature failure. Using a dirty gravel base is a classic example. The use of the less expensive material can lead to much larger expenses in the future. Understand what the limitations of a particular product are before you use it. Ask the vendor, other highway departments, or the New York State Department of Transportation. Get a clear picture of the best material for the job. Material does not meet specifications Once you select the material, make sure it meets specifications. By some estimates, 1/4 of the wire in the main cables of the Brooklyn Bridge did not meet the specifications. When the contractor was caught, the extra expense of more cable was paid out of their contract. Some failures are due to a material not meeting specifications. One recommendation is to always sample the materials on site. It is not always possible to go back and get a sample after the construction is complete. Material installed incorrectly If material is put in incorrectly, there can be premature failure. Is this a construction issue or a material issue? It could be both. It should be neither. Sometimes the problem is failure to install the item using a newer technique. For instance, Superpave asphalt concrete needs to be rolled differently than older Marshall Mix design asphalt concretes. Incompatibility with other materials Aggregate charge incompatibility is cited almost every time a chip seal fails. In reality, it almost never occurs. Much more common is using a dusty stone that does not adhere to the asphalt emulsion. When this problem occurs, the consequences can be dramatic.
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Maintenance The most common maintenance problem is that not enough maintenance is done. This is a budgetary, planning, and communication issue that is sometimes very difficult to overcome. Once we decide to perform maintenance we need to remember that ALL maintenance techniques can be designed to fit the conditions and need to be constructed properly using the correct materials. Premature failure of pavement maintenance is usually a failure of design, construction, or material.
Design The most common design issue is a lack of design. The first step in design is selecting the correct repair to fix the problem. In too many cases, the choice of repair is made for nontechnical reasons. In addition, many maintenance repairs are made without any design. Even a chip seal can be designed to obtain the best result for the municipality. Knowing what needs to be done to get the right repair is one of the most critical steps in the design of pavement maintenance. Construction Once a technique has been chosen, it needs to be done correctly. The failure to construct the maintenance repair properly is a major cause of premature failure. A classic example is the lack of truck tire rolling of cold mix patch in the winter. Instead of lasting several months, it lasts less than a day. Material Using the correct material is critical. It may be less expensive to buy cheaper gravel, patch, or emulsion, but can you afford the cost of replacement if it fails prematurely?
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3 - Repair Techniques
_____________________________________________________________ There are many different pavement maintenance techniques. Before deciding which technique to use, make sure you know all of the possible choices. Some problems can only be solved with certain techniques. The list below describes the basic repairs that need to be in your pavement repair toolbox. All Pavements Do nothing This is the most common repair choice, because of cost. It is used whenever economics dictate that no better choice exists. It is used on good and bad roads. A brand new road needs no repairs. On a poor, badly cracked surface, the best technique may be to do nothing. It may be better to leave a road in rough shape than to cover over the problem and have it recur almost immediately. Drainage maintenance This is absolutely critical to allow roads to last as long as possible. Drainage is the single most common problem that leads to premature failures. For more details on drainage, refer to the Cornell Local Roads Program manual, Roadway and Roadside Drainage (see Appendix B). Asphalt Surfaced Pavement Crack repairs When cracks are narrow (1/4 inch to 1 inch) and not deteriorated on the edge, crack repairs are a good alternative. Crack repairs generally fall into two categories of work: sealing and filling. Sealing prevents the intrusion of water and debris into a working crack. A working crack is one that moves noticeably (more than an eighth of an inch) due to weather or traffic loads. Filling reduces the infiltration of water into a non-working crack. Patching Patching is a year-round activity that is done to keep road surfaces drivable. Most patching is done to fill potholes. Ruts, slippage and other pavement defects may also be fixed best by patching. Patching does not fix base problems. Types of patches include: cold asphalt throw and roll, hot asphalt semi-permanent, and spray patching. Patching is very economical if done properly. Area repairs Unlike patching, area repairs involve a more extensive repair. An area repair involves a cut out and replacement of a bad section of a road or street. It is relatively expensive for the area repaired, but since it fixes any base problems and is not wasteful, it can be the best alternative for roads with small areas of distress.
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Pavement Maintenance
Thin wearing courses Sometimes called surface treatments or seals, there is a large family of alternatives that fall into the field of a thin wearing course. They are generally less than one inch thick. This large variety of repairs is used to waterproof the pavement, restore skid resistance, and restore oxidized surfaces. Some surface treatments can fill minor ruts. Cracks and other defects will reflect through. Thin wearing courses do not add any structural strength. Overlays Generally greater than one-inch thick, an asphalt concrete overlay adds strength and can correct minor ride defects. Good timing is critical, due in part to the relatively high expense versus other maintenance activities. In an urban area, loss of curb reveal can be a problem. A tack coat is an important step to help make sure the technique has as much chance of success as possible, Details of overlay construction can be found in the Cornell Local Roads Program manual, Asphalt Paving Principles (see Appendix B). Recycling Recycling is the reuse of the asphalt surface, but it does not usually reuse the base. This environmentally-friendly technique fixes cracks and restores the surface, but it does not fix any base quality or drainage problems. Any isolated base or drainage problems should be repaired prior to recycling. Reclamation Reclamation or stabilization improves the base, as opposed to recycling, which does not. This is done via the addition of aggregates or chemicals to improve the quality of the base. When completed properly, it provides an almost new road. Reclamation can be very cost-effective, but the choice of stabilizing agent is very critical. Total reconstruction This is a very expensive technique, but it may be the only option for a badly deteriorated road. Total reconstruction can be cost-effective if done in conjunction with utility replacement. This choice is usually a last resort.
Gravel Surfaced Pavements Dust control Dust palliatives (emulsions, wood lignins, and salts) are used to keep the dust on the surface of the pavement and to improve safety for the traveling public. As opposed to stabilization, dust control is the primary reason for application and generally no working of the surface is needed. In many cases, dust control operations are scheduled to coincide with blading or grading. Blading or dragging A grader routinely needs to be used to resmooth a gravel surface. This is done with the blade of the grader set to vertical with a slight down pressure. Going slow is the key to success.
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3 - Repair Techniques
Sometimes this is called dragging, after the historical practice of using a horse-drawn wooden drag to perform the same function. Reshaping Reshaping and grading are done when blading is not enough. This generally requires pulling the gravel material into a windrow and respreading with the grader. Rolling the surface will improve the durability of this repair. Patching and area repairs For gravel roads, most patching is done in conjunction with other work. Scarify the material in the area needing patch to a depth of an inch more than the deepest pothole. Filling in potholes on gravel roads is usually not successful. Stabilization Usually one of the highest levels of repair on a gravel road, stabilization involves using chemicals or aggregate to help improve the quality of the material in the pavement. Asphalt emulsion, portland cement, calcium chloride, and salt have all been used as chemical additives. The choice of additive is critical to the success of the repair. Overlays and surface treatments Placing an asphalt overlay or surface treating the gravel is sometimes necessary to deal with increased traffic. When performing this repair, be sure the gravel surface does not have too many fines. If the fines content is above eight percent, the new surface will probably trap moisture and fail prematurely. Total reconstruction As with asphalt surfaced roadways, total reconstruction is a very expensive technique, but it may be the only option. For most gravel roads, this is usually done only when the road will be paved with asphalt.
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4 - Pavement Distresses
_____________________________________________________________ To understand which repair to choose, it is important to understand the distresses that occur in a pavement. Some repairs do not fix certain distresses. Since this manual concentrates on asphalt maintenance techniques, only asphalt surface distresses are listed below. For gravel roads, see the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) publication, Problems Associated with Gravel Roads. More detailed information on asphalt pavement distress is available in the Distress Identification Guide from the Long-Term Pavement Performance Program. See Appendix B. The severity and extent of a distress determine the proper repair. If a distress covers more than one-third of the pavement surface, the entire roadway may need to be repaired. If the distress is isolated to a couple of small areas, then spot repairs may fix the problem. Low severity distresses usually require less extensive repairs. For example, a thin wearing course may seal fine cracks of low severity. Once the distress is very severe, crack repairs may not be enough to properly fix it. The four major categories of common asphalt pavement surface distresses are: 1. 2. 3. 4. Cracking Surface deformation Disintegration (potholes, etc.) Surface defects (bleeding, etc.)
Cracking Cracks in asphalt pavements can take many forms. The most common types of cracking are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Fatigue cracking Longitudinal cracking Transverse cracking Block cracking Slippage cracking Reflective cracking Edge cracking
Fatigue cracking (Alligator cracking) Fatigue cracking is commonly called alligator cracking. This is a series of interconnected cracks creating small, irregular shaped pieces of pavement. The cracking pattern gives the appearance of alligator skin or chicken wire.
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Pavement Maintenance
It is caused by failure of the surface layer or base due to repeated traffic loading (fatigue). Eventually the cracks lead to disintegration of the surface, as shown in Figure 4. The final result is potholes. Alligator cracking is usually associated with base or drainage problems. Small areas may be fixed with a patch or area repair. Larger areas require reclamation or reconstruction. Drainage must be carefully examined in all cases.
Figure 4 - High severity alligator cracking Longitudinal cracking Longitudinal cracks are long cracks that run parallel to the center line of the roadway. These may be caused by frost heaving or joint failures, or they may be load induced. Understanding the cause is critical to selecting the proper repair. Multiple parallel cracks may eventually form from the initial crack. This phenomenon, known as deterioration, is usually a sign that crack repairs are not the proper solution. Filling or sealing longitudinal cracks can work if the cracks are narrow and not deteriorated too much. Figure 5 shows sealed longitudinal cracks. Multiple cracks may require patching or area repairs to fix the problem.
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4 - Pavement Distresses
Figure 5 - Sealed longitudinal cracks Transverse cracks Transverse cracks form at approximately right angles to the centerline of the roadway. They are regularly spaced and have some of the same causes as longitudinal cracks. Transverse cracks will initially be widely spaced (over 20 feet apart). They usually begin as hairline or very narrow cracks and widen with age. If not properly sealed and maintained, secondary or multiple cracks develop, parallel to the initial crack. The reasons for transverse cracking, and the repairs, are similar to those for longitudinal cracking. In addition, thermal issues can lead to low-temperature cracking if the asphalt cement is too hard. Figure 6 shows a low-severity transverse crack.
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Pavement Maintenance
Block cracking Block cracking is an interconnected series of cracks that divides the pavement into irregular pieces. This is sometimes the result of transverse and longitudinal cracks intersecting. They can also be due to lack of compaction during construction. Low severity block cracking may be repaired by a thin wearing course. As the cracking gets more severe, overlays and recycling may be needed. If base problems are found, reclamation or reconstruction may be needed. Figure 7 shows medium to high severity block cracking.
Figure 7 - Medium to high severity block cracking Slippage cracking Slippage cracks are half-moon shaped cracks with both ends pointed towards the oncoming vehicles. They are created by the horizontal forces from traffic. They are usually a result of poor bonding between the asphalt surface layer and the layer below. The lack of a tack coat is a prime factor in many cases. Repair requires removal of the slipped area and repaving. Be sure to use a tack coat in the new pavement.
Reflective cracking Reflective cracking occurs when a pavement is overlaid with hot mix asphalt concrete and cracks reflect up through the new surface. It is called reflective cracking because it reflects the crack pattern of the pavement structure below. As expected from the name, reflective cracks are actually covered over cracks reappearing in the surface. They can be repaired in similar techniques to the other cracking noted above. Before placing any overlays or wearing courses, cracks should be properly repaired.
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4 - Pavement Distresses
Edge cracking Edge cracks typically start as crescent shapes at the edge of the pavement. They will expand from the edge until they begin to resemble alligator cracking. This type of cracking results from lack of support of the shoulder due to weak material or excess moisture. They may occur in a curbed section when subsurface water causes a weakness in the pavement. At low severity the cracks may be filled. As the severity increases, patches and replacement of distressed areas may be needed. In all cases, excess moisture should be eliminated, and the shoulders rebuilt with good materials. Figure 8 shows high severity edge cracking.
Figure 8 - High severity edge cracking Surface deformation Pavement deformation is the result of weakness in one or more layers of the pavement that has experienced movement after construction. The deformation may be accompanied by cracking. Surface distortions can be a traffic hazard. The basic types of surface deformation are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Rutting Corrugations Shoving Depressions Swell
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Pavement Maintenance
Rutting Rutting is the displacement of pavement material that creates channels in the wheel path. Very severe rutting will actually hold water in the rut. Rutting is usually a failure in one or more layers in the pavement. The width of the rut is a sign of which layer has failed. A very narrow rut is usually a surface failure, while a wide one is indicative of a subgrade failure. Inadequate compaction can lead to rutting. Figure 9 shows an example of rutting due to subgrade failure.
Figure 9 - Medium Severity Rutting Minor surface rutting can be filled with micropaving or paver-placed surface treatments. Deeper ruts may be shimmed with a truing and leveling course, with an overlay placed over the shim. If the surface asphalt is unstable, recycling of the surface may be the best option. If the problem is in the subgrade layer, reclamation or reconstruction may be needed.
Corrugation Corrugation is referred to as washboarding because the pavement surface has become distorted like a washboard. The instability of the asphalt concrete surface course may be caused by too much asphalt cement, too much fine aggregate, or rounded or smooth textured coarse aggregate. Corrugations usually occur at places where vehicles accelerate or decelerate. Minor corrugations can be repaired with an overlay or surface milling. Severe corrugations require a deeper milling before resurfacing. Shoving Shoving is also a form of plastic movement in the asphalt concrete surface layer that creates a localized bulging of the pavement. Locations and causes of shoving are similar to those for corrugations. Figure 10 shows an example of shoving. Repair minor shoving by removing and replacing. For large areas, milling the surface may be required, followed by an overlay.
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4 - Pavement Distresses
Depressions Depressions are small, localized bowl-shaped areas that may include cracking. Depressions cause roughness, are a hazard to motorists, and allow water to collect. Depressions are typically caused by localized consolidation or movement of the supporting layers beneath the surface course due to instability. Repair by excavating and rebuilding the localized depressions. Reconstruction is required for extensive depressions.
Swell A swell is a localized upward bulge on the pavement surface. Swells are caused by an expansion of the supporting layers beneath the surface course or the subgrade. The expansion is typically caused by frost heaving or by moisture. Subgrades with highly plastic clays can swell in a manner similar to frost heaves (but usually in warmer months). Repair swells by excavating the inferior subgrade material and rebuilding the removed area. Reconstruction may be required for extensive swelling.
Disintegration The progressive breaking up of the pavement into small, loose pieces is called disintegration. If the disintegration is not repaired in its early stages, complete reconstruction of the pavement may be needed. The two most common types of disintegration are: 1. 2. Potholes Patches
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Pavement Maintenance
Potholes Potholes are bowl-shaped holes similar to depressions. They are a progressive failure. First, small fragments of the top layer are dislodged. Over time, the distress will progress downward into the lower layers of the pavement. Potholes are often located in areas of poor drainage, as seen in Figure 11. Potholes are formed when the pavement disintegrates under traffic loading, due to inadequate strength in one or more layers of the pavement, usually accompanied by the presence of water. Most potholes would not occur if the root cause was repaired before development of the pothole. Repair by excavating and rebuilding. Area repairs or reconstruction may be required for extensive potholes.
Figure 11 - Potholes caused by poor drainage Patches A patch is defined as a portion of the pavement that has been removed and replaced. Patches are usually used to repair defects in a pavement or to cover a utility trench. Patch failure can lead to a more widespread failure of the surrounding pavement. Some people do not consider patches as a pavement defect. While this should be true for high quality patches as is done in a semipermanent patch, the throw and roll patch is just a cover. The underlying cause is still under the pothole. To repair a patch, a semi-permanent patch should be placed. Extensive potholes may lead to area repairs or reclamation. Reconstruction is only needed if base problems are the root source of the potholes.
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4 - Pavement Distresses
Surface defects Whereas the previous types of distress are mostly related to the supporting layers beneath the surface, surface defects are related to problems in the surface layer. The most common types of surface distress are: 1. 2. 3. 4. Ravelling Ravelling (see Figure 12), is the loss of material from the pavement surface. It is a result of insufficient adhesion between the asphalt cement and the aggregate. Initially, fine aggregate breaks loose and leaves small, rough patches in the surface of the pavement. As the disintegration continues, larger aggregate breaks loose, leaving rougher surfaces. Ravelling can be accelerated by traffic and freezing weather. Some ravelling in chip seals is due to improper construction technique. This can also lead to bleeding. Repair the problem with a wearing course or an overlay. Ravelling Bleeding Polishing Delamination
Figure 12 - High severity ravelling of asphalt surface Bleeding Bleeding is defined as the presence of excess asphalt on the road surface which creates patches of asphalt cement. Excessive asphalt cement reduces the skid-resistance of a pavement, and it can become very slippery when wet, creating a safety hazard. This is caused by an excessively high asphalt cement content in the mix, using an asphalt cement with too low a viscosity (too flowable), too heavy a prime or tack coat, or an improperly applied seal coat. Bleeding occurs more often in hot weather when the asphalt cement is less viscous (more flowable) and the traffic forces the asphalt to the surface. Figure 13 shows an example of bleeding during hot weather.
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Pavement Maintenance
In some cases, a repair can be made by applying hot sand or slag to blot up the excess asphalt. This is a very difficult problem to solve. It sometimes requires removing the bleeding pavement and placing a new surface. A thin wearing course will only solve the problem temporarily. The bleeding asphalt will eventually work its way upward.
Figure 13 - Bleeding during hot weather Polishing Polishing is the wearing of aggregate on the pavement surface due to traffic (see Figure 14). It can result in a dangerous low friction surface. A thin wearing course will repair the surface.
Figure 14 - Polishing of asphalt surface Delamination Delamination is a failure of an overlay due to a loss of bond between the overlay and the older pavement (see Figure 15). Common causes of delamination include: wet or dirty surface during paving of the overlay, failure to use a tack coat, or poor compaction of the overlay. Proper paving techniques, including cleaning the surface and use of tack coat, will reduce the chances of delamination.
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4 - Pavement Distresses
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Demand maintenance: Performing a technique to correct a hazard or meet a service request. Pothole patching in the spring is the most common form of demand maintenance. Routine maintenance: Performed on a routine basis for operational reasons. Examples include mowing grass, cutting shoulders, and striping centerlines.
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Pavement Maintenance
Preventive maintenance: Application of a treatment before significant deterioration occurs. It typically extends the life of the pavement and is usually planned. Surface treatments are usually considered preventive maintenance. Corrective maintenance: Fixes pavement failures after they have occurred. A semi-permanent area patch is a form of corrective maintenance. A truing and leveling layer to fill minor ruts, with a follow up overlay, is another example. Corrective maintenance generally costs more than preventive or routine maintenance. Planned maintenance is generally preferred to unplanned (demand) maintenance, and preventive maintenance is preferred to corrective maintenance. Figure 16 shows the relationship between condition and the life of the pavement. The pavement starts in very good shape and deteriorates slowly at first. Maintenance repairs done early in the life of the pavement are much less expensive. Figure 17 shows the relationship between pavement condition and the various levels of maintenance. These two figures show that routine and preventive maintenance are the most economical options. Reconstruction techniques are the most expensive, and are usually done when there is no other choice. Although not shown in Figure 17, there are times in the life of a pavement when the best alternative is to do nothing. This is usually when the pavement is not a candidate for maintenance, and rehabilitation or reconstruction are not yet justifiable.
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Selecting the repair The first step is to evaluate the road. Divide the road network into segments, and do a condition survey on each segment. A condition survey documents the extent and severity of each type of pavement distress. Using the results of the condition survey, determine the possible pavement repairs. During the evaluation, ask the following questions: What kind of maintenance can fix the defects found? What repair, if any, will extend the life of the pavement? Which maintenance technique will be the most cost effective? Table 4 shows a basic matrix to help select the proper repair. The table only shows which repairs may be used to fix a given distress at a reasonable price. Generally, the less expensive solutions will be in the lefthand columns. Within a treatment category, specific operations may not fix the distress in question. One example is a fog seal, which will not restore skid resistance, due to low friction. In actual field evaluation, other factors will need to be taken into account.
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Pavement Maintenance
Average duration
Distress to be repaired
X X X X X X X X X
4 3 3 1 2
X X X X
Raveling
Bleeding X
Rutting X X
5
X X X
Potholes
Roughness
1 - Micropaving and Novachip will fill some ruts. 2 - Bleeding may reappear after a few years. 3 - See Chapter 6 to help determine which cracks are good candidates for repairs. 4 - Overlays with a shim layer added may be used to fill ruts and improve ride quality. 5 - Cracks will reflect through unless crack repairs are completed first.
6 - Crack Repairs
_____________________________________________________________ Crack repairs are the proper and timely maintenance of cracks using sealing or filling techniques to extend pavement life. Crack repairs are very cost effective if done properly. A crack repair program begins by determining if crack repairs are suitable for the type of distress. Determining Type of Maintenance The first step is to inspect the roadway and examine the cracking. Two different factors need to be examined: crack density and the level of edge deterioration. The width of the crack also needs to be determined. Crack density is a subjective term describing the spacing of the cracks. If there are only a few cracks along the length of roadway, then the density is low. If there are cracks over the full length of the pavement, the density is high. If you are not sure, the density is probably moderate. Edge deterioration is a measure of the condition of the cracks. Spalling, secondary cracks, cupping, and faulting are all examples of edge deterioration. A single transverse crack may be low in density. A badly deteriorated single crack is still low in density, however, it is not a candidate for crack repairs. If the edge is deteriorated too much, crack repairs will not be successful, and patching or area repairs are needed. Crack width is important to determine, if the repair is to be successful. If the crack width is less than 1/4 inch (the width of a pencil eraser), then the crack is too narrow for sealing and filling. A crack this size is not wide enough to allow the repair material to enter and function. Narrow cracks may be surface treated. Alternatively, they can be widened by routing or sawing. Figure 18 shows an isolated crack with a large amount of edge deterioration. The initial crack has spawned many secondary cracks. If all the cracks were combined together, the width would be significantly more than one inch. This is a good candidate for patching.
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Pavement Maintenance
Table 5 shows how crack density and edge deterioration can be used to select the proper type of maintenance. In the table, rehabilitation includes recycling and reclamation. Be sure any drainage issues are resolved when choosing this option. In the case of low density, moderate level cracking, crack repairs may not be cost effective. Pavement should be evaluated on a case by case basis. Table 5 - Determining the type of maintenance for cracks Average level of edge deterioration Crack Density Low Moderate High Low (0-25%) Nothing Crack repair Surface treatment Moderate (26-50%) Crack repair? Crack repair Surface treatment High (51-100%) Patching Patching Rehabilitation
Sealing versus Filling There are two distinct techniques used to repair cracks: sealing and filling. Crack sealing The placement of specialized materials either above or into working cracks using unique configurations to prevent the intrusion of water and debris into the crack. Working cracks are defined as those that experience significant horizontal movements, generally greater than about 1/8 inch over the course of the year. Working cracks are generally more widely open during winter months, and less open in summer months. Cold weather causes the pavement surface to contract, which opens the cracks. Crack filling The placement of materials into nonworking cracks to reduce infiltration of water and to reinforce the adjacent pavement. It is important to remember that sealing uses more flexible materials than filling. This allows the seal to move with the crack. Sealing material is more expensive, but is usually worth the extra money. Substantial savings can result if the cracks are not moving. Table 6 shows the basic guidelines for choosing between crack sealing and crack filling.
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6 - Crack Repairs
Table 6 - Guidelines for crack repairs Crack characteristics Crack width Edge deterioration (spalls, secondary cracks) Annual horizontal movement Type of crack Sealing 1/4" to 3/4" (5 to 19 mm) Minimal to none (equal to or less than 25% of crack length) equal to or less than 1/8" (3 mm) Transverse thermal Transverse reflective Diagonal Working longitudinal Routing/sawing Cleaning/drying Backer rod (if required) Filling 1/4" to 1" (5 to 25 mm) Moderate to none (equal to or less than 50% of crack length) less than 1/8" (3 mm) Longitudinal reflective Longitudinal cold joint Longitudinal edge Distantly spaced block Blowing out debris
Preparation
Materials Various materials can be used to repair cracks. There are many different desirable characteristics. All crack repair materials need to have good adhesion to the sides of the crack. Installation and performance issues are also factors that need to be examined. Table 7 shows the desirable properties of the various materials. Appendix A summarizes the most commonly used cracktreatment materials and provides recommendations for use, as well as basic cost information. As a general rule, materials that are more flexible will perform better in sealing operations. Polymer and rubberized materials have shown the best performance. Configuration Crack repair material is placed in a specific configuration that is most suitable for the application. Three basic configurations are shown in Figure 19. There are many other specialized configurations, but they are all variants or combinations of the three shown.
Flush-Fill
Reservoir
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Pavement Maintenance
Flush-fill The easiest and most common technique is the flush-fill. The material is placed into the crack. Excess material is then removed or blotted up. It is an easy repair, but edge deterioration can result in premature failure. The crack must be clean and dry prior to the repair. Overband Overbanding places material into and over an uncut crack. This technique is better than a flushfill at dealing with small deterioration, but the overband must be kept narrow. As a general rule, no overband should be wider than four inches. The material is slippery when wet and can result in a safety hazard. Multiple cracks filled in this way can lead to a patched area of crack sealant as shown in Figure 20. Reservoir In the reservoir technique, a saw or router is used to prepare a place to insert the repair material. This is more commonly done with sealing repairs. It increases the costs, but it may be necessary in order to provide sufficient working room for the sealant.
Figure 20 - Crack sealing creating a safety hazard Limitations Crack repairs do not restore the structural integrity of the pavement. They can improve the strength of the pavement during wet periods, such as spring thaw, by eliminating or reducing the inflow of water under the pavement. Cracks should be sealed when they are at the middle of their working range. This allows the cracks to expand and contract with less stress on the sealant. A sunny day in spring or fall is a very good time to seal cracks, if all of the other weather factors are favorable.
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Material type Asphalt emulsion Polymermodified emulsion Asphalt cement Fiberized asphalt Asphalt rubber Rubberized asphalt Lowmodulus rubberized asphalt Selfleveling silicone
Property
Short prep