50 AEDG-SMO FreeDownload 04282011

Advanced Energy Design Guide
for Small to Medium Ofce Buildings

Achieving 50% Energy Savings
Toward a Net Zero Energy Building
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Developed by:
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers
The American Institute of Architects
Illuminating Engineering Society of North America
U.S. Green Building Council
U.S. Department of Energy
50
%
50
%
This Guide was prepared under ASHRAE Special Project 133.
Advanced Energy Design Guide for Small to Medium Ofce Buildings is the rst in a
series designed to provide recommendations for achieving 50% energy savings over the
minimum code requirements of ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-2004. The energy
savings target of 50% is the next step toward achieving a net zero energy building, which
is dened as a building that, on an annual basis, draws from outside resources equal
or less energy than it provides using on-site renewable energy sources. ANSI/ASHRAE/
IESNA Standard 90.1-2004 provides the xed reference point and serves as a consistent
baseline and scale for all of the 50% Advanced Energy Design Guides.
This Guide focuses on small to medium ofce buildings up to 100,000 ft
2
. Ofce buildings
include a wide range of ofce types and related activities such as administrative,
professional, government, bank or other nancial services, and medical ofces without
medical diagnostic equipment. These facilities typically include all or some of the following
space types: open plan and private ofces, conference and meeting spaces, corridors and
transition areas, lounge and recreation areas, lobbies, active storage areas, restrooms,
mechanical and electrical rooms, stairways, and other spaces. This Guide does not cover
specialty spaces such as data centers, which are more typical in large ofce buildings.
The specic energy-saving recommendations in this Guide are summarized in a single
table for each climate zone and will allow contractors, consulting engineers, architects,
and designers to easily achieve advanced levels of energy savings without detailed
energy modeling or analyses.
In addition, this Guide provides a greater emphasis on integrated design as a necessary
component in achieving 50% energy savings and devotes an entire chapter to integrated-
design strategies that can be used by teams who do not wish to follow the specic energy-
saving recommendations.
Those looking for help in implementing the climate-specic recommendations of this
Guide will nd an expanded section of tips and approaches in the How to Implement
Recommendations chapter. These tips are cross-referenced with the recommendation
tables. The chapter also includes additional bonus recommendations that identify
opportunities to incorporate greater energy savings into the design of the building.
Case studies and technical examples are sprinkled throughout the Guide to illustrate the
recommendations and to demonstrate the technologies in real-world applications.
For more information on the entire Advanced Energy Design Guide series, please visit
www.ashrae.org/aedg.
9 781936 504053
ISBN: 978-1-936504-05-3
Product Code: 90383 4/11
AEDG_50_SmallOfficeCover-1.indd 1 4/20/2011 4:46:18 PM
Posted originally, 4/28/11
Advanced Energy
Design Guide
for
Small to Medium
Office Buildings

This is an ASHRAE Design Guide. Design Guides are developed under
ASHRAEs Special Publication procedures and are not consensus docu-
ments. This document is an application manual that provides voluntary rec-
ommendations for consideration in achieving greater levels of energy savings
relative to minimum standards.
01_Front.fm Page i Monday, April 25, 2011 10:06 AM
2011 American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. (www.ashrae.org). For personal use only.
Additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.
2011 American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. (www.ashrae.org).
For personal use only. Additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either print or
digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.
This publication was prepared under the auspices of ASHRAE Special Project 133.
PROJECT COMMITTEE
Bing Liu
Chair
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory
Merle McBride
Vice-Chair
Owens Corning
Don Colliver
Steering Committee Ex Officio
University of Kentucky
Daniel Nall
AIA/USGBC Representative
WSP Flack +Kurtz
Erin McConahey
Member at Large
Arup
Mick Schwedler
ASHRAE Representative
Trane, a division of Ingersoll Rand
Brian Thornton
Analysis Support
Michael Lane
IES Representative
Lighting Design Lab
Weimin Wang
Analysis Support
Mathew Tanteri
IES Representative
Tanteri +Associates
Lilas Pratt
Staff Liaison
ASHRAE
STEERING COMMITTEE
Don Colliver
Chair
Bill Worthen
AIA Representative
J erome Lam
DOE Representative
Rita Harrold
IES Representative
Mick Schwedler
ASHRAE SSPC 90.1 Liaison
Brendan Owens
USGBC Representative
Adrienne Thomle
ASHRAE TC 7.6 Liaison
Tom Watson
ASHRAE Representative
Lilas Pratt
ASHRAE Staff Liaison
Any updates/errata to this publicationwill be postedonthe
ASHRAEWebsite at www.ashrae.org/publicationupdates.
01_Front.fm Page ii Monday, April 25, 2011 10:06 AM
Advanced Energy
Design Guide
for
Small to Medium
Office Buildings
Achieving 50% Energy Savings Toward a Net Zero Energy Building
01_Front.fm Page iii Monday, April 25, 2011 10:06 AM
ISBN 978-1-936504-05-3
2011 American Society of Heating, Refrigerating
and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
1791 Tullie Circle, N.E.
Atlanta, GA 30329
www.ashrae.org
All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America
Printed on 10% post-consumer waste using soy-based inks.
Cover design and illustrations by Emily Luce, Designer.
Cover photographs courtesy of ASHRAE and Michael Lane.
ASHRAE has compiled this publication with care, but ASHRAE has not investigated, and ASHRAE expressly disclaims any
duty to investigate, any product, service, process, procedure, design, or the like that may be described herein. The appearance
of any technical data or editorial material in this publication does not constitute endorsement, warranty, or guaranty by
ASHRAE of any product, service, process, procedure, design, or the like. ASHRAE does not warrant that the information in
the publication is free of errors, and ASHRAE does not necessarily agree with any statement or opinion in this publication.
The entire risk of the use of any information in this publication is assumed by the user.
No part of this book may be reproduced without permission in writing from ASHRAE, except by a reviewer who may quote
brief passages or reproduce illustrations in a review with appropriate credit; nor may any part of this book be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any way or by any meanselectronic, photocopying, recording, or otherwith-
out permission in writing from ASHRAE. Requests for permission should be submitted at www.ashrae.org/permissions.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Advanced energy design guide for small to mediumoffice buildings : achieving 50% energy savings toward a net zero energy building / American
Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers ... [et al.].
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references.
Summary: "Designed to provide recommendations for achieving 50% energy savings over the minimumcode requirements of ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA
Standard 90.1-2004 for small to mediumoffice buildings; allows contractors, consulting engineers, architects, and designers to easily achieve advanced
levels of energy savings without having to resort to detailed calculations or analyses"--Provided by publisher.
ISBN 978-1-936504-05-3 (softcover : alk. paper)
1. Office buildings--Energy conservation. 2. Office buildings--Design and construction. I. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-
Conditioning Engineers.
TJ 163.5.O35A38 2011
725'.0472--dc22
2011006680
ASHRAE STAFF
SPECIAL PUBLICATIONS
Mark Owen
Editor/Group Manager
of Handbook and Special Publications
Cindy Sheffield Michaels
Managing Editor
James Madison Walker
Associate Editor
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Assistant Editor
Michshell Phillips
Editorial Coordinator
PUBLISHING SERVICES
David Soltis
Group Manager of Publishing Services
and Electronic Communications
Jayne Jackson
Publication Traffic Administrator
PUBLISHER
W. Stephen Comstock
01_Front.fm Page iv Monday, April 25, 2011 10:06 AM
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
Abbreviations and Acronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
Foreword: A Message for Building Owners and Developers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Chapter 1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Goal of thisGuide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Scope. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
HowtoUsethisGuide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
EnergyModelingAnalysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Achieving50%EnergySavings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Chapter 2 Integrated Design Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Principlesof IntegratedProject Delivery(IPD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
UsingIPDtoMaximizeEnergyEfficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
DetailsbyProject Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Chapter 3 Integrated Design Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Overviewof DesignInfluences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
BuildingandSiteDesignFeatures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
ClimateFeatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
BuildingFeatures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
EnergyConservationMeasures(ECMs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Envelope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Lighting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Contents
02_TOC.fm Pagev Wednesday, April 27, 2011 10:00AM
vi | Advanced Energy Design Guide for Small to Medium Office Buildings
PlugLoads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
ServiceWater Heating. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
HVAC Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
HVAC Controls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
QualityAssurance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
MultidisciplinaryCoordinationfor EnergyEfficiency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
MultidisciplinaryRecommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Useof EnergyModelingasDesignGuidance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Chapter 4 Design Strategies and Recommendations by Climate Zone . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
Climate-RelatedDesignStrategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
Hot, HumidClimates(Miami, Houston, Atlanta) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
Hot, DryClimates(Phoenix, LosAngeles, LasVegas) . . . . . . . . . .73
Mild, HumidClimates(Baltimore) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
Mild, DryClimates(Albuquerque) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
MarineClimates(SanFrancisco, Seattle) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
Cold, DryClimates(Denver, Helena) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
ColdClimates(Chicago, Minneapolis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
ClimateZoneRecommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
Zone1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
Zone2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
Zone3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87
Zone4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
Zone5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
Zone6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96
Zone7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .99
Zone8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
Chapter 5 How to Implement Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Envelope. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
OpaqueEnvelopeComponents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
Vertical Fenestration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121
WindowDesignGuidelinesfor Thermal Conditions . . . . . . . . . . .122
WindowDesignGuidelinesfor Daylighting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126
Daylighting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127
General Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
02_TOC.fm Pagevi Wednesday, April 27, 2011 10:00AM
Contents | vii
ElectricLighting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Interior Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Exterior Lighting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
ReferencesandResources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
PlugLoads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Equipment andControl Guidelines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
ServiceWater Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
General Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
HVAC SystemsandEquipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
HVAC SystemTypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
HVAC SystemConsiderations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
QualityAssurance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Additional BonusSavings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
DaylightingToplighting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Natural Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
RenewableEnergy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
AppendixA Envelope Thermal Performance Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
AppendixB International Climatic Zone Definitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Definitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
AppendixC Commissioning Information and Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
CommissioningScopeof Services. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Deliverables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Schedule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
CommissioningTasks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
AppendixD Early-Phase Energy Balancing Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Perimeter ZoneOptimizationMethod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
02_TOC.fm Pagevii Wednesday, April 27, 2011 10:00AM
Chapter 2 UsingPsychrometricCharts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Chapter 3 BuildingOrientationConsiderations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
External Shading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Additional Benefitsof Daylighting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Radiant Floor System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
CMTA OfficeBuildingA CaseStudy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
TheTerryThomasA CaseStudy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Energy-UseDashboardsat ASHRAE Headquarters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Total CommunityOptionsCorporateHeadquartersA CaseStudy. . . . . . . 64
Chapter 4 BonusSavings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Chapter 5 Daylight ZoneDefinitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
ProtectionfromDirect Solar Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Solar Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
ChoosingPremiumT8Ballasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
BEF-P Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
ASHRAE/IESStandard90.1-2010OccupancySensor Requirements. . . . . 145
AutomaticLight LevelswithOccupancySensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
ASHRAE/IESStandard90.1-2010LightingControl Requirements. . . . . . 145
RecessedHigh-PerformanceLensedFluorescent Fixtures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Exterior Lighting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Radiant Heating/CoolingSystem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
UsingSolar Energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Sidebars
Case Studies and
Technical Examples
02a_SidebarList.fm Pageviii Wednesday, April 27, 2011 9:59AM
Advanced Energy Design Guide for Small to Medium Office Buildings is the first in a
series of Advanced Energy Design Guide (AEDG) publications designed to provide design
strategies and recommendations to achieve 50% energy savings over the minimum code
requirements of ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-2004, Energy Standard for Buildings
Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings. This 50% AEDG series addresses building types that
represent major energy users in the commercial building stock. The publication of this Guide is
the result of collective efforts of many professionals who dedicatedly devoted countless hours
in writing this book.
The primary authors of this Guide were the nine members of the ASHRAE Special Project
133 Committee (SP-133). The chair would like to personally thank all the members of the proj-
ect committee, who worked extremely hard to pull together practical, technically sound infor-
mation covering the full range of integrated designs of ultralow-energy-use office buildings.
The authors brought to this project many years of experience and good practices in design,
construction, commissioning, and research of office buildings to achieve significant energy
savings.
The project committee met four times and held 12 conference calls in six months. Most of
the face-to-face meetings were scheduled on weekends so the committee members could still
meet deliverables and expectations from their daily paid jobs. Thus, the chair would also like to
express her appreciations to the authors families for their sacrifice and support of this project.
In addition, Id like to acknowledge the support from the employers of the project committee
members, including Owens Corning, WSP Flack +Kurtz, ARUP, Lighting Design Lab, Trane
Company, Tanteri +Associates, the University of Kentucky, and Pacific Northwest National
Laboratory (PNNL). The project would not have been possible without the financial contribu-
tions of the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), through the Building Technologies Program.
The project committees efforts were guided by the AEDG Steering Committee (SC),
made up of members from the partner organizations: American Society of Heating, Refrigerat-
ing and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE), American Institute of Architects (AIA), Illu-
minating Engineering Society of North America (IES), U.S. Green Building Council
(USGBC), and DOE. The SC assembled an expert team of authors and defined a project scope
that kept the project committees task manageable and focused. The representatives from these
organizations brought a collegial and constructive spirit to the task of setting policy for the
Guide.
Acknowledgments
03_Acknowl.fm Page ix Thursday, April 21, 2011 4:02 PM
x | Advanced Energy Design Guide for Small to Medium Office Buildings
The AEDG SC convened a focus group of building owners, investors, architects, design-
ers, contractors, and maintenance staff to help guide the overall concept of the document (i.e.,
the scoping document). The focus group members who provided valuable insight into the
needs of this Guide are Mark Pojar of Hines Conceptual Construction Group, Rives Taylor of
Gensler, Brenda Mowara of BVM Engineering, Steve Winkel of the Preview Group, David
Okada of Stantec, Zeina Grinnell of Beacon Capital Partners, Clark Manus of Heller Manus
Architects, Morgan Gabler of Gabler-Youngston Architectural Lighting Design, Chris Green of
Ago Studios, Tim McGinn of Cohas-Evamy, and Brian Livingston of Haselden Construction.
In addition to the voting members on the project committee, there were a number of other
individuals who played key roles in the success of this Guide. The specific individuals and their
contributions are: Brian Thornton and Dr. Weimin Wang of PNNL for writing contributions to
Chapters 3 through 5 and extensive building simulation analyses and results; Lilas Pratt, Mick
Schwedler, and Michael Lane for serving as the gracious hosts of the meetings at their facili-
ties; and Bill Worthen of AIA for his focus on Integrated Project Delivery and direct contribu-
tions to Chapter 2. This Guide could not have been developed without all of their contributions.
Twenty people participated in the two peer reviews, providing more than 360 remarks that
helped to strengthen and clarify the Guide. We appreciate the considerable time they took from
their busy schedules to give us their thoughtful input and hope that they see the impacts of their
recommendations in the finished product.
A huge debt of gratitude is extended to the authors of the previously published 30%
AEDGs because they paved the way and defined the basic structure, content, and format of the
books as well as the procedures for the reporting and the reviews. Following in their footsteps
has provided consistency among the AEDGs in addition to being a tremendous time saver.
Building upon the previous work also allowed the project committee to finish its work in a very
short period of time.
Lilas Pratt, ASHRAE Special Projects Manager, went beyond the call of duty in managing
an enormous number of documents and coordinating with all the authors with great compe-
tence and efficiency. Cindy Michaels, Managing Editor of ASHRAE Special Publications, did
a tremendous job in making the document into a first-class publication. Their efforts, as well as
those of many other ASHRAE staff persons, are greatly appreciated.
I am very proud of the Guide that the project committee developed and amazed at the
accomplishment in such a short time period. I hope you find this Guide provides resourceful
and practical information in guiding your energy-efficient office building design.
Bing Liu
Chair, Special Project 133
J anuary 2011
03_Acknowl.fm Page x Thursday, April 21, 2011 4:02 PM
100%OAS 100%outdoor air system(alsodedicated outdoor air system [DOAS])
AEDG-SMO Advanced Energy Design Guide for Small to Medium Office Buildings
AHRI Air-Conditioning, Heating, andRefrigerationInstitute
AIA AmericanInstituteof Architects
ANSI AmericanNational StandardsInstitute
ASHRAE AmericanSocietyof Heating, RefrigeratingandAir-Conditioning
Engineers
ASTM ASTM International
BAS buildingautomationsystem
BAU businessasusual
BEF ballast efficacyfactor
BEF-P ballast efficacyfactorprime
BF ballast factor
BoD Basisof Design
Btu Britishthermal unit
C thermal conductance, Btu/hft
2
F
CBECS Commercial BuildingsEnergyConsumptionSurvey
CD constructiondocument
CDD coolingdegree-days
cfm cubicfeet per minute
CHW chilledwater
c.i. continuousinsulation
CO
2
carbondioxide
COP coefficient of performance, dimensionless
CRI Color RenderingIndex
CRRC Cool Roof RatingCouncil
Cx commissioning
CxA commissioningauthority
DCV demand-controlledventilation
DL AdvancedEnergyDesignGuidecodefor daylighting
DOAS dedicatedoutdoor air system(also100% outdoor air system
[100% OAS])
DOE U.S. Department of Energy
Abbreviations
and Acronyms
04_Abbrev&Acron.fm Pagexi Thursday, April 21, 2011 4:03PM
xii | Advanced Energy Design Guide for Small to Medium Office Buildings
DX direct expansion
EA effectiveaperture
ECM energyconservationmeasure
EER energyefficiencyratio, Btu/Wh
EF energyfactor
EIA U.S. EnergyInformationAdministration
EL AdvancedEnergyDesignGuidecodefor electriclighting
EN AdvancedEnergyDesignGuidecodefor envelope
ERV energyrecoveryventilator
ESP external staticpressure
E
t
thermal efficiency, dimensionless
EUI energyuseintensity
F slabedgeheat losscoefficient per foot of perimeter, Btu/hftF
fc footcandle
FC filledcavity
FFR fenestrationtofloor arearatio
GSHP ground-sourceheat pump
Guide Advanced Energy Design Guide for Small to Medium Office Buildings
HC heat capacity, Btu/(ft
2
F)
HDD heatingdegree-days
HID high-intensitydischarge
HSPF heatingseasonal performancefactor, Btu/Wh
HV AdvancedEnergyDesignGuidecodefor HVAC systemsand
equipment
HVAC heating, ventilating, andair-conditioning
IAQ indoor air quality
ICC International CodeCouncil
IEER integratedenergyefficiencyratio, Btu/Wh
IES/IESNA IlluminatingEngineeringSocietyof NorthAmerica
IGU insulatedglazingunit
in. inch
in. w.c. inchesof water column
IPD IntegratedProject Delivery
IPLV integratedpart-loadvalue, dimensionless
kW kilowatt
kWh kilowatt-hour
LBNL LawrenceBerkeleyNational Laboratory
LCCA life-cyclecost analysis
LCD liquidcrystal display
LED light-emittingdiode
LEED LeadershipinEnergyandEnvironmental Design
LPD lightingpower density, W/ft
2
LPW lumensper watt
Ls liner system
LZ lightingzone
MERV MinimumEfficiencyReportingValue
N/A not applicable
NEMA National Electrical ManufacturersAssociation
NFRC National FenestrationRatingCouncil
NV AdvancedEnergyDesignGuidecodefor natural ventilation
NREL National RenewableEnergyLaboratory
OA outdoor air
O&M operationandmaintenance
OPR OwnersProject Requirements
04_Abbrev&Acron.fm Pagexii Thursday, April 21, 2011 4:03PM
Abbreviations and Acronyms | xiii
PF projectionfactor, dimensionless
PL AdvancedEnergyDesignGuidecodefor plugloads
PNNL PacificNorthwest National Laboratory
ppm partsper million
PV photovoltaic
QA qualityassurance; AdvancedEnergyDesignGuidecodefor quality
assurance
R thermal resistance, hft
2
F/Btu
RE AdvancedEnergyDesignGuidecodefor renewableenergy
rh relativehumidity
ROI returnoninvestment
SAT supplyair temperature
SEER seasonal energyefficiencyratio, Btu/Wh
SHGC solar heat gaincoefficient, dimensionless
SRI Solar ReflectanceIndex, dimensionless
SWH servicewater heating
TAB test andbalance
U thermal transmittance, Btu/hft
2
F
USGBC U.S. GreenBuildingCouncil
VAV variableair volume
VFD variable-frequencydrive
VRV variablerefrigerant volume
VSD variable-speeddrive
VT visibletransmittance
W watt
WH AdvancedEnergyDesignGuidecodefor servicewater heating
WSHP water-sourceheat pump
WWR window-to-wall ratio
04_Abbrev&Acron.fm Pagexiii Thursday, April 21, 2011 4:03PM
04_Abbrev&Acron.fm Pagexiv Thursday, April 21, 2011 4:03PM
Advanced Energy Design Guide for Small to Medium Office Buildings is the first in a
series of Advanced Energy Design Guide (AEDG) publications designed to provide recom-
mendations to achieve 50% energy savings when compared with the minimum code require-
ments of ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-2004, Energy Standard for Buildings Except
Low-Rise Residential Buildings (ASHRAE 2004). This guide applies to small to medium size
office buildings with gross floor areas up to 100,000 ft
2
.
Use of this Guide can help in the design of new office buildings and major renovations that
consume substantially less energy compared to the minimum code-compliant design, resulting
in lower operating costs. Also important, through use of an integrated design process, an
energy-efficient building offers a great possibility to enhance the working environment, includ-
ing indoor air quality, thermal comfort, and natural lighting. Studies show an enhanced work-
ing environment can increase worker productivity, improve staff retention, increase corporate
brand awareness, have significant rental and sales prices premiums, and may contribute
directly to corporate social responsibility through reduced greenhouse gas emissions (RMI
1994; Costar 2008).
The ability for a project to achieve and maintain 50% energy use reduction in any climate
and on any site requires more effort than project design team agreement on any specific set of
building energy systems. Fundamental building program requirements by the owner need to be
considered prior to making even basic architectural design decisions. Considerations include
the nature of project team contracts; a basic understanding of climate, site requirements, driv-
ers for building orientation, and massing; and project budget/cost assumptions of the building
owner and/or their designated construction manager. The project team should also set a goal to
allow for ongoing maintenance and replacement of critical systems to ensure the enduring per-
formance of the overall building design.
One of the goals of this Guide is to provide useful information about energy-efficient sys-
tem design and how the performance of these systems relates to decisions made by the owner,
from site selection, initial project budget, request for proposal language, and Owners Project
Requirements to many of the building design decisions made very early in concept designs.
There is also a direct relation of the skills and understanding of individual design team mem-
bers as well as their awareness of concepts included in this guide and their ability to work col-
laboratively, share risk, and have sufficient time and fees to achieve 50% energy use reduction.
It is also worth noting here that whatever time and effort is spent by the projects design team
to achieve this level of efficiency has a high risk of being negated or lost if the buildings oper-
Foreword:
A Message for Building
Owners and Developers
05_Foreword.fm Page xv Thursday, April 21, 2011 4:03 PM
xvi | Advanced Energy Design Guide for Small to Medium Office Buildings
ation and maintenance staff is not provided with the tools, education, information, and deci-
sions made during the initial design process, including the assumptions made concerning
equipment, maintenance, calibration, and replacement of critical building systems. Ultimately,
the design team has no control of the life and use of the building by its occupants beyond
the scope of their contract for services.
This Guide presents a broad range of subject matter, including broad concepts such as the
integrated design process, multidisciplinary design strategies, and design tips and good prac-
tices on specific energy systems, while the focus of this Guide, especially the later chapters, is
on building and system details that can help achieve the desired results.
ENHANCED WORKING ENVIRONMENTS
Healthier working environments include favorable lighting, acceptable sound levels, and
thermal comfort and are affected by many energy-efficiency measures. An increasing number
of surveys and studies show that natural light, proper ventilation, appropriate temperature and
humidity ranges, or even localized controls lead to healthier environments, increasing office
worker productivity (Miller et al. 2009).
Daylighting, which uses natural light to produce high-quality, glare-free lighting, can
improve office worker performance by as much as 25% (HMG 2003). Because it requires little
or no electrical lighting, daylighting is also a key strategy for achieving energy savings. Quality
lighting systems include a combination of daylighting and energy-efficient electric lighting
systems. These complement each other by reducing visual strain and providing better lighting
quality.
Advanced energy-efficient heating and cooling systems can produce quieter, more com-
fortable, and more productive spaces. Healthy indoor environments can increase employee pro-
ductivity, according to an increasing number of case studies (Miller et al. 2009). Because
workers are by far the largest expense for most companies (for offices, salaries are 72 times
higher than energy costs, and they account for 92% of the life-cycle cost of a building), this has
a tremendous effect on overall costs.
LOWER CONSTRUCTION COSTS/FASTER PAYBACK
Through use of an integrated design process and project delivery, energy-efficient offices
can cost less to build than typical offices. For example, optimizing the building envelope for the
climate can substantially reduce the size of the mechanical systems. An office with strategi-
cally designed glazing will have lower mechanical costs than the one withoutand will cost
less to build. In general, an energy-efficient office
requires less heating and cooling energy use,
costs less to operate,
requires fewer lighting fixtures due to more efficient lighting systems,
allows for downsized heating systems due to better insulation and windows, and
allows for downsized cooling systems with a properly designed daylighting system, more
efficient electric lighting, and a better envelope.
Some strategies may cost more up front, but the energy they save means they often pay for
themselves within a few years.
REDUCED OPERATING COSTS
According to the most recent Commercial Buildings Energy Consumption Survey
(CBECS) conducted by the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), offices are ranked
as the largest in terms of both floor space and primary energy consumption in the commercial
05_Foreword.fm Page xvi Thursday, April 21, 2011 4:03 PM
Foreword: A Message for Building Owners and Developers | xvii
building sector in the United States. Offices constitute 20% of the primary energy use and rep-
resent 19% of the total square footage of commercial building stock. By using energy effi-
ciently and lowering an offices energy bills, hundreds of thousands of dollars can be redirected
each year into upgrading existing facilities, increasing office workers salaries, and investing in
the latest technology in office appliances and equipment. Strategic up-front investments in
energy efficiency measures provide significant long-term operating and maintenance cost sav-
ings. More importantly, studies show that productivity benefits are estimated to be as much as
ten times the energy savings (Kats 2003).
REDUCED GREENHOUSE GAS EMMISSIONS
According to some estimates, buildings are responsible for nearly 40% of all carbon diox-
ide emissions annually in the United States. Carbon dioxide, which is produced when fossil
fuel is burned, is the primary contributor to greenhouse gas emissions. Office buildings can be
a part of the solution when they reduce their consumption of fossil fuels for heating, cooling,
and electricity. The office occupants, staff, and society will appreciate such forward-thinking
leadership.
REFERENCES
ASHRAE. 2004. ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-2004, Energy Standard for Buildings
Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings. Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerat-
ing and Air-Conditioning, Inc.
CoStar. 2008. Does green pay off? Journal of Real Estate Portfolio Management14(4).
www.costar.com/J OSRE/doesGreenPayOff.aspx, accessed J anuary 20, 2011.
HMG. 2003. Windows and offices: A study of office worker performance and the indoor
environment. Fair Oaks, CA: Heschong Mahone Group. www.h-m-g.com/downloads/
Daylighting/order_daylighting.htm.
Kats, G., L. Alevantis, A. Berman, E. Mills, and J . Perlman. 2003. The costs and financial ben-
efits of green buildingsA report to Californias Sustainable Building Task Force.
www.usgbc.org/Docs/News/News477.pdf. Sacramento: California Department of
Resources Recycling and Recovery (CalRecycle).
Miller, N.G., D. Pogue, Q.D. Gough, and S.M. Davis. 2009. Green buildings and productivity.
Journal of Sustainable Real Estate 1(1):6589. www.costar.com/josre/J ournalPdfs/04-
Green-Buildings-Productivity.pdf.
RMI. 1994. Greening the Building and the Bottom Line. Boulder, CO: Rocky Mountain Insti-
tute. www.rmi.org/rmi/Library/D94-27_GreeningBuildingBottomLine, accessed J anuary
20, 2011.
05_Foreword.fm Page xvii Thursday, April 21, 2011 4:03 PM
05_Foreword.fm Page xviii Thursday, April 21, 2011 4:03 PM
Advanced Energy Design Guide for Small to Medium Office Buildings (AEDG-SMO; the
Guide) provides user-friendly, how-to design guidance and efficiency recommendations for
small to medium office buildings up to 100,000 ft
2
. The intended audience of this Guide
includes, but is not limited to, building owners, architects, design engineers, energy modelers,
general contractors, facility managers, and building operations staff. Specially, Chapter 2 is
written for a target audience of all design team members, whether they are design profession-
als, construction experts, owner representatives, or other stakeholders. Chapters 3 through 5
orient more toward design professionals to pursue sound design advice and identify interdisci-
plinary opportunities for significant energy reduction. Application of the recommendations in
the Guide can be expected to result in small to medium size offices with at least 50% site
energy reductions when compared to those same facilities designed to meet the minimum code
requirements of ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-2004, Energy Standard for Buildings
Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings (ASHRAE 2004a).
This Guide contains recommendations to design a low-energy-use building and is not a
minimum code or standard. A voluntary guidance document, this Guide is intended to supple-
ment existing codes and standards and is not intended to replace, supersede, or circumvent
them. The Guide provides both multidisciplinary design strategies and prescriptive design
packages to significantly reduce energy consumptions in small to medium office buildings.
Even though several design packages are provided in the document, this Guide represents a
way, but not the only way, to build energy-efficient small to medium office buildings with 50%
energy savings.
The energy savings projections of this Guide are based on site energy consumption rather
than source energy. Site energy refers to the number of units of energy consumed on the site
and typically metered at the property line. Source energy takes into account the efficiency with
which raw materials are converted into energy and transmitted to the site and refers to the total
amount of energy originally embodied in the raw materials. For example, it is generally
accepted that site electrical energy is 100% efficient, but in fact it takes approximately 3 kWh
of total energy to produce and deliver 1 kWh to the customer because the production and distri-
bution of electrical energy is roughly 33% efficient.
This Guide was developed by a project committee that represents a diverse group of profes-
sionals and practitioners. Guidance and support was provided through a collaboration of mem-
bers from American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers
(ASHRAE), American Institute of Architects (AIA), Illuminating Engineering Society of North
America (IES), U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC), and U.S. Department of Energy (DOE).
Introduction
1
06_Chapter1.fm Page 1 Thursday, April 21, 2011 4:03 PM
2 | Advanced Energy Design Guide for Small to Medium Office Buildings
ASHRAE and its partners have, to date, published six Advanced Energy Design Guides
(AEDGs) focused on new construction in small commercial buildings (ASHRAE 2010b). The
purpose of these six published Guides is to provide recommendations for achieving at least
30% energy savings over the minimum code requirements of ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-
1999 (ASHRAE 1999). Building types covered include small office, small retail, K-12 schools,
small warehouses and self-storage buildings, highway lodging, and small hospitals and health-
care facilities. The published guides are available for free download at www.ashrae.org/aedg.
GOAL OF THIS GUIDE
The AEDG-SMO strives to provide guidance and recommendations to reduce the total
energy use in office buildings by 50% or more, on a site energy basis, using a building that com-
plies with ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-2004 as the minimum code-compliant baseline
(ASHRAE 2004a). The energy savings goal is to be achieved in each climate location rather
than at an aggregated national average. The 50% savings is determined based on whole-building
site energy savings, which includes process and plug loads.
One significant difference in this Guide is the inclusion of the Integrated Project Delivery
(IPD) and multidisciplinary design strategies in addition to the prescriptive recommendations
as in the previous 30% AEDGs (ASHRAE 2010b). It is very challenging to reduce energy use
by half using a set of prescriptive recommendations because design solutions in a particular
building vary depending on climate, site, building use, local code jurisdiction requirements,
and other factors. Even though this Guide is intended to provide a variety of prescriptive design
packages to offer architects and designers options, it also acknowledges that not all options will
be appropriate solutions for an individual project. The climate-specific design strategies will
provide guidance and flexibility to design professionals.
SCOPE
This Guide applies to small to medium office buildings up to 100,000 ft
2
in gross floor
area. Office buildings include a wide range of office-related activities and office types, such as
administrative or professional offices, government offices, bank or other financial offices, med-
ical offices without medical diagnostic equipment, and other types of offices. These facilities
typically include all or some of the following types of space usage: open plan and private
office, conference meeting, corridor and transition, lounge and recreation, lobby, active stor-
age, restroom, mechanical and electrical, stairway, and other spaces. This Guide does not con-
sider specialty spaces such as data centers, which are more typically presented in large offices.
The primary focus of this Guide is new construction, but recommendations may be equally
applicable to offices undergoing complete renovation and in part to many other office renova-
tion, addition, remodeling, and modernization projects (including changes to one or more sys-
tems in existing buildings).
Included in the Guide are recommendations for the design of the building opaque enve-
lope; fenestration; lighting systems (including electrical interior and exterior lights and day-
lighting); heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems; building automation and
controls; outdoor air requirements; service water heating; and plug and process loads. Addi-
tional savings recommendations are also included but are not necessary for 50% savings. These
additional savings recommendations are discussed in the Additional Bonus Savings section
of Chapter 5 and provide design tips for additional daylighting (toplighting), natural ventila-
tion, and renewable energy systems.
The recommendation tables in Chapter 4 do not include all the components listed in
ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-2004. Though this Guide focuses only on the primary energy
systems within a building, the underlying energy analysis assumes that all the other compo-
nents and system comply with the minimum design criteria in Standard 90.1 and ANSI/
ASHRAE Standard 62.1, Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality (ASHRAE 2004a,
Chapter 1Introduction | 3
2004b). Also, Chapter 3 of this Guide provides general guidance and resources in terms of con-
ditions to promote health and comfort.
In addition, AEDG-SMO is not intended to substitute for rating systems or references that
address the full range of sustainability issues in office design, such as acoustics, productivity,
indoor air quality, water efficiency, landscaping, and transportation, except as they relate to
energy use. Nor is it a design text. The Guide assumes good design skills and expertise in office
building design.
HOW TO USE THIS GUIDE
Review Chapter 2 to understand how an IPD process is used to maximize energy effi-
ciency. Checklists show how to establish and maintain the energy savings target through-
out the project.
Review Chapter 3 to understand the integrated design strategies, including architectural
design features and energy conservation measures by climate zone. This chapter provides
integrated design strategies for design professionals to make good decisions at the project
early design stage. This is especially important when designers have to design a unique
project on a specific site whose characteristics do not match the analyzed baseline building
in shape, orientation, or glazing in the Guide.
Use Chapter 4 to review climate-specific design strategies and select specific energy sav-
ing measures by climate zone. This chapter provides prescriptive packages that do not
require modeling for energy savings. These measures also can be used to earn credits for
the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Green Building Rating Sys-
tem (USGBC 2011) and other building rating systems.
Use Chapter 5 to apply the energy-saving measures in Chapter 4. This chapter has sugges-
tions about best design practices, how to avoid problems, and how to achieve additional
savings with energy-efficient appliances, plug-in equipment, and other energy-saving
measures.
Refer to the appendices for additional information:
Appendix AEnvelope Thermal Performance Factors
Appendix BInternational Climatic Zone Definitions
Appendix CCommissioning Information and Examples
Appendix DEarly-Phase Energy Balancing Calculations
Note that this Guide is presented in Inch-Pound (I-P) units only; it is up to the individual
user to convert values to metric as required.
ENERGY MODELING ANALYSIS
To provide a baseline and quantify the energy savings for this Guide, two office prototypi-
cal buildings were developed and analyzed using hourly building simulations. These building
models include a 20,000 ft
2
small office and a 50,000 ft
2
medium office, each of which was
carefully assembled to be representative of construction for offices of its class. Information
was drawn from a number of sources and various office templates from around the country.
Two sets of hour-by-hour simulations were run for each prototype. The first set meets the
minimum requirements of ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-2004 (ASHRAE 2004a), and the
second uses the recommendations in this Guide. Each set of prototypes was simulated in eight
climate zones adopted by International Code Council (ICC) and ASHRAE in development of
the prevailing energy codes and standards. The climate zones were further divided into moist
and dry regions, represented by 16 climate locations. All materials and equipment used in the
simulations are commercially available from two or more manufacturers.
Energy savings for the recommendations vary depending on climate zones, daylighting
options, HVAC system type, and office type but in all cases are at least 50% when compared to
Standard 90.1-2004, ranging from 50% to 61%. Analysis also determined energy savings of
approximately 46% when compared to Standard 90.1-2007 and 31% when compared to Stan-
dard 90.1-2010 (ASHRAE 2004a, 2007, 2010a). It is estimated that the energy savings are 55%
using this Guide when compared to Standard 90.1-1999 (ASHRAE 1999), the baseline stan-
dard of the 30% AEDG series (ASHRAE 2010b). Energy-saving analysis approaches, method-
ologies, and complete results of the prototype office simulations are documented in two
technical reports published by Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL): Technical Sup-
port Document: 50% Energy Savings for Small Office Buildings and Technical Support Docu-
ment: 50% Energy Savings for Medium Office Buildings (Thornton et al. 2009, 2010).
ACHIEVING 50% ENERGY SAVINGS
Meeting the 50% energy savings goal is challenging and requires more than doing busi-
ness as usual. Here are the essentials.
1. Obtain building owner buy-in. There must be strong buy-in from the owner and the opera-
tors leadership and staff. The more they know about and participate in the planning and
design process, the better they will be able to help achieve the 50% goal after the office
becomes operational. The building owner must decide on the goals and provide the leader-
ship to make the goals reality.
2. Assemble an experienced, innovative design team. Interest and experience in designing
energy-efficient buildings, innovative thinking, and the ability to work together as a team
are all critical to meeting the 50% goal. The team achieves this goal by creating a building
that maximizes daylighting; minimizes process, heating, and cooling loads; and has highly
efficient lighting and HVAC systems. Energy goals should be communicated in the request
for proposal and design team selection based in part on the teams ability to meet the goals.
The design team implements the goals for the owner.
3. Adopt an integrated design process. Cost-effective, energy-efficient design requires trade-
offs among potential energy-saving features. This requires an integrated approach to office
design. A highly efficient lighting system, for instance, may cost more than a conventional
one, but because it produces less heat, the buildings cooling system can often be down-
sized. The greater the energy savings, the more complicated the trade-offs become and the
more design team members must work together to determine the optimal mix of energy-
saving features. Because many options are available, the design team will have wide lati-
tude in making energy-saving trade-offs.
4. Consider a daylighting consultant. Daylighting is an important energy savings strategy to
achieve the 50% energy saving goal; however, it requires good technical daylighting
design. If the design team does not have experience with a well-balanced daylighting
design, it may need to add a daylighting consultant.
5. Consider energy modeling. This Guide provides a few design packages to help achieve
energy savings of 50% without energy modeling, but whole-building energy modeling pro-
grams can provide more flexibility to evaluate the energy-efficient measures on an individ-
ual project. These simulation programs have learning curves of varying difficulty, but
energy modeling for office design is highly encouraged and is considered necessary for
achieving energy savings of 50%. See DOEs Building Energy Software Tools Directory at
www.eere.energy.gov/buildings/tools_directory for links to energy modeling programs
(DOE 2011). Part of the key to energy savings is using the simulations to make envelope
decisions first and then evaluating heating, cooling, and lighting systems. Developing
HVAC load calculations is not energy modeling and is not a substitute for energy modeling.
6. Use building commissioning. Studies verify that building systems, no matter how carefully
designed, are often improperly installed or set up and do not operate as efficiently as
expected. The 50% goal can best be achieved through building commissioning (Cx), a sys-
tematic process of ensuring that all building systemsincluding envelope, lighting, and
HVACperform as intended. The Cx process works because it integrates the traditionally
Chapter 1Introduction | 5
separate functions of building design; system selection; equipment start-up; system con-
trol calibration; testing, adjusting and balancing; documentation; and staff training. The
more comprehensive the Cx process, the greater the likelihood of energy savings. A com-
missioning authority (CxA) should be appointed at the beginning of the project and work
with the design team throughout the project. Solving problems in the design phase is more
effective and less expensive than making changes or fixes during construction. See the sec-
tion Using IPD to Maximize Energy Efficiency in Chapter 2 and the section titled
Quality Assurance in Chapter 5 of this Guide for more information. Appendix C also
provides additional Cx information and examples.
7. Train building users and operations staff. Staff training can be part of the building Cx
process, but a plan must be in place to train staff for the life of the building to meet
energy savings goals. The buildings designers and contractors normally are not responsi-
ble for the office after it becomes operational, so the building owner must establish a con-
tinuous training program that helps occupants and operation and maintenance staff
maintain and operate the building for maximum energy efficiency. This training should
include information about the impact of plug loads on energy use and the importance of
using energy-efficient equipment and appliances.
8. Monitor the building. A monitoring plan is necessary to ensure that energy goals are met
over the life of the building. Even simple plans, such as recording and plotting monthly
utility bills, can help ensure that the energy goals are met. Buildings that do not meet the
design goals often have operational issues that should be corrected.
REFERENCES
ing and Air-Conditioning.
ASHRAE. 2004a. ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-2004, Energy Standard for Build-
ings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings. Atlanta: American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning.
ASHRAE. 2004b. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2004, Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air
Quality. Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning.
ASHRAE. 2010a. ANSI/ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1-2010, Energy Standard for Buildings
ASHRAE. 2010b. Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning.
DOE. 2011. Building Energy Software Tools Directory. www.eere.energy.gov/buildings/
tools_directory. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Energy.
Thornton, B.A., W. Wang, M.D. Lane, M.I. Rosenberg, and B. Liu. 2009. Technical Support
Document: 50% Energy Savings Design Technology Packages for Medium Office Build-
ings, PNNL-19004. Richland, WA: Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. www.pnl.gov/
main/publications/external/technical_reports/PNNL-19004.pdf.
Thornton, B.A., W. Wang, Y. Huang, M.D. Lane, and B. Liu. 2010. Technical Support Docu-
ment: 50% Energy Savings for Small Office Buildings, PNNL-19341. Richland, WA:
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. www.pnl.gov/main/publications/external/
technical_reports/PNNL-19341.pdf.
USGBC. 2011. Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Green Building Rat-
ing System. Washington, DC: U.S. Green Building Council. www.usgbc.org/Display
Page.aspx?CategoryID=19.
Chapter 2 provides an overview of a how an Integrated Project Delivery (IPD) process
works. Successful outcomesof anintegrateddesignprocessdirectlyrelatetopotential heating,
ventilating, andair-conditioning(HVAC) andlightingsavings. Chapter 2iswrittenfor atarget
audience of all design team members, whether they be design professionals, construction
experts, owner representatives, or other stakeholders. To sometechnical teammembers, this
chapter may seemto focus or bebiasedtowardarchitectural thinking insteadof presenting
specific technical strategies for improving building systemperformance. This is intentional.
Oneof themost important conceptsof IPDisthat someof thesimplest, up-front architectural
decisionsaboutabuildingsform, orientation, andevenarchitectural stylecanhavethegreatest
long-termimpactonHVACor lightingefficiency. IPDencouragesthattheearliestdesigndeci-
sions taketheseissues into account through activeproject teamdiscussion and collaborative
dialogbetweenall partiesonaproject team.
Thebreadthof analysiscompletedinsupport of this50%AdvancedEnergyDesignGuide
hasshownthat thereisagreat deal of interconnectivitynecessarybetweenthecritical decisions
made by building envelope designers, HVAC engineers, lighting designers, and owner team
members. Because of this finding, and in response to requests fromthe stakeholder member
organizations, thisdesignguidehasspecificallyincludedthischapter asguidanceonaspectsof
theIPD process. It acknowledges that collaboration and communication arekey to designing
holisticsolutionsthat arenecessarytoachievingtheGuidesstated50%target or greater.
Under traditional designprocesses, energyuseor abuildingsoverall energyperformance
arenot typically discussedinany meaningful way by engineers, architects, andbuildingown-
ersat aconceptual designlevel discussion. For IPD totruly besuccessful at obtainingenergy
savings in therangeof greater than 50%, this tendency needs to change. All parties need to
engageinmuchmoredetaileddialogearlier inthedesignprocessusingateamapproach
taking thetimeto understand howtheir portion of thework affects thegreater design of the
wholeproject. Chapter 2attemptstopresent theprinciplesof IPDinthiscontext.
Becausesomeimportant designcontributors may benontechnical, this chapter is writ-
ten in language accessible to the lay person so that everyone can understand the critical
natureof therelationships and theprocess of decision making to support energy-efficient
designs. It should be noted that Chapter 3 provides much greater technical detail with
regard to overall multidisciplinary design strategies that might bepursued, and Chapter 5
provides how-to tips to explain the nuances of the application of particular components.
Integrated
Design Process
2
07_Chapter2.fm Page7 Monday, April 25, 2011 10:10AM
Chapter 4providesprescriptiverecommendationsfor critical component-level performance
criteriathat should result in thetarget 50%energy savings. As a way to achievethe50%
savings, the compiled lists of recommendations were obtained froman iterative energy
analysisprocessthat fine-tunedcomponent-level performanceanditsaggregatinginfluence
onenergy savingsaccruedfromother disciplines.
PRINCIPLES OF INTEGRATED PROJECT DELIVERY (IPD)
IntegratedProject Delivery(IPD) isanewconcept for designandconstructionthat usesa
teamapproachtoproject management throughout all phasesof thedesignprocess.
Inatraditional system, theowner, designers, consultants, andconstructorsworkonafrag-
mentedbasis, withsuccess oftenbasedstrictly ontheprofit received(toeach) rather thanthe
overall successof thefinal product. InIPD, all partiesinvolvedinthedevelopment of abuild-
ing work together to achieve the common goal of maximizing multiple efficiencies of the
building by having a more collaborative design and construction process. This approach is
intendedtonot only savemoney but alsoprovidehigher-performingbuildingsthanhavebeen
seenwiththetraditional approach.
Theefficiencyandqualityof thedesignandconstructionareobtainedthroughthefollow-
ingitems, all of whichresult inreciprocal respect andtrust:
Earlyinvolvement of all designandconstructionteammembers
Initiallyagreed-uponanddocumentedcommon, desiredgoals
Avoidanceof adversarial protectionism
Opencommunication
Mutual cooperationtowardthesharedset of goals
A keyelement anddifferentiator of theIPDprocessistheformationof theproject teamas
early in theproject as possible, with teammembers that arecommitted to thesuccess of the
final product. Mutuallyagreed-uponmetricsof performance, success, andcorrespondingcom-
pensationthenalignall project memberswiththefundamental goal of overall project success.
This inclusiveness andbuy-inthenfacilitateopencollaborationandtrust betweenthepartici-
pants, whichisparamount toIPDssuccess.
Cooperationhingesonparticipantsworkingtogether asanintegral teameither aspartic-
ipants who will beinvolvedintheentireproject frombeginningto endor as key supporting
participantswhoareincludedfor advicepertainingtotheir specificareasof expertiseasneeded
throughout theprojectsdevelopment. AsstatedintheAmericanInstituteof Architects(AIA)
publicationIntegrated Project Delivery: A Guide (AIA 2007):
Through the participation of all of the project participants in the decision
makingprocess, whether asamember of thedecisionmakingbody or inan
advisoryrole, theproject benefitsbecausetheprocessallowsall project par-
ticipantstobringtheir expertisetobear ontheissueat hand.
Figures 2-1and2-2illustratetheinteractions intraditional designteam(Figure2-1) and
integrateddesignteam(Figure2-2) structures.
IPD is amethod that conscientiously moves toward amoreopen and transparent agree-
ment, focusingonmutual benefitsandrewardsbyencouragingpartiestoconvergeontheproj-
ect outcomes rather than their individual goals. Project goals must be defined and recorded
earlyintheproject. Thesegoalsshould
bedefinedbycollaborativeagreement betweenall keyparticipants;
beconcise, sothat nodisagreement canariseduetoindividual interpretation;
Chapter 2Integrated Design Process | 9
Figure 2-1 Traditional Project Design Team
Adapted from ASHRAE (2009)
Figure 2-2 Integrated Project Design Team
Adapted from ASHRAE (2009)
definecongruent rewards basedonindividual risk (andincludepoints that illustratehow
all partieswill benefit moreduetotheoverall successof theproject); and
contain clauses that describe how problems are to be resolvedthat they should be
resolvedintheboardroomandnot thecourtroom.
At theheart of IPD is thepromotionof communal discussions not only to bringmultiple
high-level expertisetobear ondesignbutalsotoresolveproblemsor mistakesquicklyandeffi-
ciently, avoidingfinger pointingandaccusationsof liability. Decisionsinvolvingconflict reso-
lution are handled internally by unanimous agreement fromthe projects decision-making
body, avoidingthedevelopment of adversarial relationships betweenindustry teammembers.
Mutual benefitandtrustingworkingrelationshipsareIPDsdrivingforcestowardbetter perfor-
manceandmoreefficient buildings.
High-performancebuildingdesignshouldbethefocusfor thefuture, andIPD will bethe
cornerstonefor theevolution to moreeffectiveresults in actual building performance. Addi-
tional details on howto set up and deliver an integrated project can befound in AIAs Inte-
grated Project Delivery: A Guide (AIA 2007). A copy of thefull guidecan bedownloaded
from the contract documents section of the AIA Web site at www.aia.org/contractdocs/
AIAS077630.
USING IPD TO MAXIMIZE ENERGY EFFICIENCY
Asnotedpreviously, IPDrevolvesaroundkey collaborationagreementsmeant toremove
barriersbetweenpartiesandtoencourageearlycontributionsof wisdomandexperience. While
other sources are better suited to provide guidance on the contractual and organizational
aspects, thissectionprovidesanidealizeddesignmanagementguidancetemplatethatdescribes
howtousethemoreopenrelationshipstoachievehighenergy-efficiencygoalsinthebuilding
design. Figure2-3givesasnapshotof thekeystepsineachphasethathelpleadtowardenergy-
efficient solutions.
Figure 2-3 Key Design Activities for Energy Efficiency
DETAILS BY PROJECT PHASE
Project Kickoff
The project kickoff meeting is the most important meeting of the entire project with
regards to establishingtheOwners Project Requirements (OPR). This exerciseis usually led
by thecommissioningauthority (CxA) andallows theowners personnel andstakeholders to
define what a successful project means for them. The requirements can cover construction
costs, longevity, operating costs, specific characteristics, spaces required, functional aspects,
specificmaintenanceor systempreferences, frequencyof use, aspirational goals, andanyother
critical issues. Functional requirementswouldtypicallyincludetheindoor environmental qual-
ity aspirations suchdesigncriteriafor availablepower density to support business processes,
thermal comfortfor occupants, acousticperformanceof thespace, lightinglevelstosupportthe
necessarywork tasks, andsufficient ventilationfor indoor air quality(IAQ). It isstronglyrec-
ommended that the traditional OPR arising fromthe commissioning process is further aug-
mentedtoincludethefollowinginformation:
Targetedenergylabelsand/or energyratingse.g., ENERGY STAR
(EPA 2011), Build-

ing eQ (ASHRAE 2011), Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED)
(USGBC 2011), or GreenGlobes(GBI 2011)
Payback period/returnoninvestment thresholds usedby theowner withregardto intelli-
gent investment inconstructionupgrades
Ownership/leasingarrangements, includingutilityback-chargingor metering
A clear prioritizationof therequirements into necessary for basic function, necessary
for intendedfunction, anddesiredupgrades
A clear prioritizationof thetopicswithineachof thecategoriesabovetoguidefuturefund
allocationdecisions
A clear delineationof thehierarchyrelatedtodecisionmakingamongtheownersconstit-
uent parties(whomayrequest changes, whoapprovesexpenditures)
Any pre-agreed-uponfundingset-asides that aremeant toachievespecific goals (suchas
thoseduetodepartmental contributionsor anameddonor)
Anyconstraintsimposedbythesite, code, or planningagreementswiththecity, preexist-
ingstandards(if any), corporatesustainabilitypolicystatements, etc.
Site-based measurements of actual plug-load usage of existing equipment or similar
equipment at another owner-ownedfacility
Thereasonthat this OPR informationis necessary is that thenall parties ontheteamare
equally aware of the owners priorities and can recommend systems that initially meet the
statedcriteriainsteadof spendingtimechasingalternatesthat cannot succeed. Thislowersrisk
for all partieswithregardtorework andprovidesawrittendocument torefer towhenbudget-
ary pressures ariselater inthedesigncycle. It is fully acknowledgedthat theOPR may grow
over timeto accommodateowner preferences that areonly madeapparent as thedesignpro-
gressed. Nevertheless, it isgoodpracticetohaveaconsolidatedlocationfor listingall original
andaddedintent.
Concept Design
Concept designmost successfullyincorporatesaseriesof free-flowingbrainstormingses-
sionsthat allowtheIPD teamtoreviewtheOPR inthecontext of thesitetolook particularly
for opportunities and risks. A key conceptual exerciseusually covers aseries of holistic site
investigationandbuildingconfigurationstudies to look at whichalternatebest addresses the
followingissues:
Status of site conditions (preexisting shading or wind-shadows caused from adjacent
buildingsor landscaping, outdoor air quality, outdoor ambient noiseenvironment, sitesur-
facematerial)
Availabilityof natural resources(sun, wind, geothermal energy, climate, bodiesof water)
Local material availabilityor reuse
Sitedocumentationwithregardtostorm-water runoff schemeandutilitiesavailable
Status of surroundingbuildings andreviewof code/planningregulations that may create
obstructions to natural resources in thefutureor otherwiselimit thedesign (such as the
effectsof theproposedbuildingonitsneighborsor other cityplanningconcerns)
Hardscaping or landscaping potential to reduce heat island effect or provide natural
shading
Securityconcerns
Accessibilitytotransportation
Sustainabilityopportunities
Environmental risksor challenges
Thegoal of thedesignmeetingsistoquicklypassthroughanumber of schemesandassess
theprosandconsusingonlytheexpertiseintheroom. Onecannot expect tolink hardcoststo
eachmodel inreal timeor todeterminethefinal systems, but onthebasisof past experience,
theIPDteamcanrankeachschemequalitativelyagainst theOPR. Theexerciseusuallyresults
in theentireteamcoming to somefundamental realization of thelarge-scalesiteconstraints
and identifying the three top architectural configuration alternates that might best meet the
most fundamental of theOPR (usuallysquarefootageandfirst cost).
A secondary series of brainstormingsessions is oftenuseful to look at thezoningof the
floor platesthat result fromthebuildingconfigurationexercise. Thisinvolvesdefininga1015
footringasaperimeter zoneandtherestasaninterior zone. A quickreviewof eachfaadeori-
entationwithinthesiteconstraints will reveal whether low-energy solutions arepossibleand
what skintreatment or shadingmight benecessary to ensurecomfort. Thetypes of permuta-
tionstoconsider inthisexerciseincludethefollowing:
Daylightingpotential versusglareversussolar heat gain
Reflectivityof other surfaces
Natural ventilationpotential for cooling
Glazingtypes, shadingdevices, andfenestrationsize
Operablewindowsizes(if allowed)
Perimeter occupant comfort
Projectedheat loss/heat gainandimpact onannual HVAC energyuse
Daylight harvestingandimpact onpotential energysavings
Landscapingpotential for natural shading
Thisexercisewill quicklyidentifywhat proportionof thesquarefootagehasaccesstothe
outdoorsthroughvisual or physical connection. It isuseful if theowner isableat that timeto
confirmthe value of this connectivity as a priority for a positive and productive workplace
environment.
Schematic Design
Schematicdesignismeant togivetheIPDteamtimetofurther developtheideasthat still
are feasible given the OPR and the constraints on site. At this phase, the architectural team
members usually begintoidentify wherethevarious programoccupancies areinthebuilding
as a test-fit exercise. Typical approaches generally place occupants at the exterior of the
buildingfor theoutdoor connectionmentionedabove, leavingthecenter of thebuildingfor fre-
quently unoccupied zones (conference rooms, copier rooms, storage areas, stairs, and rest-
rooms) or high-heat-loadareas(server rooms).
Very quickly this leads to theidentification of faadelocations whereglazing would be
desiredto enhancetheindoor environment for theoccupants. At this point, theprediction of
solar path(specifically, profileangle) isrecommendedtoassesstheexposureof intendedglaz-
inglocationsandtheresultingpenetrationof solar raysintotheoccupiedperimeter zone. It is
strongly recommendedat this early phasethat thedesignteamalso performaback-check on
glazing areas and thermal performanceagainst theASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1 prescriptive
requirements (ASHRAE 2010) or therecommendations of this guidefor therelevant climate
zone. This will allowtheIPD teamto avoidgettingtoo attachedto aheavily glazedscheme
that might fail theenergy efficiency goals. Findingthis out early will allowfunds that might
havebeenspent onincreasedglazingareatobemoreappropriatelyspent toimprovetheglaz-
ingperformanceor theoverall buildingservicesperformancetofurther reduceenergyuse.
Similarly, amoredetailedweather/climate/natural resourceanalysisusuallyquantifiestrue
frequencyof occurrence potential for thefollowing:
Natural ventilationfor cooling
FreecoolingthroughHVAC systems
Daylighting
Nighttimeheat purgeof thermal mass
Heat recovery
Useof radiant surfaces
All of this additional analysis begins to inform the design team with regard to what
mechanical andelectrical systems couldbeinstalledinorder toprovideacomfortableindoor
Using Psychrometric Charts
Frequency of Occurrence Psychrometric Chart
Source: Arup
Ina frequencyof occurrence psychrometric chart, eachdot represents anhour inthe year andits psy-
chrometric state point. These charts provide a quick overviewof the number of hours inwhichheating,
cooling, humidification, or dehumidification are likely to be possible. Additionally, the graph superim-
poses a color scheme to identify those zones of outdoor air states in which more passive means of
heating and cooling may be possible if sufficient numbers of hours fall into those ranges.
environment. As astart, nominal mechanical and electrical plant roomsizes, riser locations,
and ceiling cross-sectional depths should be generated for the most traditional services
approach, as this will serveas abasecasefor cost and life-cyclecost comparisons in subse-
quent phases.
Onceabase-casebuildingiscreated, it iscostedandcomparedtotheOPR toensurethat
eventhemost standardof theavailabledesignsmeetsthefirst-cost andprogramrequirements.
If thisisthecase, it isoftenuseful toperformapreliminary energy analysisby zonetodeter-
mineapproximateannual operatingcosts. Thisusually involvesanalyzingenergy for onerep-
resentativeroomper floor-platezone(north, south, east, west, andinterior) andprojectingfrom
that result anenergyusageonaper-square-foot basisthat canbeextrapolatedacrossall of the
areas of similar characteristics. During schematic design, this level of calculation is usually
good enough to confirmtrends in energy savings associated with key design decisions. (See
AppendixDfor amoredetaileddescriptionof thismethodologytoassist withthisphasespre-
liminaryenergyanalysis.)
Thelast necessarypieceof work for theschematicdesignphaseistoidentifyenergycon-
servation measures (ECMs) that might beapplied to thebasecaseor to an alternatescheme
thatgivesanidentical performancecomparedtothebasecase. Thisisthepointatwhichathor-
oughdiscussionof trade-offs is necessary to document, as choices havecascadingeffects on
other systems. Typical exploratory interdisciplinary discussions duringthis phaseincludethe
following:
Selectionof structural material anditsrelativeuseasthermal massor thermal insulation
Selectionof internal wall finishtypeanditspotential toabsorbinternal heat gains
Selectionof floor material typeandfinishanditspotential useasanair-distribution, heat-
ing, or coolingdevice
Selection of faade type and orientation and each faces relative proportion and perfor-
manceof glazingandopaquewall insulation
Selectionof glazingvisibletransmittance(VT) versussolar heat gaincoefficient toallow
daylightingwithout overheating
Configurationof roofingshape/slope/directionandapplicabilityof cool-roofingmaterials,
clerestoryskylights, and/or installationof photovoltaicor solar hot water panels
Selectionof electric lightingapproachandzoningcompatibility toaccommodateambient
versustasklighting, occupancysensors, daylight harvesting, andtime-of-daycontrols
Commitment toENERGYSTAR equipment for plug-loadusagereduction
Reviewof plug-loaduseintensitybytheownerspersonnel
Reviewof alternativeHVAC andcomfort coolingsystems
Asaconclusiontothediscussions, thedesignteamusually identifiesacertainnumber of
ECMs that they wishto pursueas optimizations imposedonto thebasecase. At that point, a
fuller, morecomplexenergymodel iscreatedtotest therelativeoperatingcost savingsthat are
achieved for having invested first costs to install theupgrade. A matrix of options is usually
developedtoallowtheIPDteamtoassesseachECM against acommonset of criteria, usually
includingat least thefollowing:
Additional first-cost investment
Anticipatedannual energycost savings
Anticipatedannual maintenancecost savings
Simplepaybackperiod
Returnoninvestment (ROI)
Reductionof kBtu/ft
2
/yr
Carbonemissionssavings
Additional percentage savings as compared to ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1 (ASHRAE
2010)
Potential additional USGBC LEED pointsfor Energy andAtmosphereCredit 1(USGBC
2011)
Rangeof indoor temperaturesachievedthroughout theyear
Rangeof lightinglevelsachievedthroughout theyear
Obviously, theremay beother project-specific OPR that shouldbeincorporatedinto the
matrix. Thekeypoint isthat it isimportant for all partiestounderstandthewholeviewof any
ECM application so that a balanced decision can be made, inclusive of all impacts on the
desired goals of the project. The goal is to pick a selection of ECMs to pursue on a single
schemeduringthedesigndevelopment phase. This alignment of intent is quitecrucial before
significant design work and final calculations are commenced in the design development
phase.
Design Development
The design development phase involves applying the final package of ECMs onto the
uniquearchitectural schemefor theproject. Thefinal energy modelsareusually usedfor sub-
missiontocodeauthoritiestoshowcompliancewithASHRAE/IES Standard90.1(ASHRAE
2010) and may beused for submissions for LEED (USGBC 2011). Thedevelopment of the
schemeincludesfurther design, calculation, anddocumentationof all buildingenvelope, light-
ing, andmechanical/plumbingservicesthat areregulatedby codeandowner-agreedlimitson
plug-loaddensities. Additionally, thereis oftenafinancial investment/life-cyclecost analysis
(LCCA) of the ECM components in conjunction with the cost estimates, which are more
detailedat this phase. TheLCCA gives theentireteamgreater confidenceinthevalueof the
investment in all ECM upgrades at a point in theproject wherethereareoften pressures to
engagein valueengineering and other cost-cutting exercises. During this phase, thefocus is
primarily ondocumentationof designintent, andmost disciplines withenergy-usingdevices
will writeaBasisof Design(BoD) report that explainsthefull designandcontrol intent. This
BoDisthencomparedby theCxA totheOPR duringapeer-reviewprocesstoensurethat the
ownersgoalsarelikelytobemet bythecurrent stateof design.
Thisphaseusuallyprovidesamoredetailedcost confirmationtoensurethat theECMsas
appliedhavenot adversely affectedtheconstructionbudget. It shouldbenotedthat thereare
oftenvalueengineeringdiscussionsthat occur duringthisphase, anditemsmight beremoved
fromtheOPR or downgradedfromnecessary requirements inorder to allowtheproject to
moveforward. If anECMisremovedor downgradedinthisvalue-engineeringphase, theunin-
tendedconsequencesof thisdecisionmustbeexplored; e.g., loweringtheglazingVT toreduce
solar heat gainmayeliminatedaylightingasanECM, whichwill requireinvestigationof addi-
tional ECMstomeet thestatedenergy-savinggoals.
Becausecontrols areessential to achieveenergy efficiency at thelevels proposedby this
Guide, it isrecommendedthat thedesignteamproduceapreliminarydocument describingthe
controls design intent for each category of HVAC and lighting equipment, including zoning
approaches, requiredfeedback, andenergy-usemonitoring, anticipatednormal andemergency
sequences of operations, andcorrectivealgorithms to quickly returnthesystemto anenergy-
efficient operation after it has been disrupted fromstableoperations. It is recommended that
thesesequencesarereviewedbytheCxA toensuretheir feasibilityinpractical application.
Construction Documents (CDs)
Theconstructiondocuments(CDs) phaseisthefinal detailingof all systems, inclusiveof
sustainability features andECMs. Themechanical, electrical andplumbingsystems incorpo-
ratesystemdrawings, specifications, BoDreports, controlsdrawings, controlspointslists, and
sequencesof operation. TheCxA usuallyreviewsall of thedocumentsandtheupdatedBoDin
order toconfirmfor theowner that thecurrentlystatedgoalsareontrackfor beingmet.
At thispoint inthedesignlife, it isimportant for theconstructionteamtoconfirmdetailed
constructability related to coordination, to review cost-optimization and waste-reduction
techniquesor sizingmethodstobeincorporatedinthefinal drawings, andtoconfirmthat they
will providethenecessarydocumentationandacquisitionof materialstomeet theperformance
requirements for each of the energy-conservation measures. Additionally, the construction
teamshould reviewthecontrols strategies and get clarification embedded into thespecifica-
tionsif thereisanambiguityabout designintent.
Thedevelopmentof asimplifieduser-friendlytenanteducationguidebythedesignteamis
strongly recommended at this phase before the key designers and graphically capable team
membersdemobilizeat thechangetotheconstructionphase. Theguideshouldbeprovidedin
aformat that can bechanged over thelifeof thebuilding and should includejust afewkey
items, suchasthefollowing:
Sampleintroductory content for thelandlordor highest-rankedon-sitetenant manager to
explainwhyenergyefficiencyisimportant tothebusiness
A cartoon typegraphical representationof theenergy-efficiencyfeaturesof thebuilding
(asamplecartoondiagramshowingenergy-efficiencyfeaturesisshowninFigure2-4)
A comparativeestimateof maximumpossibleenergy savings groundedinacomparison
number that they arefamiliar with(agraphic exampledemonstratingpossiblesavings to
laypersonsfor atenant educationguideisshowninFigure2-5)
A what youcandotohelp sectionthat liststhedesiredoccupant behaviors
Figure 2-4 Example of Cartoon Diagram Describing Energy-Efficiency Measures
Adapted with permission from Arup
It isessential tohaveafullydocumentedcontrolspackageinclusiveof pointslist, controls
drawings, andsequencesof operationfor everycontrolledsysteminthebuilding. Thisincludes
HVACsystems, lightingsystems, andanyplug-loadsetbackor shutdownsystems. Theintegra-
tion of a controls contractor at this point in the process is recommended to ensure that the
intended sequences arecapableof being programmed given thecontrol systemarchitectures
availableonthemarket. Thedesigner, controlscontractor, andCxA shouldreviewtheintent in
acollaborativemethodmeant toensurethesuccess of thestablecontrol of all components as
an integrated systemand identify any high-risk areas associated with implementation in the
field.
Bid Phase
Usually on an IPD team, theconstruction teamhas been on board sincethestart of the
project, so this phase is not relevant. If the IPD has been partial, and subcontractors in key
phasesarebrought inat thisphase, thenit isnecessary for thewholeIPD teamtoeducatethe
biddersondesignintent andtostresstheteamscommitment totheECMsthat havebeenpro-
posed. As theteamgrows exponentially at theconstructionphase, it is absolutely anecessity
that all incomingpartiesarebrought intothecollaborativemind-set andareindoctrinatedinto
theproject principles, approaches, andcommitment toalow-energydesign.
Construction
Duringtheconstructionphase, theCxA andthedesignprofessionalsontheIPDteamwill
review submittals to ensure compliance of the proposed materials with the required perfor-
manceas statedwithintheCDs. TheIPD teamwill ensurethat items areinstalledtomeet all
regulatory requirements and arein compliancewith themanufacturers warranty and perfor-
mancerequirements. All partiesareresponsibletoreviewtheinstallation, report anydeficien-
cies in installed work, and require remedial efforts to correct. Any deviation fromthe CDs
mustbedocumentedwithproof thatthesubstitutionwill notadverselyaffectenergyefficiency.
Near theendof theconstructionprocess, after all equipmentisinstalledandthebuildingis
closed, equipment manufacturerswill performtestingproceduresduringstart-upandwill con-
firmthat theequipment iscorrectly operational. A testing, adjusting, andbalancingcontractor
manipulates thesettings ontheequipment to achievethecorrect water flows andairflows as
requiredintheCDs.
Thecontractingteamandthemanufacturers representativesareresponsiblefor producing
aset of operationandmaintenance(O&M) manualsandtoperformthespecific hoursof train-
ingfor theownerspersonnel. It isstronglyrecommendedthat thekeytechnical facilityopera-
torsof thebuildingbebrought onboardat least amonthbeforetheprefunctional checklistsare
startedso that they canfamiliarizethemselves withthedesignintent andthencanaccompany
Figure 2-5 Graphical Example Showing Comprehensible Scale of Energy Savings
Source: EIA (2009); U.S. total for 2005 was used
07_Chapter2.fm Page17 Tuesday, April 26, 2011 4:19PM
the contractor during the prefunctional checklist and functional testing protocols in order to
familiarizethemselveswiththephysical equipment.
Commissioning
Thecommissioning(Cx) processisthelast performancetestingappliedtomost new-build
projects. TheCxA will havewrittenprefunctional checklistsonthebasisof theequipmentsub-
mittals that werereviewedduringtheconstructionphase. TheCxA will turnthesechecklists
over to theconstructionteamto fill inbasedonthemanufacturers start-upreports andother
collectedinformationsuchaswarranty andwiringinformation. Oncetheprefunctional check-
lists arecomplete, theCxA will visit thesiteanddo arandomsamplingto back-check aper-
centageof results to confirmthat thereported findings aretrueand repeatable. Oncethis is
confirmed, theCxA will releasethefunctional test procedures, whichwerewritteninresponse
to thecontractors detailed sequenceof operations as submitted. TheCxA will supervisethe
controlscontractor runningtheequipment throughitspacestoproveadequateautomaticreac-
tionof thesysteminresponseto artificially appliedinputs that simulateavariety of extreme,
transition, emergency, andnormal conditions. Whenthis functional testingis completeto the
satisfactionof theCxA, areport is writtenfor theowner andhandover canoccur withconfi-
denceonthepartof theowner thatheor shehasafullyfunctional buildingmeetingtheremain-
ingrequirementsof theOPR.
Additionally, theCxA will usuallyassist withthesupervisionof theformal trainingof the
owners personnel inorder to coachthemontheappropriatecorrectiveactions to takeinthe
event that thesystemstartstodrift awayfromitscommissionedstate. It isoftenuseful if possi-
bletorunandmonitor keyaspectsof thebuildingfor aonemonthperiodjust beforehandover
andtoverify energy-relatedperformanceandthefinal setpoint configurationsinthehandover
O&M documents. This will allowtheowner to returnthesystems to thecommissionedstate
(assuminggoodmaintenanceprotocols) at afuturepoint andhaveaset of comparativeresults.
Operation and Maintenance (O&M)
O&M of theequipment after handover arecrucial totheenergy efficiency for thelifeof
thebuilding. It isoftenthecasethat thefirst year after occupancywill reveal atruer natureof
thereal occupancy patterns withinthebuilding. This may bevery different fromtheoriginal
design assumptions embeddedin theenergy model. It is recommended that theCxA havea
contract withaserviceextensiontoreturnat the1218monthmarkafter handover inorder to
reviewthestatusof operationsat that point intimeandrecommendslight adjustmentstoset-
points or modifications to the controls sequences in order to optimize the operation of the
equipment withtheviewtowardminimizingenergyuse. Occasionally, asecondmeasurement
and verification exerciseis performed at this timein order to benchmark theenergy useof
each pieceof equipment, usually in an alternateseason fromtheoriginal measurement and
verificationexerciseif thereareextremeseasonal differencesintheparticular climate.
Maintenanceis thesecond owner-controlled aspect of operational efficiency. TheO&M
manualswill containvolumesof informationabout regular preventativemaintenance, annual-
izedmaintenanceactivities, andperiodicoverhaulsthatshouldbeperformedtokeeptheequip-
ment runningat topperformance. J ust afewexamplesof howlackof attentiontothesematters
can greatly reduce efficiency include: dirty filters increasing pressure drops, broken sensors
causingpoor feedback for thecontrolssystem, brokenactuatorsdisruptingdemand-controlled
ventilation (DCV) and/or air-side economizer cycles, and poor water quality fouling heat
exchangers and inner surfaces of piping. Additionally, beyond the energy-efficiency issues,
poor maintenancecanleadtoreducedperformance. Examplesincludesuchitemsaspoor IAQ
arising from microbial growth occurring due to bad condensate drain pan maintenance,
reducedindoor lightinglevelsduetodepreciationof lampoutput or dirt accumulationonlight-
ingfixtures, anddiscomfortarisingfromlackof modulatingcontrol of supplyair duetoout-of-
calibrationsensorswithinthespace.
Ongoing Tenant Education
Inbuildingsdesignedfor lowenergyuse, itisalwaysimportanttoremember thatoccupant
behavior is crucial to achieving the anticipated performance. When people understand the
goalsof thebuildingandtheir roles, theycansubstantiallyreduceenergyuse. It canbebenefi-
cial for thedesign and construction teamto host a lunchtimetalk for theinitial tenants and
describethebuildingsdesignintentandsustainabilityfeatures. Thisistheideal venuetointro-
ducetheoccupants to thetenant educationguidedescribedpreviously andto allowthelocal
leadershiptostatetheir support for theenergy-efficiencyinitiativeinthebuilding. It isimpor-
tanttoforewarnoccupantsthatalthoughthebuildingwascommissioned, low-energybuildings
sometimes takeaseasonor two to reachtheir final optimizedcontrol strategies, so all occu-
pants areinvitedto submit comments on performanceas additional inputs for improvingthe
operations. This typeof personal engagement will not only encouragepositive-impact behav-
iorswiththeinitial tenants, but thesefirst adopterscanact asefficiency coachesfor all future
staff members.
REFERENCES
AIA. 2007. Integrated Project Delivery: A Guide. www.aia.org/contractdocs/AIAS077630.
Washington, DC: AmericanInstituteof Architects.
ASHRAE. 2009. Indoor Air Quality Guide: Best Practices for Design, Construction, and
Commissioning. Atlanta: AmericanSociety of Heating, RefrigeratingandAir-Condition-
ingEngineers.
ASHRAE. 2010. ANSI/ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1-2010, Energy Standard for Buildings
Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings. Atlanta: AmericanSocietyof Heating, Refrigerat-
ingandAir-Conditioning.
ASHRAE. 2011. Building eQ. www.buildingeq.com. Atlanta: American Society of Heating,
RefrigeratingandAir-ConditioningEngineers.
EIA. 2009. Residential Energy Consumption Survey, Table 5a. U.S. Residential Using Site
EnergybyCensusRegionandTypeof HousingUnit, 19782005. www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/
efficiency/recs_5a_table.pdf. Washington, DC: U.S. EnergyInformationAdministration.
EPA. 2011. ENERGY STAR. www.energystar.gov. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Pro-
tectionAgency.
GBI. 2011. GreenGlobes. www.greenglobes.com. Portland, OR: GreenBuildingInitiative.
USGBC. 2011. LeadershipinEnergyandEnvironmental Design(LEED) GreenBuildingRat-
ing System. www.usgbc.org/Display Page.aspx?CategoryID=19. Washington, DC: U.S.
GreenBuildingCouncil.
INTRODUCTION
Integrateddesignstrategiesarenecessarytoachieveanenergyefficiencylevel of greater
than50%towardanet zero buildingfromASHRAE/IESNA Standard90.1-2004(ASHRAE
2004). As noted in Chapter 2, no single discipline alone can apply sufficient measures to
achievethis level of energy efficiency. Theburden must beshared, and aholistic approach
must beunderstood. Useof theIntegratedProject Delivery (IPD) model inChapter 2begins
toremovebarriersbetweendisciplines, andthischapter iswrittentohelpteamsnot onlystay
focusedon thekey collectiveagreements but also pursuesounddesignadviceonwherethe
whole teammight look to find real interdisciplinary opportunities for energy reduction. It
should benoted that thefocus of this chapter is on technical multidisciplinary strategies to
achievesignificant energy savings, but this is not meant inany way to downplay theimpor-
tance of the functional requirements of the building owner, including operational perfor-
mance, occupant comfort, andindoor environmental quality. It shouldalsobenotedthat this
chaptersrecommendationsremainatastrategiclevel (i.e., Thisissomethingtoconsider)
for moredetails on how to implement any particular component, pleaserefer to thehow-to
tipsinChapter 5.
Thischapter includesthefollowingguidance:
Overviewof designinfluences
Buildingandsitedesignfeatures
Energyconservationmeasures(ECMs)
Multidisciplinarycoordinationfor energyefficiency
Aswiththe30%AdvancedEnergyDesignGuide(AEDG) series, therehavebeennumer-
ous iterativeenergy modeling analyses completed by Pacific Northwest National Laboratory
(PNNL) tosupport theprescriptiverecommendationsinChapter 4. Whiletherecommendation
tables inChapter 4providerecommendedbest practices for selectingcomponents andshould
bereviewedby designteams, theruns arebasedonarectangular buildingwithunobstructed
ribbonor punchedopeningglazingonall four sides. Becauseit isunlikelythat thiswill bethe
shapeor architectural design intent for every project, this chapter helps return control to an
integratedteamof designprofessionalstomakegooddecisionsfor auniqueproject onaspe-
cificsite, especiallyonewhosecharacteristicsdonot matchthebaselinebuildinginorientation
Integrated Design
Strategies
3
08_Chapter3.fm Page21 Wednesday, April 27, 2011 8:51AM
and glazing. Nevertheless, the analyses clearly show that systematically applied multidisci-
plinaryapproachesareessential toachievethe50%energysavings.
Figure3-1shows therelativecontribution of energy savings associated with each large-
scaledesigncomponenttobuilduptoa50%energyreductionover theASHRAE/IESNA Stan-
dard90.1-2004baselinebuilding. Withintheheating, ventilating, andair-conditioning(HVAC)
andlightingcomponentsresidekeyarchitectural decisionsassociatedwiththeconfigurationof
thefaade. It should benoted that it was not possiblein any of theenergy modeling runs to
achievethe50%energysavingsbylookingat mechanical andlightingequipment optimization
alone. Therefore, theperformanceof theenvelopeanditsimpact onloadsandlightingbecome
essential toreachingtheenergyuseintensity(EUI) budget goal.
OVERVIEW OF DESIGN INFLUENCES
Therearemanydesigndecisionsthat influencetheenergyuseof abuilding(asexpressed
in EUI, or kBtu/ft
2
yr). The energy use of an office building is driven primarily by choices
relatedtoenvelope, lighting, andHVAC systems. Asafirst steptoreducetotal energyuse, the
design teamand owner should verify that thebuilding infrastructureand equipment is sized
baseduponappropriateestimatesof theproposedbuildingusage, includingoptimizedinternal
heat gains(e.g., high-efficiencylightingfixtures, ENERGY STAR
-labeledproducts) andthe
diversityandpatternof occupancyat thetimeof design.
Thesecondareaof designcontrol isthebuildingenvelope, whichinvolvestheselectionof
buildinginsulationandglazingtoreduceheat transfer throughsurfaces, therebyreducingcon-
duction and solar gains while enhancing daylighting opportunities. As noted in Figure 3-2,
decisionsaboutkeyelementsof thebuildingenvelopeareinterrelatedandheavilyinfluencethe
heatingandcoolingstrategies. It shouldbenotedthat whileinternal heat gainsareall additive
(i.e., causetheneedfor cooling), gainsrelatedtointeractionwiththeoutdoor climate, suchas
ventilationandbuildingenvelope, canbeeither heat gains or losses andarethereforeheavily
dependent onclimatezone.
Thethirdkeyareaisthat of reducingelectrical energyconsumptionassociatedwithlight-
ingandplugloads.
Figure 3-1 Comparison of Baseline to Prescriptive 50% AEDG Solution
Showing Breakdown of Energy Savings Components
Data source: Thornton et al. 2010
Chapter 3Integrated Design Strategies | 23
Therest of thischapter discusseseachof thekeyconceptsassociatedwithminimizingthe
contributionof theheat inputs/losses andthensummarizes thecoolingandheatingstrategies
most frequently appliedby climatetypeaslow-energy solutions. Guidanceisprovidedthat is
related to the multidisciplinary design considerations prevalent when mixing and matching
designdecisions to achievetheoptimal solutionto meet thesiteconstraints andarchitectural
vision.
BUILDING AND SITE DESIGN FEATURES
Therearemanybuildingarchitectural designfeaturesthat impact theenergyperformance
of abuilding. Themajor featuresincludethebuildinglocation(climate), shape, size, number of
stories, andorientation. Eachof thesearepresentedindetail inthissection.
CLIMATE FEATURES
Climate Characterizations by Location
Thereareseveral major climatic variables that impact theenergy performanceof build-
ings, including temperature, wind, solar energy, and moisture. These variables continuously
changeandcanbecharacterizedbyannual or seasonal metrics.
An indicator of theintensity and length of theheating season is represented by heating
degree-days(HDDs), asshowninFigure3-3(DOI 1970).
An indicator of theintensity and length of thecooling season is represented by cooling
degree-days(CDDs), asshowninFigure3-4(DOI 1970).
An indicator of theconsistent intensity of thesuns energy is represented by theannual
solar radiation, asshowninFigure3-5(DOI 1970).
Figure 3-2 Heating and Cooling Influence
Figure 3-3 Heating Degree-Days
Source: NOAA (2005)
Figure 3-4 Cooling Degree-Days
Source: NOAA (2005)
Anindicator of theworst casefor removal of airbornemoisture(i.e., dehumidification) is
representedbythedesigndew-point temperature, asshowninFigure3-6.
Anindicator of theabilityof theair toengageinevaporativecoolingisrepresentedbythe
designwet-bulbtemperature, asshowninFigure3-7.
Incombination, thesevariables showthat distinct patterns emergewithregardto climate
types, eachof whichhasparticular energyimpactsonbuildingdesignandoperation. TheU.S.
hasbeendividedintoeight primaryclimatezonesfor thespecificationof designcriteriainthe
major energy codes suchas International Energy ConservationCode(ICC 2009), ASHRAE/
IES Standard90.1, andASHRAE/USGBC/IES Standard189.1(ASHRAE 2010, 2009a). Fig-
ure 3-8 shows these climate zones as compared to CDDs and HDDs (Briggs et al. 2002a,
2002b, 2002c).
Thecharacterizationof theseclimatezonesisbasedonseasonal performancemetrics, not
on thepeak or design values. Each climatezoneis clustered by HDD65 for theheating and
CDD50 for the cooling; these climate zones are further subdivided by moisture levels into
moistor humid(A), dry(B), andmarine(C) tocharacterizetheir seasonal values. Sixteencities
havebeenidentifiedas sufficient to represent all of theclimatezones, as showninTable3-1
(CFR 1992). Nosingledesignstrategyappliestoall of theseclimatecombinations. Eachset of
climatecombinationsneedstobeanalyzedseparately.
It isimportant for thedesignteamtodeterminetheparticular uniquecharacteristicsof the
climateclosest tothesite. Annual hourlyclimatedataisusuallyusedfor energymodelingand
is availablefromfederal government sources (EERE 2010). In addition to theacquisition of
local data, it is necessary to assess any local topography or adjacent properties that would
causereductioninaccesstosunlight andpassivesolar heating.
Figure 3-5 Annual Solar Radiation
Source: NREL (2005)
Figure 3-6 Design Dew-Point Temperatures
Data source: Colliver et al. 1997
Figure 3-7 Design Wet-Bulb Temperatures
Data source: Colliver et al. 1997
Climate Influences
It is not reasonableto present every designstrategy for eachclimate, but therearesome
fundamental principles that apply. Thesensibleand latent loads dueto peopleareuniversal
acrossall climatezonessincetheoccupantdensitiesandhoursof occupationareassumedtobe
climate independent. Typically, the lighting power levels are the same but the energy use
changes with location dueto thedaylighting available. Selection of theHVAC systemis an
important decision primarily because each systemtype has inherent efficiencies. Chapter 4
providesmoreinformationonspecificclimatezonestrategies.
Whiletherearebenefitstotheuseof renewableenergies(photovoltaics, solar, wind), these
technologiesarenot designstrategiesthat arerequiredtoachieve50%energysavings. Seethe
RenewableEnergy sectionintheAdditional BonusSavings sectionof Chapter 5for more
informationonthesetechnologies.
Table 3-1 Cities Characterized by Climate Combinations
Climate Hot Mild Cold Very Cold Extremely Cold
Marine
San Francisco - 3C
Seattle - 4C
Humid
Miami - 1A
Houston - 2A
Atlanta - 3A
Baltimore - 4A Chicago - 5A
Minneapolis - 6A
Dry
Phoenix - 2B
Los Angeles - 3B
(coastal)
Las Vegas - 3B
(others)
Albuquerque - 4B Denver - 5B
Helena - 6B
Duluth - 7 Fairbanks - 8
Figure 3-8 U.S. Climate Zone Map
Climate Dependence
Climate conditions are a major driving force, and there are multiple combinations that
influencetheenergyperformanceof abuilding. Comparisonsof theenergiesfor heating, cool-
ing, interior lights, exterior lights, plug loads, fans, pumps, and heat recovery in a medium
officewithradiant heatingandcoolingsystemsareshowninFigure3-9.
A reviewof Figure3-9showsthattherearedistincttrends. Inclimatesbelow3000HDD65,
thecoolingenergy isgreater thantheheatingenergy. Inclimatesabove5000HDD65, heating
energyusedominatesover coolingenergyuse. Inall climatestheenergyuseisessentiallycon-
stantfor plugloads, interior lights, exterior lights, HVACfans, pumps, andheatrecovery. These
relationshipsaresimilar for amediumofficewithavariable-air-volume(VAV) system; seeFig-
ure3-10.
Theheat releasedby theinterior lights, plugloads, andfans addto thecoolingloadand
diminish theheating load, which highlights theimportancein addressing theseloads in con-
junctionwiththeenvelopeconstructions.
Fundamentally, what canbeseeninFigures3-9and3-10isasfollows:
Lighting, plug, andfanloads areconstant inputs andthereforearevery consistent inthe
EUI budget. Indeedtheonlyfluctuationmost likelyoccursfromfanenergyrespondingto
on/off controlsinresponsetoclimate.
HeatingEUI contributionincreaseswithHDDs, asexpected, but thescatter intheplot has
to do with passive heating arising fromsolar contributions depending on the sunniness
profileof theparticular city. Thisbecomesparticularly obviouswhenlookingat thepairs
of heatingandcoolingcontributionsfor agivenHDDvaluehighheatinggoeswithlow
cooling, whichmeansthat thereislimitedsolar freeheating. Similarly, highcoolinggoes
withlowheating, meaningthereisalot of solar heat tomanageandthedesignteamhasto
notewhether thesavingsinheatingsufficientlyoffset thepenaltiesincoolingenergy.
Figure 3-9 Medium Office with Radiant Heating and Cooling Systems
BUILDING FEATURES
Building Shape
The basic shape of the building has a fundamental impact on the daylighting potential,
energytransfer characteristics, andoverall energyusageof abuilding.
Building plans that are circular, square, or rectangular result in more compact building
forms. Thesebuildings tendto havedeepfloor plates that limit thepotential of sidelightinga
significantpercentageof occupiablespace. Buildingplansthatresemblelettersof thealphabet,
suchas H, L, andU, or that haveprotrudingsections andsurfaces at angles other thanninety
degreesrelativetoadjacent buildingsurfacestendtohaveshallowfloor plateswheresidelight-
ing strategies result in ahigher percentageof daylighted floor area. (Atriums and other core
lightingstrategiesmayalsobeintroducedintomorecompact buildingformstoachieveasimi-
lar effect.)
Lesscompactformsincreaseabuildingsdaylightingpotential, buttheyalsomaymagnify
theinfluenceof outdoor climatefluctuations. Greater surface-to-volumeratios increasecon-
ductiveandconvectiveheat transfer throughthebuildingenvelope. Therefore, it is critical to
assessthedaylightingcharacteristicsof thebuildingformincombinationwiththeheat transfer
characteristics of the building envelope in order to optimize overall building energy perfor-
mance. (SeeDL2inChapter 5.)
Theshapeof thebuildingalsodefinesthewindowareaandorientationsthat areavailable.
Windowsallowsolar gainstoenter thebuilding; thisisbeneficial duringtheheatingseasonbut
increasesthecoolingenergy. Thebuildingshapeneedstobedesignedsothat thesolar loading
isproperly managed. Thesolar management strategy changesby local climatecharacteristics,
assolar intensityandcloudinessdiffer. Additionally, theshapeof thebuildingdetermineshow
windimpingesontheoutdoor surfacestoassist natural ventilationor createsoutdoor microcli-
mates. Inaddition, attentionmust bepaidtotheeffect of windpassingthroughopeningsinthe
Figure 3-10 Medium Office with a VAV System
faade (e.g., windows, louvers, trickle vents, cracks), as this can drive unforeseen and/or
uncontrollableinfiltration.
Building Size
Thesizeof thebuildingimpactstheenergy use. Analysisof a20,000ft
2
two-story office
building and a 53,600 ft
2
three-story office building clearly demonstrates the differences
(Thorntonet al. 2009, 2010). Figure3-11presents thebaselinesiteenergy useintensities for
these two buildings for compliance with ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-2004 (ASHRAE
2004).
Thesizeof thebuildingalso impacts theECMs possible. For example, asmall, 5000ft
2
officebuildingcouldberesidential constructionwithwood-framedwalls andceilings as well
as residential HVAC equipment in which the minimumefficiencies are set by the National
ApplianceEnergy ConservationAct (CFR 1992). Inthesecases, therearelimitedoptions for
obtainingmoreenergy-efficient HVAC equipment.
Buildingsizeandespeciallydepthof floor platecanhavesignificant impactsonthefeasi-
bilityof daylightingandnatural ventilation.
Number of Stories
Typically, asthenumber of storiesof abuildingincreases, someaspectsof designbecome
morecomplicated. For instance, requirementsfor structural performanceanddurability/design
lifemayaffect choiceof envelopecomponents, theviabilityof exposedthermal mass, andthe
amount of areathat maybeusedfor fenestration. All of thesemayaffect energyperformance.
Taller buildingswill haveelevatorswithsignificant horsepower motorsbut intermittent
energy use. Buildings requiring frequent vertical trips should consider theuseof variable-
Figure 3-11 Site EUI for Office Buildings
Data source: Thornton et al. 2009, 2010
frequencydrives(VFDs) onthemotorsandcontrolstostagethetravel of elevatorstoreduce
redundant tripsinresponsetoacall button.
Tall buildingsruntheriskof trappingalargeblockof spaceaspurelyinternal andwithout
connectiontotheoutdoors. If anincreasedamount of spacewithaccesstonatural daylight or
ventilationispreferred, thedesigner of taller buildingscanintroducetoplight usingskylights,
clerestories, monitors, sawtooths, and atriums (SeeDL21 to DL27 in theAdditional Bonus
Savings sectionof Chapter 5). Horizontal glazingcaptures high-anglesunandmay bediffi-
cult toshade. Exterior louvers, translucent glazing, vertical glazing, andother meansshouldbe
consideredtodistributetoplight evenlyintoaninterior space.
Building Orientation
Theorientationof theofficebuildinghas adirect impact ontheenergy performancepri-
marilyduetotheorientationof thefenestration. Theannual solar radiationimpingingonasur-
facevariesbytheorientationandlatitude, asshowninFigure3-12(MarionandWilcox2008).
Thenorthsolar flux(southsolar fluxfor thesouthernhemisphere) istheleastfor anyloca-
tion; however, northdaylightingis preferredduetonoglarecontrol requirements fromdirect
sunpenetration(reflections fromadjacent buildings may requireblinds onnorthwindows for
glarecontrol). Theeast andwest areessentiallythesame. Thewest exposureneedstobecriti-
cally evaluated sinceit contributes to thepeak or design cooling load. South-facing orienta-
tions in the northern hemisphere have the second largest solar intensity and the greatest
variationinsunangle. Great caremust beappliedwhendesigningexternal shadingfor thisori-
entation, asattentionmust bepaidtoheat gain, glare, andthepossibilityof passivesolar heat-
ingincoldclimates. Thehorizontal solar fluxisthelargestandiscritical if flatskylightsonthe
roof arebeingconsidered. Clerestoriesontheroof facingnorthwouldbeapreferredoption.
Figure 3-12 Annual Solar Radiation by Orientation
Data source: Marion and Wilcox 2008
Permanent projections can contributeto reducing thesolar gains. Solar heat gain coeffi-
cient (SHGC) multipliers for permanent projections arepresentedinFigure3-13. Thelargest
energyreductionsareonthesouth, east, andwest orientations.
Buildingorientationandtheplacement of fenestrationcanhaveasignificant effect onthe
ability of a design to provideuseful daylight to perimeter zones. Using caution when doing
simultaneous building configuration studies and internal space planning can maximize the
amount of normally occupied spacethat can usedaylighting for ambient light. For example,
placeall openofficespacesonthenorthandsouthsidesof thebuildingwheredaylight ismost
easilymanaged.
Building Occupancy Types
Buildingfunctionandoccupancy typearekey driversfor all internal heat loads. Theden-
sityof theoccupancyleadstoheatfrombodies, heatfromequipment/computers, andheatfrom
theelectriclightingthat runsinorder tomaketheenvironment habitable. Sometypical internal
heat loads for officebuildings areshowninTable3-2(seereferencestandards for areatypes
not shown).
Inadditiontointernal loads, other keyoccupancy-basedcriteriaincludetheprovisionof suf-
ficientventilationtoensureindoor air quality(IAQ) incompliancewithASHRAE Standard62.1
(ASHRAE 2010a). It isnever theintent toachieveenergyefficiencyat thecost of humanhealth.
Additionally, depending on the function of work in the space, there may be acoustic design
requirements similar to thosestated in ASHRAE HandbookHVAC Applications, Chapter 47,
Table 42, Design Guidelines for HVAC-Related Background Sound in Rooms (ASHRAE
2007b, Table42). Specific recommendations for lightinglevels andvisual contrast at andsur-
roundingtheworksurfacecanbefoundinChapter 4of thetentheditionof theIlluminatingEngi-
neeringSocietyof NorthAmerica(IES) publicationThe Lighting Handbook (IES2011).
Figure 3-13 SHGC Multipliers for Permanent Projections
Source: ASHRAE (2007), Table 5.5.4.4.1
Building Orientation Considerations
Unshaded North Faade
Source: Arup
Armature for PV Panels
Source: Arup
Photographs of the California Department of Transportation building in Los Angeles show how the
faade designer can tune each orientation for maximumdaylight or solar protection. The north faade
is unshaded with floor-to-floor glass. The south faade has an armature that holds photovoltaic (PV)
panels at an angle to simultaneously shade the vision glass behind themand create electricity for the
building. The eastern faade includes perforated metal panels that provide some level of shading for
the glazed vision windows in the building envelope behind.
ENERGY CONSERVATION MEASURES (ECMs)
Themajor ECMsfocusontheenvelope, lighting, plugloads, HVAC systems, andservice
water heating(SWH). Thissectionof thischapter looksat eachof thesecomponentstounder-
standtherelativedesigninfluenceontotal EUI.
The place to start is understanding where the baseline and business-as-usual buildings
wouldstart intermsof energy savings. Anenergy model canreveal therelativeproportionof
energy savingscontributedby eachdesigncomponent. Ingeneral, most energy modelingpro-
grams output end-usedata(i.e., by thecomponent actually consumingtheelectricity or fuel)
insteadof linkingtherelativeinfluenceof designdecisionsdirectly totheoutput. Figure3-14
shows a classic output that has all envelope and building configuration design decisions
embedded in and diluted by total cooling, heating, interior lighting, exterior lighting, and
HVACsystemfancomponents. Figure3-13immediatelyidentifiesfor theteamtheenergysav-
ingsthat shouldbethefirst point of attack inlookingfor ECMs. Clearlytheheatingandcool-
ingenergy savingsvary significantly by location, soeachrequiresparticular attentionspecific
to theclimate. However, theenergy savings frominterior lighting, exterior lighting, interior
equipment, andfans eachcontributealmost equally to thetotal energy savings, whichmeans
that thesefour major componentsall havetobeaddressedineverylocation.
Thesecondkey steptoreducingenergy useistoapply aseriesof ECMs, asnotedinthis
Guide. Figure3-15showsanexampleof howonemightuseiterativeenergymodelinginasim-
plifiedapproachtomaptherelativecontributionstowardenergysavingsachievedbyeachcol-
lectivedesigndecisionmadebytheteam.
Thethirdkeystepistoidentifypackagesof ECMsandunderstandtherelativeinfluenceof
key design decisions about those packages. Appendix D provides a method of using limited
energyanalysisinasmall perimeter zonetohelpdesignteamsunderstandtherelativeimpact of
their decisions on faade performance and building EUI. This appendix is provided so that
teamscangetwithinstrikingrangewithfaadeperformancebeforemovingtowhole-building
energymodelingbyextrapolatingtotal buildingenergyusefromknowingtheworst-casecondi-
tionsfor eachorientation. Designteamsexceedingthelimitsof theearlyphasemethodsbecause
of particularlycomplexgeometrieswill havetoperformfull-scalewhole-buildingenergymod-
elingearlyinthedesignphasetoinformdesigndecisions.
ENVELOPE
Theenvelopeischaracterizedby theopaquecomponentsandfenestration. Improvements
shouldbeconsideredfor reducedthermal transmittance(i.e., U-factors), useof thermal mass,
andcontrol of solar heat gains.
Table 3-2 Typical Internal Heat Gains for Office Spaces
Room Type
Occupancy
Density,
ft
2
/person*
Equivalent
People Sensible
Btu/h/ft
2
Lighting,
Btu/h/ft
2
(W/ft
2
)**
Plug Load,
Btu/h/ft
2
(W/ft
2
)
Office: light computer usage 200 1.22 3.75 (1.1) 1.7 (0.5)
Office: mediumcomputer usage 200 1.22 3.75 (1.1) 3.4 (1)
Office: heavy computer usage 200 1.22 3.75 (1.1) 6.8 (2)
Conference room 20 12.25 4.4 (1.3) 1.7 (0.5)
Lobby 100 2.45 4.4 (1.3) 0.8 (0.25)
Corridor 1.7 (0.5) 0.8 (0.25)
Kitchenette/break room 20 12.25 4.1 (1.2) 1.7 (0.5)
*ASHRAE 2010a, Table 6-1.
ASHRAE 2009b, Chapter 18, Table 1, applying Seated, very light work 245 Btu/h sensible.
**ASHRAE 2007a, Table 9.6.1.
ASHRAE 2009b, Chapter 18, Table 11.

Figure 3-14 Percentage of Total Energy Savings arising from Each End-Use System
Source: Thornton et al. (2009)
Figure 3-15 Relative Impact of Energy Savings Strategies
Upgrades to theopaqueelements suchas theroofs/ceilings (flat or sloped), walls (light-
weightor mass), andfoundations(slabs, crawlspaces, andbasements) includeincreasedinsula-
tiontolower thermal transmittancevalues(i.e., U-factors) or morethermal massfor roofsand
walls. Addingcool roofswithhighreflectivity inclimateswithmoreintensesolar radiationis
oftenfoundtobeadirectbenefittoreducingenergyassociatedwithcoolingduringthesummer
months.
Thetermthermal mass refers to thebuildings thermal capacitance, theamount of heat
that is requiredto raiseor lower thebuildingtemperatureby afixedamount. Greater thermal
mass tends to reduce building peak conditioning loads by spreading these loads over an
extended timespan. Building thermal mass can reducetotal conditioning loads if, across the
dailycycle, exterior temperatureconditionsarebothaboveandbelowthedesiredinterior tem-
peratures. Building thermal mass, furthermore, can absorb solar heat gain with reduced tem-
peratureriseand storethat heat for later usefor spaceheating after sunset. Similarly, during
periodsof lower humidity andlowovernight temperatures, overnight ventilationwithoutdoor
air (OA) canbeusedtocool athermallymassivebuilding, offsettingsubsequentdaytimesensi-
blecoolingloads.
Thefenestrationhas amajor impact onboththearchitectural appearanceandtheenergy
savings potential. Inaddition, glazingprovides daylightingandviews for theoccupants, con-
necting themto the outside world and improving occupant comfort and productivity (HMG
2003). Considerableeffort needstobefocusedonthefenestrationdesignstoensuretheproper
balanceamongheating, cooling, anddaylightingis achieved. Whileelectrical lightingenergy
canbesavedthroughdaylight harvesting, theother benefitsof windowsmust bequalitatively
weighedagainst theenergy andcost-benefit analysisof increasedHVAC energy usagedueto
larger windowareaor increasedSHGC if implementedtoimproveaccesstodaylight.
Orientation-sensitive window-to-wall ratios (WWRs) are recommended to help control
solar heat gainswhileallowingmorevisiblelight at orientationswheresolar heat gainsarenot
asmuchof anissue. Careful attentionshouldalsobepaidtotheissueof glare, avisual discom-
fort usually caused by thedifferencein relativebrightness between acomputer screen and a
nearbywindowindirect low-to-medium-anglesun. Useof exterior shadingsuchasoverhangs
onthesouthfaadecanalsohelpcontrol solar heat gains.
Other envelopedesignfeaturestoconsider includetheuseof vestibulesinorder toreduce
theintroductionof OA throughuncontrolleddoor usage. Additionally, placement andintegrity
of continuous air andvapor retarders is key to preventingtheuncontrolledformationof con-
densation within the wall cavities, a situation that can lead to increased energy use to keep
materialsdry enoughtoreducetherisk of microbial growthand/or sick buildingsyndrome. It
isstronglyrecommendedthatafaadeconsultant, or personwithsimilar expertise, beinvolved
indetailingvapor retarder placementinlow-energybuildingsspecificallybecausetherewill be
lessHVAC capacityavailableinbasebuildingsystemstoaccommodatefor apoor wall cavity
construction. Careful faade detailing for sealing, especially at joints and fenestration inter-
faces, will alsohelpreducetheamount of air leakageandinfiltrationexperiencedinthebuild-
inganother potentially uncontrollable, continuous, real-timeloadontheHVAC systemthat
canbemitigatedwithminimal amountsattentionduringthedesignandconstructionprocess.
Insummary, thefollowingapproachesareoftenbeneficial:
Enhancedbuildingopaqueenvelopeinsulationfor exterior wallsandroofs
Useof massinopaqueenvelopeinsulationtoreducecooling
Inclusionof acool roof inselectedcooling-dominant climateswithhighsolar intensity
High-performancewindowglazing
Exterior shadingonsouth-facingwindows
Limitedwindowareasat east andwest
Limiteduseof flat-roof skylights; consider north-facingclerestories/monitors
Vestibulesat openingstotheoutdoors
Useof acontinuousair barrier toreducecondensationriskandinfiltration
LIGHTING
Thelightingsystemiscomposedof threeelements: daylighting, interior lighting, andexte-
rior lighting. Daylightingcansaveelectriclightingenergyif thereisasufficientlevel of daylight
availabletomeet interior illuminancerequirements andif controls areemployedtoreducethe
electriclightinginresponsetotheavailabledaylight. Interior lightingisamajor energyuser of
thebuildingandisconstant acrossall climatezones; however, local sitecharacteristicssuchas
frequency of cloudy days or shading cast by adjacent properties will causesignificant differ-
ences in overall interior energy use when daylighting is used. Equipment used and fixture
energy density associatedwithexterior lightingarealso consistent across all climatezones. It
shouldbenotedthat energyuseacrossclimatezoneswithregardtoannualizednighttimehours
isconstant; however, local sitecharacteristics, suchaswhichlightingzone(LZ) thebuildingis
locatedin, will causedifferencesinsiteenergyuse. Exterior LZsarearecognitionof thetypes
of surroundingbuildingsandarediscussedlater inthischapter inmoredetail.
Daylighting
Providingdaylight is fundamental for anofficeenvironment, as it makes akey contribu-
tiontoanenergy-efficient andeco-friendly officeenvironment. Whilethemost valuableasset
of daylight is its free availability, the most difficult aspect is its controllability, as daylight
changesduringthecourseof theday. Daylightingismoreof anart thanascience, andit offers
abroadrangeof technologiesthat provideglare-freebalancedlight, sufficient lightinglevels,
andgoodvisual comfort.
Daylightingstrategiesdrivebuildingshapeandform, integratingthemwell intothedesign
fromstructural, mechanical, electrical, andarchitectural standpoints.
External Shading
Perforated Shading Devices
Source: Gerard Healey, Arup
Easternandwesternexposures are difficult to shade. One solutionis anexternal 50%openperforated
metal shading device on the eastern faade. The actuators open the vision-height panels to give a
viewin the afternoon when the sun is on the other side of the building.
Daylightingincreasesenergyperformanceandimpactsbuildingsizeandcostsbydownsiz-
ingfans, ductwork, andcoolingequipment becauseoverall coolingloadsarereduced, allowing
for trade-offs between theefforts madefor daylighting and thesizing of theair-handling and
coolingsystems.
Daylightingwill only translateinto savings whenelectrical lightingis dimmedor turned
off andisreplacedwithnatural daylight. Effectivedaylightingusesnatural light tooffset elec-
trical lighting loads. When designed correctly, daylighting lowers energy consumption and
reducesoperatingandinvestment costsby
reducingelectricityusefor lightingandpeakelectrical demand,
reducingcoolingenergyandpeakcoolingloads,
reducingfanenergyandfanloads,
reducingmaintenancecostsassociatedwithlampreplacement, and
reducingHVAC equipment andbuildingsizeandcost.
However, toachievethisreducedcooling, thefollowingcriteriamust bemet:
High-performanceglazing is used to meet lighting design criteriaand block solar radia-
tion.
Effectiveshadingdevices, sizedtominimizesolar radiationduringpeakcoolingtimes, are
used.
Electriclightsareautomaticallydimmedor turnedoff throughtheuseof photosensors.
Additional Benefits of Daylighting
Daylight and ViewWindows
Source: Cody Andresen, Arup
At the Kirsch Center for Environmental Studies, 100%of the normally occupied areas have access to
daylight and views outside. Providing this access can help to improve the indoor working environment
and may lead to improved worker performance.
Thecasefor daylighting reaches far beyond energy performancealone. Indoor environ-
mental quality benefits the office workers physical and mental health and has a significant
impact ontheir performanceandproductivity. Theseimpacts aredifficult toquantify, but the
potential for improvement andeconomical savingsisimmenseandneedstobetakenintocon-
sideration as serious decision-making criteriain theprocess of officedesign. Thesebenefits
mayfar outweightheenergysavingsandbecomethesignificant driversfor daylightingbuild-
ingsaltogether.
The daylighting strategies recommended in this Guide have successfully been imple-
mentedinbuildings. Most daylightingstrategiesaregeneric andapply toofficebuildingsjust
astheydotoother buildingtypes.
Interior Lighting
Theprimary lightinggoals for officelightingareto optimizetheopenofficespaces for day-
light integrationandtoprovideappropriatelightinglevelsintheprivateandopenofficespaces
whilenotproducingadull environment. Producingavibrantlightingenvironmentisextremely
important whenattemptingtominimizeenergyuse, especiallyinthebuildingscommonareas
(lobby, corridors, break rooms, andconferencerooms). Toachievemaximumlightingenergy
savings, lightingpower densities (LPDs) needto bereducedandmost spaces needto bepro-
vided with occupancy sensors and/or daylight-responsivedimming to reduceor shut off the
lightswhentheyarenot needed. Additionally, thenight lighting, lightingleft on24hoursto
provideemergencyegress, needstobedesignedtolimit thepower to10%of thetotal LPD.
The interior space types typically found in office buildings are displayed in Table 3-3,
along with the ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-2004 (ASHRAE 2004) percentage assump-
tionsdevelopedbyPNNL. Eachbuildingspacedistributionwill mostlikelybedifferent, which
createsdifferent opportunitiesfor energy savings. Thebuildingmay havemorethanthestan-
dard15%openofficearea, whichcreates moreopportunities for daylighting, or thebuilding
mayhavemorethanthe29%privateofficearea, whichcreatesgreater savingsfromoccupancy
sensors.
Thefirst opportunity for energy savingsisthereductionof theLPDsfromthoselistedin
theStandard BaselineLPD column in Table3-3. Simplereductions arepossibleby using
high-performanceT8 lamps and premiumlow-ballast-factor (0.77) ballasts. This will reduce
theT8wattagebyapproximately20%over theStandard90.1-2004LPDcalculations.
Additional LPD savings arepossibleby usingadvancedluminaires suchas thenewtwo-
lampT8or T5high-performancelensedluminaires insteadof prismatic lensed, parabolic, or
recessedbasket fixtures.
Table 3-3 Standard Percentage Assumptions by Space Type (Thornton et al. 2010)
Space Type
Percentage of
Floor Area
Standard Baseline LPD,
W/ft
2
Adjusted Baseline LPD,
W/ft
2
Officeopen plan 15% 1.1 0.68
Officeprivate 29% 1.1 0.8
Conference/meeting room 8% 1.3 0.77
Corridor/transition space 12% 0.5 0.5
Active storage area 14% 0.8 0.64
Restroom 4% 0.8 0.82
Lounge/recreation area 2% 1.2 0.73
Electrical/mechanical room 2% 1.5 1.24
Stairway 3% 0.6 0.6
Lobby 6% 1.3 1.09
Other 5% 1.0 0.82
Weighted LPDfor the whole building 100% 1.0 0.75
Ensuringthat lightsareononly whensomeoneisusingthemisanimportant opportunity
aswell. InStandard90.1-2004thereareminimal requirementsfor occupancycontrols. Byadd-
ingmanual ON or autoON to50%occupancysensorstoopenofficetasklighting, general light-
ing in private offices, conference rooms, storage, and lounge/recreation spaces and auto ON
occupancy sensors toelectrical/mechanical rooms andrestrooms, thelightingsystemwill use
15%to20%lesslightingenergy.
Exterior Lighting
Exterior lighting energy savings areaccomplished by reducing theLPD and using auto-
matic controls. Lightingpower reductionrecommendationsareincludedinChapter 5. Further
savings are available by turning off faade lighting and reducing parking lighting by 50%
betweenmidnight and6:00a.m.
Thenewexterior LPDallowancesinASHRAE/IESStandard90.1-2010(ASHRAE 2010b)
classifybuildingsinafive-zonelightingsystem(seeTable3-4). Veryfewbuildingscoveredin
this Guide are located in LZ4, which requires LPDs that are equivalent to those in Standard
90.1-2004. Mostof thebuildingsaddressedbythisGuidewill belocatedinLZ3, whichrequires
approximately 35% less energy than LZ4. This 35% energy savings includes reducing the
faadelightingallowanceby50%. Somesmaller officebuildingsmaybeclassifiedintoexterior
LZ2, whichwill reduceexterior lightingloadsbyapproximately50%over LZ4.
PLUG LOADS
Plugloadsprovideasignificant opportunityfor contributingtotheoverall buildingenergy
savings. Opportunities include strategies to reduce the connected power with more efficient
equipment, substitute for lower power equipment, and reduce the amount of equipment and
control equipment sothat it runsat reducedpower or isoff whennot inuse.
Controlling plug-load energy usageis critical to achieve50%and greater energy savings.
Plugloadsmayuse15%30%of typical officebuildingenergy, andthatproportiontendstogrow
evenhigher withenergy-efficientbuildingsasother usessuchaslightingandHVACarereduced.
Plug equipment typically runs at normal operating power during occupied hours and in some
casesmayhavethecapabilitytopartiallypower downwhennotinuse. Thereisoftenpotential to
further reducepower duringoccupiedhourswhenanoffice, cubicle, or other areawithplugloads
is not inuse. Studies showthat many types of plug-loadequipment remainonat full power or
reducedpower evenduringunoccupiedperiods(Hartetal. 2004; Sanchezetal. 2007).
Twoprincipal approachesareused: toselect equipment withlower power demandandto
control equipment sothat it isonaslittleaspossiblewhennooneisusingit. (SeePL1through
PL6inChapter 5for moredetail. Notethat control of task lightingisaddressedinthelighting
sections.) Theapproachesincludethefollowingtactics:
Select lower-power equipment suchas ENERGY STAR-ratedequipment andother effi-
cient equipment, anduselaptopcomputersrather thandesktopcomputers. Other concepts
Table 3-4 Exterior Lighting Zones
Lighting Zone Description
0
Undeveloped areas within national parks, state parks, forest lands, rural areas,
and other undeveloped areas as defined by the authority having jurisdiction
1 Developed areas of national parks, state parks, forest lands, and rural areas
2
Areas predominantly consisting of residential zoning, neighborhood business districts,
light industrial buildings with limited nighttime use, and residential mixed-use areas
3 All other areas
4
High-activity commercial districts in major metropolitan areas as designated by
the local jurisdiction
Source: ASHRAE (2010b)
includereducingthenumber of piecesof equipment inuse, suchasbyconsolidatingprint-
ingservices(Lobatoet al. 2011).
Control equipment so that it is off when not in use. Options includeoccupancy-sensor-
controlled plug strips or outlets, occupancy-sensor-controlled vending machines, timer
switchesfor equipment that issharedduringoccupiedhoursbut canbeoff duringunoccu-
pied hours, and power management of computers and other devices, ensuring that sleep
modes arefully active. Useof efficient low-voltagetransformers andnewer power man-
agement surge protectors can reduce phantomloads associated with low-voltage equip-
ment (Lobatoet al. 2011).
SERVICE WATER HEATING
As withother buildingservices systems, thefirst steptowardreducingtheenergy con-
sumptionof SWH systems is toreducetheloads onthesystem. For servicehot water, tech-
nologies for load reduction include sensor activators and aerators for lavatory faucets,
ultralow-flowshowerheads, andENERGY STARdishwashersfor breakrooms. (SeeWH2in
Chapter 5.)
Office buildings typically have very low but often widely distributed service hot water
loads. Restrooms, break rooms, and janitor closets typically arelocated on every floor. The
performancerequirementfor thesystem, furthermore, isdeliveryof hotwater tothefixtureina
fewseconds, requiringconstant hot-water availability only afewfeet fromeachfixture. For a
one-floor officebuildingwithwet spacesclusteredinthebuildingcore, thegoal of rapiddeliv-
ery of hot water to fixtures may easily bemet. Multistory buildings and multicorebuildings
maypresent significant challenges.
Twostrategiesaretypicallyusedtoachievethisgoal of hot-water availability: positioning
hot-water heaters immediately adjacent to each end-uselocation andutilization of apumped
recirculation loop to maintain elevated water temperatures in the distribution systemacross
periodsof nonuse. Eachof thesestrategieshasbenefitsanddeficiencies.
Positioningthewater heater adjacent toloadsoftenrequiresmultiplewater heaterstoser-
vicebuildingloads, precludingutilizationof renewableor free heat availablefromasingle
source. Examplesof reduced-energyheatingsourcesincludesolar domesticwater heatingand
desuperheater heat recovery fromdirect expansion(DX) coolingunits. Insomecodejurisdic-
tions, gassupply pipingandfluerunsinternal tothebuildingmay present complianceor cost
challenges.
Therecirculationloopstrategyhasthedisadvantageof increasedenergyconsumptiondue
toboththepumpenergyandtheincreasedheat lossesthroughthedistributionpiping. Typical
officebuildingshavearelativelysmall usageof hot water, andtheheat lossthroughthedistri-
butionpipingmay entail moreenergy consumptionthandoes theactual hot water use. Selec-
tionof theappropriatestrategyshouldweighall aspectsof thetwoapproaches.
HVAC SYSTEMS
A variety of HVAC systems can be used for small to mediumoffice buildings up to
100,000ft
2
, all of whichcanmeetthemoderateheatingandcoolingloadsandprovidethemin-
imumrequiredoutdoor airflowfor ventilation. Ingeneral, thefollowingactionsshouldbecon-
sideredwhenselectinglow-energyHVAC systems:
Reduceloadssignificantlyasdescribedinother sectionsof thisGuide.
Zone perimeter areas separately and consider local systems with increased cooling and
heating capacities for spaces with significant glazed area. Perimeter convective heating
systems should beconsidered as a means to offset heat loss fromthearea immediately
adjacent tothefaade. It isimportant tointegrateandproperlycontrol perimeter andcen-
tral systemstoavoidsimultaneousheatingandcooling. Fan-coil unitsareoftenplacedin
perimeter zones to respond quickly to changes in load arising fromheavily glazed sur-
faces.
Decouplespaceventilationanddehumidificationfromsensibleconditioning, if beneficial,
by independently conditioning and supplying OA. A 100% outdoor air system(100%
OAS), oftencalledadedicated outdoor air system (DOAS), isoftenusedtoprovidefiltra-
tion, heating, coolinganddehumidification, andhumidificationof OA for ventilation. This
Guide uses 100% OAS and DOAS interchangeably. A 100% OAS may include energy
recovery. Thesesystemsalsoreduceenergyassociatedwithdehumidificationbyeliminat-
ingor nearlyeliminatingenergyfor simultaneouscoolingandreheating. Theysupport the
opportunity for cost-effectively applying energy recovery with asingleenergy recovery
unit rather thanaseparateenergyrecoveryunit for eachsystem. For zonal systemssuchas
air-sourceheat pumpsandfan-coils, theyallowthesupplyfansonthezonal unitstocycle
rather thanruncontinuously(occupiedhours) astheywouldwhenprovidingventilation.
Requiredesignerstomakeafundamental strategicdecisionastowhether theywill pursuea
centralizedheating/coolingsystemor amoredistributedapproachwherecoolingandheat-
ingequipment residephysicallyclosetothezone. Designoptionsincludethefollowing:
a. Whenlower operatingcostsandcentral maintenanceandcontrol areprimary consid-
erations, designers tendto select centralizedsystems that colocateDX units or chill-
ers, boilers, andcoolingtowers(asapplicable) away fromoccupiedspaces. Thisalso
mitigates noiseimpacts. Thesesystems oftenrequireagreater first cost thandistrib-
uted systems but often result in annual energy savings because additional benefits
include the ability to reduce installed capacity by using load diversity. Centralized
coolingsystems tendto bemorecost-effectivewhenthetotal buildingloadexceeds
100tons, dependingonclimateandpatternsof occupancyuse. Central boiler systems
areappliedin many buildingsizes sincethey can providebetter closespacecontrol
andcanbeusedwithmanyterminal unit types.
b. When low first cost and simplicity are primary concerns, designers tend to select
zone-by-zone distributed systems incorporating both heating and cooling capacity.
Thisapproachtendstobeusedfor smaller buildingsor larger buildingswithsufficient
roof area. Distributedequipmentusuallyconsistsof fan, coolingcoil, compressor, and
outdoor condenser. Examples of distributed systems include packaged rooftop air
conditioners and heat pumps as well as refrigerant-based split-systemfan-coil units
(singleor multiunit). Water-sourceheat pumps(WSHPs) arealsodistributedsystems
inthat thecompressor islocatedclosetotheoccupiedspace, but theyareservedbya
centralizedwater systemwithauxiliaryboilersandheat rejectiondevices.
Makeminimizing energy used to condition ventilation air akey goal. Strategies include
demand-controlled ventilation (DCV) and energy recovery. DCV approaches for single-
zonesystems arewell established; DCV for multiple-zonerecirculatingsystems is more
complicatedandapproachesarestill evolving.
Take advantage of the moisture- and heat-absorbing capacities of the OA. Strategies
include providing economizers in all climate zones except climate zone 1, evaporative
coolingandevaporativecondensersindrier climates, andnatural ventilation.
Control fanandpumpingenergy for theselectedsystemtype. Pressuredropandfriction
shouldbereducedasmuchaspossiblefor all fanandpumpsystems. Proper pipeandduct
layouthelpsreducefriction. VFDs, evenwherenotrequiredbycode, shouldbeconsidered
in order to match airflowandwater flow(as necessary) to theloads within thesystems.
Controls usingpressurereset onthebasis of measuredfeedback shouldbeconsideredon
systemswithvariableflow.
Select efficient equipment for all of therecommendedHVAC systems. Target minimum
efficiencyvaluesareincludedinChapters4and5.
Notethat radiant coolingsystems(embeddedinfloorsor ceilings) requireseparatecontrol
of humidityandtheDOASperformsthemaindehumidificationfunction. Additionally, sup-
plywater temperaturemust becarefullymonitoredagainst spacedew-point temperatureto
avoid condensation. Although this is not specifically included in the recommendations,
design teams could evaluatetheenergy performanceof passivechilled beams as another
alternativeconsistent withtheuseof aDOASandchilled-water supply.
NotethatVAV systemsincorporatinglow-temperatureair, energyrecovery, DCV, andven-
tilationandsupplyair temperaturereset (asshownintherecommendationtablesinChap-
ter 4) significantlyreduceHVAC systemenergyuse.
Consider water-based heat rejection systems, including WSHPs and ground-sourceheat
pumps. Useof 100%OASswithenergyrecoveryshouldbeconsidered.
Notethat packagedheat pumpswithDOASsoffer alowfirst cost solutionappropriateto
smaller officebuildings.
HVAC CONTROLS
HVAC control systemsshouldachievethefollowinggoals:
Accurateprovisionof spaceconditionsrequiredfor humancomfort, health, andfunction-
alityineachspace.
Avoidanceof conflicting operation of different parts or components of theconditioning
systems(fighting).
Optimizingoperationof HVACcomponentsmostefficientlytomeetrequiredconditioning
loads, especiallyduringpart-loadconditions.
Sequencing of HVAC components to meet required interior environmental conditions,
includingdeactivationduringunoccupiedperiods.
Radiant Floor System
PEX Tubing in Serpentine Pattern
Source: Cole Roberts, Arup
For radiant floor systems, cross-linkedpolyethylene(PEX) tubingis placedina serpentinepatternover
the structural slab prior to the topping slab being poured. Density of tubing is related to heat output.
Floor areas canbezoned, withthermostatic control at a central manifold; however, radiant heatingand
cooling systems tend to have a long start-up time related to the thermal mass of the surrounding con-
crete. Additionally, radiant heating and cooling floors tend to have a floor finish that is monolithically
integrated with the topping slab in order to provide continuous conduction fromthe tubing. Carpet and
other insulated finishes should be avoided.
Avoidanceof excessivecyclingof systemscomponentsandresultantacceleratedwear and
inefficiency.
For moreinformationonspecificHVAC systems, pleaseseethehow-totipsinChapter 5.
QUALITY ASSURANCE
Qualityandperformancearetheresult of intention, sincereeffort, intelligent direction, and
skilledexecution. A high-quality building that functions in accordancewith its design intent,
andthusmeetstheperformancegoalsestablishedfor it, requiresthatqualityassurance(QA) be
anintegral part of thedesignandconstructionprocessaswell asthecontinuedoperationof the
facility.
Deficienciesinthebuildingenvelopeandmechanical andelectrical systemshaveawide
range of consequences, including elevated energy use or underperformance of the energy-
efficiency strategies. Thesedeficiencies arecommonly aresult of design flaws, construction
defects, malfunctioning equipment, or deferred maintenance. The QA process typically
referredtoascommissioning (Cx) candetect andremedythesetypesof deficiencies.
As facilities searchfor higher efficiency throughinnovation, newapplications, andcom-
plex controls, therisk of underperformanceandthepotential for moredeficiencies increases.
Toreduceproject risk, Cx requiresadedicatedperson(onewithnoother project responsibili-
ties) who can executeasystematic process that verifies that thesystems andassemblies per-
form as required. The individual responsible to provide this is called the commissioning
authority(CxA).
Success of the Cx process requires leadership and oversight. CxA qualifications should
includean in-depth knowledgeof mechanical and electrical systems design and operation as
well asgeneral constructionexperience. Theindividual representstheownersinterestsinhelp-
ing the teamdeliver a successful building project. TheCxA can be completely independent
fromtheproject teamcompaniesor acapablemember of thecontractor, architect, or engineer-
ingfirms. Thelevel of independenceisadecisionthat theowner needstomake.
TheCxprocessdefinedbyASHRAE Guideline0, The Commissioning Process (ASHRAE
2005), andASHRAE Guideline1.1, HVAC&R Technical Requirements for The Commissioning
Process (ASHRAE 2007c), is applicabletoall buildings. Owners, occupants, andthedelivery
teambenefit equally fromtheQA process. Largeandcomplex buildingsrequireacorrespond-
inglygreater level of effort thanthat requiredfor small, simpler buildings.
Cx needstobeanintegral part of thedesignandconstructionprocessinorder toreachthe
energy performance goals a building requires. Chapter 5 contains descriptions of the recom-
mendedstepsinthebuildingdesignandconstructionCxprocess. AppendixCprovidesexamples
for theCx process, andmoredetailedinformationcanbefoundinASHRAEsGuideline0and
Guideline1.1.
MULTIDISCIPLINARY COORDINATION FOR ENERGY EFFICIENCY
OVERVIEW
Integrated design strategies require significant multilateral agreement on design intent
fromavarietyof stakeholders. Thefollowingmultidisciplinaryrecommendationsareprovided
to identify aseries of items for whichadirectionandagreement must beachieved. Theseare
very different ideasascomparedtothecomponent-level or process-level discussionsinherent
in Chapter 5. Truly holistic low-energy design solutions arenot achieved solely through the
optimization of each component, but rather by exploiting the mutually beneficial synergies
betweenotherwiseindependent designstrategies.
08_Chapter3.fm Page44 Monday, April 25, 2011 4:41PM
MULTIDISCIPLINARY RECOMMENDATIONS
Define Business as Usual and Baseline Buildings
Oneof theveryfirst thingsthat thedesignteammust defineiswhat thebusinessasusual
(BAU) design solution would be. This will often be a minimally prescriptive ASHRAE/IES
Standard90.1(ASHRAE 2010b) equivalentconsistingof asquareor rectangular buildingvirtu-
ally fillingthesitewithas lowaprofileas possible. Theenergy useof this buildingtypically
representsthehigh-endof allowableenergyuseandsetsthecomparativestandardagainstwhich
absolutesavingsareachievedontheroadtowardnet zeroenergyuse. AseachECM isapplied,
thedesignteamshouldkeeptrack of all incremental victoriesachievedat eachstep. Thecom-
parisontotheBAU benchmarkisareal measureof successreflectiveof all designdecisions.
Thesecondkeyitemthat thedesignteammust defineiswhat thebaselinedesignsolution
wouldbeoncethepreferredbuildingconfigurationsdesigniscompleted. Thebaselineisvery
different fromtheBAU benchmark becausethecurrent ASHRAE/IES Standard90.1requires
all proposedandbaselineenergy modelstohaveidentical shapes, footprints, andoccupancies
(ASHRAE 2010b). Thus, the baseline does not reward fundamental building configuration
decisionsfor their positiveeffect onenergyuse.
It isimportant for thedesignteamtoagreetomoveaway fromboththeBAU benchmark
andthebaselineinmakingproactivedesigndecisions. It isalsoimportant that thereisnoshift-
ingbenchmarkof success.
Benchmarking
WhiletheBAU benchmark represents thehighest allowableenergy-useintensity onsite
by calculation methods, thereareaseries of other energy-usebenchmarks that represent the
existingbuildingstockintheUnitedStates:
U.S. Environmental ProtectionAgencyandU.S. Departmentof EnergysENERGY STAR
PortfolioManager (EPA 2011)
U.S. Energy Information Administrations Commercial Buildings Energy Consumption
Survey(CBECS) (EIA 2011)
CaliforniaEnergy Commissions CaliforniaCommercial End-UseSurvey (CEUS) (CEC
2008)
It is possibleto benchmark theproposeddesignagainst theBAU benchmark andagainst
its preexistingpeers to demonstratethat substantial steps havebeentakentowardenergy-use
reduction. Designers oftensuccessfully comparetheir designs to thetypical equivalent build-
inginthepreexistingstock or to thenumber of houses that couldbepoweredontheenergy
savingstomakeit easier for laypeopletounderstandthemagnitudeof theenergysavings.
Historic data, however, is not theinspirationfor gooddesigninthefuture. This is where
moreaspirational benchmarkingcanbenefit theteam. Themost frequently usedbenchmarks
arethefollowing:
Energysavingsasdesignatedbypercentageannual costsavingsascomparedtoAppendixG
of ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1 (ASHRAE 2010b) (typically used by codes and policies,
alsousedby theLeadershipinEnergy andEnvironmental Design[LEED] GreenBuilding
RatingSystem[USGBC2011])
AbsoluteEUI definitions (occasionally usedby campuses, regularly usedby theGeneral
ServicesAdministration; easiest tomeasureandverifyafter construction)
Net zeroenergydefinitions
Asnotedabove, it isimportant for thedesignteamtoagreetomoveawayfromthedesign
practices that led to older poor-performing buildings and toward aquantifiabletarget that is
consistent withtheavailablefundingfor thejob.
CMTA Office BuildingA Case Study
CMTA Properties designed and built a new20,000 ft
2
office building in Louisville, Kentucky, in 2008.
The goal was to create a showcase of green, energy-efficient building design that could provide a liv-
ing demonstration of these technologies for clients and would be the first step toward a net zero
energy building.
Thermal Envelope
The exterior of the single building is designed to appear as three separate buildings in order to fit into
the neighborhoods historical architectural style. The exterior walls are constructed of insulated con-
crete forms, a structural wall systemthat provides an excellent thermal barrier and reduces air infiltra-
tion. The full thermal envelope, which includes roof insulation and high-performance glass, exceeds
ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-2004 by 20%. The building faces west and includes large front win-
dows with7ft awnings for thefirst-floor conferencerooms. Theawnings providesolar andglarecontrol.
Lighting/Daylighting
Strategies employed to reduce lighting energy include the following:
Thelightingsystemis designedto 0.65W/ft
2
, exceedingtheenergycodeby40%. Tasklights were
provided for the workstations but are rarely needed.
The second-floor workareas are daylightedusingsolar tube skylights (tubular devices) to enhance
the natural light fromthe windows. This work space also includes a customlight-emitting diode
(LED) pendant chandelier and clerestory windows.
Exterior offices adjacent to the daylighted areas have both exterior and interior windows, which
allowmore natural light into those work areas. Interior blinds reduce glare during winter when the
angle of the sun is lower.
Digital addressable daylight control systems modulate the electric lighting output in the work
areas.
CMTA Headquarters Exterior
HVAC System
The buildinguses high-efficiency, geothermal WSHP units withan installedcapacityof 600ft
2
/tonand
a geothermal well field capacity of 780 ft
2
/ton. The well field consists of 12 vertical bores, which are
each 400 ft deep. The systemincludes dual refrigerant compressors for all heat pumps three tons or
larger, which increases efficiency to roughly 23 SEER during part-load conditions, and a distributive
water pumping systemto recirculate water through the geothermal loop. Separate water pumps are
sized to each heat pump and only operate when that heat pump compressor is on. A single rooftop
unit that is equipped with a supply fan, an exhaust fan, an energy recovery wheel, and variable fan
drives serves as a DOAS. A DCV systemsupplements the DOAS andmodulates the outdoor air com-
ing into the building in response to actual space conditions.
Energy Performance
CMTA tracks and benchmarks energy performancethe first years energy consumption was
13.6 kBtu/ft
2
yr, which earned the all-electric building an ENERGY STAR rating of 100.
An ethernet-based digital electric metering systemis used to measure the energy consumed by the
HVAC, lighting, andplugloads. Almost one-thirdof the annual energyuse is consumedbyplugloads.
While this seems large, high-performance systems reduce the energy use of the HVAC and lighting
systems, thus increasing the percentage of plug loads as compared to the total energy.
Additional information on the CMTA headquarters building and systems along with what was learned
during the design, construction, and early operation of the building can be found in the Winter 2011
issue of High Performing Buildings (Seibert 2011).
CMTA First-Floor Conference Room Second-Floor Daylighted Work Space
Metered Energy Use Breakdown
Photographs reprinted with permission of High Performing Buildings
Budget Sharing
One oft-heard but fundamentally unnecessary question is whose budget pays for
improved energy efficiency? The answer should always be the owners budget! When a
teamcommitsitself todeliveringlow-energy, holisticsolutions, itisvirtuallyimpossibletodis-
cretizefor theaccountantshowmuchenergyefficiencyeachtradeor disciplinepurchasedon
behalf of theproject throughits respectivedesigndecisions. A classic exampleis thecost of
shading: thereareincreased structural and faadecosts, but thesemay beoffset by reduced
capital cost for windowglazingandair conditioning. Thesetrade-offsareabsolutelynecessary
to exploreinconsiderationof theparticular goals andcontext of thebuilding. So longas the
overall building construction budget remains consistent with the Owners Project Require-
ments(OPR), it doesnt matter wherethemoneywasspent if thewholebuildingperforms.
What thistellsus, however, isthat discipline-basedconstructionbudget allocationsmight
beinappropriatefor theintegrateddesignparadigmandshouldbereviewedearlyintheproject.
Similarly, it might bearguedthat traditional feepercentages may also beunintentionally pre-
venting the disciplines most capable of proposing and proving energy-reduction techniques
fromapplyingtheir analytical technologiesandabilitiestothesolutions.
Lastly, theEUI budget itself must alsobeequitablyshared. Thebuildingenvelopedoes
not consumeenergy but significantly affects theenergy useof mechanical and lighting sys-
tems. Legislationandingenuityhavebrought ustothepoint at whichmost electrical, mechani-
cal, andlightingequipmenthasbeenoptimizedfor thecurrentstateof technology. Therefore, it
isimportant for designteams tocarefully reviewtherelativeproportionof energy useby dis-
cretionary design choiceand collectively attack thoseportions of thepiechart that represent
thegreediest users. A classic exampleis theuseof all-glass faades withtheexpectationthat
highlyefficient HVACsystemswill somehowaccommodatetheegregiousgesture; thankfully,
energycodesarenowbiasedtoavoidthispractice. Another moresubtleexampleistheissueof
plugloadsinhighlyefficient buildings. Astheintentional reductionof lightingandmechanical
energyuseisapplied, theplugloadsgrowinarelativemanner toupwardsof 50%. Thisshould
immediately tell all parties that plug loads need to beaddressed, either with automatic shut-
downcontrolsor withsubstantial reductioninrequired, desired, or assumedloadonthepart of
theowner anddesignteam. If theteamknowsthat it isaccountablefor sharingtheresponsibil-
ityfor theendenergy-useburden, itsetsthetonefor sharingtheenergy-savingsburdenaswell.
Investment Financial Analysis
Many of the examples thus far have discussed trade-offs made by the design teamto
reduce the total building energy use. In order to confirmthat each decision contributes to
affordableenergy savings, energy modelingcanbecoupledwithaseriesof financial analyses
toshowwhichECMsgivethebiggestbangfor thebuck.Thethreemosttypical toolsinclude
thefollowing:
Life-Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA) is a calculation method that adds first cost to 2025
years of annual energy andmaintenancecosts, inclusiveof equipment replacement costs
andanestimateoninflation. Theoptionthat hasthelowest life-cyclecost isusually cho-
senif thebudget allows. LCCA isthefinancial tool most oftenusedby institutional own-
ers planning to hold and operate the building through a few generations of equipment
technology.
Simple Payback Period isacalculationmethodthat dividesfirst cost bytheannual energy
savings to determinehowlong it will taketo break even on theinvestment. Thesimple
payback is most often used by developers looking to recoup costs beforedivesting of a
propertyor bylong-termbuildingownerswithlimitedfundingfor retrofits.
Return on Investment (ROI) isacalculationthattakestheratioof theenergysavingsover a
predefined number of years minus thefirst costs divided by thefirst costs. It essentially
answers thequestionwhat is my rateof returnontheinvestment? andallows asome-
what parallel comparison to the rate of return used in the financial markets. The ROI
method is usually used by wealth-holding clients comparing relative opportunity costs
whenlookingtoinvest instableprofit growth. Indownturneconomiesburdenedwiththe
ever-risingcost of energythroughout theworld, somefinancial institutionshavebegunto
providefinancingfor energy-efficiencyupgradesbasedonprojectedROI throughvehicles
basedonROI calculations.
It isimportant inall of thesefinancial comparisonsthat theteamagreeonwhichinflation
anddepreciationratesareappropriatefor use.
Building Configuration and Floor Area Minimization
Intheareaof buildingdesign, thefirstitemtoaddressisthebuiltarea. For first-costreasons,
thereis obviously adrivetowardtheminimizationof built squarefootage, andtheentireteam
shouldreviewtheactual requestedoccupancies to determineif spacecanbesharedas flexible
spacebetweenusesotherwiselistedseparately. For instance, sharedconferencespacesor lounge
spaces canreducetheredundancy of built spacewhilealsoencouraginginterdepartmental syn-
ergy. Another areaoftenunder scrutinyfor costsavings(bothfirstcostandoperatingcosts) isthe
transient grosssquarefootageassociatedwithcirculationspaceandlobbies. It isrecommended
thattheteamusespace-planningexercisestoreviewif therearewaysfor thesetypesof spacesto
bereducedinsizethroughmergingwithother functionsor tobelimitedinscopeandcontrolla-
bilitywithregardstoexpenditureof energyunder low-occupancyconditions.
The second major itemfor the teamto address is the architectural configuration of the
building. Faadesquarefootagerepresentsasourceof conductiveheat lossor heat gainasthe
OA temperatures fluctuate; therefore, the larger the amount of faade area, the greater this
impact. Additionally, most faadesfor officebuildingscontainwindowsfor thebenefit of the
occupants. Glazing is a poorer insulator than most opaque constructions and should be
reviewed with regard to its placement and size. Generally speaking, daylighting and natural
ventilation arepossiblewithin about 25 ft of afaade, avaluethat may govern thedepth of
footprintsaspiringtogreater connectivitytotheoutdoors.
Beyondtheimpact ontheinterior floor plate, theshapeof thebuildingalsoinformswhere
andhowthebuildingself-shades andbegins to informwhereglazingcanbemost effectively
placed. Generally speaking, in thenorthern hemisphere, glazing that points toward thenorth
captures sky-reflecteddaylight withminimal solar heat content, makingit theideal sourceof
even light. Eastern and western glazing is impacted by low-angle sun throughout the year,
whichcancauseglareandthermal discomfort if not mitigatedproperly. Lastly, inthenorthern
hemisphere, southernfaadeswithglazingbenefit fromoverhangstoreducesolar loadduring
thesummer season.
Safety Factors and Diversity Factors
It isquiteimportant for all membersof thedesignteamtoopenlyreveal their safetyfactors
sothatsystemsarenotoversized. Thejudiciousapplicationof diversityfactorsbasedonhownor-
mal buildingsoperateisimportant tothetight control of rightsizingtheequipment for optimum
efficiency. A classic example is the plug-load allowance requested by the owner. The owner
knowswhat thenameplatesaretheycanbeuptofour timeshigher thannormal actual operat-
inglevels(ASHRAE 2009b, Table8). TheHVAC designer acceptsthat loadandthenappliesa
factor of +20%toaccountfor futureexpansionandthen, asper thecode, isallowedtosizeequip-
ment for anadditional 20%30%for morningwarm-upandboost. Thenthefansareall sizedfor
anextra10%for air leakage, andtheelectrical engineer takesthemechanical loadsandaddsan
extra 15% for unforeseen additional load or for effectively following the National Electrical
Code (NFPA 2011) by taking everything at facevaluesimultaneously. All told, onecan find
transformerssizedmorethanthreetimeslargerthanthelargestloadeverlikelytobeexperienced.
The result of this drastic oversizing is that some equipment may be operating in inefficient
ranges, distributionflowsmaybecomeunstableatlowturndownrates, andexcessivematerial has
beeninstalledascomparedtowhat wasactuallyneeded. It isstronglyrecommendedthat amap
The Terry ThomasA Case Study
The building teamfor The Terry Thomas, a 40,000 ft
2
Class A commercial office building in Seattle,
used an advanced approach to energy-efficient design with the use of natural ventilation and daylight-
ing. Extensive thermal and energy modeling was used to determine the most effective strategies and
balance the trade-offs needed to design a building with passive cooling, natural ventilation, and day-
lighting while maintaining a comfortable work environment for the occupants. The LEED Gold-CS,
LEED Platinum-CI building was measured as 42%more efficient than a baseline building designed to
ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-2004. Moreover, through the integrated design process, the project
achieved significant energy efficiency within the initial construction cost budget.
The building is designed as a square doughnutformthat enhances the natural ventilation and day-
lighting while providing communal space for the tenants via the center courtyard. The passive cooling
strategies employedare complementedbyautomatedlouvers anda combinationof dynamic andfixed
external shading.
Shading and Daylighting
The optimal designs requiredthat two goals be balanced: the needto remove solar heat andglare that
might hinder natural ventilation and the need to provide adequate daylight to interior spaces. Eliminat-
ing solar gain also allows for the elimination of the mechanical cooling systemwhile still maintaining
thermal comfort. Effective external shading was the key to controlling solar gain and thus reducing
cooling peak load. The project optimized the shading strategy for each faade at each floor:
Fixedexterior tinted-glass shades (sunglasses), angledto provide the requiredshadingandopti-
mumlevels of daylight, are used on the east and west external faades.
Dynamic external venetian blinds that are automatically adjusted based on light level and sun
angle are used on the northeast, south, and some east faades.
The buildingshape andcourtyardallowfor uniformdaylightingineachopenoffice space. The high
ceilings and narrowfloor plates allownatural light to penetrate the interior.
Daylighting is further enhanced with high internal reflectance, exposed ceilings with no ductwork,
and lowopen office partitions.
Building Data
Steel deck roof with gypsumsheathing
Overall R-value =R-30
Reflectivity =95
Metal-framed walls with gypsumsheathing,
batt insulation, and corrugated metal cladding
Overall R-value =R-21
Glazing =45%
Windows
U-factor =0.4
SHGC =0.36
VT =68%
Sunshades SHGC =0.52
EUI 37 kBtu/ft
2
Annual cost index $0.53/ft
2
yr
Total construction cost $10.2 million
Cost per square foot $160/ft
2
Natural Ventilation
The building uses passive cooling and natural ventilation, and heating is provided for the building
perimeter by radiant hydronic baseboards. Internal heat gains are reduced by the use of less artificial
light as a result of the maximizeduse of natural light. The followingcharacteristics are the keycompo-
nents of the natural ventilation system.
The internal courtyardallows for cross-ventilation, whichis enhancedbythe narrowfloor plate and
open office plan. Other features that help to optimize the natural ventilation systeminclude the
open ceilings and castellated beams.
Motorized louvers are located near the ceiling on each floor and are used in conjunction with
occupant-controlled operable windows along the building perimeter.
The passive cooling design and use of natural ventilation allowed for the elimination of the
mechanical cooling systemand reduced the HVAC equipment cost. Louvers are controlled with
CO
2
sensors. This use of this DCV strategy contributes to the reduction of unnecessary outdoor
ventilation air and the accompanying heating energy use.
Additional informationonTheTerryThomas andtheextensivemodelingthatwas usedinthedesignpro-
cess canbe foundinthe Summer 2010issue of High Performing Buildings (Sethi andMarseille 2010).
Second Floor Office on the South Faade Exterior Tinted-Glass Shades
with Castellated Beams* Used on the East and West Faades
External Venetian Blinds* Internal Courtyard*

*Photographs reprinted with permission of Chris Meek and Kevin Van Den Wymelenberg
Photograph reprinted with permission of High Performing Buildings

of all safety factorsanddiversity assumptionsisclearly laidout inatransparent way sothat the
wholeteamcanmakejudgmentstogether withregardtotheassumptions.
Diversityfactorsareverydifferent fromsafetyfactors. Theformer aremeant todeal with
known uncertainties or fluctuations based on professional judgment and industry practice,
whilethelatter aremeant to deal withunknownuncertainties intheoperations inthefuture.
For instance, inHVAC andelectrical design, it isquitecommontofindthefollowingdiversity
factorsapplied:
Solar diversity, embeddedinmost computer modelingsoftwareincalculatingenergy use
andtotal peakload
Diversity assumptions about occupant attendance (i.e., a 75% diversity factor on office
occupanciesisquitecommon)
Diversityassumptionsaboutcomputer usewithlinkstooccupancydiversityandintegrated
withassumptions regards computer activity kilowatt useversus sleepmode, givenoccu-
pant presenceat thedesk
Diversity assumptions withregards to likely simultaneity of peak airflows or peak water
flowsoccurringonasinglesystemthisisoftenusedtodownsizesystemcapacity
It isimportant tonotethat diversityfactorsareindependent of schedulesandassuchmust
bereviewedwiththeschedulestoensurethat theappropriatelevel of fluctuationisaccounted
for only once(especially whenthescheduleisapercent of loadschedule). It iscrucial for the
entireteamto agreeto thediversity factors, as usingthemto downsizeequipment for energy
efficiency might run therisk of reduced capacity on peak days. It is necessary to project the
extremeinternal conditions arisingwiththesepeak conditions andget buy-infromtheowner
for exceedanceover aknownnumber of hoursinatypical meteorological year.
Schedules of Occupancy, Use, and Utility Rates
It isessential that theteamunderstandtheschedulesrelatedtoutilityrates, especiallyany
embeddeddemandchargesandon/off/hi/low/seasonal peak perioddefinitionslocal tothesite
and its service utility. This is because the prevailing benchmarks for energy savings in
ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1 (ASHRAE 2010b) and most energy codes arebased on annual
cost, not absoluteenergy savings. Most importantly, theowner pays for thedemandandcon-
sumption charges. This means that discretionary decisions by the team to avoid onerous
demandchargesthroughloadshiftingmaybeappropriatewhenlookingtoreduceannual oper-
atingexpenditures.
It isimportant for theteamtomapout theanticipatedschedulesof useandoccupancyfor
each areaof thebuilding. This is information that is crucial to theenergy modeling and can
greatly affect theoutcomeswithregardtoestimatedenergy savingsover aknownbenchmark
or LCCA. It is important to notethat most energy models run thesamescheduleweek after
week, so schedules not only should beconfigured to cover typical weeks but also should be
changedtoaccount for anyknownlongperiodsof buildingclosure.
It is important also to look at how the relative schedules interact with each other. For
instance, thefollowingassumptions andtechniques areoftenusedinenergy modelinginthe
officecontext:
Lighting schedules inareaswithoccupancysensorsareoftenarrangedtohave100%light
for anynonzerolevel of occupancy.
Small power loads representing office equipment areoftenarrangedtohaveapercentage
loadtomatchthepercentageof occupants, except for a10%15%nighttimeparasiticload
for equipment insleepmodeor that isnot automaticallyturnedoff.
Server room load and HVAC equipment cyclingitisimportanttonotewhatproportionof
theserver roomserver loadis relatedto occupants andtheir immediateusageas well as
howmuchisduetocontinuousprocessing.
Kitchen/lounge/vending equipmentthis equipment tends to havehigh usageduring the
midday hours. It is important to examinethescheduleof operationof suchequipment as
microwavesandheatingplatesaswell astheoperationof anyexhaust fanassociatedwith
odor control inthearea. Refrigeratedvendingmachines andrefrigerator/freezers tendto
operatethroughout thedaytocycletomaintaininternal conditions. It shouldbenotedthat
newer vendingmachines haveoccupancy sensors that triponthedisplay lightingfor the
patronbut thenrevert toadarkenedmode.
Conference facilitiesengineersmustmakeajudgmentinenergymodelingastowhether or
not theconferencefacilities should bemodeled as independent zones with an occupancy
schedule. Thereasonfor this is that therearedifferent ways of thought about theseareas.
Somearguethat thepeopleintheconferenceroomarethesameas thepeoplewho would
havebeenintheadjacentoffices, sooneshouldjusthavealargezoneinclusiveof theconfer-
enceandofficeareas, withtheappropriatediversityappliedduringloadcalculationsbut not
duringenergy modeling. Other engineersarguethat set-asideconferenceroomsdohavean
increasedinstantaneousoccupancythatcandriveupoverall ventilationratesinsystemsserv-
ingbothconferenceroomsandoffices, sothetruemodel shouldreflect theincreasedload.
Theproblemwith thelatter approach is that theoccupancy of theconferencerooms will
begintoformabaseloadeveryhour of everyweekdayfor everyweekintheenergymodel.
Itisnecessarytoreviewtheimpactof thispurelymodelingdecisionontheprojectedenergy
useof thewholebuilding, especiallyif therearealargeproportionof conferencefacilities.
Thelast itemtobear inmindregardingschedulingiswhether astandardizedschedulewill
beimposedontheenergy model throughregulatory requirements. For compliancemodeling,
inparticular, somecodes suchas theCalifornia Energy Code (CBSC 2011) requirethat pre-
scribedschedulesareusedinsteadof schedulesgroundedinrealisticreviewsof assumptions. It
isimportant for theentireteamtobeawareof anysuchconstraintsaheadof time.
Redundant and Standby Capacity Sizing Protocols
It is recommended that athorough discussion with theowner about redundancy becon-
ductedearlyinthedesignprocess. Inparticular, howredundancyisachievedandwhether it is
necessaryshouldbediscussed. Redundancyisthecreationof sparecapacitysuchthat asingle
piece of equipment can be down for maintenance and the rest of the systemcan operate at
somelevel. It isusuallythecasethat percentageof capacityisusedtodefineredundancy.
For instance, inasysteminwhichtwopumpsareeachsizedat60%of total load, thefacil-
itycanloseonepumpandstill haveatleast60%capacity. Inareal-worldinstallation, itisnec-
essary to ensurethat theselectionof that pumphas theoptimumefficiency for normal usage
insteadof anartificiallyhighpeakdesignflow.
If 100%capacityisdesiredatall times, someengineersprefer tousestandbyequipment
awholespareunit capableof runningwhenanyof thenormal runequipment isnot functional.
Inthiscase, itmightbeappropriatetohavethreepumps, eachsizedfor 50%capacity, available
inthesystemthiswouldbeatworun/onestandbyapproach, andthepumpswouldgenerally
berotatedintheir operationinorder toequalizeruntime.
It is important in theenergy modeling context that theappropriatehorsepower associated
withtheactual 100%of capacitybeused, lesttheprojectbeoverburdenedwithamodel of energy
usethatwouldnotoccur inreal life, evenwhenthemodel includesavariable-flowcontrol.
Faade Zone Optimization
Onekeyareaof focusfor themultidisciplinaryteamisthefaadezone, thenexusof many
design desires. Thefaademust performmultiplefunctions simultaneously to createan ade-
quatespacefor theoccupantsinside. Thedriversfor thisincludethefollowing:
1. Presentingthepublicface of thebuilding
2. Protectingtheindoorsfromwindandrain
3. Sealingthebuildingenvelopetocontainconditionedspace
4. Creatingasecuritybarrier
5. Creatingahealthy andcomfortableenvironment for occupants (thermal, acoustic, visual,
andIAQ)
6. Mitigatingsolar heat toberemovedbyacomfort-conditioningsystem
7. Temperingtheinfluenceof coldandhot temperaturesoutdoors
8. Controllingnoisebreak-infromtheoutdoors
9. Manipulatingor enhancingdaylight for useful purpose
10. Providingviewstotheoutdoorstoimproveoccupant satisfaction
11. Movingair inandout of thebuilding(operableelementsor louvers)
12. Maximizingusable/leasablesquarefootageindoors
Thedesignof faadesandtheperimeter zoneimmediatelybehindthemisparticularlydif-
ficult precisely because there are competing priorities that must all be resolved in order to
deliver afunctioningbuilding. Havingtheentireteamacknowledgethefull rangeof needs is
thefirst step, and then they can look for integrated solutions together given alimited faade
budget.
Inadditiontothecompetingdesignneeds, current technologyinfaadematerialsalsocre-
atesforcedmarriages that must alsobemanaged. For instance, verytransparent glazingalso
usually comes with a high solar heat gainthe U-factor, SHGC, and visible transmittance
(VT) comedirectly out of glazing selection. Table3-5 documents someof thekey points of
contentionthat haveimpacts onenergy efficiency of theperimeter zones andrelates themto
thedrivers detailed in thelist above(items 112 arereferenced as drivers and/or secondary
impactsinthetable).
Table 3-5 Guidance for Improving Energy Efficiency in Perimeter Zones
a

Glass Body-Tinted Color and Allowable Outward Reflectivity
Drivers
(1) Public face,
(10) Views to outdoors
High reflection and dark tint lower solar heat transfer
ANDlower VT.
Secondary
Impacts
(6) Solar heat,
(7) Cold/hot influences,
(9) Daylighting
Glass Unit Configuration (Insulated Glazing Unit, Laminated, Tempered?)
Drivers
(1) Public face,
(4) Security barrier,
(5) Health/comfort (thermal,
acoustic)
Laminated and tempered elements in the outer panes are usually
required in ballistic or blast-proof designs. Insulated glazing units
(IGUs) are the energy-efficiency normin most climate zones to
improve U-factor and are beneficial in increasing the Sound
Transmission Class noise transmission value of the window.
Secondary
Impacts
(6) Solar heat,
(7) Cold/hot influences,
(8) Noise break-in
Use of Low-e Coatings
Drivers
(7) Cold/hot influences;
(5) Health/comfort
Low-ecoatings areusuallyplacedoneither surface2or 3inIGUs in
order to retain heat in winter or reject solar heat in summer. They
reduce U-factors but can sometimes slightly effect VT.
Secondary
Impacts
(10) Views to outdoors;
(9) Daylighting
Use of Spectrally Selective Interlayers, Coatings, or Glass
Drivers
(6) Solar heat;
(5) Health/comfort (thermal)
These improve SHGC directly
while trying to preserve VT as high as possible.
Secondary
Impacts
(9) Daylighting
a
Thenumbersinthelistsof driversandsecondaryimpactscorrespondtothenumbereditemsintheFaadeZoneOptimization sectionof thisGuide.
Use of Spandrel Glass, Especially at Ceiling Voids
Drivers
(6) Solar heat; (7) Cold/hot
influences
This places insulation behind glass in order to improve the local
R-factor andreduce HVAC loads. It tends to look like a more solid
or coloredversion of the glass, which is noticeable fromoutdoors.
Secondary
Impacts
(1) Public face;
(10) Views to outdoors
Use of Operable Windows/Louvers Controlled by Occupants
Drivers
(11) Air movement;
(5) Health/comfort (thermal, IAQ)
Windows are often seen as an amenity that have the potential to
reduce energy use if occupants are trained to open themduring
temperate weather. Care must be taken to address the Secondary
impact issues with the faade detailer and the owner, and mock-up
testing is recommended to validate quality of seals.
Secondary
Impacts
(1) Public face;
(3) Building seal;
(4) Security barrier;
(2) Wind and rain
Use of External Shading
Drivers
(6) Solar heat;
(1) Public face (if feature);
External shading comes in all shapes and sizes, but the following
have the most success in the northern hemisphereoverhangs at
south, fins at north if needed for early morning or late afternoon
solar angle, and parallel perforated or movable shading at east
and west to allowviews once the sun has moved.
Secondary
Impacts
(1) Public face;
(9) Daylighting
Use of Internal Blinds
Drivers (5) Comfort (visual)
Internal blinds are not ECMs since they still allowthe heat to enter
the occupied space where the air conditioning must absorb it.
Internal blinds are measures to avoid glare and to mitigate direct
solar heat gain affecting occupants. Heavier internal blinds during
high solar intensity do help to confine heat to the space behind the
blind, and detailing should ensure that there is a gap at the top to
allowoverheated air to rise to the ceiling. Heavier internal blinds
pulled during the winter can act to reduce the radiative cooling
experienced when sitting near a large piece of glass.
Secondary
Impacts
(1) Public face;
(10) Viewto outdoors;
(9) Daylighting;
(6) Solar heat;
(7) Cold/hot influences
Area of Glazing by Orientation
Drivers (1) Public face
In the northern hemisphere, it is usually recommended that the
amountof glazingineast- andwest-facingfaades belimited, as the
solar angles arelowandthesuns intensityis hardtomitigate. Large
areas of north-facing glass can be used for even-intensity
daylighting with a lessened risk of solar heat gain as compared to
southernglass, whichshouldbe protectedthroughexternal shading
devices.
Secondary
Impacts
(6) Solar heat;
(9) Daylighting;
(8) Noise break-in
Use of Curtain Wall Systems versus Window Wall Systems versus Punched or Ribbon Openings
Drivers
(1) Public face;
Envelope seal
Cost is usually the primary driver for this issue; however, envelope
sealingandthermal bridgingdetailingshouldbecarefullyaddressed
in all non-curtain wall systems. For curtain wall systems, noise-
flanking blocks and fire/smoke blocks at the floor line require
careful attention.
Secondary
Impacts
(6) Solar heat;
(9) Daylighting;
(2) Wind and rain;
(8) Noise break-in
a
(Continued)
a
Use of Double-Faade System with Interpane Blinds
Drivers (1) Public face
Energysavings fromdoublefaades tendtopayfor themselves only
in heating-dominated climates (climate zones 4A, 4C, and
58). In winter, the cavity can be sealed to act as a large insulated
buffer zone and to absorb heat in the dark surfaces of interpane
blinds. Insummer, the cavityis opened, andthe solar-heatedblinds
cause a convective updraft that continues to remove heat from
the cavity, allowing the inner pane of the inner IGU to react
only with the indoors.
Secondary
Impacts
(6) Solar heat;
(9) Daylighting;
(11) Air movement;
(8) Noise break-in;
Strategy to Decouple Daylight Glazing from Vision Glazing
Drivers (1) Public face Vision glass requires a clarity of perception that is not necessarily
required for daylighting glass, which is meant to diffuse light and
allowit to penetrate into the space. Some options for daylighting
glass include fritted glass, spectrally selective glass,
prismatic etching, diffusing elements, and light shelves.
Secondary
Impacts
(6) Solar heat;
(9) Daylighting;
(5) Health/comfort (visual)
Strategy to Place Heating Elements within, at, or near Faade Construction
Drivers
Perimeter heating convective or radiatorelements are beneficial
becausetheydeal withtheheat loss inthefaadewhileallowingthe
roomsupply airstreamto react just to roomtemperature, which
results in a lower risk of overheating. Some attention to controls is
necessary to avoid significant simultaneous heating and cooling.
Secondary
Impacts
Leasable space
Strategy to Place Cooling Air Discharges within, at, or near Faade Construction
Drivers
Similar to the heating elements above, some designers put supply
diffusers at the floor to mitigate conductive andsolar heat buildupin
the glass and put a return diffuser at the ceiling in order to remove
heat buildup. This can affect the intended desk position or space
planning if not coordinated in advance. Unlike the heat loss
situation, solar heat gain has directivity arising fromthe sun angle
and is not confined just to the inner face of the faade.
Secondary
Impacts
Leasable space
Thermal Bridging in Glazing and at Window-Wall Junctures
Drivers
(3) Building seal
Inmanyclimates, thermal bridginginIGUs is standardtopreventthe
metal frames fromactingas heat conductors. Incoldclimates, poor
thermal breaks can lead not only to surface condensation but also
occasionally to frost, which can cause mold or mildewproblems
when it melts. Even with thermally broken glazing, there is
significant vulnerabilityat the interface betweenthe windowandthe
wall surrounding it. Continuous lines of insulation are required to
complete the building envelope, and good seals are necessary to
minimize infiltration.
Secondary
Impacts
Leasable space
Condensation
Drivers (5) Health/comfort (IAQ)
See above for thermal breaks in windowframes. To avoid
condensationonthe internal surface of glazing, reviewthe selection
of the glass U-factor to determine the likely internal surface
temperature of the glazing on the design day versus internal dew-
point temperature. If condensation on the windowis a risk,
increasingair velocityis recommendedalongwithpossiblyproviding
a local duct heater onthesupplydiffuser to blowagainst theglass in
response to a surface temperature feedback sensor.
In opaque wall constructions, careful detailing is necessary to
reduce the effects of condensation within the wall void.
Condensation can lead to mold growth, which may have irritating,
allergenic, asthmagenic, or toxic effects.
Secondary
Impacts
N/A
a
(Continued)
a
Plug Load Reduction
It isessential at thestart of theproject that theentiredesignteamexamineall assumptions
relatedtooccupant-affiliatedelectrical loads, or plugloads. Someplug-loadequipmentmaybe
selectedby different disciplines withinthedesignteamandother items may beselectedout-
sidethedesignprocess. If possible, thebuildingoccupant shouldalsobeinvolvedinidentify-
ingplug-loadequipment andcontrols.
Plug-loadequipment gives off wasteheat, whichcanincreasecooling. Controllingthese
loadsmay alsoreducerequiredcoolingequipment sizes. Inmany officebuildings, developers
andownerssetarbitraryplug-loadequipmentpower densitiesinunitsof W/ft
2
astheir required
availablecapacityinorder tomakethespacemarketable. Butmoreisnotalwaysbetter whenit
comestoplugloads, especiallyif theair conditioningissizedtosuit. OversizedHVAC equip-
ment tryingtowork at lowpart loadcanresult inexcessiveenergy useandtemperatureinsta-
bility in the spaces. Identifying the actual expected plug-load equipment power needs can
allowcloser sizingof HVAC equipment, reducingcost andimprovingenergyperformance.
Electric Lighting Load Reductions
Lighting loads, similar to plug loads, have a multiplicative impact on overall building
energy useand should beaddressed with asimilar set of occupancy-tracking steps as noted
above.
Lightingloadscanfirstbereducedbyreviewinglamp, fixture, andballastefficiencyalong
withthelightingdesigntodetermineif lower wattageper squarefoot of installedlighting
densitycanbeusedwhilestill achievingthenecessarylightinglevels.
Openofficespacesshouldbelocatedonthenorthandsouthsidesof thebuildingtomaxi-
mizethedaylightingpotential.
Thereis anindustry-widepracticeof usingoccupancy sensors andschedulingto control
lightingduringnormal occupancy. It shouldbenotedthat most jurisdictionsalsoallowthe
applicationof occupancy-sensor controlsonegresslighting, oftencalled24-hour or night
lighting, tofurther reduceelectricityassociatedwithlightinganunoccupiedbuilding.
All exterior lighting should bereviewed for its necessity for security or appearancerea-
sons, andthelowest exterior LZshouldbeusedwithexterior lightingsystems.
Downdraft
Drivers (5) Health/Comfort (thermal)
GlazingincludingIGUs is a poor insulator as comparedto insulated
opaque construction. As noted immediately above, the internal
surfacetemperatureof theglazedunit must becalculatedinorder to
examinenot onlycondensationbut alsotheriskof creatinglocalized
cooled air arising fromtouching the surface in a conductive and
convective heat loss fromthe air. This cooledair is more dense than
thesurroundingroomair andtends tofall bygravity. Particularlywith
tall glazed surfaces, the cumulative effect of falling cooled air can
create an unacceptably high velocity of the downdraft, which may
cause discomfort. Intermediate mullion breaks or heating elements
or increased localized air movement fromheated roomsupply air
blowing against the glass can help to mitigate these effects.
Secondary
Impacts
N/A
Selection of Room HVAC Equipment to Deal with Large Fluctuations
Drivers Comfort (thermal)
It is important to acknowledge the wider fluctuations that exist in
perimeter zones as compared to internal zones. Please see the
Building Zoning section later in this chapter. The radiation effect of
cold glazing surfaces can also affect occupant thermal comfort.
Secondary
Impacts
N/A
a
(Continued)
a
WhileASHRAE/IESStandard90.1(ASHRAE 2010b) allowsfor exempt lightingequip-
ment, this lighting is only exempt fromtheLPD requirements, and theseexempt lights
still produceheat that must beremoved fromthebuilding. Avoid thetemptation to use
exempt lighting equipment if thedesign can beaccomplished within thelighting power
budget.
Conditions to Promote Health and Comfort
Near thestart of aproject, thedesignteamshouldengageinaseriousdiscussionof occu-
pant healthandcomfort inorder todefinethecriteriatobeappliedtotheproject. Thisdiscus-
sionshouldcover thefollowingaspects.
Indoor Air Quality (IAQ)
IAQ is an essential aspect to be discussed at the start of the project in order to reduce
health risks for futureoccupants. Good IAQ must always beapriority when considering all
design decisions and must not be adversely affected when striving for energy reduction.
ASHRAE Standard62.1(ASHRAE 2010a) provides nominal guidanceonminimumrequire-
mentsfor ventilation, but it shouldbeacknowledgedthat IAQencompassesfar morethanjust
ventilation.
AsnotedinIndoor Air Quality Guide: Best Practices for Design, Construction, and Com-
missioning (ASHRE 2009c), the following key objectives must informthe work of the IPD
team:
ManagethedesignandconstructionprocesstoachievegoodIAQ
Control moistureinbuildingassemblies
Limit entryof outdoor contaminants
Control moistureandcontaminantsrelatedtomechanical systems
Limit contaminantsfromindoor sources
Captureandexhaust contaminantsfrombuildingequipment andactivities
Reducecontaminant concentrationsthroughventilation, filtration, andair cleaning
Applymoreadvancedventilationapproaches
Careandjudgment must beappliedat all stagesof theprocesstoensureahealthyenviron-
ment for indoor occupants. For moreinformation on IAQ, refer to Indoor Air Quality Guide
anditsspecificrecommendations.
Thermal Comfort
Thedesignteamdiscussionshouldbeginby determiningthenormal activity level of the
occupants in each main zone (as compared against ASHRAE HandbookFundamentals
[ASHRAE 2009b]) andtherangeof mandatory or voluntary dresscodewill beallowedinthe
building. Theconversationshouldthencover themainconceptsof dry-bulbtemperature, rela-
tivehumidity, operative/effectivecomfort temperature, andASHRAE Standard55, thecom-
fort standard (ASHRAE 2010c). What range of operative temperatures will be considered
comfortable for thevariousspacesandwhether thiscollectionof comfort temperaturesmay
vary in responseto seasonal changes should beagreed upon. If possible, surveying existing
tenant staff membersat asimilar facilitytobenchmarkattitudesregardingthermal comfort can
bebeneficial. Oncethecriteriaareset, thenit is possibletoproduceasimplifiedoverviewof
therelativeeffects of convectiveandradiativeheat transfer, thereductionof evaporativeand
respiratory heat rejection that occurs with increased humidity, and the use of increased air
movement to improveconvectiveheat transfer in awind-on-skin compensation for higher
setpointsfor roomtemperature.
Clothingplaysamajor partinreducingenergyusage. Dressinginlayersallowsanindivid-
ual to respond to achanging interior environment. For example, in zones facing theequator
(southinthenorthernhemisphere), thelowsunanglesignificantlyincreasesthepenetrationof
direct sunlight intothebuilding. Theperceivedtemperaturecanchangesignificantly through-
out thedayduetodirect sunlight fallingonoccupants. Similarly, asnotedinStandard55, radi-
ant temperature also can play a significant part in comfort, particularly in the area of
asymmetry. Table5.2.4.1of Standard55provides guidanceonsurfacetemperaturedifferen-
tialstobemaintainedtoavoidasymmetry.
Per Standard55, typical considerationsfor thermal comfort include
metabolicrate,
clothinginsulation,
air temperature,
radiant temperature,
air speed, and
humidity.
Lastly, all partiesshouldconsider allowingawidedeadbandfor occupied-modesetpoints
as ameasureto reduceenergy use(as compared to theminimumdead-band rangestated in
energy codes); however, these expanded temperature ranges should not be so extreme as to
compromisetheproductivityintheworkspace.
Visual Comfort
Lighting, both daylight and electric light if designed and integrated properly, will mini-
mizevisual comfort issuesinthespace.
Electric lighting levels should be designed to meet IES recommended light levels (IES
2011). Providinglight levelsthat aretoohighor toolowwill causeeyestrainandlossof pro-
ductivity.
Direct sun penetration should beminimized in work areas becausethelight level in the
direct suncanreach1000or morefootcandles(versus30to50footcandlesfromelectriclight-
ing). Thishighcontrast ratiowill causediscomfort issues. Usinglight shelvesonthesouthside
of thebuildingwill minimizethedirectsunpenetrationfor workersnear windowswhileallow-
ingdaylight topenetratedeepintothebuilding.
Worker orientation to windows is also very important in minimizing discomfort issues.
Computer screensshouldnever bepositionedfacingwindows(withworkers backstothewin-
dows) or facingdirectly away fromthewindow(withworkersfacingout thewindows). Both
of thesesituations producevery highcontrast ratios, whichcauseeyestrain. Locatethecom-
puter screenandworker facingperpendicular tothewindowtominimizeworker discomfort.
Further recommendations for lighting visual comfort can be found in the tenth edition
of IESs The Lighting Handbook, specifically in Chapter 2, Vision: Eye and Brain, and
Chapter 4, PerceptionandPerformance (IES2011).
Acoustic Comfort
Thedesignteamdiscussions shouldcover ambient noisecriteriafor eachspace, acoustic
privacy, occupant-createdbackgroundnoise, andspeechintelligibility. BecausethisGuidecov-
ersprimarilydesigndecisionsrelatedtoenergyefficiency, theprimarytopicof focusregarding
acoustic comfort is noisecriteria, as lower noisein thespacemay requiretheapplication of
duct silencers, whichtendtoincreasethefrictionexperiencedbythesystemandthusincrease
energy use. Noisecriteriain thespacemay also requireacoustic ceilings and carpets, which
tendtoprevent theoptimal activationof thermal massfor humancomfort.
Thesecond critical topic uniquely related to acoustics and energy in officebuildings is
the question of open-plan office spaces. Many designs incorporate private offices at the
perimeter of thebuilding, whichconfinesthebenefitsof anatural ventilationschemetoonly
thosefewindividualsintheoffices(many of whomaremanagerswhomay not bepresent as
often as lower-ranked personnel). Placing open-plan spaces at the perimeter for possible
energy efficiency benefitsshouldbeweighedagainst corporatehierarchies. Thepredominant
use of open-plan offices spaces at the interior of the building can allow for multiple low-
energy coolingtechniques to beapplied, suchas displacement or underfloor air distribution,
radiant ceilingsor floors, andchilledbeams. Thereasontheselow-energysystemsareappro-
priateisthat theheat loadsarerelativelyconstant andareat lowdensityascomparedtoareas
experiencingsolar heat. Thedesignteamshouldacknowledgethat multiplestudiesshowthat
most occupants dislike the lack of acoustic privacy that arises in open-plan office spaces,
regardless of cubicle partition height. Some consideration of artificial, low-energy noise-
maskingwhitenoiseor pink noisespeakers shouldbeconsidered, especially for low-energy
HVACsystems, astheir characteristicallylowvelocitiesdonot createthat samelevel of white
noiseasoverheadhigh-airflowsystems.
Withregardtothespeechprivacyandintelligiblenoiseissue, thedesignteamshouldcon-
sider whether thereareother space-planningtechniquestoresolveit, suchassmall 55fttele-
phoneboothsthatallowindividualstomakeprivatecallsor thatcanaccommodateacoupleof
peoplegatheringaroundaphonefor ateleconferencetoavoidirritatingtheir neighbors.
Building Zoning
Duringitsspace-planningexercise, thedesignteamshouldspendsufficienttimeindiscus-
siontounderstandhowthebuildingwill bezonedfor HVACandlighting, asthiswill effectthe
possibilityfor futuredesignapplicationstoachieveenergyefficiency.
Muchdiscussionhasalreadybeenmadeof thebenefitsof understandingsolar heat gainin
theperimeter zone. Tosummarize, perimeter glazedzonescanhavefluctuatingavailability of
daylighting, seasonal capacity to apply natural ventilation capacity, and extremereactions to
seasonal or diurnal changesinweather. TheHVACandlightingzoningof thesespacesmustbe
responsive through the entire range of extreme conditions. Perimeter private-office spaces
shouldbeclusteredonHVACzonesbasedoncommonorientationandshouldtakeintoaccount
thepolitical aspectsrelatedtothenumber of peoplewhowill bearguingover thesetpoint tem-
peraturecontrol, asusuallyonlyoneofficecanbemaster but all officeswill get similar quanti-
ties of cooling air. Corner offices with glazing on both faades should always be their own
HVAC zones. Lastly, perimeter zonesshouldbeductedandpipedtoallowfor perimeter heat-
ing and nighttimebuilding pressurization/setup and setbacks to operatewhileturning off all
centralized air conditioning associated with the interior zones. Internal zones consisting of
officeoccupanciesusuallyarefairlystablewithregardtoheat loadandoccupancyandshould
beindependently zonedtotakeadvantageof thesefacts whileusinglower-energy systems. If
nighttimeshutdowns of plug-loadequipment andlightingareinstitutedas notedabove, most
interior zones cansufficewithshuttingdowntheair handlers anddoingapurgecycleof pre-
conditioninginthemorning.
High-occupancy-density zones, suchas classrooms or conferencerooms/lounges, should
bezonedindependently fromareas havingmorestableandlower-intensity occupancy. High-
density areasshouldhaveoccupancy-basedDCV inorder toautomatically reducetheamount
of ventilationair providedtothespaceandthustheamount of OA cooledor heatedtosuit. It is
recommendedthat theventilationair inthesezones bedecoupledif possiblefromtheoverall
coolingsupply.
High-plug-load/heat-density spaces are usually computer rooms, electrical/information
technology/audio-visual/security rooms, and server rooms in office buildings. These zones
shouldbecompletelyindependent fromtherest of thebuilding, asthisequipment tendstorun
24 hours per day and requires cooling throughout that period. These spaces are often best
served by alocal recirculation unit with acooling coil moving largeamounts of cooling air.
Thisapproachtendstosignificantly reducefanenergy ascomparedtousingremoteor central
systems. It shouldbecarefullynotedthat if asituationarisesafter thefact inwhichaspacefor-
merly designed to reside on a centralized office-type systemis packed with high-plug-load
electronic equipment, thereisarisk for significant inefficiencies, asthisoneoverpackedzone
will drivethecentral air handlerssupplytemperaturetotheminimumandtherest of thezones
will experience significant reheating of the supply airstreamto meet comfort conditions. In
these cases, placing a local recirculation fan-coil unit in the roomwill help to absorb heat
locallywhilestill allowingventilationair tocomefromthecentral system.
Despite the optimally energy-efficient zoning techniques espoused above, it is some-
times thecasethat zoningof HVAC andlightingsystems needs to occur by department for
back-chargingpurposes. Thedesignteamshoulddiscuss therelativefirst cost of submeter-
ingcomponents withtheexpectationof annual energy savings versus thefirst-cost benefits
of combiningdisparatezones. Alternatively, per-square-foot back chargescanalsobecalcu-
lated based on anticipated proportion of annual energy usearising for each zone, based on
energy modeling.
Controls
Whenstrivingtoachievesignificantenergyreductionsontheorder of 50%savingstoward
net zero, the appropriate application of automatic controls is necessary, as occupants of the
buildingareprimarily andappropriately focussedontheir day-to-day activities, not onbehav-
inginanenergy-consciousmanner. A number of control strategiesarediscussedinChapter 5;
thesewill not bediscussedhere. Thissectionisdevotedtotalkingabout multitradeintegration
of controls.
Thefollowingissuesshouldbeconsideredfor integratedapproachesincontrols:
Shared information technology backbone and routing (if data security will allow it) to
improveWeb-basedaccesstoenergy-usedata.
Sharedconnectionof occupancysensorsbetweenHVAC andlightingcontrols.
Motorizedblindcontrol algorithmsinresponsetoanticipatedsolar heat gainandglareor
toprovideinsulationintheheatingseason.
FacilitiesschedulingsoftwareinterlinkedintoHVAC ventilationcontrols.
Server-room load-management controls as noted in the multidisciplinary Plug Load
Reduction sectionearlier inthischapter.
Consolidatedreportingof motor kilowatt-hoursversusanticipatedbenchmarks.
Energy-usedashboardsshowinginstantaneousenergy useor monthly energy cost roll-up
byzonetoencouragedepartmental competitionandbehavioral change.
Overlaysof plug-loadmonitoring, lighting, andHVACcontrolstomonitor relativeenergy
useintensities by useandby zonethroughout theday andyear. This is useful introuble-
shootingenergyhogs.
Commissioning
Thefollowingmultidisciplinary activities andtheassociatedpersonnel shouldbeconsid-
eredfor integratedapproaches intraditional mechanical, electrical, andplumbingsystemCx.
Quality assurance, includingCx, is discussedinmoredetail inChapter 5. Constructiondocu-
ment specifications includerequirements for Cx activities, suchas participatinginanddocu-
mentingresults, commissioningmeetings, collaboration, andcorrectiveactions.
Site-basedCxrequiresinput fromat least thefollowingparties: thegeneral contractor; the
mechanical, electrical, controls, andtest andbalance(TAB) subcontractors; theCxA; the
ownersrepresentative; andthemechanical, electrical, andlightingdesigners.
Pre-functional test proceduresusuallyrequireevaluationof motorsandwiringbytheelec-
trical subcontractor and the manufacturers representative and evaluation of component
performanceby themanufacturersrepresentativeandthemechanical, TAB, andcontrols
subcontractors. TheCxA will generally sampleto back-check thevalues reported in the
pre-functional checklist results.
Functional testsinvolvetheCxA andthecontrolsandTAB subcontractorsat aminimum.
Besides the usual tests of control sequences, it is also important to document that the
building is ready froman IAQ point of view, as it is necessary to removetheconstruction-
relatedodors andoff-gassingchemicals fromtheair volumeof thespaceprior to permanent
Energy-Use Dashboards at ASHRAE Headquarters
Makeup Air Unit Schematic
Source: Michael Lane
PV Power Monitoring
Source: Michael Lane
WhenASHRAE renovatedtheir headquarters buildingin2008, one of the features that was addedwas
real-time monitoring of the building subsystems, which is displayed continuously on screens in the
buildings lobby. The systems monitored include the makeup air unit and the PV power.
occupancy. Thiscanbeaccomplishedthroughphysical testinginwhichconcentrationsof typi-
cal pollutants are measured and compared to health standards. It can also be proven (with
agreement of all teammembers) through the careful documentation of preoccupancy purge
procedures, whichusuallyinvolvemultiplehoursof 100%ventilationair supply.
Charettes and Design Reviews
It is very desirable that design teams pursuing significant energy savings engage in the
habit of early-phasedesigncharettesinvolvingall teammembers, followedbyperiodicdesign
reviews. Thisprocessof holdingoneanother accountablethroughout thedesignprocesshelps
ensurethat unintentionally myopic thinkingonthepart of any teammember doesnt acciden-
tally propagateinto avulnerability not caught until Cx. Theentireteammust understandthe
multidisciplinary multilateral agreements as notedherein, must acknowledgeandsupport the
achievementof statedenergy-usegoals, andmustcombthroughthedocumentsastheygrowto
ensurethat theholisticsystemsurvivesthroughdetailingandvalueengineeringprocesses.
Typically, kick-off charettesareconvenedbyanamedfacilitator whosetsthegroundrules
of thebrainstormingsessiontoencouragepeopletocontributeandmost importantly tolisten.
Thereshouldbeagreed-upontimelimits toeachpersons speakinglengthduringbrainstorm-
ingandtimelimitsonthebrainstormingperiod. All ideasarewelcomeandcanberaisedwith-
out dialogue or judgment during the brainstorming period. It is often useful to start with a
brainstormingperiodrelatedtoproject andteamgoals, followedbyadiscernment sessionthat
allows the brain-dump list to be ordered with prioritization for time and cost investment.
This canthenbefollowedby ablue-sky typeof brainstormingrelatedto energy-efficiency
measures. Duringthisbrainstormingsession, it isnecessarytorefrainfromactuallystartingto
design or else the value of the limited-time creative output fromall teammembers may be
diminished. Therewill bemonthstodesignusingthegreat ideasthereafter.
Designreviewscanbenefit fromreviewersthat arebothinternal andexternal totheteam.
Internal reviewersareintimately awareof all of thestep-by-stepdecisions that ledtothecur-
rentstate. External reviewersprovidealevel of objectivityandcanoffer advicefrompastexpe-
rienceonsimilar challenges. TheCxAsjobistoreviewthecontent for commissionabilityand
minimizedenergy use. Again, afacilitator may benecessary toensurethat all reviewershave
timeto speak without their suggestions beingimmediately contestedby thoseparties withan
investment inthestatusquoof thecurrent designor whoarebiasedfor whatever reason. It is
oftenbeneficial to captureinwritingall of thecomments inanobjectivemanner so that they
canberespectfullyaddressedinsequenceandsothat aresolutiononchangeof or continuance
of designdirectioncanbeachievedandsharedbytheentireteam.
USE OF ENERGY MODELING AS DESIGN GUIDANCE
Energymodelingisapowerful designtool toreviewtherelativeenergysavingsof various
ECMs. It can befurther exploited when coupled with investment financial analysis (seethe
earlier sectioninthis chapter onsuchanalysis) to ensurethat theinvestment infirst cost will
payfor itself inannual energysavings. Thewholedesignteamshouldunderstandthat thecur-
rent stateof energymodelingsoftwareisinsufficient topredict actual energyuseof abuilding
but isadequatefor comparingoptionstoeachother. It shouldbenotedthat thereisnofederal
standardverifyingtheabsoluteaccuracyof energymodelingenginesascomparedtoreal lifein
uncontrolledcircumstances. Unlikemanyrepeatable calculationtechniques, error rangesare
inconsistent basedonsystems usedanduser input, so thereis no publishedpercent accuracy
associatedwiththealgorithms. Additionally, thedesignteammust acknowledgethat thecur-
rent softwaresalgorithmsarelimitedinmanywayswithregardtothemanipulationof certain
variables and control techniques and that energy modeling is as much an art as asciencein
termsof applyingwork-aroundsfor thelimitationsof thecurrent code. All of thisexpositionis
tosay: user beware. Asaruleof thumb, resultsof at least a5%relativeenergysavingsaris-
ingfromcomparativeenergymodelswithECMsappliedtothesamesourcefileareprobablya
Total Community Options Corporate HeadquartersA Case Study
Total Community Optionss new45,000 ft
2
corporate headquarters, located near the former Lowry Air
Force Base in Denver, was completed in September 2010 and centralized several departments and
business units that were spread across multiple locations throughout the city. The streamlined opera-
tional goals of the organization incited the design teamto reduce the size of the building fromthe orig-
inally planned 60,000 ft
2
to the final 45,000 ft
2
, with the construction budget for the eliminated
15,000 ft
2
put toward upgrading materials, systems, and amenities throughout the building and site.
Savings fromlong-termoperating efficiencies of the building allowthe nonprofit organization to spend
more funds on programs and services. The design teamwas inspired to find solutions where a great
deal of natural light and views were allowed. Operable windows were provided for employees to
access natural ventilation, and the HVAC and lighting design were studied heavily to ensure that they
were well honed and provided maximum occupant comfort. Perimeter spaces were designed with
operable windows to give individuals control over the temperature in their area. Regularly occupied
spaces on the interior without access to windows have adjustable air diffusers, which allowindividuals
to control their comfort by adjusting the amount of air supplied to a room.
Energy Conservation Measures
The Total Community Options office building achieves more than 41% energy and 43% energy cost
savings through energy-efficiency designs as compared to an ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-2004
code-compliant building. Withthe 100kWPV system, the buildingsaves 70%inenergycosts as com-
paredto a typical office building. The buildingincorporates passive systemdesignstrategies, including
optimized building orientation, increased insulation, daylighting, and natural ventilation, significantly
cutting energy use before the mechanical systemwas evaluated. A variable-refrigerant-volume (VRV)
HVAC systemwas incorporatedthat allows more control inall zones andalso runs at variable speeds.
In addition, a DOAS is controlled via CO
2
sensors in critical zones to reduce the conditioned outdoor
air at occupancyrate. The DOAS unit has a variable-speeddrive fan, direct evaporative cooling, anda
modulating furnace.
Main Entry on South Face Roof PV Panels
Architectural Features
The site is oriented about 45 degrees fromtrue north. A portion of the building is pulled out at an
angle to face directly south.
High-performance, low-e glazing was specified and windows were minimized as much as possible
onthe southwest faade. The WWR of 23%was optimizedto provide the best possible daylighting
while maintaining thermal performance.
A three-story lobby and vestibule located at the main entrance serves as a buffer zone to the rest
of the building and reduces the infiltration through the main entrance.
Bothrigidinsulationandsprayfoaminsulationwere usedinthe wall systemto achieve a true R-19
on the outside face of the metal stud exterior wall.
The roof is covered with a white, reflective, single-ply roofing systemthat reflects light and heat
away fromthe roof. This lowers the temperature of the roof and saves energy by requiring less
cooling.
Daylight and Views
The office building was designed to maximize the impact of daylighting, both as an energy efficiency
measure and as an occupant comfort strategy.
The building floor plate is very narrowto allowdaylight to reach almost all occupied areas within
the building. Support spaces suchas copycenters andmechanical rooms are placedfarthest from
glazing so regularly occupied spaces can take advantage of daylight and views.
Glazing was added to interior rooms without perimeter windows to bring in additional natural light
and provide views to the outdoors.
High-performance, low-e glazing allows light in while preventing heat gain. Windowcoverings pro-
vide flexibility in controlling the amount of light. All perimeter spaces have shades or blinds to con-
trol glare and heat gain.
Inaddition to viewwindows, dome-shapedtubular skylights were incorporatedto concentrate sun-
light and direct it deep into the floor plate, where daylight fromviewwindows was minimal.
Rigid Insulation Spray FoamInsulation VRV HVAC Systemon Roof
(Continued on next page)
Interior Lighting
Lightingcontrols were extensivelyused. Perimeter spaces inthe buildinghave bothdaylight andoccu-
pancy sensors as well as stepped dimming lighting.
When daylight levels are high, lighting fixtures near windows are automatically shut off using
stepped dimming controls.
Interior spaces have occupancysensors to turn on lights when someone enters the room. Lighting
fixtures automatically shut off after the roomis unoccupied for a programmed period of time.
LED task lighting provides individual controls so users can set light levels appropriate to their
tasks.
Openoffice areas use linear fluorescent direct/indirect fixtures, andthe corridors have compact flu-
orescent down lights and decorative lighting.
LEDlighting is used for emergency exit signage, task lighting, and under-cabinet fixtures.
Renewable Energy
The 100 kW PV systemprovides 50% of the electricity for the building (a portion of the building also
uses natural gas). There are two types of PV systems used on the building:
The largest portions of PV panels are typical crystalline panels laid on the roof.
Laminated glass PV panels are featured on the mansards on the front of the building to showcase
the technology and create awareness among the buildings occupants and visitors.
The Total Community Options office building is part of the Lowry Redevelopmenta former U.S. Air
Force Base that has beenredevelopedinto a mixed-use, sustainable community. The LowryRedevel-
opment has been recognized with several local and national smart growth awards, including the
Governors Smart Growth and Development Award and the 1999 Sustainable Community Award from
the U.S. Conference of Mayors and National Association of Counties.
Low-E Glazing Tubular Skylights
Case study provided by Chad Holtzinger, OZ Architecture of Denver
Photographs reprinted with permission of OZ Architecture of Denver
true indicator of measurable savings in real life. Anything less should be reviewed by the
designteaminacareful risk-management process.
Theenergymodelingprocessinvolvesaverylargeamountof datainput, andinsomesoft-
wareprogramsit isextremelydifficult tochangegeometryafter thefact without reenteringthe
entiremodel. Assuch, thedesignteamshouldunderstandhowit will choosetospenditslim-
itedenergymodelingfeefromthestart andensurethat eachmodel runisabsolutelynecessary
toconfirmbeneficial direction.
Therearemany aspects of this Guidethat proveenergy-reduction benefits and arenow
best practicethat donot needtobeanalyzedindividually for cost-effectiveness. For instance,
any nontechnical person would acknowledge that reduction in plug and lighting loads will
reduceultimateenergyusegivenequivalent scheduleof usage. Inorder toachieve50%reduc-
tioninbuildingenergy useas comparedto ASHRAE/IESNA Standard90.1-2004(ASHRAE
2004), energymodelingshouldbeconfirmingtherelativesizeof analreadyknownbenefit, not
provingabadpositiontoresistant teammembers.
In light of thehours involved in developing afully detailed ASHRAE/IESNA Standard
90.1-2004whole-buildingenergy modeling, decisions areoftenmadewithout energy model-
inginput. Appendix Dof thisGuideincludesanearly-phaseenergy-useestimatingmethodto
helptheteamiteratethemost basicof theconsiderationslistedinthesemultidisciplinaryinte-
grateddesigntips to helppoint theteamintheright directionbeforeresortingto full energy
modeling.
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INTRODUCTION
Chapter 4begins withgeneral climate-relateddesignstrategies andfollows withspecific
recommendationsfor eachof theeight climatezones. Thegeneral designstrategiesneedtobe
consideredat thepreliminary stages of buildingdesign. Thechapter is segmentedby climate
conditions of temperature(hot, mild, andcold) andmoisture(marine, humid, anddry). Each
segment addressesthekey issuesassociatedwiththeclimate, envelope, lighting, andheating,
ventilating, andair conditioning(HVAC). Theclimatesectionsaddressconduction, solar loads,
andmoisturewhiletheenvelopesections address fenestration area, orientation, andshading.
Daylightingisthefocusof thelightingsections. TheHVACsectionsprimarilyaddressventila-
tion, economizers, andhumiditycontrol. Nosingledesignstrategyappliesuniversallytoall of
theclimates. Eachset of climatecombinationsneedstobeanalyzedseparately.
Therecommendations arepresentedineight tables that containtheindividual construction
specificationsper climatezone. Eachtablepresentsprescriptiverecommendationsfor thefollow-
ingcategories: buildingenvelope, daylighting/lighting, plugloads, servicewater heating(SWH),
andHVAC systems. Eachcategory is subdividedintospecific items that arethenfurther subdi-
videdintocomponents. Thereisaprescriptiverecommendationfor eachcomponent alongwitha
listingof relevant how-totips. Thehow-totipsarepresentedindetail inChapter 5. Therearesix
HVACoptionsthatprovidethedesigner withabroadrangeof options, includingpackagedsingle-
zone air-source heat pumps, water-source heat pumps with dedicated outdoor air systems
(DOASs), radiantsystemswithDOASs, fan-coilswithDOASs, variableair volume(VAV) direct
expansion(DX), andVAV chilledwater (CHW) (sameasVAV DX butwithsomeexceptions).
It is critical that thepreliminary design followthegeneral design strategies sincethat is
when thebasic structureand formareset in terms of size, shape, and orientation. Oncethe
basicdesignisset, theconstructionof officebuildingsneedstofollowtheprescriptiverecom-
mendationsinorder toachievethe50%energysavingstarget.
CLIMATE-RELATED DESIGN STRATEGIES
Thesuggestedapproachistofirst minimizetheenvelopeheatingandcoolingloads. This
hasadoublebenefit: theenergy useisreducedandasmaller-sizeHVAC systemisneededto
satisfythereducedloads. Followthisbycapitalizingonall of thedaylightingopportunities.
Design Strategies and
Recommendations
by Climate Zone
4
09a_Chapter4-text.fm Page71 Wednesday, April 27, 2011 9:35AM
HOT, HUMID CLIMATES (MIAMI, HOUSTON, ATLANTA)
Climate
Theprimary drivingforcesinhot, humidclimatesareconduction, solar loadsthroughthe
fenestration, andsignificant coolingenergy associatedwithremovingindoor moisturedueto
peoplelatent loads, ventilation, infiltration, andmoistureingress arisingfromstorms or other
disturbancescomingoff theGulf of MexicoandAtlanticOceannearby.
Envelope
In these climates the fenestration area, orientation, and shading are paramount, as solar
radiationintensitiesareamongthehighest inthecontinental U.S. Thegoal istoreducetheheat
gain through the envelope as much as possible through strategic fenestration and shading
placement. Generousverandaswerehistoricallyappliedtoprotectglazing, andmoderndesigns
oftenincorporatestrategically placedexternal shadingdevices. Glazingtypeisusually double
glazedinorder toprotect thelow-ecoatinginthecavitytoimprovesolar heat gaincoefficient
(SHGC) andto decoupletheinner andouter faces of glass to reducetherisk of condensation
on either side. SHGCs that are intentionally low are recommendedthese can be achieved
withinterlayersor low-ecoatingsfor spectrallyselectivetransmissionof sunlight toreducethe
heat content whileallowinglight toenter. Caremust betakentoreduceinfiltrationthroughthe
upper levelsof thebuildingenvelope; positivebuildingpressurecontrol canhelpreduceinfil-
trationandtherelatedmoisture. Cool roofs, whichreducesolar heat absorptionintothebuild-
ing, arealsouseful. Itshouldbenotedthattheseareascanexperiencehighwindsandhurricane
stormimpacts, whichmay direct theselectionof wall, roof, andshadingconstructionsaswell
astheselectionof safetytemperingof glazingproducts, all of whichcanaffect theenergyper-
formance.
Lighting
Daylighting open officespaces on thenorth and south sides of thebuilding works well,
although thesizes and positions of windows should protect occupants fromdirect solar heat
gainanddirect glare. External shadingdeviceswill work at thesouthernfaade; however, the
choicetousethesedevices must beconsideredagainst theregular influx of storms andhurri-
canes through these areas. Internal light shelves with daylight glazing above (high visible
transmittance [VT]) and view glazing below (low VT), along with horizontal blinds on the
viewglazing, canmaximizedaylightingpotential andglarecontrol without theneedfor exter-
nal shadingdevices. Asthesundoescomenorthof theeast-west lineinearlymorningandlate
afternoonduringthesummer months, perpendicular finsmaybenecessarytoreducesolar heat
andglareevenonnorthernfaades.
HVAC
These climates experience average daily dew point temperatures higher than 50F
throughout muchof theyear. Because72F and50%rhindoorshasadewpoint of about 52F,
it isclear that consistent humiditycontrol isabsolutelyessential. A necessarystrategytomain-
tain humidity control is proper dehumidification of all outdoor air (OA) for ventilation. This
may beachievedwitha100%OAS withenergy recovery wheels, anddeepmultirowcooling
coils can provide sufficient dehumidification of ventilation air. It may also be achieved by
mixedair (outdoor andrecirculated) deliveredwithminimumflowsetpointsandreheat (recov-
eredif possible). Air-sideandwater-sideeconomizersmayhaveseasonal efficacyduringtimes
of lower dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures. During cool, humid conditions, DX systems
mustbecarefullymonitoredandstagedtopreventicingontheevaporator coilsduetoverylow
coil suctiontemperatures. Radiant coolingsystems(ceilingsor chilledbeams) arepossibleina
tightlysealedenvelopewithexcellenthumiditycontrol attheDOAS; however, manydesigners
shyawayfromthesesystemsbecauseanysubstantial amount of infiltrationcanleadtointernal
Chapter 4Design Strategies and Recommendations by Climate Zone | 73
condensation. Historically, natural ventilation schemes in these climates relied heavily on
forcedair movement toencouragerapidevaporationof sweat fromexposedskinsurfaces. All
systems usingheat rejectiontothesurroundingair shouldhaveincreasedheat rejectioncapa-
bilities. Duringmanymonths, theseclimatesstaywarmandhumidovernight, sonight cooling
of interior thermal massmaynot beeffective. Inhot, humidclimates, indoor spaces, especially
theupper floors, shouldbemaintainedat positivepressurewithrespect totheoutdoor pressure
toreduceinfiltration.
HOT, DRY CLIMATES (PHOENIX, LOS ANGELES, LAS VEGAS)
Climate
Theprimarydrivingforcesinhot, dryclimatesareconductionandsolar loadsthroughthe
fenestrationandsignificant coolingenergyassociatedwithventilationair.
Envelope
Strategicuseof appropriatelysizedglazing, well-placedshading, increasedinsulation, and
solar-reflectiveroofsandwallsishighly recommendedinorder toreducetheinfluenceof sun
ontheinternal comfort andheat gain. Glazingtypeisusuallydoubleglazedinorder toprotect
thelow-ecoatinginthecavitytoimproveSHGC, andsometimesinterpaneblindsor prismatic
elementsareuseful tooffer shadingwhilebouncinglightinacertaindirection. SHGCsthatare
intentionally lowarerecommendedthesecanbeachievedwithinterlayersor low-ecoatings
for spectrallyselectivetransmissionof sunlight toreducetheheat content whileallowinglight
toenter.
Lighting
Daylightingstrategiesthatallowinlight(particularlynorthlight) withoutsolar contentare
highly recommended, as these locations tend to have a high percentage of sunny days that
might beexploited. Thesizes andpositions of windows shouldprotect occupants fromdirect
solar heat gainandglare, as thesolar radiationintheseareas is quiteintensedueto therela-
tivelyclear skies. External shadingdeviceswill workonthesouthernfaade, andinternal light
shelves withdaylight glazingabove(highVT) andviewglazingbelow(lowVT), alongwith
horizontal blindsontheviewglazing, canmaximizedaylightingpotential andglarecontrol. In
thesesouthernclimates, caremust betakenevenwithnorth-facingglass, asthesundoescome
northof theeast-west lineinearlymorningandlateafternoonduringthesummer months; per-
pendicular finsmaybenecessarytoreducesolar heat andglareevenonnorthernfaades.
HVAC
Theseclimates areoftencharacterizedby alargediurnal swing, so theuseof freenight-
timecoolingshouldbeexploredinorder to precool theinterior surfaces or to performnight-
timecooling for thermal energy storagesolutions (depending on thelocal demand charges).
Heatingisveryminimal andcanoftenbelimitedtotheventilationairstreamwithasmall num-
ber of perimeter heatingelementsinzoneswithlargeexpansesof glass. It shouldbenotedthat
theair isverydryintheseclimates; however, itisnotusual practicetoprovideactivehumidifi-
cation. Many of these locations in the desert (Las Vegas, Phoenix) have seasonal monsoon
cycles inlatesummer, anddehumidificationcapacity at thecoolingcoils shouldbesizedfor
theseextremeevents. All of theselocations canemploy natural ventilationduringthewinter
andshoulder seasons.
Air-sideeconomizersarewidelyused. Onesystemthat isoftenusedfor energysavingsis
theindirect or indirect/direct evaporativecooler in theventilation or economizer airstreams.
Indirect evaporativecoolingona100%OAS, coupledwithradiant floors or ceilings, may be
veryeffectiveinreducingenergyuse. Inzonesnear thefaade, however, usuallyafan-coil unit
or dedicated perimeter air-conditioning systemis needed if thebuilding is heavily glazed. If
central plantsarepursued, water-basedcoolingtowersareveryeffectiveintheseclimates. For
air-cooledDX equipment or air-cooledchillers, itisoftenanenergysavingstoconsider evapo-
ratively cooledcondensers, especially whenintegratedtoaccept theexhaust fromtheindirect
evaporativeprecoolersontheOA intakes. Duringthesummer months, indoor spacesshouldbe
kept positivewithrespect totheoutdoorsinorder toreduceinfiltration.
MILD, HUMID CLIMATES (BALTIMORE)
Climate
Theprimarydrivingforcesinmild, humidclimatesareconduction, solar loadsthroughthe
fenestration, andsignificant coolingenergy associatedwithremovingindoor moisturedueto
ventilation, infiltration, andmoistureingressarisingfromsummertimehighhumidities. During
thewinter, theseareasareexposedtosnowandfreezingprecipitation, sosystemsmust beopti-
mized to function efficiently in all seasons with sufficient responsiveness to ensurecomfort
duringextremeswingsinOA conditions.
Envelope
Intheseclimates thegoal is to reducetheheat gainandheat loss throughtheenvelopes
glazingasmuchaspossiblethroughstrategic fenestrationplacement andsizing. Glazingtype
is usually doubleglazedinorder to protect thelow-ecoatinginthecavity to improveSHGC
andtodecoupletheinner andouter facesof glasstoreducetherisk of condensationoneither
side. SHGCs that areintentionally low arerecommended if coupled with alow-ecoating to
improve U-factors during the winter season. Care must be taken with regard to minimizing
infiltrationandmoistureingressbeingdriventhroughthebuildingenvelope. Cool roofscanbe
considered, but their usefulnesswill dependheavilyonthesunninessof thelocal geography. It
shouldbenotedthat theseareascanexperiencehighwindsandAtlantic stormimpacts, which
may direct the selection of wall, roof, and shading constructions as well as the selection of
safetytemperingof glazingproducts, all of whichcanaffect theenergyperformance.
Lighting
Daylightingstrategiesthat allowinlight (particularlynorthlight) without solar content are
tively clear skies. External shadingdeviceswill work at thesouthernfaade, andlight shelves
at the east and west can bounce low-angle sun deep into the building footprint. Internal or
external lightshelveswithdaylightglazingabove(highVT) andviewglazingbelow(lowVT),
alongwithhorizontal blindsontheviewglazing, canmaximizedaylightingpotential andglare
control. Inthesesouthernclimates, caremust betakenevenwithnorth-facingglass, asthesun
does comenorthof theeast-west lineinearly morningandlateafternoonduringthesummer
months; perpendicular fins may benecessary to reducesolar heat andglareevenonnorthern
faades.
HVAC
These climates require dehumidification in the summer. Systems with energy recovery
ventilation can precondition ventilation airflow and partially recover dehumidification or
humidificationenergythat wasusedtoconditionthespace. Air-sideandwater-sideeconomiz-
ers canreducemechanical coolingduringthecoldwinter months. Most HVAC systems will
work well in these climates as long as the building envelope and ventilation systems are
designedtocontrol moisture.
MILD, DRY CLIMATES (ALBUQUERQUE)
Climate
Theprimary drivingforcesinmild, dry climatesarecoolingandsolar control. Thesecli-
matesarecharacterizedbycool eveningsandmoderatediurnal swings, but significant heating
isnot required.
Envelope
Strategicuseof appropriatelysizedglazing, well-placedshading, increasedinsulation, and
solar-reflectiveroofsandwallsishighly recommendedinorder toreducetheinfluenceof sun
ontheinternal comfort andheat gain. Glazingtypeisusuallydoubleglazedinorder toprotect
thelow-ecoatinginthecavitytoimproveSHGC. SHGCsthat areintentionallylowarerecom-
mendedthese can be achieved with interlayers or low-e coatings for spectrally selective
transmissionof sunlight toreducetheheat content whileallowinglight toenter.
Lighting
Daylightingstrategiesthatallowinlight(particularlynorthlight) withoutsolar contentare
tively clear skies. External shadingdeviceswill work at thesouthernfaade, andlight shelves
at the east and west can bounce low-angle sun deep into the building footprint. Internal or
control. Inthesesouthernclimates, caremust betakenevenwithnorth-facingglass, asthesun
does comenorthof theeast-west lineinearly morningandlateafternoonduringthesummer
months; perpendicular fins may benecessary to reducesolar heat andglareevenonnorthern
faades.
HVAC
Theseclimates areoftencharacterizedby alargediurnal swing, so theuseof freenight-
time cooling should be explored in order to precool the interior surfaces or to do nighttime
coolingfor thermal energystoragesolutions(dependingonthelocal demandcharges). Heating
isveryminimal andcanoftenbelimitedtotheventilationairstreamwithsomeperimeter heat-
inginzoneswithlargeexpansesof glass. Althoughtheair isverydryintheseclimates, itisnot
usual practicetoprovideactivehumidification. Theseclimateshaveextendedperiodsof time
whennatural ventilationiseffective.
Air-sideeconomizers arewidely used. Indirect or indirect/direct evaporativecoolers are
oftenusedintheventilationor economizer airstreams. Coupledwithradiant floorsor ceilings,
they may bevery effectiveinreducingenergy use. Inzoneswithheavily glazedfaades, fan-
coil unitsor dedicatedperimeter air-conditioningsystemsareoftenneeded. Evaporativeheat-
rejection systems, including cooling towers or evaporative condensers, are very effective in
theseclimates. Duringthesummer months, indoor spacesshouldbekept positivewithrespect
totheoutdoorsinorder toreduceinfiltration.
MARINE CLIMATES (SAN FRANCISCO, SEATTLE)
Climate
Theprimary drivingforces of marineclimates areheatingandsolar control becauseout-
door conduction influences areminimal. Thesetemperateclimates arecharacterizedby rela-
tively stable temperature ranges in the cool-to-comfortable range, with early morning and
eveningmoistconditionsarisingfromloweredair temperaturesgivenfairlystableandlowdew
pointsthroughout theyear createdbymassflowsfromthecool nearbyoceans.
Envelope
Adequateinsulationfor reductionof heatingisnecessary, includingtheuseof doubleglaz-
inginmost locations.
Lighting
Daylightingis welcomedintheseclimates, as they tendtobeginthemorningrather gray
with hopes of aburn-off. Larger expanses of glass arepossibleif they aredoublepaned for
heatingcontrol. Translucent exterior shadingisoftenusedinorder tominimizethedark over-
hangof thesolidshadingandto maximizetheamount of light enteringthespace. Internal or
control.
HVAC
Effectivesystemtypes for theseclimates exploit freecooling frommoderateOA condi-
tions and often provide minimal thermal intervention. These include mixed-mode solutions
involvingnatural ventilationfor certainportionsof theyear andradiant cooling/heatingor pas-
sivechilledbeamsduringthepeaksummer designdays. Itisusuallynotthepracticetoprovide
humidificationintheseclimates.
Heatingisalmost alwaysrequiredfor comfort, but isusually confinedtoperimeter heat-
ingelements withasmall amount of ventilation-basedboost heat. Usually, evenduringcold
hours, officeoccupancies intheseclimates will exploit theair-sidefree-coolingeconomizer
cyclesat themainair handlers. Generally, water-sideeconomizersarenot effectiveinsouth-
ernzones, but theycanbebeneficial innorthernzones. Dependingonground-soil conductiv-
ity, ground-sourceheat pumps(GSHPs) havealsobeeneffectiveif total annual heatingversus
coolingiswell-balanced.
COLD, DRY CLIMATES (DENVER, HELENA)
Climate
Theprimary drivingforces incold, dry climates areheat loss throughthebuildingenve-
lopeandattentiontoheatingandcoolingloadsassociatedwithventilationair.
Envelope
Selectionof insulation, careintheplacement of vapor retarders, andinsulatingglazingare
necessary in order to avoid internal drafts and condensation. Flat skylights are not recom-
mended, assnowmaybuildupintall drifts. Vestibulesat all entrancesarevirtuallyanecessity
inorder toavoidexcessivewasteof energy associatedwithinfiltration. Infiltrationandexces-
sivebuildingpressurizationmust bereducedas muchas possible, as any moisturetrappedin
thewall constructionswill experienceadailyfreeze-thawcyclethat candegradewall integrity
andeffectiveR-values.
Lighting
Daylightingiswelcomedintheseclimates. Usually thereisasignificant amount of expo-
sureto clear skies duringthelonger summer days, andany outdoor light is welcomedin the
winter. Larger expanses of glass arepossibleif they aredoublepaneor even triplepanefor
heatingcontrol; however, special measuresmust betakentoreducedowndraftsandcoldradi-
antsurfacesatthewindows. Internal or external lightshelveswithdaylightglazingabove(high
VT) andviewglazingbelow(lowVT), alongwithhorizontal blinds ontheviewglazing, can
maximizedaylightingpotential andglarecontrol.
HVAC
These climates are heating dominated during the winter, with heating elements in any
perimeter zone, freezeprotectionat all first-passcoilsinventilationair handlers, andhumidifi-
cation(withconsiderationof possiblecondensationonwindows). Most buildings areheldat
just barely below neutral pressurethroughout thecolder months to prevent moist indoor air
frombeingdriveninto thewall cavities, andinsomeinstances wherehighhumidity internal
conditions arerequired, wall-dryingsystems must beinstalled. Buildingentries shouldincor-
porateheated, pressurizedvestibulestoprevent local infiltrationof coldOA. Theseareashave
very temperate shoulder seasons, so an air-side economizer cycle should be considered. In
addition, indirect evaporative precoolers on the ventilation airstreams may be beneficial.
Mixed-modeapproaches withnatural ventilationduringsomeportions of theyear andactive
heatingandcoolingduringother portionscanalsobeusedwithenergybenefits. Althoughnor-
mallydry, someareasmayexperiencesuddenheavyrainfall for short periods, soactivationof
dehumidificationcapacityat thecoolingcoilsrequiresspeedyresponsetimes.
Depending on ground-soil conductivity, GSHPs havealso been effectiveif total annual
heatingandcoolingarewell balanced. Evaporativeheat rejectionsystems, includingcooling
towers or evaporativecondensers, andwater-sideeconomizers arevery effectiveinthesecli-
mates.
COLD CLIMATES (CHICAGO, MINNEAPOLIS)
Climate
Theprimary drivingforces incoldclimates areheat loss throughthebuildingenvelope,
heat lossduetoinfiltration, andattentiontoheatingandcoolingloadsassociatedwithventila-
tionair. Becauseof theextremecold, theseloadstendtodwarf all other energy-useinfluences,
especiallyduringthewinter months.
Envelope
BuildingenvelopeU-factorsincoldclimatesarelowtoreduceconductionloads. It isalso
extremelyimportanttoreduceinfiltrationloads. Whenprojectteamsattempttopositivelypres-
surizethespace, they must becareful toavoidtoomuchexfiltrationthroughleaky faades, as
systemscontrolledtoholdafixedpressuredifferential will tendtoincreasetheventilationair-
flowto accommodate. Infiltration can bereduced by specifying andinstalling ahigh-quality
continuous air barrier. Materials shouldbeincompliancewithor exceedtherequirements of
ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1-2010 (ASHRAE 2010a). Insulation that expands into the wall
cavity to providetheappropriateU-factor may also reduceinfiltrationandshouldbeconsid-
ered. Inaddition, envelopecommissioningof theair barrier incoldclimatesmayalsobewar-
ranted. A vestibuleisrequiredbyStandard90.1-2010intheseclimatesandshouldbedesigned
andconstructedtoavoidallowingthevestibuleinterior andexterior doorstobeopensimulta-
neously.
Lighting
Daylightingiswelcomedintheseclimates. Usuallythereisasignificant amount of expo-
sureto clear skies duringthelonger summer days, andany outdoor light is welcomedinthe
winter. Larger expansesof glassarepossibleif theyaredoublepanefor heatingcontrol; how-
ever, special measuresmustbetakentoreducedowndraftsandcoldradiantsurfacesatthewin-
dows. Internal or external light shelves with daylight glazing above (high VT) and view
glazingbelow(lowVT), alongwithhorizontal blindsontheviewglazing, canmaximizeday-
lightingpotential andglarecontrol.
HVAC
These climates are heating dominated during the winter, with heating elements in any
perimeter zone, freezeprotectionat all first-passcoilsinventilationair handlers, andhumidifi-
cation (with consideration of possible condensation on windows). Building entries should
incorporateheated, pressurizedvestibulestoprevent local infiltrationof coldOA.
Ventilationloadscanbesignificantlyreducedbyusingatotal energyrecoverysystem. In
coldclimates, designteamsmust payparticular attentiontothewinter heat recoveryattributes.
While many small and medium office buildings do not incorporate humidification, latent
energyrecoverycanmitigateextremelydryoccupant spaces. High-efficiencyenergyrecovery
devicesshouldbeconsideredespeciallyinthemost extremeclimates.
To reduceheatingequipment plant sizeyet maintainredundancy, select multiplesmaller
boilers to sumto the heating load, taking the energy recovery ventilator contributions into
account. Toensurefull energyrecoverycapacityat timeswithverycoldtemperatures, preheat
theair enteringthewheel oneither theintakeor theexhaust side.
Inaddition, appropriately reducingventilationto only that requiredto satisfy ASHRAE
Standard 62.1 requirements (ASHRAE 2010b) can be performed using demand-controlled
ventilation (DCV) and ventilation reset at thecentral air handler or OA system. Ventilation
reset isdescribedbyMurphy(2008), Stanke(2006, 2010), andTaylor (2006), amongothers.
A sometimes overlookedopportunity to reducemakeupair is to appropriately turnoff or
reduceairflowexhaustedfromspacesif allowedbylocal code.
Whilemanylowandmedium-sizedofficebuildingsdonot experiencesignificant infiltra-
tionduetostackeffect, vestibulesor revolvingdoorscanbeconsideredtoreduceinfiltrationin
buildingsof all heights.
Duringmuchof theyear, air-sideeconomizerscanreduceor eliminatemechanical cooling
if thesystemissizedtodeliver enoughairflowduringtheseconditions. Toreducefanenergy
usageandensuremaximumeconomizer coolingcapacity, bypass theenergy recovery device
whileineconomizer mode.
CLIMATE ZONE RECOMMENDATIONS
Usersshoulddeterminetherecommendationsfor their designandconstructionproject by
first locating thecorrect climatezone. TheU.S. Department of Energy (DOE) has identified
eight climatezones for theUnited States, with each defined by county borders, as shown in
Figure4-1. ThisGuideusestheseDOE climatezonesindefiningenergyrecommendationsthat
vary by climate. Thedefinitions for theclimatezones areprovidedinAppendix B sothat the
informationcanbeappliedoutsidetheUnitedStates.
This chapter contains auniqueset of energy-efficient recommendations for eachclimate
zone. Therecommendationtablesrepresent a way, but not the only way, for reachingthe50%
energy savings target over ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.12004 (ASHRAE 2004). Other
approachesmay alsosaveenergy, andChapter 3isintendedtosummarizethestrategic multi-
disciplinary decisions that may generate other viable integrated options; confirmation of
energysavingsfor thoseuniquelydesignedsystemsisleft tothedesignteam. Theuser should
note that the recommendation tables do not include all of the components listed in
Standard90.1sincetheGuidefocusesonlyontheprimaryenergysystemswithinabuilding.
BONUS SAVINGS
Chapter 5provides additional recommendations andstrategies for savings for toplighting, natural ven-
tilation, and renewable energy that are over and above the 50%savings recommendations contained
in the eight climate regions.
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Whenarecommendationisprovided, therecommendedvaluediffersfromtherequirements
inStandard90.12004. WhenNorecommendation isindicated, theuser must meet themore
stringent of either theapplicableversionof Standard90.1or thelocal coderequirements.
Eachof therecommendationtablesincludesaset of commonitemsarrangedby building
subsystem: envelope, daylighting/lighting, plug loads, SWH, and HVAC. Recommendations
areincludedfor eachitem, or subsystem, by component withinthat subsystem. For somesub-
systems, recommendationsdependontheconstructiontype. For example, insulationvaluesare
given for mass and steel-framed and wood-framed wall types. For other subsystems, recom-
mendations aregivenfor eachsubsystemattribute. For example, vertical fenestrationrecom-
mendationsaregivenfor thermal transmittance, SHGC, andexterior suncontrol.
TheHow-ToTips columnineachtablelistsreferencestohow-totipsfor implementing
therecommended criteria. Thetips arefound in Chapter 5under separatesections coded for
envelope(EN), daylighting(DL), electriclighting(EL), plugloads(PL), servicewater heating
systems and equipment (WH), HVAC systems and equipment (HV), and quality assurance
(QA). Inadditiontohow-totipsthat represent goodpracticefor designandmaintenancesug-
gestions, thesetips includecautions for what to avoid. Important QA considerations andrec-
ommendationsarealsogivenfor thebuildingdesign, construction, andpost-occupancyphases.
Notethat eachtipistiedtotheapplicableclimatezoneinChapter 4. Thefinal columnispro-
videdasasimplechecklist toidentify therecommendationsbeingusedfor aspecific building
designandconstruction.
Therecommendations presented areminimum, maximum, or specific values (which are
boththeminimumandmaximumvalues).
Minimumvaluesincludevaluesfor thefollowing:
R-value
Solar ReflectanceIndex(SRI)
Visibletransmittance(VT)
Vertical fenestrationeffectiveaperture(EA)
Interior surfaceaveragereflectance
Meanlumensper watt (LPW)
Gaswater heater or boiler efficiency
Thermal efficiency(E
t
)
Energyfactor (EF)
Energyefficiencyratio(EER)
Integratedenergyefficiencyratio(IEER)
Integratedpart-loadvalue(IPLV)
Coefficient of performance(COP)
Energyrecoveryeffectiveness
Fanor motor efficiency
Duct or pipeinsulationthickness
Maximumvaluesincludevaluesfor thefollowing:
Fenestrationanddoor U-factors
Fenestrationsolar heat gaincoefficient (SHGC)
Lightingpower density(LPD)
Faninput power per cubicfoot per minuteof supplyairflow
Window-to-wall ratio(WWR)
External staticpressure(ESP)
Duct frictionrate
Florida
Broward
Miami-Dade
Monroe
Guam
Hawaii
Puerto Rico
U.S. Virgin Islands
Zone 1
09b_Chapter4-maps-tables.fm Page81 Wednesday, April 27, 2011 9:34AM
Climate Zone 1 Recommendation Table for Small to Medium Office Buildings
Item Component Recommendation How-to Tips
E
n
v
e
l
o
p
e
Roofs
Insulation entirely above deck R-20.0 c.i. EN2, 17, 19, 2122
Attic and other R-38.0 EN3, 17, 19, 2021
Metal building R-19.0 +R-10.0 FC EN4, 17, 19, 21
SRI 78 EN1
Walls
Mass (HC >7 Btu/ft
2
) R-5.7 c.i. EN5, 17, 19, 21
Steel framed R-13.0 +R-7.5 c.i. EN6, 17, 19, 21
Wood framed and other R-13.0 EN7, 17, 19, 21
Metal building R-0.0 +R-9.8 c.i. EN8, 17, 19, 21
Below-grade walls No recommendation EN9, 17, 19, 2122
Floors
Mass R-4.2 c.i. EN10, 17, 19, 21
Steel joint R-19.0 EN11, 17, 19, 21
Slabs
Unheated No recommendation None
Heated R-7.5 for 12 in.
EN1314, 17, 19,
2122
Doors
Swinging U-0.70 EN15, 1718
Nonswinging U-1.45 EN1617
Vestibules At building entrance No recommendation None
Continuous
Air Barriers
Continuous air barrier Entire building envelope EN17
Vertical
Fenestration
WWR 20%to 40% EN25; DL6
Windoworientation
Area of Wand E windows each less than area of
S windows (N in southern hemisphere)
EN28, 30
Exterior sun control (S, E, and Wonly) PF-0.5 EN26
Thermal transmittance
Nonmetal framing windows =U-0.56
Metal framing windows =U-0.65
EN2324
SHGC
Nonmetal framing windows =0.25
Metal framing windows =0.25
EN 24, 29; DL12
D
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g
Daylighting
Light-to-solar-gain ratio MinimumVT/SHGC =1.10 EN3442
Vertical fenestration EA 0.08 DL711
Interior
Finishes
Interior surface average reflectance
Ceilings =80%
Wall surfaces =70%
Open office partitions =50%
DL1415; EL4
Open office partitions parallel to windowwalls
Total partition height =36 in. maximum- or -
Partition above desk height =min 50%translucent
DL4, 10; EL2, 4
Interior
Lighting
LPD 0.75 W/ft
2
DL15; EL23, 5,
1219
24-hour lighting LPD 0.075 W/ft
2
EL20
Light source lamp efficacy (mean LPW)
T8 and T5 lamps >2 ft =92
T8 and T5 lamps 2 ft =85
All other >50
EL68
Ballasts
4 ft T8 lamp nondimming applications =
NEMA Premiuminstant start
4 ft T8 lamp dimming applications =
NEMA Premiumprogramstart
Fluorescent and HIDsources =electronic
EL8
Controls for daylight harvesting in open offices
locate on N and S sides of bldg
Dimall general fluorescent lights within primary and
secondary daylight zones of open offices
DL1620; EL1, 11
Automatic controls
Auto ON to 50%=private offices, conference and
meeting rooms, lounge and break rooms, copy
rooms, storage rooms
Auto ON occupancy sensors =restrooms, electrical/
mechanical rooms, open and private office task
lighting
Time switch control =all other spaces
DL13; EL1, 5, 910
Exterior
Lighting
Faade and Landscape lighting
LPD=0.075 W/ft
2
in LZ3 and LZ4, 0.05 W/ft
2
in LZ2
Controls =auto OFF between 12 amand 6 am
EL23
Parking lots and drives
LPD=0.1 W/ft
2
2
in LZ2
Controls =auto reduce to 25%(12 amto 6 am)
EL21, 2425
Walkways, plazas, and special feature areas
LPD=0.16 W/ft
2
LZ3 and LZ4, 0.14 W/ft
2
in LZ2
EL22, 2425
All other exterior lighting
LPD=followStandard 90.1-2010
EL2425
P
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Equipment
Choices
Laptop computers Minimum2/3 of total computers PL12
ENERGY STAR equipment For all computers, equipment, and appliances PL12
Equipment power density For all computers, equipment, and appliances PL12, 46
Controls
Computer power control
Network control with power saving modes and
control OFF during unoccupied hours
PL3
Occupancy sensors Desk plug strip occupancy sensors PL3
Timer switches
Water coolers and coffee makers control OFF
during unoccupied hours
PL3
Vending machine control Yes PL3
*Note: WherethetablesaysNorecommendation, theuser must meet themorestringent of either theapplicableversionof ASHRAE/IESStandard90.1or thelocal coderequirements.
S
W
H
SWH
Gas water heater efficiency Condensing water heaters =90%efficiency WH15
Electric storage EF (12 kW, 20 gal) EF >0.99 0.0012 volume (see Table 5-7) WH15
Point-of-use heater selection 0.81 EF or 81%E
t
WH15
Electric heat pump water heater efficiency COP 3.0 (interior heat source) WH15
Pipe insulation (d <1in. / d 1in.) 1 in. / 1 in. WH6
H
V
A
C
Packaged
Single-Zone
Air-Source
Heat Pumps
Cooling and heating efficiency See Table 5-8 for efficiency HV3
ESP 0.7 in. w.c. HV3
DOAS air-source heat pump Yes HV10
DOAS heating and cooling efficiency See Table 5-10 for efficiency HV1011
DOAS energy recovery Yes, see Table 5-11 for effectiveness HV12
DOAS fanESP 1.5 in. w.c. maximum HV20
WSHPs
with DOAS
Unit size 5 tons or less None
Single-stage cooling and heating efficiency
Cooling =16.4 EER
Heating =5.2 COP
HV4
Two-stage cooling and heating efficiency
Cooling part load =17.6 EER
Cooling full load =15.0 EER
Heating part load =5.7 COP
Heating full load =5.0 COP
HV4
WSHP fanESP 0.5 in. w.c. HV4, 20
Condensing boiler efficiency 90% HV14, 30
DOAS water-to-water heat pump See Table 5-10 for efficiency HV1011
DOAS variable airflowwith DCV Yes HV1718
DOAS fan and motor
65%mechanical efficiency
Motor efficiency per Standard 90.1-2010,
Table 10.8B
VSDefficiency =95%
HV23
VAV DX
with Indirect
Gas-Fired or
Elextric Internal
HeatandElectric
Perimeter Heat
DX efficiency See Table 5-9 for efficiency HV6
Low-temperature air supply and SAT reset 50F to 58F HV6, 11, 25, 31
Perimeter convector heat source Electric HV6
Gas furnace in DX units No recommendation HV6
Economizer No recommendation None
Energy recovery Yes, see Table 5-11 for effectiveness HV12
Indirect evaporative cooling No recommendation None
Demand control and ventilation reset Yes HV1718
ESP 2.0 in. w.c. HV7, 20
VAV CHW
(same as VAV
DX except...)
Air-cooled chiller efficiency 10 EER HV14, 29
Air-cooled chiller IPLV 12.5 IPLV <150 tons, 12.75 IPLV 150 tons HV14
Variable-speed pumping Yes HV29
Maximumfan power 0.72 W/cfm HV7, 23, 31
Fan-Coils
with DOAS
Air-cooled chiller IPLV
12.5 IPLV <150 tons
12.75 IPLV 150 tons
HV14
VAV fan-coil units Yes HV8
Fan-coil unit fan power 0.30 W/cfm HV8
DOAS chilled-water and hot-water coils served by
same plant as fan-coils
Yes HV10
DOAS variable airflowwith DCV Yes HV1011, 17
DOAS fan and motor
65%mechanical efficiency, motor efficiency
Standard 90.1-2010, Table 10.8B
HV23
RadiantSystems
with DOAS
Air-cooled chiller full-load efficiency 10 EER HV14, 29
DOAS fanESP 1.5 in. w.c. HV20
Ducts and
Dampers
OA damper Motorized damper HV16
Friction rate 0.08 in./100 ft HV20
Sealing Seal Class B HV22
Location Interior only HV20
Insulation level R-6.0 HV21
Climate Zone 1 Recommendation Table for Small to Medium Office Buildings (Continued)
Item Component Recommendation How-to Tips
Alabama
Baldwin
Mobile
Arizona
La Paz
Maricopa
Pima
Pinal
Yuma
California
Imperial
Florida
Alachua
Baker
Bay
Bradford
Brevard
Calhoun
Charlotte
Citrus
Clay
Collier
Columbia
DeSoto
Dixie
Duval
Escambia
Flagler
Franklin
Gadsden
Gilchrist
Glades
Gulf
Hamilton
Hardee
Hendry
Hernando
Highlands
Hillsborough
Holmes
Indian River
J ackson
J efferson
Lafayette
Lake
Lee
Leon
Levy
Liberty
Madison
Manatee
Marion
Martin
Nassau
Okaloosa
Okeechobee
Orange
Osceola
PalmBeach
Pasco
Pinellas
Polk
Putnam
Santa Rosa
Sarasota
Seminole
St. J ohns
St. Lucie
Sumter
Suwannee
Taylor
Union
Volusia
Wakulla
Walton
Washington
Georgia
Appling
Atkinson
Bacon
Baker
Berrien
Brantley
Brooks
Bryan
Camden
Charlton
Chatham
Clinch
Colquitt
Cook
Decatur
Echols
Effingham
Evans
Glynn
Grady
J eff Davis
Lanier
Liberty
Long
Lowndes
McIntosh
Miller
Mitchell
Pierce
Seminole
Tattnall
Thomas
Toombs
Ware
Wayne
Louisiana
Acadia
Allen
Ascension
Assumption
Avoyelles
Beauregard
Calcasieu
Cameron
East Baton
Rouge
East Feliciana
Evangeline
Iberia
Iberville
J efferson
J efferson Davis
Lafayette
Lafourche
Livingston
Orleans
Plaquemines
Pointe Coupee
Rapides
St. Bernard
St. Charles
St. Helena
St. J ames
St. J ohn the
Baptist
St. Landry
St. Martin
St. Mary
St. Tammany
Tangipahoa
Terrebonne
Vermilion
Washington
West Baton
Rouge
West Feliciana
Mississippi
Hancock
Harrison
J ackson
Pearl River
Stone
Texas
Anderson
Angelina
Aransas
Atascosa
Austin
Bandera
Bastrop
Bee
Bell
Bexar
Bosque
Brazoria
Brazos
Brooks
Burleson
Caldwell
Calhoun
Cameron
Chambers
Cherokee
Colorado
Comal
Coryell
DeWitt
Dimmit
Duval
Edwards
Falls
Fayette
Fort Bend
Freestone
Frio
Galveston
Goliad
Gonzales
Grimes
Guadalupe
Hardin
Harris
Hays
Hidalgo
Hill
Houston
J ackson
J asper
J efferson
J imHogg
J imWells
Karnes
Kenedy
Kinney
Kleberg
La Salle
Lavaca
Lee
Leon
Liberty
Limestone
Live Oak
Madison
Matagorda
Maverick
McLennan
McMullen
Medina
Milam
Montgomery
Newton
Nueces
Orange
Polk
Real
Refugio
Robertson
San J acinto
San Patricio
Starr
Travis
Trinity
Tyler
Uvalde
Val Verde
Victoria
Walker
Waller
Washington
Webb
Wharton
Willacy
Williamson
Wilson
Zapata
Zavala
Zone 2
Item Component Recommendation How-To Tips
E
n
v
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p
e
Roofs
SRI 78 EN1
Walls
Mass (HC >7 Btu/ft
2
) R-7.6 c.i. EN5, 17, 19, 21
Wood framed and other R-13.0 +R-3.8 c.i. EN7, 17, 19, 21
Below-grade walls No recommendation EN9, 17, 19, 2122
Floors
Mass R-10.4 c.i. EN10, 17, 19, 21
Steel joint R-30.0 EN11, 17, 19, 21
Slabs
EN1314, 17, 19,
2122
Doors
Vestibules At building entrance No recommendation None
Continuous
Air Barriers
Vertical
Fenestration
WWR 20%to 40% EN25; DL6
Windoworientation
EN28, 30
EN2324
SHGC
EN 24, 29; DL12
D
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Daylighting
Interior
Finishes
Ceilings =80%
Wall surfaces =70%
DL1415; EL4
DL4, 10; EL2, 4
Interior
Lighting
LPD 0.75 W/ft
2
DL15; EL23, 5,
1219
2
EL20
All other >50
EL68
Ballasts
EL8
DL1620; EL1, 11
Automatic controls
lighting
DL13; EL1, 5, 910
Exterior
Lighting
Faade and landscape lighting
LPD=0.075 W/ft
2
2
in LZ2
EL23
LPD=0.1 W/ft
2
2
in LZ2
EL21, 2425
LPD=0.16 W/ft
2
2
in LZ2
EL22, 2425
EL2425
P
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Equipment
Choices
Controls
PL3
Timer switches
PL3
S
W
H
SWH
t
WH15
H
V
A
C
Packaged
Single-Zone
Air-Source
Heat Pumps
WSHPs
with DOAS
Cooling =16.4 EER
Heating =5.2 COP
HV4
HV4
DOAS fan and motor
Table 10.8B
VSDefficiency =95%
HV23
VAV DX
with Indirect
Gas-Fired or
Elextric Internal
HeatandElectric
Perimeter Heat
Economizer
54,000 Btu/h, differential enthalpy control
(Climate zone 2A)
54,000 Btu/h, differential dry-bulb control
(Climate zone 2B)
HV6, 16
Indirect evaporative cooling Climate zone 2B only HV13, 36
ESP 2.0 in. w.c. HV7, 20
VAV CHW
(same as VAV
DX except...)
Fan-Coils
with DOAS
12.5 IPLV <150 tons
12.75 IPLV 150 tons
HV14
Yes HV10
DOAS fan and motor
HV23
RadiantSystems
with DOAS
Ducts and
Dampers
Alabama
All counties except:
Baldwin
Mobile
Arizona
Cochise
Graham
Greenlee
Mohave
Santa Cruz
Arkansas
Baxter
Benton
Boone
Carroll
Fulton
Izard
Madison
Marion
Newton
Searcy
Stone
Washington
California
Alpine
Amador
Calaveras
Del Norte
El Dorado
Humboldt
Imperial
Inyo
Lake
Lassen
Mariposa
Modoc
Mono
Nevada
Plumas
Sierra
Siskiyou
Trinity
Tuolumne
Georgia
Appling
Atkinson
Bacon
Baker
Banks
Berrien
Brantley
Brooks
Bryan
Catoosa
Camden
Charlton
Chatham
Chattooga
Clinch
Colquitt
Cook
Dade
Dawson
Decatur
Echols
Effingham
Evans
Fannin
Floyd
Franklin
Gilmer
Glynn
Gordon
Grady
Habersham
Hall
J eff Davis
Lanier
Liberty
Long
Lowndes
Lumpkin
McIntosh
Miller
Mitchell
Murray
Pickens
Pierce
Rabun
Seminole
Stephens
Tattnall
Thomas
Toombs
Towns
Union
Walker
Ware
Wayne
White
Whitfield
Louisiana
Bienville
Bossier
Caddo
Caldwell
Catahoula
Claiborne
Concordia
De Soto
East Carroll
Franklin
Grant
J ackson
La Salle
Lincoln
Madison
Morehouse
Natchitoches
Ouachita
Red River
Richland
Sabine
Tensas
Union
Vernon
Webster
West Carroll
Winn
Mississippi
Hancock
Harrison
J ackson
Pearl River
Stone
New Mexico
Chaves
Dona Ana
Eddy
Hidalgo
Lea
Luna
Otero
Nevada
Clark
Texas
Andrews
Archer
Baylor
Blanco
Borden
Bowie
Brewster
Brown
Burnet
Callahan
Camp
Cass
Childress
Clay
Coke
Coleman
Collingsworth
Collin
Comanche
Concho
Cottle
Cooke
Crane
Crockett
Crosby
Culberson
Dallas
Dawson
Delta
Denton
Dickens
Eastland
Ector
El Paso
Ellis
Erath
Fannin
Fisher
Foard
Franklin
Gaines
Garza
Gillespie
Glasscock
Grayson
Gregg
Hall
Hamilton
Hardeman
Harrison
Haskell
Hemphill
Henderson
Hood
Hopkins
Howard
Hudspeth
Hunt
Irion
J ack
J eff Davis
J ohnson
J ones
Kaufman
Kendall
Kent
Kerr
Kimble
King
Knox
Lamar
Lampasas
Llano
Loving
Lubbock
Lynn
Marion
Martin
Mason
McCulloch
Menard
Midland
Mills
Mitchell
Montague
Morris
Motley
Nacogdoches
Navarro
Nolan
Palo Pinto
Panola
Parker
Pecos
Presidio
Rains
Reagan
Reeves
Red River
Rockwall
Runnels
Rusk
Sabine
SanAugustine
San Saba
Schleicher
Scurry
Shackelford
Shelby
Smith
Somervell
Stephens
Sterling
Stonewall
Sutton
Tarrant
Taylor
Terrell
Terry
Throckmorton
Titus
TomGreen
Upshur
Upton
Van Zandt
Ward
Wheeler
Wichita
Wilbarger
Winkler
Wise
Wood
Young
Utah
Washington
North Carolina
Anson
Beaufort
Bladen
Brunswick
Cabarrus
Camden
Carteret
Chowan
Columbus
Craven
Cumberland
Currituck
Dare
Davidson
Duplin
Edgecombe
Gaston
Greene
Hoke
Hyde
J ohnston
J ones
Lenoir
Martin
Mecklenburg
Montgomery
Moore
NewHanover
Onslow
Pamlico
Pasquotank
Pender
Perquimans
Pitt
Randolph
Richmond
Robeson
Rowan
Sampson
Scotland
Stanly
Tyrrell
Union
Washington
Wayne
Wilson
Oklahoma
Beaver
Cimarron
Texas
South Carolina
All counties
Tennessee
Chester
Crockett
Dyer
Fayette
Hardeman
Hardin
Haywood
Henderson
Lake
Lauderdale
Madison
McNairy
Shelby
Tipton
Zone 3
E
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Roofs
SRI 78 EN1
Walls
Mass (HC >7 Btu/ft
2
) R-11.4 c.i. EN5, 17, 19, 21
Below-grade walls R-7.5 c.i. (No recommendation in climate zone 3A) EN9, 17, 19, 2122
Floors
Mass R-12.5 c.i. EN10, 17, 19, 21
Steel joint R-30.0 EN11, 17, 19, 21
Slabs
EN1314, 17, 19,
2122
Doors
Vestibules At building entrance Yes for buildings >10,000 ft
2
only EN18
Continuous
Air Barriers
Vertical
Fenestration
WWR 20%to 40% EN25; DL6
Windoworientation
EN28, 30
EN2324
SHGC
EN 24, 29; DL12
D
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Daylighting
Interior
Finishes
Ceilings =80%
Wall surfaces =70%
DL1415; EL4
DL4, 10; EL2, 4
Interior
Lighting
LPD 0.75 W/ft
2
DL15; EL23, 5,
1219
2
EL20
T8 and T5 lamps >2 ft =92,
T8 and T5 lamps 2 ft =85,
All other >50
EL68
Ballasts
EL8
DL1620; EL1, 11
Automatic controls
lighting
DL13; EL1, 5, 910
Exterior
Lighting
LPD=0.075 W/ft
2
2
in LZ2
EL23
LPD=0.1 W/ft
2
2
in LZ2
EL21, 2425
LPD=0.16 W/ft
2
2
in LZ2
EL22, 2425
EL2425
P
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Equipment
Choices
Equipment power density For all computers, equipment, and appliances PL12,46
Controls
PL3
Timer switches
PL3
S
W
H
SWH
t
WH15
H
V
A
C
Packaged
Single-Zone
Air-Source
Heat Pumps
DOAS energy recovery
Climate zone 3A =yes, see Table 5-11 for
effectiveness
Climate zone 3B (CA) =No
HV12
WSHPs
with DOAS
Cooling =16.4 EER
Heating =5.2 COP
HV4
HV4
DOAS fan and motor
Table 10.8B
VSDefficiency =95%
HV23
VAV DX
with Indirect
Gas-Fired or
Elextric Internal
HeatandElectric
Perimeter Heat
Economizer
(Climate zone 3A)
(Climate zones 3B and 3C)
HV6, 16
ESP 2.0 in. w.c. HV7, 20
VAV CHW
(same as VAV
DX except...)
Fan-Coils
with DOAS
12.5 IPLV <150 tons
12.75 IPLV 150 tons
HV14
Yes HV10
DOAS fan and motor
HV23
RadiantSystems
with DOAS
Ducts and
Dampers
Arizona
Gila
Yavapai
Arkansas
Baxter
Benton
Boone
Carroll
Fulton
Izard
Madison
Marion
Newton
Searcy
Stone
Washington
California
Amador
Calaveras
Del Norte
El Dorado
Humboldt
Inyo
Lake
Mariposa
Trinity
Tuolumne
Colorado
Baca
Las Animas
Otero
Delaware
All counties
District of
Columbia
Georgia
Banks
Catoosa
Chattooga
Dade
Dawson
Fannin
Floyd
Franklin
Gilmer
Gordon
Habersham
Hall
Lumpkin
Murray
Pickens
Rabun
Stephens
Towns
Union
Walker
White
Whitfield
Illinois
Alexander
Bond
Brown
Christian
Clay
Clinton
Crawford
Edwards
Effingham
Fayette
Franklin
Gallatin
Hamilton
Hardin
J ackson
J asper
J efferson
J ohnson
Lawrence
Macoupin
Madison
Marion
Massac
Monroe
Montgomery
Perry
Pope
Pulaski
Randolph
Richland
Saline
Shelby
St. Clair
Union
Wabash
Washington
Wayne
White
Williamson
Indiana
Clark
Crawford
Daviess
Dearborn
Dubois
Floyd
Gibson
Greene
Harrison
J ackson
J efferson
J ennings
Knox
Lawrence
Martin
Monroe
Ohio
Orange
Perry
Pike
Posey
Ripley
Scott
Spencer
Sullivan
Switzerland
Vanderburgh
Warrick
Washington
Kansas
Cheyenne
Cloud
Decatur
Ellis
Gove
Graham
Greeley
Hamilton
J ewell
Lane
Logan
Mitchell
Ness
Norton
Osborne
Phillips
Rawlins
Republic
Rooks
Scott
Sheridan
Sherman
Smith
Thomas
Trego
Wallace
Wichita
Kentucky
All counties
Maryland
Garrett
Missouri
Adair
Andrew
Atchison
Buchanan
Caldwell
Chariton
Clark
Clinton
Daviess
DeKalb
Gentry
Grundy
Harrison
Holt
Knox
Lewis
Linn
Livingston
Macon
Marion
Mercer
Nodaway
Pike
Putnam
Ralls
Schuyler
Scotland
Shelby
Sullivan
Worth
New Jersey
Bergen
Hunterdon
Mercer
Morris
Passaic
Somerset
Sussex
Warren
New Mexico
Bernalillo
Cibola
Curry
DeBaca
Grant
Guadalupe
Lincoln
Quay
Roosevelt
Sierra
Socorro
Union
Valencia
New York
Bronx
Kings
Nassau
NewYork
Queens
Richmond
Suffolk
Westchester
North Carolina
Alamance
Alexander
Bertie
Buncombe
Burke
Caldwell
Caswell
Catawba
Chatham
Cherokee
Clay
Cleveland
Davie
Durham
Forsyth
Franklin
Gates
Graham
Granville
Guilford
Halifax
Harnett
Haywood
Henderson
Hertford
Iredell
J ackson
Lee
Lincoln
Macon
Madison
McDowell
Nash
Northampton
Orange
Person
Polk
Rockingham
Rutherford
Stokes
Surry
Swain
Transylvania
Vance
Wake
Warren
Wilkes
Yadkin
Ohio
Adams
Brown
Clermont
Gallia
Hamilton
Lawrence
Pike
Scioto
Washington
Oklahoma
Beaver
Cimarron
Texas
Oregon
Benton
Clackamas
Clatsop
Columbia
Coos
Curry
Douglas
J ackson
J osephine
Lane
Lincoln
Linn
Marion
Multnomah
Polk
Tillamook
Washington
Yamhill
Pennsylvania
Bucks
Chester
Delaware
Montgomery
Philadelphia
York
Tennessee
Chester
Crockett
Dyer
Fayette
Hardeman
Hardin
Haywood
Henderson
Lake
Lauderdale
Madison
McNairy
Shelby
Tipton
Texas
Armstrong
Bailey
Briscoe
Carson
Castro
Cochran
Dallam
Deaf Smith
Donley
Floyd
Gray
Hale
Hansford
Hartley
Hockley
Hutchinson
Lamb
Lipscomb
Moore
Ochiltree
Oldham
Parmer
Potter
Randall
Roberts
Sherman
Swisher
Yoakum
Virginia
All counties
Washington
Clallam
Clark
Cowlitz
Grays Harbor
Island
J efferson
King
Kitsap
Lewis
Mason
Pacific
Pierce
San J uan
Skagit
Snohomish
Thurston
Wahkiakum
Whatcom
West Virginia
Berkeley
Boone
Braxton
Cabell
Calhoun
Clay
Gilmer
J ackson
J efferson
Kanawha
Lincoln
Logan
Mason
McDowell
Mercer
Mingo
Monroe
Morgan
Pleasants
Putnam
Ritchie
Roane
Tyler
Wayne
Wirt
Wood
Wyoming
Zone 4
E
n
v
e
l
o
p
e
Roofs
Metal building R-19.0 +R-11.0 Ls EN4, 17, 19, 21
SRI No recommendation None
Walls
Mass (HC >7 Btu/ft
2
) R-13.3 c.i. EN5, 17, 19, 21
Below-grade walls R-7.5 c.i. EN9, 17, 19, 2122
Floors
Mass R-14.6 c.i. EN10, 17, 19, 21
Steel joint R-38.0 EN11, 17, 19, 21
Slabs
Unheated R-15.0 for 24 in.
EN12, 14, 17, 19,
2122
EN1314, 17, 19,
2122
Doors
Vestibules At building entrance Yes EN18
Continuous
Air Barriers
Vertical
Fenestration
WWR 20%to 40% EN25; DL6
Windoworientation
EN3031
EN2324
SHGC
EN24, 3233; DL12
D
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i
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/
L
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h
t
i
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Daylighting
Interior
Finishes
Ceilings =80%
Wall surfaces =70%
DL1415; EL4
DL4, 10; EL2, 4
Interior
Lighting
LPD 0.75 W/ft
2
DL15; EL23, 5,
1219
2
EL20
All other >50
EL68
Ballasts
EL8
DL1620; EL1, 11
Automatic controls
lighting
DL13; EL1, 5, 910
Exterior
Lighting
LPD=0.075 W/ft
2
2
in LZ2
EL23
LPD=0.1 W/ft
2
2
in LZ2
EL21, 2425
LPD=0.16 W/ft
2
2
in LZ2
EL22, 2425
EL2425
P
l
u
g
L
o
a
d
s
Equipment
Choices
Controls
PL3
Timer switches
PL3
S
W
H
SWH
t
WH15
H
V
A
C
Packaged
Single-Zone
Air-Source
Heat Pumps
WSHPs
with DOAS
Cooling =16.4 EER
Heating =5.2 COP
HV4
HV4
DOAS fan and motor
Table 10.8B
VSDefficiency =95%
HV23
VAV DX
with Indirect
Gas-Fired or
Elextric Internal
HeatandElectric
Perimeter Heat
Economizer
(Climate zone 4A)
(Climate zones 4B and 4C)
HV6, 16
ESP 2.0 in. w.c. HV7, 20
VAV CHW
(same as VAV
DX except...)
Fan-Coils
with DOAS
12.5 IPLV <150 tons
12.75 IPLV 150 tons
HV14
Yes HV10
DOAS fan and motor
HV23
RadiantSystems
with DOAS
Ducts and
Dampers
Arizona
Apache
Coconino
Navajo
California
Lassen
Modoc
Nevada
Plumas
Sierra
Siskiyou
Colorado
Adams
Arapahoe
Bent
Boulder
Cheyenne
Crowley
Delta
Denver
Douglas
Elbert
El Paso
Fremont
Garfield
Gilpin
Huerfano
J efferson
Kiowa
Kit Carson
La Plata
Larimer
Lincoln
Logan
Mesa
Montezuma
Montrose
Morgan
Phillips
Prowers
Pueblo
Sedgwick
Teller
Washington
Weld
Yuma
Connecticut
All counties
Idaho
Ada
Benewah
Canyon
Cassia
Clearwater
Elmore
Gem
Gooding
Idaho
J erome
Kootenai
Latah
Lewis
Lincoln
Minidoka
Nez Perce
Owyhee
Payette
Power
Shoshone
Twin Falls
Washington
Illinois
All counties
except:
Alexander
Bond
Christian
Clay
Clinton
Crawford
Edwards
Effingham
Fayette
Franklin
Gallatin
Hamilton
Hardin
J ackson
J asper
J efferson
J ohnson
Lawrence
Macoupin
Madison
Marion
Massac
Monroe
Montgomery
Perry
Pope
Pulaski
Randolph
Richland
Saline
Shelby
St. Clair
Union
Wabash
Washington
Wayne
White
Williamson
Brown
Indiana
All counties
except:
Clark
Crawford
Daviess
Dearborn
Dubois
Floyd
Gibson
Greene
Harrison
J ackson
J efferson
J ennings
Knox
Lawrence
Martin
Monroe
Ohio
Orange
Perry
Pike
Posey
Ripley
Scott
Spencer
Sullivan
Switzerland
Vanderburgh
Warrick
Washington
Iowa
All counties
except:
Allamakee
Black Hawk
Bremer
Buchanan
Buena Vista
Butler
Calhoun
Cerro Gordo
Cherokee
Chickasaw
Clay
Clayton
Delaware
Dickinson
Emmet
Fayette
Floyd
Franklin
Grundy
Hamilton
Hancock
Hardin
Howard
Humboldt
Ida
Kossuth
Lyon
Mitchell
O'Brien
Osceola
Palo Alto
Plymouth
Pocahontas
Sac
Sioux
Webster
Winnebago
Winneshiek
Worth
Wright
Kansas
Cheyenne
Cloud
Decatur
Ellis
Gove
Graham
Greeley
Hamilton
J ewell
Lane
Logan
Mitchell
Ness
Norton
Osborne
Phillips
Rawlins
Republic
Rooks
Scott
Sheridan
Sherman
Smith
Thomas
Trego
Wallace
Wichita
Maryland
Garrett
Massachusetts
All counties
Michigan
Allegan
Barry
Bay
Berrien
Branch
Calhoun
Cass
Clinton
Eaton
Genesee
Gratiot
Hillsdale
Ingham
Ionia
J ackson
Kalamazoo
Kent
Lapeer
Lenawee
Livingston
Macomb
Midland
Monroe
Montcalm
Muskegon
Oakland
Ottawa
Saginaw
Shiawassee
St. Clair
St. J oseph
Tuscola
Van Buren
Washtenaw
Wayne
Missouri
Adair
Andrew
Atchison
Buchanan
Caldwell
Chariton
Clark
Clinton
Daviess
DeKalb
Gentry
Grundy
Harrison
Holt
Knox
Lewis
Linn
Livingston
Macon
Marion
Mercer
Nodaway
Pike
Putnam
Ralls
Schuyler
Scotland
Shelby
Sullivan
Worth
Nebraska
All counties
Nevada
All counties
except:
Clark
NewHampshire
Cheshire
Hillsborough
Rockingham
Strafford
New Jersey
Bergen
Hunterdon
Mercer
Morris
Passaic
Somerset
Sussex
Warren
New Mexico
Catron
Colfax
Harding
Los Alamos
McKinley
Mora
Rio Arriba
Sandoval
San J uan
San Miguel
Santa Fe
Taos
Torrance
New York
Albany
Cayuga
Chautauqua
Chemung
Columbia
Cortland
Dutchess
Erie
Genesee
Greene
Livingston
Monroe
Niagara
Onondaga
Ontario
Orange
Orleans
Oswego
Putnam
Rensselaer
Rockland
Saratoga
Schenectady
Seneca
Tioga
Washington
Wayne
Yates
North Carolina
Alleghany
Ashe
Avery
Mitchell
Watauga
Yancey
Ohio
All counties
except:
Adams
Brown
Clermont
Gallia
Hamilton
Lawrence
Pike
Scioto
Washington
Oregon
Baker
Crook
Deschutes
Gilliam
Grant
Harney
Hood River
J efferson
Klamath
Lake
Malheur
Morrow
Sherman
Umatilla
Union
Wallowa
Wasco
Wheeler
Pennsylvania
All counties
except:
Bucks
Cameron
Chester
Clearfield
Delaware
Elk
McKean
Montgomery
Philadelphia
Potter
Susquehanna
Tioga
Wayne
York
Rhode Island
All counties
South Dakota
Bennett
Bon Homme
Charles Mix
Clay
Douglas
Gregory
Hutchinson
J ackson
Mellette
Todd
Tripp
Union
Yankton
Utah
All counties
except:
Box Elder
Cache
Carbon
Daggett
Duchesne
Morgan
Rich
Summit
Uintah
Wasatch
Washington
Washington
Adams
Asotin
Benton
Chelan
Columbia
Douglas
Franklin
Garfield
Grant
Kittitas
Klickitat
Lincoln
Skamania
Spokane
Walla Walla
Whitman
Yakima
Wyoming
Goshen
Platte
West Virginia
Barbour
Brooke
Doddridge
Fayette
Grant
Greenbrier
Hampshire
Hancock
Hardy
Harrison
Lewis
Marion
Marshall
Mineral
Monongalia
Nicholas
Ohio
Pendleton
Pocahontas
Preston
Raleigh
Randolph
Summers
Taylor
Tucker
Upshur
Webster
Wetzel
Zone 5
E
n
v
e
l
o
p
e
Roofs
Walls
Mass (HC >7 Btu/ft
2
) R-13.3 c.i. EN5, 17, 19, 21
Floors
Mass R-14.6 c.i. EN10, 17, 19, 21
Steel joint R-38.0 EN11, 17, 19, 21
Slabs
EN12, 14, 17, 19,
2122
EN1314, 17, 19,
2122
Doors
Continuous
Air Barriers
Vertical
Fenestration
WWR 20%to 40% EN25; DL6
Windoworientation
EN3031
EN2324
SHGC
EN24, 3233; DL12
D
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l
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i
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/
L
i
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h
t
i
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g
Daylighting
Interior
Finishes
Ceilings =80%
Wall surfaces =70%
DL1415; EL4
DL4, 10; EL2, 4
Interior
Lighting
LPD 0.75 W/ft
2
DL15; EL23, 5,
1219
2
EL20
All other >50
EL68
Ballasts
EL8
DL1620; EL1, 11
Automatic controls
lighting
DL13; EL1, 5, 910
Exterior
Lighting
LPD=0.075 W/ft
2
2
in LZ2
EL23
LPD=0.1 W/ft
2
2
in LZ2
EL21, 2425
LPD=0.16 W/ft
2
2
in LZ2
EL22, 2425
EL2425
P
l
u
g
L
o
a
d
s
Equipment
Choices
Controls
PL3
Timer switches
PL3
Vending machine control Yes WH4
S
W
H
SWH
t
WH15
H
V
A
C
Packaged
Single-Zone
Air-Source
Heat Pumps
WSHPs
with DOAS
Cooling =16.4 EER
Heating =5.2 COP
HV4
HV4
DOAS fan and motor
Table 10.8B
VSDefficiency =95%
HV23
VAV DX
with
Gas-Fired
Hydronic
Heating
Perimeter convector heat source Hot water None
Economizer 54,000 Btu/h, differential dry-bulb control HV6, 16
ESP 2.0 in. w.c. HV7, 20
VAV CHW
(same as VAV
DX except...)
Fan-Coils
with DOAS
12.5 IPLV <150 tons
12.75 IPLV 150 tons
HV14
Yes HV10
DOAS fan and motor
HV23
RadiantSystems
with DOAS
Air-cooled chiller full-load efficiency 10 EER HV14
Ducts and
Dampers
California
Alpine
Mono
Colorado
Alamosa
Archuleta
Chaffee
Conejos
Costilla
Custer
Dolores
Eagle
Moffat
Ouray
Rio Blanco
Saguache
San Miguel
Idaho
Adams
Bannock
Bear Lake
Bingham
Blaine
Boise
Bonner
Bonneville
Boundary
Butte
Camas
Caribou
Clark
Custer
Franklin
Fremont
J efferson
Lemhi
Madison
Oneida
Teton
Valley
Iowa
Allamakee
Black Hawk
Bremer
Buchanan
Buena Vista
Butler
Calhoun
Cerro Gordo
Cherokee
Chickasaw
Clay
Clayton
Delaware
Dickinson
Emmet
Fayette
Floyd
Franklin
Grundy
Hamilton
Hancock
Hardin
Howard
Humboldt
Ida
Kossuth
Lyon
Mitchell
O'Brien
Osceola
Palo Alto
Plymouth
Pocahontas
Sac
Sioux
Webster
Winnebago
Winneshiek
Worth
Wright
Maine
Aroostook
Michigan
Alcona
Alger
Alpena
Antrim
Arenac
Benzie
Charlevoix
Cheboygan
Clare
Crawford
Delta
Dickinson
Emmet
Gladwin
Grand Traverse
Huron
Iosco
Isabella
Kalkaska
Lake
Leelanau
Manistee
Marquette
Mason
Mecosta
Menominee
Missaukee
Montmorency
Newaygo
Oceana
Ogemaw
Osceola
Oscoda
Otsego
Presque Isle
Roscommon
Sanilac
Wexford
Minnesota
Anoka
Benton
Big Stone
Blue Earth
Brown
Carver
Chippewa
Chisago
Cottonwood
Dakota
Dodge
Douglas
Faribault
Fillmore
Freeborn
Goodhue
Hennepin
Houston
Isanti
J ackson
Kandiyohi
Lac qui Parle
Le Sueur
Lincoln
Lyon
Martin
McLeod
Meeker
Morrison
Mower
Murray
Nicollet
Nobles
Olmsted
Pipestone
Pope
Ramsey
Redwood
Renville
Rice
Rock
Scott
Sherburne
Sibley
Stearns
Steele
Stevens
Swift
Todd
Traverse
Wabasha
Waseca
Washington
Watonwan
Winona
Wright
YellowMedicine
Montana
All counties
NewHampshire
Belknap
Carroll
Coos
Grafton
Merrimack
Sullivan
New York
Allegany
Broome
Cattaraugus
Chenango
Clinton
Delaware
Essex
Franklin
Fulton
Hamilton
Herkimer
J efferson
Lewis
Madison
Montgomery
Oneida
Otsego
Schoharie
Schuyler
Steuben
St. Lawrence
Sullivan
Tompkins
Ulster
Warren
Wyoming
North Dakota
Adams
Billings
Bowman
Burleigh
Dickey
Dunn
Emmons
Golden Valley
Grant
Hettinger
LaMoure
Logan
McIntosh
McKenzie
Mercer
Morton
Oliver
Ransom
Richland
Sargent
Sioux
Slope
Stark
Pennsylvania
Cameron
Clearfield
Elk
McKean
Potter
Susquehanna
Tioga
Wayne
South Dakota
Bennett
Bon Homme
Charles Mix
Clay
Douglas
Gregory
Hutchinson
J ackson
Mellette
Todd
Tripp
Union
Yankton
Utah
Box Elder
Cache
Carbon
Daggett
Duchesne
Morgan
Rich
Summit
Uintah
Wasatch
Vermont
All counties
Washington
Ferry
Okanogan
Pend Oreille
Stevens
Wisconsin
Ashland
Bayfield
Burnett
Douglas
Florence
Forest
Iron
Langlade
Lincoln
Oneida
Price
Sawyer
Taylor
Vilas
Washburn
Wyoming
Goshen
Platte
Lincoln
Sublette
Teton
Zone 6
E
n
v
e
l
o
p
e
Roofs
Walls
Mass (HC >7 Btu/ft
2
) R-19.0 c.i. EN5, 17, 19, 21
Floors
Mass R-16.7 c.i. EN10, 17, 19, 21
Steel joint R-38.0 EN11, 17, 19, 21
Slabs
EN12, 14, 17, 19,
2122
EN1314, 17, 19,
2122
Doors
Continuous
Air Barriers
Vertical
Fenestration
WWR 20%to 40% EN25; DL6
Windoworientation
EN3031
Exterior sun control (S, E, and Wonly) No recommendation None
EN2324
SHGC
EN24, 3233; DL12
D
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y
l
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h
t
i
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/
L
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h
t
i
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g
Daylighting
Interior
Finishes
Ceilings =80%
Wall surfaces =70%
DL1415; EL4
DL4, 10; EL2, 4
Interior
Lighting
LPD 0.75 W/ft
2
DL15; EL23, 5,
1219
2
EL20
All other >50
EL68
Ballasts
EL8
DL1620; EL1, 11
Automatic controls
lighting
DL13; EL1, 5, 910
Exterior
Lighting
LPD=0.075 W/ft
2
2
in LZ2
EL23
Parking Lots and drives
LPD=0.1 W/ft
2
2
in LZ2
EL21, 2425
LPD=0.16 W/ft
2
2
in LZ2
EL22, 2425
EL2425
P
l
u
g
L
o
a
d
s
Equipment
Choices
Controls
PL3
Timer switches
PL3
S
W
H
SWH
t
WH15
H
V
A
C
Packaged
Single-Zone
Air-Source
Heat Pumps
WSHPs
with DOAS
Cooling =16.4 EER
Heating =5.2 COP
HV4
HV4
DOAS fan and motor
Table 10.8B
VSDefficiency =95%
HV23
VAV DX
with
Gas-Fired
Hydronic
Heating
ESP 2.0 in. w.c. HV7, 20
VAV CHW
(same as VAV
DX except...)
Fan-Coils
with DOAS
12.5 IPLV <150 tons
12.75 IPLV 150 tons
HV14
Yes HV10
DOAS fan and motor
HV23
RadiantSystems
with DOAS
Ducts and
Dampers
Alaska
Aleutians East
Aleutians West (CA)
Anchorage
Angoon (CA)
Bristol Bay
Denali
Haines
J uneau
Kenai Peninsula
Ketchikan (CA)
Ketchikan Gateway
Kodiak Island
Lake and Peninsula
Matanuska-Susitna
Prince of Wales-Outer
Sitka
Skagway-Hoonah-
Valdez-Cordova (CA)
Wrangell-Petersburg (CA)
Yakutat
Colorado
Clear Creek
Grand
Gunnison
Hinsdale
J ackson
Lake
Mineral
Park
Pitkin
Rio Grande
Routt
San J uan
Summit
Maine
Aroostook
Michigan
Baraga
Chippewa
Gogebic
Houghton
Iron
Keweenaw
Luce
Mackinac
Ontonagon
Schoolcraft
Minnesota
Aitkin
Becker
Beltrami
Carlton
Cass
Clay
Clearwater
Cook
CrowWing
Grant
Hubbard
Itasca
Kanabec
Kittson
Koochiching
Lake
Lake of the Woods
Mahnomen
Marshall
Mille Lacs
Norman
Otter Tail
Pennington
Pine
Polk
Red Lake
Roseau
St. Louis
Wadena
Wilkin
North Dakota
Barnes
Benson
Bottineau
Burke
Cass
Cavalier
Divide
Eddy
Foster
Grand Forks
Griggs
Kidder
McHenry
McLean
Mountrail
Nelson
Pembina
Pierce
Ramsey
Renville
Rolette
Sheridan
Steele
Stutsman
Towner
Traill
Walsh
Ward
Wells
Williams
Wisconsin
Ashland
Bayfield
Burnett
Douglas
Florence
Forest
Iron
Langlade
Lincoln
Oneida
Price
Sawyer
Taylor
Vilas
Washburn
Wyoming
Lincoln
Sublette
Teton
Zone 7
E
n
v
e
l
o
p
e
Roofs
Walls
Mass (HC >7 Btu/ft
2
) R-19.0 c.i. EN5, 17, 19, 21
Wood framed and other R-13.0 +R-15.0 c.i. EN7, 17,19, 21
Floors
Mass R-20.9 c.i. EN10, 17, 19, 21
Steel joint R-49.0 EN11, 17, 19, 21
Slabs
EN12, 14, 17, 19,
2122
EN13,14, 17, 19,
2122
Doors
Continuous
Air Barriers
Vertical
Fenestration
WWR 20%to 40% EN25; DL6
Windoworientation
EN3031
EN2324
SHGC
EN24, 3233; DL12
D
a
y
l
i
g
h
t
i
n
g
/
L
i
g
h
t
i
n
g
Daylighting
Interior
Finishes
Ceilings =80%
Wall surfaces =70%
DL1415; EL4
DL4, 10; EL2, 4
Interior
Lighting
LPD 0.75 W/ft
2
DL15; EL23, 5,
1219
2
EL20
All other >50
EL68
Ballasts
EL8
DL1620; EL1, 11
Automatic controls
lighting
DL13; EL1, 5, 910
Exterior
Lighting
LPD=0.075W/ft
2
in LZ3and LZ4, 0.05W/ft
2
in LZ2
EL23
LPD=0.1 W/ft
2
2
in LZ2
EL21, 2425
LPD=0.16 W/ft
2
2
in LZ2
EL22, 2425
EL2425
P
l
u
g
L
o
a
d
s
Equipment
Choices
Controls
PL3
Timer switches
PL3
S
W
H
SWH
t
WH15
H
V
A
C
Packaged
Single-Zone
Air-Source
Heat Pumps
WSHPs
with DOAS
Cooling =16.4 EER
Heating =5.2 COP
HV4
HV4
DOAS fan and motor
Table 10.8B
VSDefficiency =95%
HV23
VAV DX
with
Gas-Fired
Hydronic
Heating
ESP 2.0 in. w.c. HV7, 20
VAV CHW
(same as VAV
DX except...)
Fan-Coils
with DOAS
12.5 IPLV <150 tons
12.75 IPLV 150 tons
HV14
Yes HV10
DOAS fan and motor
HV23
RadiantSystems
with DOAS
Ducts and
Dampers
Alaska
Bethel (CA)
Dillingham(CA)
Fairbanks North Star
Nome (CA)
North Slope
Northwest Arctic
Southeast Fairbanks (CA)
Wade Hampton (CA)
Yukon-Koyukuk (CA)
Zone 8
E
n
v
e
l
o
p
e
Roofs
Metal building R-25.0 +R-11.0 +R-11.0 Ls EN4, 17, 19, 21
Walls
Mass (HC >7 Btu/ft
2
) R-19.0 c.i. EN5, 17, 19, 21
Floors
Mass R-23.0 c.i. EN10, 17, 19, 21
Steel joint R-60.0 EN11, 17, 19, 21
Slabs
EN12, 14, 17, 19,
2122
Heated R-20.0 full slab
EN1314, 17, 19,
2122
Doors
Continuous
Air Barriers
Vertical
Fenestration
WWR 20%to 40% EN25; DL6
Windoworientation
EN3031
EN2324
SHGC
EN24, 3233; DL12
D
a
y
l
i
g
h
t
i
n
g
/
L
i
g
h
t
i
n
g
Daylighting
Interior
Finishes
Ceilings =80%
Wall surfaces =70%
DL1415; EL4
DL4, 10; EL2, 4
Interior
Lighting
LPD 0.75 W/ft
2
DL15; EL23, 5,
1219
2
EL20
All other >50
EL68
Ballasts
EL8
DL1620; EL1, 11
Automatic controls
lighting
DL13; EL1, 5, 910
Exterior
Lighting
LPD=0.075 W/ft
2
2
in LZ2
EL23
LPD=0.1 W/ft
2
2
in LZ2
EL21, 2425
LPD=0.16 W/ft
2
2
in LZ2
EL22, 2425
LPD=follow90.1-2010
Controls =auto reduce to 25%(12amto 6 am)
EL2425
P
l
u
g
L
o
a
d
s
Equipment
Choices
Controls
PL3
Timer switches
PL3
S
W
H
SWH
t
WH15
H
V
A
C
Packaged
Single-Zone
Air-Source
Heat Pumps
WSHPs
with DOAS
Cooling =16.4 EER
Heating =5.2 COP
HV4
HV4
DOAS fan and motor
Table 10.8B
VSDefficiency =95%
HV23
VAV DX
with
Gas-Fired
Hydronic
Heating
ESP 2.0 in. w.c. HV7, 20
VAV CHW
(same as VAV
DX except...)
Fan-Coils
with DOAS
12.5 IPLV <150 tons
12.75 IPLV 150 tons
HV14
Yes HV10
DOAS fan and motor
HV23
RadiantSystems
with DOAS
Ducts and
Dampers
REFERENCES
ASHRAE. 2004. ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard90.1-2004, Energy Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise Residen-
tial Buildings. Atlanta: AmericanSocietyof Heating, RefrigeratingandAir-Conditioning.
ASHRAE. 2010a. ANSI/ASHRAE/IESStandard90.1-2010, Energy Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential
Buildings. Atlanta: AmericanSocietyof Heating, RefrigeratingandAir-Conditioning.
ASHRAE. 2010ba. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard62.1-2010, Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality. Atlanta: Ameri-
canSocietyof Heating, RefrigeratingandAir-Conditioning.
Briggs, R.S., R.G. Lucas, andZ.T. Taylor. 2003. Climateclassificationfor buildingenergycodesandstandards: Part 1
Development process. ASHRAE Transactions 109(1):109121.
Murphy, J . 2008. Energy-savingstrategiesfor rooftopVAV systems. HPAC Engineering, May, pp. 2835.
Stanke, D. 2006. Standard62.1-2004systemoperation: Dynamicreset options. ASHRAE Journal 48(12):1832.
Stanke, D. 2010. Dynamicreset for multiple-zonesystems. ASHRAE Journal 52(3):2235.
Taylor, S.T. 2006. CO
2
-basedDCV using62.1-2004. ASHRAE Journal 48(5):7177.
Recommendations for energy-savingmeasures for eachclimatezonearecontainedinthe
individual tables inChapter 4, Strategies andRecommendations by ClimateZone. Thefol-
lowinghow-totipsareintendedtoprovideguidanceongoodpracticesfor implementingtherec-
ommendationsaswell ascautionstoavoidknownproblemsinenergy-efficient construction.
ENVELOPE
OPAQUE ENVELOPE COMPONENTS
Good Design
Practice
EN1 Cool Roofs (Climate Zones: O O O)
For aroof tobeconsideredacool roof, aSolar ReflectanceIndex(SRI) of 78or higher is
recommended. A highreflectancekeepsmuchof thesunsenergyfrombeingabsorbedwhilea
highthermal emissivity surfaceradiates away any solar energy that is absorbed, allowingthe
roof tocool morerapidly. Cool roofsaretypicallywhiteandhaveasmoothsurface. Commer-
cial roof productsthat qualifyascool roofsfall intothreecategories: singleply, liquidapplied,
andmetal panels. ExamplesarepresentedinTable5-1.
Table 5-1 Examples of Cool Roofs
Category Product Reflectance Emissivity SRI
Single ply
White polyvinyl chloride (PVC) 0.86 0.86 107
White chlorinated polyethylene (CPE) 0.86 0.88 108
White chlorosulfonated polyethylene (CPSE) 0.85 0.87 106
White thermoplastic polyolefin (TSO) 0.77 0.87 95
Liquid applied
White elastomeric, polyurethane, acrylic coating 0.71 0.86 86
White paint (on metal or concrete) 0.71 0.85 86
Metal panels Factory-coated white finish 0.90 0.87 113
How to Implement
Recommendations
5
Thesolar reflectanceandthermal emissivitypropertyvaluesrepresent initial conditionsas
determinedby alaboratory accreditedby theCool Roof RatingCouncil (CRRC). AnSRI can
bedeterminedbythefollowingequation:
SRI =123.97 141.35( ) +9.655(
2
)
where
and
= solar absorptance=1 solar reflectance
= thermal emissivity
These equations were derived fromASTM E1980 (ASTM 2011) assuming a medium
windspeed. Notethat cool roofsarenot asubstitutefor theappropriateamount of insulation.
EN2 RoofsInsulation Entirely above Deck (Climate Zones: all)
The insulation entirely above deck should be continuous insulation (c.i.) rigid boards.
Continuousinsulationisimportant becausenoframingmembersarepresent that wouldintro-
ducethermal bridgesor short circuitstobypasstheinsulation. Whentwolayersof c.i. areused
inthisconstruction, theboardedgesshouldbestaggeredtoreducethepotential for convection
losses or thermal bridging. If aninvertedor protectedmembraneroof systemis used, at least
onelayer of insulationis placedabovethemembraneandamaximumof onelayer is placed
beneaththemembrane.
EN3 RoofsAttics and Other Roofs (Climate Zones: all)
Attics and other roofs include roofs with insulation entirely below (inside of) the roof
structure(i.e., atticsandcathedral ceilings) androofswithinsulationbothaboveandbelowthe
roof structure. Ventilatedattic spaces needto havetheinsulationinstalledat theceilingline.
Unventilated attic spaces may havetheinsulation installed at theroof line. When suspended
ceilingswithremovableceilingtilesareused, theinsulationperformanceisbest wheninstalled
at theroof line. For buildingswithatticspaces, ventilationshouldbeprovidedequal to1ft
2
of
openareaper 100ft
2
of atticspace. Thiswill provideadequateventilationaslongastheopen-
ingsaresplit betweenthebottomandtopof theatticspace. (SeeFigure5-1.)

(a) (b)
Figure 5-1 (EN3) Attics and Other Roofs(a) Ventilated Attic and (b) Cathedral Ceiling
Chapter 5How to Implement Recommendations | 109
EN4 RoofsMetal Buildings (Climate Zones: all)
Metal buildings pose particular challenges in the pursuit of designing and constructing
advancedbuildings. Themetal skinandpurlin/girt connection, evenwithcompressedfiberglass
betweenthetwo, ishighlyconductive, whichlimitstheeffectivenessof theinsulation. A purlin
isahorizontal structural member thatsupportstheroof covering. Inmetal buildingconstruction,
thisistypicallyaz-shapedcold-formedsteel member; asteel bar or openwebjoistscanbeused
for longer spans.
The thermal performance of metal building roofs with fiberglass batts is improved by
treatingthethermal bridgingassociatedwithfasteners. Useof foamblocks is aproventech-
nique to reduce thermal bridging. Thermal blocks, with minimumdimensions of 1 3 in.,
shouldbeR-5rigidinsulationinstalledparallel tothepurlins. (SeeFigure5-2.)
Thermal blockscanbeusedsuccessfullywithstandingseamroofsthatuseconcealedclips
of varyingheightstoaccommodatetheblock. However, athermal blockcannot beusedwitha
through-fastenedroof that isscreweddirectlytothepurlinsbecauseit diminishesthestructural
loadcarryingcapacitybysoftening theconnectionandrestraint providedtothepurlinbythe
roof.
Inclimatezones1through3, therecommendedconstructionisafilledcavity that hasthe
first layer of insulation, R-10, perpendicular toandover thetopof thepurlins andthesecond
layer of insulation, R-19, parallel toandbetweenthepurlins(seeFigure5-2a).
Inclimatezones4through7, therecommendedconstructionisaliner systemthat hasthe
first layer of insulationparallel to andbetweenthepurlins andthesecondlayer of insulation
perpendicular toandover thetopof thepurlins(seeFigure5-2b).
Inclimatezone8, therecommendedconstructionis aliner systemwiththefirst andsec-
ondlayersof insulationparallel toandbetweenthepurlinsandthethirdlayer of insulationper-
pendicular toandover thetopof thepurlins(seeFigure5-2c).
Rigidc.i. canbeaddedto provideadditional insulationif requiredto meet theU-factors
listedinAppendixA. Inanycase, rigidc.i. or other high-performanceinsulationsystemsmay
beusedprovidedthetotal roof assembly hasaU-factor that islessthanor equal totheappro-
priateclimatezoneconstructionlistedinAppendixA.
EN5 WallsMass (Climate Zones: all)
Masswallsaredefinedasthosewithaheatcapacity(HC) exceeding7Btu/ft
2
F. Insulation
maybeplacedoneither theinsideor theoutsideof themasonrywall. Wheninsulationisplaced
ontheexterior, rigidc.i. isrecommended. Wheninsulationisplacedontheinterior, afurringor
framingsystemmaybeused, providedthetotal wall assemblyhasaU-factor that islessthanor
equal totheappropriateclimatezoneconstructionlistedinAppendixA. (SeeFigure5-3.)
Thegreatest advantages of mass walls can beobtained when insulation is placed on its
exterior. Inthiscase, themassabsorbsheat fromtheinterior spacesthat islater releasedinthe
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 5-2 (EN4) Prefabricated Metal Roofs Showing Thermal Blocking of Purlins
(a) Filled Cavity; (b) Liner System, One Layer; and (c) Liner System, Two Layers
eveningswhenthebuildingsarenot occupied. Thethermal massof abuilding(typically con-
tained in the building envelope) absorbs heat during the day and reduces the magnitude of
indoor air temperatureswings, reducespeak coolingloads, andtransferssomeof theabsorbed
heat intothenight hours. Thecoolingloadcanthenbecoveredby passivecoolingtechniques
(natural ventilation) whentheoutdoor conditionsaremorefavorable. Anunoccupiedbuilding
canalsobeprecooledduringthenight bynatural or mechanical ventilationtoreducethecool-
ingenergyuse. Thissameeffect reducesheatingloadaswell.
Thermal massalsohasapositiveeffectonthermal comfort. High-massbuildingsattenuate
interior air andwall temperaturevariations andsustainastableoverall thermal environment.
Thisincreasesthermal comfort, particularlyduringmildseasons(springandfall), duringlarge
air temperature changes (high solar gain), and in areas with large day-night temperature
swings.
Designers should keep in mind that the occupants will be the final determinants on the
extent of theusability of any building system, including thermal mass. Changing theuseof
internal spaces and surfaces can drastically reducetheeffectiveness of thermal storage. The
final useof thespacemustbeconsideredwhendoingheatingandcoolingloadcalculationsand
incorporatingpossibleenergysavingsfromthermal masseffects.
EN6 WallsSteel Framed (Climate Zones: all)
Cold-formedsteel framingmembers arethermal bridges to thecavity insulation. Adding
exterior foamsheathingasc.i. isthepreferredmethodtoupgradethewall thermal performance
becauseit will increasetheoverall wall thermal performanceandtendstominimizetheimpact
of thethermal bridging.
Alternativecombinations of cavity insulationandsheathinginthicker steel-framedwalls
canbeusedprovidedthat theproposedtotal wall assembly has aU-factor that is less thanor
equal totheU-factor for theappropriateclimatezoneconstructionlistedinAppendix A. Batt
insulationinstalledincold-formedsteel-framedwall assembliesistobeorderedasfull width
batt, andinstallationisnormallybyfrictionfit. Batt insulationshouldfill theentirecavityand
not becut short. (SeeFigure5-4.)
EN7 WallsWood Frame and Other (Climate Zones: all)
Cavityinsulationisusedwithinthewood-framewall, whilerigidc.i. isplacedontheexte-
rior sideof theframing(seeFigure5-5). Caremust betakento haveavapor retarder onthe
warmsideof thewall andtouseavapor-retarder-facedbatt insulationproduct toavoidinsula-
tionsaggingawayfromthevapor retarder.
Figure 5-3 (EN5) Example Mass Wall Assembly
Alternativecombinationsof cavityinsulationsandsheathingsinthicker wallscanbeused
providedthetotal wall assemblyhasaU-factor that islessthanor equal totheappropriatecli-
matezoneconstructionlistedinAppendix A. Batt insulationshouldfill theentirecavity and
not becut short.
EN8 WallsMetal Building (Climate Zones: all)
In climate zones where a single layer of fiberglass batt insulation is recommended, the
insulationisinstalledcontinuouslyperpendicular totheexterior of thegirtsandiscompressed
as themetal panel is attachedto thegirts (seeFigure5-6). Inclimatezones wherealayer of
faced fiberglass batt insulation and a layer of rigid board insulation are recommended, the
layer of fiberglass is installed continuously perpendicular to the exterior of the girts and is
compressed as the rigid board insulation is installed continuously and perpendicular then
attached to the girts fromthe exterior (on top of the fiberglass). The metal panels are then
attached over the rigid board insulation using screws that penetrate the insulation assembly
intothegirts.
Figure 5-4 (EN6) Example Steel Frame Assembly
Figure 5-5 (EN7) Wood Frame and Other Walls
Inall climatezones, rigidc.i. is another optionprovidedthetotal wall assembly has a
U-factor that is less than or equal to the appropriate climate zone construction listed in
Appendix A.
EN9 WallsBelow-Grade (Climate Zones: all)
Insulation, when recommended, may be placed on either the inside or the outside of a
below-gradewall. If placedontheexterior of thewall, rigidc.i. isrecommended. If placedon
theinterior of thewall, afurringor framingsystemis recommended, providedthetotal wall
assembly hasaC-factor that islessthanor equal totheappropriateclimatezoneconstruction
listedinAppendixA. (SeeFigure5-7.)
EN10 FloorsMass (Climate Zones: all)
Insulation should be continuous and either integral to or above the slab. This can be
achievedbyplacinghigh-densityextrudedpolystyreneabovetheslabwitheither plywoodor a
thin layer of concreteon top. Placing insulation below thedeck is not recommended dueto
lossesthroughanyconcretesupport columnsor throughtheslabperimeter. (SeeFigure5-8.)
Exception: Buildingsor zoneswithinbuildingsthathavedurablefloorsfor heavymachin-
eryor equipment couldplaceinsulationbelowthedeck.
Figure 5-6 (EN8) Metal Building Walls
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 5-7 (EN9) Below-Grade Walls
(a) Exterior Insulation, (b) Interior Wood Framing, and (c) Interior Steel Framing
The outer surface of the wall is in contact with the earth,
and the inside surface is adjacent to conditioned or semi-heated space.
Whenheatedslabsareplacedbelowgrade, below-gradewallsshouldmeet theinsulation
recommendationsfor perimeter insulationaccordingtotheheatedslab-on-gradeconstruction.
EN11 FloorsMetal Joist or Wood Joist/Wood Frame (Climate Zones: all)
Insulationshouldbeinstalledparallel totheframingmembersandinintimatecontact with
theflooringsystemsupportedby theframingmember inorder to avoidthepotential thermal
short-circuitingassociatedwithopenor exposedair spaces. Nonrigidinsulationshouldbesup-
portedfrombelow, nolessfrequentlythanat 24in. oncenter. (SeeFigure5-9.)
EN12 Slab-on-Grade Floors, Unheated (Climate Zones: all)
Rigidc.i. shouldbeusedaroundtheperimeter of theslabandshouldreachthedepthlisted
intherecommendationor tothebottomof thefooting, whichever isless. Inclimatezone8, c.i.
shouldbeplacedbeneaththeslabaswell. (SeeFigure5-10.)
EN13 Slab-on-Grade Floors, Heated (Climate Zones: all)
Rigidc.i. shouldbeusedaroundtheperimeter of theslabandshouldreachto thedepth
listedor to thefrost line, whichever is deeper. Additionally, inclimatezone8, c.i. shouldbe
placedbelowtheslabaswell. (SeeFigure5-11.)
Note: Inareas wheretermites areaconcernandrigidinsulationis not recommendedfor
useunder theslab, adifferent heatingsystemshouldbeused.
(a) (b)
Figure 5-8 (EN10) Mass Floors(a) Insulation Above Slab and (b) Insulation Below Slab
Any floor with a HC exceeding 7 Btu/ft
2
F.
Figure 5-9 (EN11) Wood-Frame Floors
EN14 Slab Edge Insulation (Climate Zones: all)
Use of slab edge insulation improves thermal performance, but problems can occur in
regionsthat havetermites.
EN15 DoorsOpaque, Swinging (Climate Zones: all)
A U-factor of 0.37 corresponds to an insulated double-panel metal door. A U-factor of
0.61correspondstoadouble-panel metal door. If at all possible, singleswingingdoorsshould
beused. Doubleswingingdoorsaredifficult toseal at thecenter of thedoorsunlessthereisa
center post (seeFigure5-12). Doubleswinging doors without acenter post should bemini-
mized and limited to areas where width is important. Vestibules or revolving doors can be
addedtofurther improveenergyefficiency.
EN16 DoorsOpaque, Roll-Up, or Sliding (Climate Zones: all)
Roll-upor slidingdoorsarerecommendedtohaveR-4.75rigidinsulationor meet therec-
ommended U-factor. When meeting the recommended U-factor, the thermal bridging at the
(a) (b)
Figure 5-10 (EN12) Slab-on-Grade Floors, Unheated
(a) Perimeter Insulation and (b) Insulation Below the Slab
No heating elements either within or below the slab.
Figure 5-11 (EN13) Slab-on-Grade Floors, Heated
Heating elements either within (as shown) or below the slab.
door andsectionedgesistobeincludedintheanalysis. Roll-updoorsthat havesolar exposure
shouldbepaintedwithareflectivepaint (or shouldbehighemissivity) andshouldbeshaded.
Metal doorsareaprobleminthat theytypicallyhavepoor emissivityandcollect heat, whichis
transmittedthrougheventhebest insulateddoor andcausescoolingloadsandthermal comfort
issues.
If at all possible, useinsulatedpanel doorsover roll-updoors, astheinsulationvaluescan
approachR-10andprovideatighter seal tominimizeinfiltration.
EN17 Air Infiltration Control (Climate Zones: all)
Thebuilding envelopeshould bedesigned and constructed with acontinuous air barrier
systemto control air leakageinto or out of theconditionedspaceandshouldextendover all
surfacesof thebuildingenvelope(atthelowestfloor, exterior walls, andceilingor roof). Anair
barrier systemshouldalsobeprovidedfor interior separationsbetweenconditionedspaceand
spacedesignedtomaintaintemperatureor humidity levelsthat differ fromthoseinthecondi-
tioned spaceby morethan 50%of thedifferencebetween theconditioned spaceand design
ambient conditions. If possible, ablower door shouldbeusedto depressurizethebuildingto
findleaksintheinfiltrationbarrier. At aminimum, theair barrier systemshouldhavethefol-
lowingcharacteristics.
It shouldbecontinuous, withall jointsmadeairtight.
Air barrier materials used in framewalls should havean air permeability not to exceed
0.004cfm/ft
2
under apressuredifferential of 0.3in. w.c. (1.57lb/ft
2
) whentestedinaccor-
dancewithASTM E 2178(ASTM 2003).
Thesystemshouldbeabletowithstandpositiveandnegativecombineddesignwind, fan,
andstack pressures ontheenvelopewithout damageor displacement andshouldtransfer
theloadtothestructure. It shouldnot displaceadjacent materialsunder full load.
It shouldbedurableor maintainable.
Theair barrier material of anenvelopeassemblyshouldbejoinedinanairtight andflexi-
ble manner to the air barrier material of adjacent assemblies, allowing for the relative
movement of theseassemblies and components dueto thermal and moisturevariations,
creep, andstructural deflection.
Connectionsshouldbemadebetweenthefollowing:
Foundationandwalls
Wallsandwindowsor doors
Different wall systems
Wall androof
Wall androof over unconditionedspace
Figure 5-12 (EN15) Double Doors with a Center Post
Opaque doors with hinges on one side.
Walls, floors, androof acrossconstruction, control, andexpansionjoints
Walls, floors, androof toutility, pipe, andduct penetrations
All penetrationsof theair barrier systemandpathsof air infiltration/exfiltrationshouldbe
madeairtight.
EN18 Vestibules (Climate Zones: O O O O O)
Vestibules arerecommendedfor buildingentrances routinely usedby occupants, not for
emergencyexits, maintenancedoors, loadingdocks, or anyother specialtyentrances. Occupant
entrancesthat separateconditionedspacefromtheexterior shall beprotectedwithanenclosed
vestibule, with all doors opening into and out of the vestibule equipped with self-closing
devices. Vestibulesshall bedesignedsothat inpassingthroughthevestibuleit isnot necessary
for theinterior and exterior doors to open at thesametime. Interior and exterior doors shall
haveaminimumdistancebetweenthemof not lessthan7ft whenintheclosedposition. Vesti-
bulesshall bedesignedonlyasareastotraversebetweentheexterior andtheinterior. Theexte-
rior envelopeof conditionedvestibules shall comply withtherequirements for aconditioned
space. Either theinterior or exterior envelopeof unconditioned vestibules shall comply with
therequirementsfor aconditionedspace
Options
EN19 Alternative Constructions (Climate Zones: all)
Theclimatezonerecommendations provideonly onesolution for upgradingthethermal
performance of the envelope. Other constructions can be equally effective, but they are not
showninthisdocument. Anyalternativeconstructionthat islessthanor equal totheU-factor,
C-factor, or F-factor for the appropriate climate zone construction is equally acceptable. A
tableof U-factors, C-factors, andF-factorsthat correspondtoall therecommendationsispre-
sentedinAppendixA.
Procedures to calculate U-factors and C-factors are presented in ASHRAE Handbook
Fundamentals (ASHRAE 2009), andexpandedU-factor, C-factor, andF-factor tablesarepre-
sentedinAppendixA of ASHRAE/IESStandard90.1(ASHRAE 2010a).
Cautions Thedesignof buildingenvelopesfor durability, indoor environmental quality, andenergy
conservationshouldnot createconditionsof accelerateddeteriorationor reducedthermal per-
formanceor problemsassociatedwithmoisture, air infiltration, or termites.
The following cautions should be incorporated into the design and construction of the
building.
EN20 Truss Heel Heights (Climate Zones: all)
Wheninsulationlevelsareincreasedinatticspaces, thetrussheel height shouldberaised
toavoidor at least minimizetheeavecompression. Roof insulationshouldextendtotheexte-
rior of thewallstominimizeedgeeffects.
EN21 Moisture Control (Climate Zones: all)
Building envelope assemblies (see Figure 5-13) should be designed to prevent wetting,
high moisturecontent, liquid water intrusion, and condensation caused by diffusion of water
vapor. SeeChapter 24of ASHRAE HandbookFundamentals (ASHRAE 2009) for additional
information.
EN22 Thermal BridgingOpaque Components (Climate Zones: all)
Thermal bridging in opaque components occurs when continuous conductive elements
connectinternal andexternal surfaces. Theadverseeffectsof thermal bridgingaremostnotable
incoldclimates wherefrost candeveloponinternal surfaces andleadtowater droplets when
Figure 5-13 (EN21) Moisture Control for (a) Mixed Climates and (b) Warm, Humid Climates
(a)
(b)
theindoor temperatureincreases. Thesolutiontothermal bridgingistoprovidethermal breaks
or continuous insulation. Common problemareas areparapets, foundations, andpenetrations
of insulation.
Thethermal bridgeat parapetsisshowninFigure5-14a. Theproblemisthat aportionof
the wall construction is extended to create a parapet that extends above the roof to ensure
worker safetyper local coderequirements. Sincethewall insulationisontheouter faceof the
structure, it doesnot naturallyconnect totheinsulationat theroof structure. Onesolutionisto
wraptheparapet with c.i. in theappropriatelocations as shown in Figure5-14b; astructural
solutionistohaveanindependent parapet structurethat periodicallypenetratestheroof insula-
tionlinetolimit thethermal bridgingeffects.
Figure 5-14 (EN22) Thermal Bridges at Parapets
(a) Problem
(b) Solution
The thermal bridge in foundations is shown in Figure 5-15a. This detail usually occurs
becauseof constructionsequencesfor theinstallationof below-gradeworksearlyinthedesign
process. Itisoftenanoversighttocompletetheconnectionbetweenthebelow-gradeandabove-
gradethermal protectionsbecausetheinstallationsof theseelementsareseparatebothindisci-
plineandintimeperiodonsite. Designandconstructionteamsmust makeit clear that actionto
establishthermal continuityof theinsulationlineisaperformancerequirementof bothpartiesin
order toachieveatypical solutionasshowninFigure5-15b. Theinsulationabovegradeneeds
tobeprotectedwithasurfaceor coatingthat isweather resistant andabusetolerant.
Penetrations of insulation in which metal structural members must protrude fromthe
buildinginorder tosupport anexternal shadeor construction(balcony, signage, etc.) needto
Figure 5-15 (EN22) Thermal Bridges at Foundations
(a) Problem
(b) Solution
beinsulated. Inthesecases, theinsulationshouldwraptheprotrudingmetal piecewhenit is
withintheindoor cavity, andanadditional lengthof insulationshouldbeprovidedonitscon-
nection in each direction in order to prevent excessive heat transfer fromthe metal into the
internal wall cavity. It shouldbenotedthat afaadeconsultant canmodel thesetypesof situa-
tionstoadviseabout thevariouslengthsandthicknessesof insulationthat wouldbeneededto
limit adverseimpactsfromcondensationwithinthewall cavity.
EN23 Thermal BridgingFenestration (Climate Zones: all)
Incolder climates, it isessential toselect aglazingunit toavoidlargeamountsof conden-
sation. This requires an analysis to determine internal surface temperatures, since glass is a
higher thermal conductor as comparedto theadjacent wall inwhichit is mounted. Thereis a
risk of condensationoccurringontheinner faceof theglass whenever theinner surfacetem-
peratureapproachestheroomdew-point temperature.
Careful specificationis also necessary to ensurethat theframingof theglazedunits also
incorporatesathermal break.
A typical fenestrationsituationwherethermal bridgingarises is at thedetailingof howa
pieceof well-insulatedglazingabutstheopaquefaade, whether it bethroughametal mullion
systemor whether itjustframesintothewall. Windowsthatareinstalledoutof theplaneof the
wall insulationareanexampleof thisconstruction(showninFigure5-16a). Installingthefen-
estration outsideof theplaneof thewall insulation defeats thethermal break in thewindow
frame. In cold climates this causes condensation and frosting. Thenormal solution is not to
rebuildthewall but toblowhot air against thewindowtoincreasetheinterior surfacetempera-
tureof theframeand glazing, which increases thetemperaturedifferenceacross theglazing
andreducestheinterior filmcoefficient thermal resistancefrom0.68to0.25hft
2
F/Btu.
Fenestrationshouldbeinstalledtoaligntheframethermal breakwiththewall thermal bar-
rier (seeFigure5-16b). This minimizes thethermal bridgingof theframedueto fenestration
projectingbeyondtheinsulatinglayersinthewall.
Figure 5-16 (EN23) Thermal Break (a) at Window Frame and
(b) in Window Frame Aligned with Wall Insulation
(a) Problem (b) Solution
VERTICAL FENESTRATION
Good Design
Practice
EN24 Vertical Fenestration Descriptions (Climate Zones: all)
Fenestration refers to thelight-transmittingareas of awall or roof, mainly windows and
skylightsbutalsoincludingglassdoors, glassblockwalls, andtranslucentplasticpanels. Verti-
cal fenestrationincludesslopedglazingif it hasaslopeequal toor morethan60fromthehor-
izontal. If it slopes less than 60 fromthe horizontal, the fenestration falls in the skylight
category. Thismeansclerestories, roof monitors, andother suchfenestrationfall inthevertical
category.
Therecommendationsfor vertical fenestrationarelistedinChapter 4by climatezone. To
beuseful andconsistent, theU-factorsfor windowsshouldbemeasuredover theentirewindow
assembly, not just thecenter of glass. Look for alabel that denotesthewindowratingiscerti-
fiedby theNational FenestrationRatingCouncil (NFRC). Theselectionof high-performance
windowproducts shouldbeconsideredseparately for eachorientationof thebuildingandfor
daylightingandviewingfunctions.
The vertical fenestration descriptions listed in Table 5-2 are representative of types of
windows that could beused to meet therecommended U-factors and solar heat gain coeffi-
cient (SHGC) valuesintherecommendationtablesinChapter 4.
Tomeet theSHGC recommendationsfor vertical fenestrationinChapter 4, usetheSHGC
multipliersfor permanent projectionsasprovidedinTable5.5.4.4.1of ASHRAE/IESStandard
90.1-2010(ASHRAE 2010a). Thesemultipliersallowfor ahigher SHGC for vertical fenestra-
tionwithoverhangs.
EN25 Window-to-Wall Ratio (WWR) (Climate Zones: all)
The window-to-wall ratio (WWR) is the percentage resulting from dividing the total
glazed area of the building by the total exterior wall area. For any given WWR selected
Table 5-2 Vertical Fenestration Descriptions
CZ U-Factor SHGC VT Glass and Coating Gas Spacer Frame
1-3 0.46 0.23 0.51
Double clear, highly selective
low-e coating
Standard Broken aluminum
1-3 0.47 0.24 0.32 Double clear, low-e reflective coating Standard Broken aluminum
1-3 0.32 0.20 0.29 Double clear, low-e reflective coating Standard
Foam-filledvinyl or
pultruded fiberglass
4-5 0.34 0.25 0.51
Double clear, highly selective
low-e coating
Argon Insulated Broken aluminum
4-5 0.35 0.22 0.32 Double clear, low-e reflective coating Argon Insulated Broken aluminum
4-5 0.32 0.20 0.29 Double clear, low-e reflective coating Standard
Foam-filledvinyl or
6-7 0.31 0.39 0.50
Triple clear, low-e coating
for outer light only
Argon Insulated Broken aluminum
6-7 0.26 0.31 0.54 Double clear, low-e selective coating Argon Insulated
Foam-filledvinyl or
8 0.25 0.39 0.53
for outer and second lights
Argon Insulated
Aluminumthermally
isolated frame
8 0.22 0.36 0.53
for outer light only
Argonfill
both
spaces
Insulated
Foam-filledvinyl or
CZ=climatezone
between20%and40%, therecommendedvaluesfor U-factor andSHGCcontributetowardthe
50% savings target of the entire building. A reduction in the overall WWR will also save
energy, especially if glazing is significantly reduced on theeast and west faades. Reducing
glazingoneast andwest faades for energy reductionshouldbedonewhilemaintainingcon-
sistencywithregardtoneedsfor view, daylighting, andpassivesolar strategies.
WINDOW DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR THERMAL CONDITIONS
Uncontrolledsolar heat gainisamajor causeof energyusefor coolinginwarmer climates
andthermal discomfort for occupants. Appropriateconfigurationof windowsaccordingtothe
orientationof thewall onwhichtheyareplacedcansignificantlyreducetheseproblems.
EN26 Unwanted Solar Heat Gain is Most Effectively Controlled
on the Outside of the Building (Climate Zones: all)
Significantlygreater energysavingsarerealizedwhensunpenetrationisblockedbeforeit
enters the windows. Horizontal overhangs at the top of the windows are most effective for
south-facingfaadesandmust continuebeyondthewidthof thewindowstoadequately shade
them(seeFigure5-17). Vertical fins oriented slightly north aremost effectivefor east- and
west-facingfacades. Consider louveredor perforatedsuncontrol devices, especiallyinprimar-
ily overcast and colder climates, to prevent atotally dark appearancein thoseenvironments.
SeeDL12for moreinformationonshadingstrategies.
EN27 Operable versus Fixed Windows (Climate Zones: OB O O O O O)
Operablewindows play asignificant roleinembracingthecoreideaof indoor to outdoor
connectionandreachingout totheoutdoor environment andnature. Comparedtobuildingswith
fixed-position windows, buildings with well-designed operable window systems can provide
energyconservationadvantagesinofficebuildingsif occupantsunderstandtheir appropriateuse.
However, althoughoperablewindowsoffer theadvantageof personal comfort control and
beneficial connectionstotheenvironment, individual operationof thewindowsnot incoordi-
nationwiththeheating, ventilating, andair-conditioning(HVAC) systemsettingsandrequire-
Figure 5-17 (EN26) Windows with Overhang
ments canhaveextremeimpacts ontheenergy useof abuildings system. Advanced-energy
buildingswithoperablewindowsshouldstrivefor ahighlevel of integrationbetweenenvelope
andHVAC systemdesign. Mechanical systemsshouldbeshut off whenwindowsareopened.
First, theenvelopeshouldbedesignedtotakeadvantageof natural ventilationwithwell-
placedoperableopenings. A bottomwindowandatopwindowshouldbeopenedat thesame
time. Thisallowsthestack effect toset upaconvectioncurrent of airflowwhenthedifference
betweentheindoor andoutdoor temperaturesis10F or more. Operablewindowsystemscan
becontrolled manually or by button-based interlock through acentralized building manage-
ment system. It shouldbenotedthat ASHRAE Standard62.1(ASHRAE 2010b) requiresthat
occupantshavecontrol over openingsif they areusedfor natural ventilation(i.e., OA intake),
and the adaptive comfort model in ASHRAE Standard 55 (ASHRAE 2010c) requires that
occupantshavecontinuouscontrol over theopeningsif theyareusedaspart of anatural condi-
tioningsystem.
Second, themechanical systemshould useinterlocks and window switches on operable
windowstoensurethattheHVACsystemrespondsbyshuttingdownintheaffectedzoneif the
windowis opened. Thewindowinterlock zones needtobedesignedto correspondas closely
aspossibletotheHVAC zonesaffectedbytheopenwindows.
Third, in somecases open windows at night may beused to removethermal loads that
haveaccumulatedover thecourseof theday. Occupancytypesbest suitedtothisnight flushor
night purgeincludeareaswithnooccupancyduringthecool eveningandearlymorninghours.
Toallowfor thistohappen, thefollowingconditionsarerequired:
Footprint: narrowfloor plateandopen-planlayout
Operablewindows controlledby abuildingmanagement systemthat tracks thetempera-
ture of the slab, the temperature of the outdoors, and the external and internal relative
humidities
Solidslabs/exposedceilingslabsinconcretestructures
Minimal concernsover buildingsecurityrisksduetoopenwindows
Warm
Climates
EN28 Building Form and Window Orientation (Climate Zones: O O O)
In warmclimates, south-facing glass can bemoreeasily shielded and can result in less
solar heat gainandglarethancaneast- andwest-facingglass. Duringearlybuildingconfigura-
tionstudiesandpredesign, preferenceshouldbegiventositelayoutsthatpermitelongatingthe
building in theeast-west direction and that permit orienting morewindows to thenorth and
south. A gooddesignstrategyavoidsareasof glassthat donot contributetotheviewfromthe
building or to the daylighting of the space. If possible, configure the building to maximize
north- andsouth-facingwallsandglassbyelongatingthefloor plan. Sincesuncontrol devices
arelesseffectiveontheeast andwest faades, thesolar penetrationthroughtheeast- andwest-
facingglazingshouldbeminimized. Thiscanbedonebyreducingtheareaof glazingor, if the
glassisneededfor viewor egress, by reducingtheSHGC, or by utilizingautomatedoperable
shading systems. For buildings where a predominantly east-west exposure is unavoidable,
moreaggressiveenergy conservationmeasureswill berequiredinother buildingcomponents
toachieveanoverall 50%energysavings. SeeDL5andDL6for moreinformationonbuilding
orientationandshapeastheyrelatetodaylightingstrategies.
EN29 Glazing (Climate Zones: O O O)
For north- andsouth-facingwindows, selectwindowswithlowSHGCsandanappropriate
visibletransmittance(VT); seeEN33. Certainwindowcoatings, calledselective low-e, trans-
mit thevisibleportionsof thesolar spectrumselectively, rejectingthenonvisibleinfraredsec-
tions. These glass and coating selections can provide a balance between VT and solar heat
gain. Windowmanufacturersmarketspecial solar low-ewindowsfor warmclimates. All val-
uesarefor theentirefenestrationassembly, incompliancewithNFRC procedures, andarenot
simplycenter-of-glassvalues. For warmclimates, alowSHGCismuchmoreimportantfor low
energy usethanthewindowassembly U-factor. WindowswithlowSHGC valueswill tendto
havealowcenter-of-glassU-factor becausethey aredesignedtoreducetheconductionof the
solar heat gainabsorbedontheouter layer of glassthroughtotheinsideof thewindow.
EN30 Obstructions and Plantings (Climate Zones: all)
Adjacent taller buildings and trees, shrubs, or other plantings effectively shadeglass on
south, east, andwest facades. For south-facingwindows, remember that thesunishigher inthe
sky duringthesummer, soshadingplantsshouldbelocatedhighabovethewindowstoeffec-
tivelyshadetheglass. Also, becareful tonot blocksouthlight that isbeingcountedonfor day-
lighting. Whiletheshadingeffect of plants canreduceenergy consumption, it doesnt impact
equipment size. Thesizingof HVAC equipment relies ontheSHGC of theglass andshading
systemonly. Theglazingof fully shadedwindows canbeselectedwithhigher SHGC ratings
without increasingenergyuse.
Thesolar reflectionsfromadjacent buildingswithreflectivesurfaces(metal, windows, or
especially reflectivecurtain walls) should beconsidered in thedesign. Such reflections may
modifyshadingstrategies, especiallyonthenorthfacade.
Cold
Climates
EN31 Window Orientation (Climate Zones: O O O O)
Only thesouth glass receives much sunlight during thecold winter months. If possible,
maximize south-facing windows by elongating the floor plan in the east-west direction and
relocatewindows to thesouthface. Careful configurationof overhangs or other simplesolar
control devices will allow for passiveheating when desired but prevent unwanted glareand
solar overheatinginthewarmer months. To improveperformance, operableshadingsystems
shouldbeemployedthat achievesuperior daylight harvestingandpassivesolar gainsandalso
operatemoreeffectively whenfacingeast andwest directions. Unless suchoperableshading
systems areused, glass facingeast andwest shouldbesignificantly limited. Areas of glazing
facingnorthshouldbeoptimizedfor daylightingandviewandfocusonlowU-factorstomini-
mizeheat loss andmaintainthermal comfort by consideringtripleglazingto eliminatedrafts
anddiscomfort. Duringearly buildingconfigurationstudies andpredesign, preferenceshould
begiventosites that permit elongatingthebuildingintheeast-west directionandthat permit
orientingmorewindowstothesouth. SeeDL5andDL6for moreinformationonbuildingori-
entationandshapeastheyrelatetodaylightingstrategies.
EN32 Passive Solar (Climate Zones: O O O O)
Passivesolar energy-savingstrategiesshouldbelimitedtononpermanentlyoccupiedspaces
suchaslobbiesandcirculationareas, unlessthosestrategiesaredesignedsothat theoccupants
arenot affectedbydirect beamradiation. Consider light-coloredblinds, blindswithinthefenes-
tration, light shelves, or silk screen ceramic coating(frit) to control solar heat gain. In spaces
whereglareisnot anissue, theusefulnessof thesolar heat gaincollectedbythesewindowscan
beincreasedbyusinghardmassiveanddarker-coloredfloor surfacessuchastileor concretein
thelocationswherethetransmittedsunlightwill fall. Thesefloor surfacesabsorbthetransmitted
solar heatgainandreleaseitslowlyover time, providingamoregradual heatingof thestructure.
Consider higher SHGCandlow-eglazingwithoptimallydesignedexterior overhangs.
EN33 Glazing (Climate Zones: O O O O)
Higher SHGCsareallowedincolder regions, but continuoushorizontal overhangsarestill
necessarytoblockthehighsummer sunangles.
WINDOW DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR DAYLIGHTING
Good Design
Practice
EN34 Visible Transmittance (VT) (Climate Zones: all)
Using daylight in placeof electrical lighting significantly reduces theinternal loads and
saves cost on lighting and cooling power. In the U.S., it is estimated that 10% of the total
energygeneratedin24hoursisconsumedbyelectrical lightingduringdaytime. Thehigher the
VT, themoreenergythat canbesaved.
Theamount of light transmittedinthevisiblerangeaffectstheviewthroughthewindow,
glare, anddaylight harvesting. For theeffectiveuseof daylight, high-VT glazingtypes(0.60to
0.70) shouldbeusedinall occupiedspaces.
HighVT values arepreferredinpredominantly overcast climates. VT values below0.50
appear noticeably tinted and dimto occupants and may degradeluminous quality. However,
lower VT values may berequiredto prevent glare, especially ontheeast andwest faades or
for higher WWRs. Lower VT values may also beappropriatefor other conditions of lowsun
angles or light-coloredgroundcover (suchas snowor sand), but adjustableblinds shouldbe
usedtohandleintermittent glareconditionsthat arevariable.
Highcontinuous windows aremoreeffectivethanindividual (punched) or vertical slot
windowsfor distributinglight deeper intothespaceandprovidegreater visual comfort for the
occupants. Trytoexpandthetopsof windowstotheceilinglinefor daylighting, but locatethe
bottoms of windows no higher than 30 in. above the floor (for view). Daylighting can be
achievedwithhigher WWRs, whichcanleadtohigher heatingandcoolingloads.
EN35 Separating Views and Daylight (Climate Zones: all)
In some cases, daylight harvesting and glare control are not always best served by the
same glazing product. Perimeter zones in particular require better control of visual comfort
levels, whichcanmakeit necessarytoseparatedaylight glazingfromviewglazing.
Themost commonstrategy is to separate(split) thewindowhorizontally to maximizeday-
light penetration. For daylight glazing, which is located abovetheview window, between 6 ft
abovethefloor andtheceiling, high-VT glazingshouldbeused. Theviewwindowslocatedbelow
6ftdonotrequiresuchhighVT values, sovaluesbetween0.50and0.60areacceptabletoachieve
recommendedSHGCvalues. SeeDL7DL12for moreinformationonvertical glazingstrategies.
Windows bothfor viewandfor daylightingshouldprimarily belocatedonthenorthand
southfaades. Windowsontheeast andwest shouldbeminimized, astheyaredifficult topro-
tect fromoverheatingandfromglare. SeeDL4DL6for moreinformationonbuildingorienta-
tionandlayout inregardstodaylighting.
EN36 Color-Neutral Glazing (Climate Zones: all)
Thedesirablecolor qualitiesof daylightingarebest transmittedbyspectrallyneutral glass
typesthat alter thecolor spectrumthesmallest possibleextent. Avoidtintedglass, inparticular
bronze- andgreen-tintedglazing.
EN37 Reflectivity of Glass (Climate Zones: all)
To thegreatest extent possible, avoidtheuseof reflectiveglass or low-ecoatings witha
highlyreflectivecomponent. Thesereducetransparencysignificantly, especiallyatacuteview-
ingangles, wheretheyimpact thequalityof theview.
EN38 Light-to-Solar-Gain Ratio (Climate Zones: all)
High-performanceandselectivelow-eglazingpermit significantlyhigher VT thanreflec-
tivecoatingsor tints. Thelight-to-solar-gainratioisthecriterionfor statingtheefficacyof the
glass, indicatingtheability tomaximizedaylight andviewswhileminimizingsolar heat gain.
Intodaysmarkets, avarietyof cost-effectiveglasstypesareavailablewithhighlight-to-solar-
gainratios. Ratiosover 1.6areconsideredgood. Anyratiogreater than2.0isveryeffectiveand
will contributetoachievingthegoal of 50%energysavings.
EN39 High Ceilings (Climate Zones: all)
More daylight savings will be realized if ceiling heights are raised along the building
perimeter. Greater daylight savings can beachieved by increasing ceiling heights to 11 ft or
higher andbyspecifyinghigher VT values(0.60to0.70) for thedaylight windowsthanfor the
view windows. North-facing clerestories are more effective than skylights to bring daylight
intothebuildinginterior.
EN40 Light Shelves (Climate Zones: all)
Consider using interior or exterior light shelves between the daylight windows and the
view windows. These are effective for achieving greater uniformity of daylighting and for
extendingambientlevelsof lightontotheceilinganddeeper intothespace. Someexpertiseand
analysiswill berequiredtodesignaneffectivelight shelf.
REFERENCES
ASHRAE. 2009. ASHRAE HandbookFundamentals. Atlanta: AmericanSociety of Heating,
ASHRAE. 2010a. ANSI/ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1-2010, Energy Standard for Buildings
ingandAir-ConditioningEngineers.
ASHRAE. 2010b. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard62.1-2010, Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air
Quality. Atlanta: AmericanSociety of Heating, RefrigeratingandAir-ConditioningEngi-
neers.
ASHRAE. 2010c. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard55-2010, Thermal Environmental Conditions for
tioningEngineers.
ASTM. 2011. ASTM E1980-11, Standard Practice for Calculating Solar Reflectance Index of
Horizontal and Low-Sloped Opaque Surfaces. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM Interna-
tional.
ASTM. 2003. ASTM E2178-03, Standard Test Method for Air Permeance of Building Materi-
als. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International.
DAYLIGHTING
Daylightingisbasedonanintegratedapproachtodesignthatinfluencesthebuildingatevery
scale and level of design and during each phase of the design process. Multiple design
approachesandtechnologiescanbeappliedtoabuildingprojectwhenincorporatingdaylighting.
GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS
Whenconsideringdaylightinginabuildingdesign(seeFigure5-18), consider thefollow-
ingactions.
Useashallowfloor platesothat all employeesarewithin30ft of perimeter windowsfor
daylight andviews.
Locateopen-plan workstations next to windows and uselow partitions with translucent
materialssodaylight penetratesdeepintothebuilding.
Place corridors between open-plan workstations and private offices to use spill light to
supplement electriclightsincorridors.
Locateprivateofficesoneast andwest perimetersandinteriorsat theboundariesof day-
light zoneswithglazingparallel toperimeter walls.
Whennot locatedalongwindowwalls, buildconferenceroomswithglasswallsparallel to
perimeter walls.
Uselight-coloredmattefinishes topromoteinterreflections andbetter utilizationof elec-
triclight anddaylight.
Uselocal articulatedtasklightstosupplement daylight andelectriclight.
For controls, includedaylight dimminginopenoffices, timeswitches(timeclocks) incor-
ridors, andvacancysensinginprivateofficesandconferencerooms.
Figure 5-18 Daylighting Design Concepts
DL1 Daylighting Early in the Design Process (Climate Zones: all)
Inofficebuildings, theprogramandsiteplanarethemaindriversthat establishtheshape
andthefootprint of thebuilding. Planningcriteriaoftenresult increatingcompact, deepfloor
plates, whiledaylightingstrategiesattempt theoppositebyarticulatingandnarrowingthefloor
plate.
Theconfigurationof thebuildingfootprintisestablishedearlyinthedesignprocess, freez-
ing thebuilding depth early and locking in all futurepotential for daylighting. Thebuilding
footprint is the key factor for anticipating future design upgrades and improvements. A fre-
quent issuewithexistingbuildings is their depthof floor plate, whichprevents easy upgrades
withdaylightingandnatural ventilation.
This demonstrates two important aspects. One is the importance of integrating daylight
designcriteriabeforethefootprint is lockedinsothat thebuildingcanunfoldits full energy-
saving potential. Another is that space planning and energy-efficient design are inseparable
designcriteria, astheybothimpact theshapeandfootprint andareintegral driversof theshape
of thebuilding.
Daylight strategies impact thedesign at different levels of scalein each phaseof design
andcanbecharacterizedinfour categories.
Predesign. During predesign, the daylight strategies focus is on building configuration
studiesandtheshapingof thefloor plate. Thegoal istominimizedepthandmaximizeaccess
towindowsanddaylight by strategically placinglight wells, shafts, andatriumsandorienting
fenestration in apredominantly north- and south-facing direction. Theemphasis is on maxi-
mizingtheamount of occupiedspacethat has access to windows andonminimizingthedis-
tancefromthebuildingcoretotheperimeter.
Schematic Design. Duringtheschematicdesignphase, daylightstrategiesareaboutinteri-
ors, focusing on spatial considerations to optimize daylight penetration and defining ceiling
height, layout, andpartitionwall transparencywithclerestorywindowsfor borrowedlight. The
planningfocusisdirectedtowardcoordinatingspacetypesthat requiredaylight andviewsand
placingthemalongtheperimeter.
Design Development. During the design development phase, the daylighting strategies
focusisonenvelopedesigntooptimizequantityandqualityof daylightwhileminimizingsolar
gains. Theinterior designfocusisonsurfacereflectivityandoptimizingfurnitureandpartition
layout toalignwithvisual andthermal comfort requirements.
Construction Documents (CDs). Coordination of electrical lighting includes the place-
ment of photosensorsandoccupancysensorsfor controllingautomateddaylight switchingand
dimmableballasts.
DL2 Daylighting Analysis Tools to Optimize Design (Climate Zones: all)
This Guideis designedto helpachieveenergy savings of 50%without energy modeling,
butenergyanddaylightingmodelingprogramsmakeevaluatingenergy-savingtrade-offsfaster
anddaylightingdesignsfar moreprecise.
Annual savings will haveto becalculatedwithanannual whole-buildingenergy simula-
tiontool after thedaylightingdesigntoolshavebeenusedtodeterminethefootcandles(fc) in
thespaces andafter thewindows havebeenappropriately sized. Current daylightinganalysis
toolsdonot helpwithheatingandcoolingloadsor other energyuses; theypredict onlyillumi-
nationlevelsandelectriclightinguse.
DL3 Space Types, Layout, and Daylight (Climate Zones: all)
Inofficebuildings, daylight is akey requirement for all regularly occupiedspaces. Day-
lightingisessential for worker performance. It isadesignstrategythat dovetailswiththeeffort
tosaveenergythroughreductionof electriclight andcoolingloads.
Thegoal istoidentifythespacesthat best lendthemselvestodaylight harvestingandsav-
ingenergy andto recommendlayout strategies that allowlocatingspaces ontheperimeter of
thebuilding. Thepotential of energy saving through daylighting varies and depends on pro-
gramandspacetypes, whichcanbebroadly characterizedby thefollowingfour categoriesof
occupiedspaces.
Open-Plan Offices. Thesespacesarehigh-densitypopulatedspaces. Fromanenergyper-
formancestandpoint, thefirst priorityistolocateopenofficeareas, whicharethemost benefi-
cial spaces for harvesting daylight, on theperimeter, preferably in anorth- and south-facing
configuration. Thefollowingtipsapplytoopenofficespaces.
Locateworkstationsnext towindowswithintheprimary andsecondary daylight zonesto
maximizedaylight harvesting.
Uselowpartitions withtranslucent materials toallowdaylight topenetratethefull depth
of theprimaryandsecondarydaylight zones.
Uselocal articulatedtasklightstosupplement daylight andelectriclight.
Use appropriate combinations of controls, including daylight sensing, time clocks, and
vacancysensing.
Open-Plan Office Corridors. Avoidtheuseof luminairesinopen-planofficecorridorsby
utilizingspill light fromelectrical lightinganddaylighting. Locatecorridorsalongthebound-
aryof theperimeter daylight zonebetweentheopen-planofficeworkstationsandinboundpri-
vateofficesor conferencerooms.
Private Offices. Thesespacesarelow-densitypopulatedspaces. Locateprivateofficespaces
ontheeast- andwest-facingperimetersor ontheinterior at theboundary of thesecondary day-
lightzone. For privateofficesnotonthewindowwall, placeglazingalongtheprivateofficewall
thatisparallel toperimeter wall, whichallowsviewstowardwindows. Control bymanual ON sin-
gle-zoneoccupancysensorsor automaticON to50%two-zoneoccupancysensors.
Conference Rooms. Conference rooms are low-density populated spaces that build up
highinterior heat loadsfor alimitedperiodof time. Locateconferenceroomsontheinterior at
theboundary of thesecondary daylight zone. Usetranslucent or transparent glass walls that
exchangelight withadjacent corridorsandoffices. Placeglazingalongthewall that isparallel
totheperimeter wall, whichallowsviewstowardwindows. Whenlocatedontheperimeter, the
interior loadsandsolar radiationpenetratingtheperimeter wall accumulate, leadingtoescala-
tionof peakloadsandoversizingof HVACsystems. Asastrategytominimizepeakloads, con-
ferencerooms shouldbelocatedonnorthfaadeperimeters only or inboard, avoidingwest-,
south-, and east-facing perimeter walls. This approach is supported by prioritizing perimeter
spacefor permanentlyoccupiedspaces, whichmakebetter useof daylight andviewsthancon-
ferencerooms, whichremainunoccupiedinmanycases.
Public Spaces (Lobbies, Reception Areas, Waiting Areas, and Transitional Spaces).
Thesespacesprovidethebest opportunity for highceilingswithhigh, large-scalefenestration
and offer large potential for daylight harvesting and energy savings due to their depth and
potentiallyhighceilings.
Thefollowingrecommendationsapplytospacesthat arenot locatedonthebuildingperim-
eter but will allowfor additional energysavingsif theyaredesignedtofollowspecificrules.
Internal Corridors. Insingle-story buildings or ontop-level floors, wheresidelightingis
not available, toplighting should be used to provide daylight for corridors and contiguous
spaces. Make sure that reception areas, which are frequently placed in niches of circulation
areas, haveaccesstodaylight andviews.
Daylight Zone Definitions
The primary daylight zone depth extends one windowhead height into the space (head height is the
distance fromthe floor to the top of the glazing), and the width of the daylight zone is the width of the
windowplus two feet on each side. The secondary daylight zone extends fromthe end of the primary
daylight zone anadditional headheight into the space. Either daylight zone ends at a 5ft or higher ver-
tical partition.
Reception and Pantry Areas. Thesespaces arelow-density populated spaces. Useauto-
matic time controls that switch lights on during normal hours and off after hours but allow
manual override.
DL4 Building Orientation and Daylight (Climate Zones: all)
Effectivedaylightingbeginswithselectingthecorrect solar orientationof thebuildingand
thebuildings exterior spaces. For most spaces, thevertical faades that providedaylighting
shouldbeorientedwithin15 of northandsouthdirections. Sidelighteddaylightingsolutions
can also work successfully for other orientations, but they will require a more sophisticated
approach to shading solutions, and they would reach beyond therecommendations proposed
for accomplishingthegoalsstipulatedinthisGuide.
Context and Site. Ensure that apertures are not shaded by adjacent buildings, trees, or
componentsof theofficebuildingitself.
DL5 Building Shape and Daylight (Climate Zones: all)
Thebest daylightingresultsareachievedbylimitingthedepthof thefloor plateandmini-
mizingthedistancebetweentheexterior wall andanyinterior space. Narrowingthefloor plate
will inmost casesresult inintroducingcourtyardsandarticulatingthefootprint for better day-
light penetration.
Building Shape and Self-Shading. Optimizingthebuildingshapefor daylight translates
to balancing the exterior surface exposed to daylight and self-shading the building mass to
avoiddirect-beamradiation. Itemstoconsider includethefollowing.
Locatethemaximumamount of occupiedwithinminimumdistancetothebuildingperim-
eter for effectivedaylighting.
Shapethebuildingfootprint andplanfenestrationsothat all occupantsarewithin30ft of
perimeter fenestration.
Shapethebuildingfootprint toallowfor all regularly occupiedspaces within15ft of the
perimeter tobeequal toor exceed40%of thetotal floor platearea.
Ensurethat 75%of theoccupiedspaceislocatedwithin20ft of theperimeter wall.
Target thefloor platetoachieveadepthof 60ft wheretoplightingisnot anoption.
For sunnyclimates, designscanbeevaluatedonasunnydayatthesummer solar peak. For
overcast climates, atypical overcast day shouldbeusedtoevaluatethesystem. Typically, the
glazing-to-floor ratiopercentagewill increasefor overcast climates. Daylightingcanstill work
for anofficebuildinginaovercast climate; however, overcast climates oftenproducediffuse
skies, whichcreategooddaylightingconditionsandminimizeglareandheat gain.
Daylightingsystemsneedtoprovidethecorrect lightinglevels. Tomeet thecriteria, day-
light modeling and simulation may be required. Daylighting systems should be designed to
meet thefollowingcriteria.
Inaclear skycondition, toprovidesufficient daylight, illuminancelevelsshouldachievea
minimumof 25fcbut nomorethan250fc.
Inovercast conditions, daylightedspaces shouldachieveadaylight factor of 2%but not
exceedadaylight factor of 20%.
Thesamecriteriafor lightingquality andquantity apply toelectric lightinganddaylight-
ing. When thecriteriacannot bemet with daylighting, electric lighting will meet theillumi-
nance design criteria. The objectives are to maximize the daylighting and to minimize the
electric lighting. To maximize the daylighting without oversizing the fenestration, in-depth
analysismayberequired.
DL6 Window-to-Wall Ratio (WWR) (Climate Zones: all)
Therearetwostepstoapproachingwindowconfigurationandsizing. Thefirst isthat the
fenestration design should follow interior-driven design criteriasuch as occupancy typeand
requirements for view, daylight, andoutdoor connectivity. Thesecondsteptargets peak load
andenergy use, which limit windowsizeto comply with themechanical systems target. For
officebuildingstoachieve50%savings, theoverall WWR shouldnot exceed40%.
DL7 SidelightingCeiling and Window Height (Climate Zones: all)
For good daylighting in office-type spaces, a minimumceiling height of 9 ft is recom-
mended. Inpublic spacesandlobbiesthat extendtogreater depth, ceilingheight, at least par-
tially, shouldbe10to12ft. Whendaylightingisprovidedexclusivelythroughsidelighting, itis
important toelevatetheceilingontheperimeter andextendglazingtotheceiling. Additional
reflectancetoincreaselightinglevelscanbeachievedbyslopingtheceilinguptowardtheout-
sidewall. (SeeFigure5-19.)
Theeffectiveaperture(EA) for sidelightingistheareaof glazinginanunobstructedwall
multiplied by the VT of vertical glazing, divided by the floor area in the primary daylight
zones. TheEAs in therecommendation tables in Chapter 4of this Guidewerederived from
energy analysis for the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) Technical Support
Document: 50% Energy Savings Design Technology Packages for Medium Office Buildings
(Thornton, et al. 2009).
DL8 SidelightingClerestory Windows (Climate Zones: all)
Incases whereit is not possibleto placewindows inexterior walls for programmatic or
functional reasons, clerestorywindowsor windowbandsshouldbeconsideredfor daylighting.
Daylight deliveredabove7ft, at clerestory level, delivers thehighest illuminancelevel avail-
ablethroughsidelighting. (SeeFigure5-20.)
DL9 SidelightingBorrowed Light (Climate Zones: all)
Borrowedlight isaneffectivestrategyfor deliveringdaylight tocorridorsthat arelocated
behindspacesonthebuildingperimeter. Thecorridor wall frequentlyblocksandpreventsday-
light fromenteringdeeper intothebuilding. Partitioningthecorridor wall providessignificant
opportunities to daylight the corridor through borrowed light. Corridor partitions should be
designed with clerestory windows or window bands for perimeter spaces with a depth-to-
height rationolarger than2.5:1. (SeeFigure5-21.)
DL10 SidelightingWall-to-Wall Windows (Climate Zones: all)
Raisingwindowlevels to ceilinglevel is thefirst priority for deepeningdaylight penetra-
tion. However, tobalancelightlevelsintheroomandtomitigatecontrast, itisequallyimportant
(a) (b)
Figure 5-19 (DL7) (a) Raised Ceiling at Faade and (b) Sloped Ceiling at Faade
tomaximizewindowwidth. Byextendingthewindowwidthfromwall towall, theadjacentpar-
titioningwallsreceivegreater exposureandactasindirectsourcesof daylightwhilealsoachiev-
inggreater depthof daylight penetration. (SeeFigure5-22.)
Evenmoredaylightandawider rangeof viewcanbegainedbymakingthefirst2to3ftof
cellular partitioningwalls, wherethey meet theperimeter wall, transparent. This enlarges the
daylightedportionof theroomenclosureby50%to60%per space. (SeeFigure5-23.)
DL11 SidelightingPunched Windows (Climate Zones: all)
Incases wherewindowsizeis limitedandpunched windows cant beavoided, special
careshouldbetakeninplacingtheaperturestoavoidhighcontrastsandlowvisual comfort.
To ensurethat daylight is maximizedandlight levels aredistributedevenly, thewindow
apertureshould align with either of thepartitioning walls. This will mitigatecontrast differ-
ences, maximizethedepthof daylight reach, andalsomakethespaceappear larger. (SeeFig-
ure5-24.)
DL12 Shading Systems to Eliminate Direct-Beam Radiation (Climate Zones: all)
Essential for gooddaylight quality inofficebuildingdesignis theeliminationof uncon-
trolleddirect-beamsunlightimpactingworkstationareas. Direct-beamradiationcausesthermal
Figure 5-20 (DL8) Clerestory
Figure 5-21 (DL9) Borrowed Light in Corridor
Figure 5-22 (DL10) Maximized Window Width
Figure 5-23 (DL10) Transparent Partitioning Wall
Figure 5-24 (DL11) Punched Window Placed next to Partition Wall
discomfort andglare, whicharecritical toavoidinall officespacesbut lesscritical toavoidfor
some public spaces and corridors. Strategies should be used that bounce, redirect, and filter
sunlight sothat direct radiationdoesnot enter thespace.
Thesunisamovingsourceof energywithconstantlychangingdirectionsandintensitiesof
lightandheatradiation. Whenplanningtheexterior walls, designersfacethetaskof minimizing
thesolar heat loadbut maximizingglare-freedaylight under permanently changingconditions.
Thegoal istomaximizethelight-to-solar-heat-gainratiofor everyminuteof theday.
Shadingsystemsaredesignedtoreducesolar radiation. However, inmost casesthey also
inadvertently causeloss of valuabledaylight. As aresult, theelectric lights areswitched on
duringthepeak timeof day, causingcoolingloadandpower consumptiontopeak anddriving
HVAC sizing excessively/uncontrollably. This explains why in the process of developing a
shadingstrategy it becomes inevitableto acknowledgeandincludedaylightingas anintegral
component of thesystem.
Theeffectiveness of shadingsystems varies widely anddepends onasystems ability to
adapt tochangingconditions. Thisexplainswhydynamicsystemsthat operateondemandand
trackthepathof thesunaresignificantlymoresuccessful thanstatic/fixedsystems.
Shading Type Selection. To obtainthebest overall performanceresults, theselectionof
the right shading type should be based on considerations concerning both heat load and the
abilitytofacilitatedaylightandviews. Therearesixshadingtypestochoosefrom, asdiscussed
inthefollowing.
Fixed External Shading. Solar heat gainismost effectivelycontrolledwhenpenetrationis
blockedbeforeenteringthebuilding. Onedisadvantageof exterior shadingsystemscanbe
Protection from Direct Solar Radiation
Frosted Glass Fins
Source: Rick Lasser, Arup
Frosted glass fins at the northwest faade of the San Francisco Federal Office Building serve to pro-
tect the glass faade fromdirect solar radiation during the early afternoon hours, when the sun is at
shallowangles withrespect to the faade. Spacinganddepthof the fins are tunedto cut out direct sun
until after 4:00 p.m. on summer afternoons.
the accessibility issues for maintaining and cleaning the faade. Fixed devices are
designedtoperformbest at peak hours but work significantly less effectively outsidethe
optimizedtimerange. Therearetwodifferent configurationsof exterior shading:
Horizontal Devices. Overhangs, soffits, awnings, and trellises respond well to steep
solar anglesandworkbest onsouth-facingfaades. Passivesolar gainsarepossiblein
winter; however, additional interior shadingwill berequiredtocounter glare. A pro-
jection factor (PF) of 0.5 is typical. Overhangs are most effective and economical
whenthey arelocateddirectly abovetheglass andcontinuebeyondthewidthof the
window. (SeeFigures5-25aand5-25b.)
Vertical Devices. Vertical screens or horizontal louvers configuredinvertical arrays
workwhenorientedsouth, west, or east. (SeeFigure5-25c.)
Dynamic Shading Systems. Dynamic or operablesystems arethemost effectiveshading
devicesavailable, astheydont havetocompromiseononesinglepositionfor minimizing
heatgainandmaximizingdaylight. Themostcommontechnologiesusedarelouveredsys-
temsandfabric-basedroller shades, whichareabletoreducesolar heatgainbyasmuchas
80%to 90%while concurrently allowing for daylight and views. Operable systems are
motorized and controlled either manually or automatically and can be driven by solar
trackingtechnology.
Exterior Systems. On theexterior, operablesystems areless commonly used than fixed
systemsduetohigher maintenanceandvulnerability inwindy conditions. Thebest appli-
cations are found in double-skin faade systems, a rapidly emerging technology, where
accessibilityiseasier andweather protectionallowsfor morelightweight solutions.
Interstitial Systems. Operablelouversarelocatedbetweentheglasspanesinanintegrated
insulated glazing unit. Louvers are rotated, raised, and lowered electrically. This clean,
tidysolutionwithgoodaccessibilitylendsitself toapplicationinofficeenvironments. (See
Figure5-26.)
Solar Control
Double-Glazed Windows with Interstitial Blinds
Source: Gerard Healey, Arup
At the Syracuse Center of Excellence, double-glazed windows with frit and interstitial blinds provide
solar control. Alongthe bottomof the larger, fixed-glass windows there are also smaller, operable win-
dows to allowa mixed-mode approach.
Figure 5-25 (DL12) Fixed External Shading in (a and b) Horizontal Configuration
and (c) Vertical Configuration
(a)
(b)
(c)
Internal Shading Systems. Fixedinterior shadesor operableroller shadesystemsaretypi-
cally usedfor filteringlight to mitigateglareor to ensurethermal comfort against direct
solar radiation that has escaped theexterior shading devices. Internal shades usefabrics
withvariouscombinationsof SHGCs, opennessfactors, colors, andweavestoreduceheat
radiationandprovidethermal comfort andglareprotection.
Usinginternal shadingalone, without automateddaylight control systems, shouldnot
be a primary strategy for improving energy performance. Internal shading systems can,
however, beusedfor improvingvisual comfort. Interior light shelvescanalsoact asinter-
nal shades, but their increasedrequirement for cleaningandmaintenancerequiresserious
consideration.
Automated or Manual Operation. Thesuccessof daylightedspacesdependsonhowoccu-
pants interact with thedaylighting system. This is particularly truefor blinds or shades
thatareavailablefor adjustmentbyoccupants. Occupantsaremotivatedtoclosetheblinds
but not toreopenthem. If blindsareleft closed, thedaylightingpotential will not bereal-
ized. Automatedsystemsallowuser overridebut canbeprogrammedtoreset themselves
totheir system/performance-basedposition.
Also, if temporarydarkeningof aspecificspaceisnot functionallyrequired, donot install
shadesor blindsonthedaylightingglass. Unnecessaryblindswill resultinreducedperfor-
mance, increasedfirst costs, andhigher long-termmaintenanceexpenses.
DL13 Daylighting Control for Audiovisual Activities (Climate Zones: all)
If a space requires darkening for audiovisual or other functions, consider motorized
roller shades or motorizedvertical blinds for apertures that areout of reach. This may seem
asif it will result inhigher maintenancecosts, but suchcontrolscanhavetheoppositeeffect.
The mechanical stress placed on manual operators by the personnel (because of uneven
cranking) limitstheeffectivelifeof thesedevicestofewer than10years. Theinconvenience
associatedwiththeprocessalsoresultsinanumber of theseshadesbeingleft closed. Motor-
izedshades, whichcost moreupfront, provideoperators withgreater easeof operationand
result in a better-performing daylighting design. Some motorized devices can also be pro-
grammedtoreset intheopenpositionat thebeginningof eachday.
Televisionmonitorsor liquidcrystal display(LCD) projectorsrequirethatthelightlevel at
thespecific locationof thescreenfallsintherangeof 5to7fc for optimumcontrast. Slightly
higher levels(7to15fc) shouldstill provideacceptablelight levelsfor thevisual aids, but the
reducedcontrast will makethemharder toread.
Asanoptiontoshadingthedaylightingapertures, consider locatingthescreenor monitor
inapart of theroomthat haslessdaylight anddoesnot produceglareonthescreen.
Figure 5-26 (DL12) Operable Louvers Located between Glass Panes
DL14 Interior Finishes for Daylighting (Climate Zones: all)
Selectlightcolors(whiteisbest) for interior wallsandceilingstoincreaselightreflectance
andreducelightinganddaylightingrequirements. Minimumsurfacereflectancesareshownin
Table5-3. Thecolorsof theceiling, walls, floor, andfurniturehavemajor impactsontheeffec-
tivenessof thedaylightingstrategy.
Consider aceilingtileor surfacethat hasahighreflectivity. Makesurethat theceilingtile
reflectance includes the fissures within the acoustical tiles, as these irregularities affect the
amount of light absorbed. Do not assumethat thecolor of atilealonedictates its reflectance.
Whenselectingatile, specify aminimumreflectivity. Most manufacturerswill list thereflec-
tanceasif it werethepaint color reflectance. Thecommissioning(Cx) provider shouldverify
thereflectance. SeeEL1for additional informationoninterior finishes.
DL15 Outdoor Surface Reflectance (Climate Zones: all)
Consider thereflectancesof theroofs, sidewalks, andother surfacesinfront of theglazing
areas of thebuilding. Theuseof lighter roofingcolors canincreasedaylightingconcentration
and in some cases can increase indoor illuminance levels to reduce power consumption for
electrical lighting.
High-albedo roofs reflect heat instead of absorbing it; they help lower theheat load and
keepthebuildingcooler. Also, theheat-islandeffect isdiminished, whichlowerstheenviron-
mental temperature, whichcansupport natural ventilationthroughcourtyardfenestration.
Usecaution, however, whendesigninglight-coloredwalkwaysinfront of floor-to-ceiling
glazing. Light-coloredsurfaces will improvedaylightingbut canalso causeunwantedreflec-
tionsandglareimpactinginterior spaces.
DL16 Calibration and Commissioning (Climate Zones: all)
Evenafewdaysof occupancywithpoorlycalibratedcontrolscanleadtopermanent over-
ridingof thesystemandlossof savings. All lightingcontrolsmust becalibratedandcommis-
sioned after the finishes are completed and the furnishings are in place. Most photosensors
require daytime and nighttime calibration sessions. The photosensor manufacturer and the
quality assurance(QA) provider shouldbeinvolvedinthecalibration. Document thecalibra-
tionandCxsettingsandplanfor futurerecalibrationaspart of themaintenanceprogram.
DL17 Dimming Controls (Climate Zones: all)
Inall regularlyoccupieddaylightedspacessuchasstaff areas, continuouslydimrather than
switchelectriclightsinresponsetodaylighttominimizeoccupantdistraction. Specifydimming
ballaststhatdimtoatleast20%of full outputandthathavetheabilitytoturnoff whendaylight-
ingprovidessufficient illuminance. Provideameansandaconvenient locationtooverrideday-
lightingcontrols inspaces that areintentionally darkenedtouseoverheadprojectors or slides.
Thedaylightingcontrol systemandphotosensor shouldincludea15-minutetimedelayor other
meanstoavoidcyclingcausedby rapidly changingsky conditionsanda1-minutefaderateto
changethelight levels by dimming. Automatic multilevel daylight switching may beused in
Table 5-3 Minimum Reflectances
Location Minimum Reflectance
Wall segment above 7 ft 70%
Ceiling 70%(preferably 80%90%)
Light well 70%
Floor 20%
Furniture 50%
Walls segment below7 ft 50%
environments that are not regularly occupied, such as hallways, storage rooms, restrooms,
lounges, andlobbies.
DL18 Photosensor Placement and Lighting Layout (Climate Zones: all)
Correct photosensor placement is essential. Consult daylighting references or work with
thephotosensor manufacturer for proper locations. Mount thephotosensors in locations that
closely simulatethelight levels (or canbeset by beingproportional tothelight levels) at the
work planes. Depending on thedaylighting strategy, photosensor controls should beused to
dimparticular logical groupingsof lights. Implement alightingfixturelayout andcontrol wir-
ingplanthat complement thedaylightingstrategy. Insidelightedspaces, locateluminaires in
rowsparallel tothewindowwall, andwireeachrowseparately. Becauseof thestrongdiffer-
enceinlight that will occur closetothewindowandawayfromthewindow, havingthisindi-
vidual control bybankwill helpbalanceoutthespace. Inaspacethathasaskylight, install one
photosensor that controlsall theperimeter lightsandasecondthat controlsall thelightswithin
theskylight well.
DL19 Photosensor Specifications (Climate Zones: all)
Photosensors should be specified for the appropriate illuminance range (indoor or out-
door) andmust achieveaslow, smooth, linear dimmingresponsefromthedimmingballasts.
Inaclosed-loop system, theinterior photocell respondstothecombinationof daylight and
electric light in the daylighted area. The best location for the photocell is above an unob-
structedlocation such as themiddleof thespace. If usingalightingsystemthat provides an
indirect component, mount thephotosensor at thesameheight astheluminaireor inalocation
that isnot affectedbyuplight fromtheluminaire.
Inanopen-loop system, thephotocell respondsonlytodaylightlevelsbutisstill calibrated
tothedesiredlight level receivedonthework surface. Thebest locationfor thephotosensor is
insidetheskylight well.
DL20 Select Compatible Light Fixtures (Climate Zones: all)
First consider the use of indirect lighting fixtures that more closely represent the same
effectasdaylighting. Indirectlightingspreadslightover theceilingsurface, whichthenreflects
thelight tothetasklocations; withtheceilingasthelight source, indirect lightingismoreuni-
formandhaslessglare.
Inaddition, insist oncompatibility betweenballasts, lamps, andcontrols. Ensurethat the
lamps can bedimmed and that thedimming ballasts, sensors, and controls will operateas a
system.
REFERENCES
IES. 2011. The Lighting Handbook, 10thed. NY: IlluminatingEngineeringSociety of North
America.
ings, PNNL-19004. Richland, WA: PacificNorthwest National Laboratory.
ELECTRIC LIGHTING
INTERIOR LIGHTING
Goals for
Office
Lighting
Theprimary lighting goals for officelighting areto optimizetheopen officespaces for
daylight integration and to provideappropriatelighting levels in theprivateand open office
spaceswhilenot producingadull environment. (SeeFigure5-27.)
Good Design
Practice
EL1 Savings and Occupant Acceptance (Climate Zones: all)
When using automatic daylight harvestingcontrols and occupancy sensors to reducethe
electriclightingwhendaylight ispresent andwhenthespaceisunoccupied, it isvitallyimpor-
tant to commissionthecontrol systems. A goodcontrol systemwill beinvisibleto theoccu-
pants, but theyshouldbeeducatedontheenergy-savingbenefitsof thesystemandtospot and
report systemsthat appear tobemalfunctioning.
EL2 Space PlanningOpen Offices (Climate Zones: all)
To maximizetheenergy savings fromdaylight harvesting, theopen officeworkstations
shouldbelocatedonthenorthandsouthsidesof thebuilding, andall workstationsneedtobe
withintheprimaryandsecondarydaylight zones. Thislimitstheworkstationstoonlytwodeep
fromthewindowwall. Additionally, thepartitionsseparatingtheworkstationsthat areparallel
to the window wall must be no taller than 36 in. or be at least 50%translucent above desk
height toallowdaylight toreachthesecondworkstation.
Figure 5-27 Open Office Space Planning
EL3 Space PlanningPrivate Offices, Conference Rooms, and Break Rooms
(Climate Zones: all)
East- andwest-facingspaces arethemost difficult to daylight dueto lowsunangles and
thetendency of tenants to closeblinds. Locateprivateoffices, conferencerooms, and break
roomsontheeast andwest sidesof thebuildingandusemanual ON occupancysensorswitha
daylight overridetosavethemost energyinthesespaces.
EL4 Light-Colored Interior Finishes (Climate Zones: all)
For electrical lightingtobeusedefficiently, surfacesmusthavelight-coloredfinishes. Ceil-
ingreflectanceshouldbeat least 80%(preferably 90%), whichingeneral meansusingsmooth
whiteacoustical tileor ceilingpaint. Theaveragereflectanceof thewallsshouldbeatleast50%,
whichingeneral means usinglight tints or off-whitecolors for thewall surfaces, as thelower
reflectanceof doors, tacksurfaces, windowsandother objectsonthewallswill reducetheaver-
age. Floor surfacesshouldbeat least 20%; for thistherearemanysuitablesurfaces.
Inopen-planoffices, cubiclepartitionsshouldalsohaveareflectanceof at least 50%. Par-
titionsbetweencubiclesthat areparallel tothewindowwall shouldbeat least 50%translucent
or belimitedto36in. tomaximizedaylight potential.
Inaddition, taketheshapeandfinishof theceilingintoaccount. A flat paintedor acousti-
cal tile ceiling is the most efficient; sloping ceilings and exposed roof structures, even if
paintedwhite, maysignificantlyreducetheeffectiveceilingreflectivity. Makesuretheceiling
andall componentsarepaintedahigh-reflectancewhite.
Reflectancevaluesareavailablefrompaint, carpet, andceilingtilemanufacturers. Reflec-
tanceshouldbeverifiedbytheQA provider.
EL5 Task Lighting (Climate Zones: all)
If thespace-planning recommendations in EL2 and EL3 arefollowed by locating office
spaces inthedaylight zones, task lightingshouldnot beneededduringthedaylight hours. In
daylight zones, task lights shouldbeevaluatedonaneeds basis andshouldnot beautomati-
cally installedat eachworkstation. If task lights areinstalledinthedaylight zones, providea
time-clock circuit for the task lights that is set to switch the task lights off during daylight
hours. Connect all tasklightstoplugstripsthat haveintegratedlocal occupancysensorstoturn
thelightsoff whenthespaceisunoccupied.
Periodicallyconfirmthattasklightsarecontrolledandareturnedoff duringdaylighthours
andwhenoccupantsleavethespacesduringnondaylight hours.
EL6 Color Rendering Index (CRI) (Climate Zones: all)
TheColor RenderingIndex (CRI) is ascalemeasurement identifyingalamps ability to
adequatelyreveal color characteristicsof objectsandpeople. Thescalemaximizesat 100, with
100indicatingthebest color-renderingcapability. All fluorescent lampsrecommendedinthis
guideareratedat 80CRI or greater.
EL7 Color Temperature (Climate Zones: all)
The color temperature is a scale identifying a lamps relative warmth or coolnessthe
higher thecolor temperature, thebluer thesource. Useeither 3500K, 4100K, or 5000K fluores-
cent lamps.
Therearepreliminary studies showing that higher-color-temperaturelight, in the5000K
rangeinstead of the3500K range, may providebetter visual acuity; however, 5000K lamps
may produceanartificially cool-lookingbuildingat night. Thehigher 4100K or 5000K color
temperaturewill also match thedaylight fromwindows and skylights moreclosely than the
lower 3500K color-temperaturesources.
Create a purchasing plan to buy lamps in only one color temperature to maintain color
consistencyduringspot and/or grouprelamping.
EL8 Linear Fluorescent Lamps and Ballasts (Climate Zones: all)
Toachievethelightingpowerdensity(LPD) recommendationsinChapter4, high-performance
T8 lamps and high-performanceelectronic ballasts areused for general lighting. All fluorescent
lampsaretemperaturesensitiveandproducelower lightlevelsincoldandhotenvironments. What
ismorecritical isspecifyingthenewenergy-savingT8andT5HOlamps.
T8 High-Performance Lamps. High-performanceT8lampsaredefined, for thepurpose
of this Guide, as having alamp efficacy of 90+nominal lumens per watt (LPW), based on
meanlumensdividedby thecatalogedlampinput watts. Meanlumensarepublishedinlamp
catalogsasthereducedlumenoutput that occursat 40%of thelampsratedlife. High-perfor-
manceT8salsoaredefinedashavingaCRI of 81or higher and94%lumenmaintenance. The
high-performancelampisavailablein32Wrapidstartand30, 28, and25Winstantstartlamps.
Table5-4liststheaveragemeanLPWof thecommonlymanufactured4ft T8lamps.
Ballasts. Theballast factor (BF) is ameasureof therelativelight output of theballast. A
BF of 1.0wouldmeanthat theballast is drivingthelampto produce100%of theratedlamp
lumens. Light output andwattagearerelatedthelower theBF thelower that wattageandthe
lower thelight output. Normal BF ballasts arein the0.85 to 1.0 range, with most at 0.87 or
0.88. Low-BF ballasts, withBFsbelow0.85, canbeusedtoreducethelightoutputandwattage
of thesystemwhenthelayout of thefixtures will overlight thespace. High-BF ballasts, with
BFs above1.0, canbeusedto increasethelight output of thelampinareas wherethefixture
layout will underlight thespacewattagewill goupproportionallytotheBF.
Choosing Premium T8 Ballasts
NEMA PremiumBallasts
Source: Michael Lane, Lighting Design Lab
When choosing a high-performance electronic ballast, look for the National Electrical Manufacturers
Association (NEMA) Premiummark on the ballast. This mark identifies ballasts that meet the Consor-
tium for Energy Efficiency specifications for the most energy-efficient high-performance T8 ballasts
available fromballast manufacturers. Generally the high-performance ballast will use 3 to 4 W less
than a standard electronic ballast on a two-lamp T8 system.
Ballast efficacy factor (BEF) isatermusedtocomparetheefficienciesof different lamp/
ballast systems. BEF is[(BF 100) / ballast input wattage]. Unfortunately, thecalculatedBEF
changesduetothenumber of lampstheballast drives, sofor thisGuidewemodifytheBEF by
multiplyingthecalculatedBEF by thenumber of lamps togenerateaBEF-P (ballast efficacy
factorprime).
Instant Start Ballasts. High-performanceelectronic instant start ballasts aredefined, for
thepurposeof thisGuide, ashavingaBEF-P of 3.15or greater.
For energy-savingT8lamps, theBEF-P for 30Wsystemsis3.3or greater, for 28Wsys-
temsit is3.6or greater, andfor 25Wsystemsit is3.9or greater.
Instant start T8ballastsprovidethegreatest energysavingsoptionsandaretheleast costly
option. Additionally, theparallel lampoperationallows onelampto operateevenif theother
burnsout.
Caution: Instantstartballastsmayreducelamplifewhencontrolledbyoccupancysensors
or daylight switchingsystems. However, evenif theratedlamplifeisreducedby 25%, if
duetotheoccupancysensor thelampisoff morethan25%of thetime, thenthesocket life
(thelengthof timebeforethelampsarereplaced) will begreater. If extendedsocket lifeis
desired, consider programrapidstart ballasts.
Program Rapid Start Ballasts. High-performanceelectronic programrapidstart ballasts
aredefined, for thepurposeof thisGuide, ashavingaBEF-Pof 3.00or greater. Whileprogram
rapid start ballasts arenormally recommended on occupancy-sensor-controlled lamps dueto
increasedlamplife, programrapidstartballastsuseapproximately5%morepower thaninstant
start ballasts. For therecommendationsinthisGuide, programrapidstart ballastsarenot used
Table 5-4 4 ft T8 Lamp Efficacy
T8 Lamp Description Watts
Lumens
Mean LPW
Color Temperature,
K
Initial Mean
F32T8/RE70 32 2800 2613 82 300, 3500, 4100
F32T8/RE70 32 2717 2535 79 5000
F32T8/RE80 32 2950 2807 88 3000, 3500, 4100
F32T8/RE80 32 2800 2660 83 5000
F32T8/RE80/HP 32 3100 2937 92 3000, 3500, 4100
F32T8/RE80/HP 32 3008 2848 89 5000
F32T8/25W/RE80 25 2458 2344 94 3000, 3500, 4100
F32T8/25W/RE80 25 2350 2241 90 5000
F32T8/28W/RE80 28 2725 2599 93 3000, 3500, 4100
F32T8/28W/RE80 28 2633 2509 90 5000
F32T8/30W/RE80 30 2850 2717 91 3000, 3500, 4100
F32T8/30W/RE80 30 2783 2653 88 5000
Note: Yellow-shadedlinesindicatelampsthat complywiththerecommended90+meanlumensper watt (LPW).
BEF-P Calculation
Froma lamp catalog it is known that a two-lamp ballast with 32 W lamps uses 55 W and has a BF of
0.87. With this information, calculate the BEF and BEF-P as follows.
BEF =(0.87 100)/55 =1.58
BEF-P =1.58 2 =3.16
A BEF-P of 3.16 passes the required minimumof 3.0.
toachievetheLPDsintherecommendationtablesinChapter 4, butprogramrapidstartballasts
maybeusedaslongastheLPDsinChapter 4arenot exceeded.
Caution: Usingprogramrapidstart ballastswill result inslightly higher power consump-
tionwiththesamelight level. Thewattageandlight levelswill needtobereducedinother
areastomeet theLPDrecommendationsinChapter 4.
Dimming Ballasts. High-performance dimming ballasts are defined, for the purpose of
this Guide, as havingaBEF-P of 3.00or greater. Dimmingballasts areusedalongwithday-
light controlsinall openofficespaces.
T5 Lamps and Ballasts. T5HOandT5lampshaveinitial LPWthat comparefavorablyto
thehigh-performanceT8s. In addition to using less energy, T5s usefewer natural resources
(glass, metal, phosphors) thanacomparablelumenoutput T8system. However, whenevaluat-
ingthelampandballastatthemeanlumensof thelamps, T5HOlampsperformmorepoorly.
Oninstant start ballasts, high-performanceT8s are13%moreefficient thanT5s. Inaddition,
sinceT5s havehigher surfacebrightness they should not beused in open-bottomfixtures. It
may bedifficult to achievetheLPD recommendations inChapter 4andmaintainthedesired
light levelsusingcurrent T5technologyastheprimarylight source.
EL9 Occupancy Sensors (Climate Zones: all)
In every application it should not bepossiblefor theoccupant to overridetheautomatic
OFF setting, evenif set for manual ON. Unlessotherwiserecommended, factory-set occupancy
sensorsshouldbeset for mediumtohighsensitivitywitha15-minutetimedelay(theoptimum
timetoachieveenergysavingswithout creatingfalseOFF events). Workwiththemanufacturer
for proper sensor placement, especiallywhenpartial-height partitionsarepresent.
Periodically confirmthat occupancy sensors areturning thelights off after theoccupant
leavesthespace. Figure5-28showsatypical occupancy-sensingcontrol setup.
Classrooms; conference, meeting, andtrainingrooms; employeelunchandbreak rooms;
storage and supply rooms between 50 and 1000 ft
2
; rooms used for document copying and
printing; officespacesupto250ft
2
; restrooms; anddressingandlocker roomsareoftenfound
inofficebuildings. ThisGuiderecommendsthat thesespacetypeshaveoccupancysensors.
Thegreatest energy savings areachievedwithmanual ON/automatic OFF occupancy sen-
sorsor sensorswithautomaticON to50%light level. Thisavoidsunnecessaryoperationwhen
electriclightsarenot neededandgreatlyreducesthefrequencyof switching.
Caution: Confirmthat theoccupancysensor isset tomanual ON operationduringinstalla-
tion. Manymanufacturersshipsensorswithadefault settingof automaticON.
Open Office. In open-plan offices, ceiling-mounted ultrasonic sensors should be con-
nected to an automatic or momentary contact switch so that the operation always reverts to
Figure 5-28 (EL9) Occupancy-Sensing Control
ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1-2010 Occupancy Sensor Requirements
Occupancy sensors are required in ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1-2010 in the following spaces: class-
rooms; conference, meeting, and training rooms; employee lunch and break rooms; storage and sup-
ply rooms between 50 and 1000 ft
2
; rooms used for document copying and printing; office spaces up
to 250 ft
2
; restrooms; and dressing, locker, and fitting rooms.
Standard 90.1-2010 requires that occupancy sensors either shall be manual ON or shall be controlled
to automatically turn the lighting on to not more than 50%power, except in public corridors, stairwells,
restrooms, primary building entrance areas and lobbies, and areas where manual ON operation would
endanger the safety or security of the roomor occupants where full automatic ON is allowed.
Automatic Light Levels with Occupancy Sensors
Dual-Circuit Occupancy Sensor
Toachievetheautomatic ON to50%light level, useadual-circuit occupancysensor withswitch 1set to
automatic ON and switch 2 set to manual ON.
Circuit switch 1 to do one of the following:
turn on half of the fixtures with half of the lamps in each fixture
turn on all of the lamps in all of the fixtures to a 50%dimlevel
Circuit switch 2 to turn on the remainder of the lighting in the space.
In a small office with two fixtures, circuit switch 1 to control the fixture farthest fromthe window and
switch 2 to control the fixture closest to the window.
ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1-2010 Lighting Control Requirements
ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1-2010 requires that in all spaces the controlled lighting shall have at least
one control step between 30%and 70%(inclusive) of full lighting power in addition to all OFF except in
corridors, electrical/mechanical rooms, public lobbies, restrooms, stairways, and storage rooms.
manual ON after either manual or automatic turn-off. Automatic timeschedulingisanalterna-
tivetooccupancysensorsinopen-planoffices.
Private Offices, Conference Rooms, and Break Rooms. In private offices, conference
rooms, and break rooms in daylight zones, dual-circuit infrared wall box sensors with inte-
grateddaylight overrideshouldbepreset for manual ON/automaticOFF operationor automatic
ON to 50%. Inprivateoffices, conferencerooms, andbreak rooms not indaylight zones, use
manual ON/automaticOFF without daylight override.
Other Areas. Innondaylightedareas, ceiling-mountedoccupancysensorsarepreferred.
EL10 Multilevel Switching (Climate Zones: all)
Specifyluminaireswithmultiplelampstobefactorywiredfor inboard-outboardswitching
or in-lineswitching. Theobjectiveis to havemultiplelevels of light uniformly distributedin
thespace. Avoidcheckerboardpatternsof turningevery other fixtureoff inmediumandlarge
spaces. Inopenofficeandlargeopenareas, avoidnonuniformswitchingpatternsunlessdiffer-
ent areasof thelargespaceareusedat different timesor for different functions.
EL11 Daylight-Responsive Controls (Climate Zones: all)
Daylight controlsareusedinall openofficeareasinboththeprimaryandsecondaryday-
light zones. Locate a separate photocell in the center of each of the primary and secondary
zones. Factory-setting of calibrations should bespecified when feasibleto avoid field labor.
Lighting calibration and commissioning should be performed after furniture installation but
prior tooccupancytoensureuser acceptance.
EL12 Exit Signs (Climate Zones: all)
Uselight-emittingdiode(LED) exitsignsor other sourcesthatconsumenomorethan5W
per face. Theselected exit sign and sourceshould providetheproper luminanceto meet all
buildingandfirecoderequirements.
EL13 Light Fixture Distribution (Climate Zones: all)
Recessed high-performance lensed fluorescent fixtures should be used as the standard
light fixture throughout the design. The high-performance lensed fixture is not the old-style
1960sflatprismaticlensedfluorescentfixture. Nor isit theindirectbasket stylefixtureintro-
duced by manufacturers in the late 1990s. These high-performance lensed fixtures were all
introducedafter 2005andhavefixtureefficienciesof 85%or higher. Other fixturetypes, such
aspendant-mounteddirect/indirect, pendant-mounteddirect, recessedparabolic, recessedindi-
rect basket, and lensed fluorescent fixtures, may be able to meet the watts-per-square-foot
allowanceintherecommendationsinChapter 4, but theilluminancelevelswill belower.
Sample
Design
Layouts
for Office
Buildings
The0.75W/ft
2
goal for LPD (shownineachrecommendationtableinChapter 4) repre-
sentsanaverageLPDfor theentirebuilding. Individual spacesmay havehigher power densi-
ties if they areoffset by lower power densities inother areas. Theexampledesigns described
belowoffer a way, but not the only way, that thiswatts-per-square-foot limit canbemet. Day-
lighting(seeDL17) isassumedinall openofficeplansandunder all skylights.
TheexamplesinEL14throughEL20arebasedonanational averagebuildingspacedis-
tribution. Nobuildingisaverageandeachbuildingwill haveadifferentspaceallocation. When
followingtherecommendations below, adjust thestandardspaceallocationto matchthespe-
cificbuildingsspaceallocation.
Onanational average, atypical officebuildingwill havethefollowingspacedistribution:
Openoffice16%
Privateoffices25%
Conferencerooms10%
Corridors10%
Storage15%
Restrooms4%
Staff breakrooms3%
Electrical/mechanical rooms3%
Stairways2%
Lobby6%
Other6%
EL14 Open-Plan Offices (Climate Zones: all)
Thetarget lightinginopenofficesis30averagemaintainedfootcandlesfor ambient light-
ing, withapproximately 50fc providedonthedesktopby acombinationof theambient light
anddaylight. Supplemental tasklightingisonlyrequiredduringnondaylight hours.
Open-planofficeareasaccount for approximately 16%of thefloor areaandaredesigned
to0.68W/ft
2
, not includingtasklightingwattage(seeEL5for recommendationsontask light-
ing). Assumingan88ftworkstationandalayoutthatisonlytwodeepfromthewindowwall
keepsall openofficework areasinsidethedaylight zones. Usedaylight dimmingballastsand
separatephotocell control intheprimary andsecondary daylight zones (seethedefinitions of
primary and secondary daylight zones near DL3). Use occupancy sensor local control or
scheduling on all luminaires (seeEL9 and EL10). Depending on theheight of thepartitions
that separatethecorridor fromtheworkstations, it is possiblethat thecorridor will belighted
Recessed High-Performance Lensed Fluorescent Fixtures
Fixture Example #1
Fixture Example #2
Recessed high-performance lensed fluorescent fixtures are available frommore than six lighting man-
ufacturers. The distinguishing feature of these fixtures is an optical lens (or lenses) that direct the light
to the workstation. This lens is not the flat prismatic lens common to the old lensed fluorescent troffer.
by theworkstationlight fixtures. Usecompact fluorescent downlights or wall sconces to add
additional illumination to thecorridor as needed. SeeFigure5-29 for an exampleopen-plan
officelayout.
EL15 Private Offices (Climate Zones: all)
The target lighting in private offices is 30 average maintained footcandles for ambient
lighting, with approximately 50fc provided on thedesktop by acombination of theambient
light and daylight. Supplemental task lighting is only required during nondaylight hours. A
samplelayout for aprivateofficeisshowninFigure5-30. Usemanual ON or automatic ON to
50%occupancysensor local control.
Privateofficesaccountfor approximately29%of thefloor areaandaredesignedto0.8W/ft
2
,
notincludingtasklightingwattage(seeEL5for recommendationsontasklighting).
EL16 Conference Rooms/Meeting Rooms (Climate Zones: all)
Thetarget lightinginconferencerooms andmeetingrooms is 3040averagemaintained
footcandles. Usemanual ON or automaticON to50%occupancysensor local control.
Conferenceroomsaccount for approximately 10%of thefloor area. Thelayout shownin
Figure5-31isabout 0.77W/ft
2
.
EL17 Corridors (Climate Zones: all)
Thetargetlightingincorridorsis510averagemaintainedfootcandles. Chooseluminaires
that light thewallsandproviderelativelyuniformillumination.
Corridors account for approximately 10%of thefloor area. Optional layouts using one-
lamp14or 26Wcompact fluorescent sconceor ceilingluminairesmaybeusedtominimize
thenumber of lamptypes ontheproject. This layout yields 0.50W/ft
2
whenspaced12ft on
center ina5ft widecorridor. Figure5-32showsasamplelayout for corridors.
Figure 5-29 (EL14) Open-Plan Office Layout
Figure 5-30 (EL15) Private Office Layout
Figure 5-31 (EL16) Conference Rooms/Meeting Rooms Layout
EL18 Storage Areas (Climate Zones: all)
Thetarget lightinginstorageareasis515averagemaintainedfootcandles. Storageareas
account for approximately 15%of thefloor areaandaredesignedto 0.64W/ft
2
. Figure5-33
showsasamplelayout for storageareas.
EL19 Lobbies (Climate Zones: all)
Thetarget lightinginlobbyareasis1015averagemaintainedfootcandles. Highlight wall
surfacesandbuildingdirectories.
Lobbiesaccount for approximately6%of thefloor area. Thelayout showninFigure5-34
isabout 1.09W/ft
2
.
Note: Lightingintheremaining10%of theofficespaceiscomposedof variousfunctions
includingrestrooms, electrical/mechanical rooms, stairways, workshops, andothers. Average
theconnectedloadinthesespaces to 0.64W/ft
2
, whichis equivalent to about onetwo-lamp
high-performanceT8luminaireevery 80ft
2
. Useoccupancy sensors or timers whereappro-
priate.
The designed LPD does not exceed the recommended 0.75 W/ft
2
for the total building
interior.
EL20 Twenty-Four-Hour Lighting (Climate Zones: all)
Night lighting or lighting left on 24 hours to provideemergency egress needs when the
buildingisunoccupiedshouldbedesignedtolimit thetotal lightingpower to10%of thetotal
LPD (0.075 W/ft
2
). It should be noted that most jurisdictions also allow the application of
Figure 5-32 (EL17) Corridor Layout
occupancysensor controlsonegresslightingtofurther reduceelectricityassociatedwithlight-
inganunoccupiedbuilding.
EXTERIOR LIGHTING
Good Design
Practice
Withthepublicationof ASHRAE/IES Standard90.1-2010, exterior LPDsarenowcalcu-
lated using lighting zones (LZs). There are five zones, as shown in Table 5-5. These zones
rangefromzone0, whichisUndevelopedareaswithinnational parks, stateparks, forest land,
rural areas, andother undevelopedareas, tozone4, whichis Highactivity commercial dis-
trictsinmajor metropolitanareasasdesignatedbythelocal jurisdiction.Mostofficebuildings
will fall intozone3.
Figure 5-33 (EL18) Storage Area Layout
Figure 5-34 (EL19) Lobby Layout
Cautions: CalculateLPD only for areas intendedtobelighted. For this Guide, areas that
arelightedtolessthan0.1fc areassumedtonot belightedandcannot becountedintheLPD
allowance. For areasthat areintendedtobelighted, designwithamaximumtominimumratio
of illuminanceno greater than30to 1. Therefore, if theminimumlight level is 0.1, thenthe
maximumlevel inthat areashouldbenogreater than3fc.
For parking lot and grounds lighting, do not increase luminaire wattage in order to use
fewer lightsandpoles. Increasedcontrast makesit harder toseeat night beyondtheimmediate
fixturelocation. Floodlightsandwall-packsshouldnot beused, astheycausehazardousglare
andunwantedlight encroachment onneighboringproperties.
Limit poles to 20 ft mounting height and useluminaires that provideall light belowthe
horizontal planetohelpeliminatelight trespassandlight pollution.
EL21 Exterior Lighting PowerParking Lots and Drives (Climate Zones: all)
Limit exterior lightingpower to0.10W/ft
2
for parkinglotsanddrivesinLZ3andLZ4or
to0.06W/ft
2
inLZ2. Calculateonlyfor pavedareas, excludinggroundsthat arelightedtoless
than0.1fc.
Use LED parking lot fixtures with a bi-level switching driver that will reduce power
between12:00p.m. and6:00a.m. tonomorethan50%.
Cautions: Parkinglotlightinglocationsshouldbecoordinatedwithlandscapeplantingsso
that treegrowthdoesnot blockeffectivelightingfrompole-mountedluminaires.
Parking lot lighting should not besignificantly brighter than thelighting of theadjacent
street. FollowIES RP-33-1999 (IES 1999) recommendations for uniformity and illuminance
recommendations.
EL22 Exterior Lighting PowerWalkways (Climate Zones: all)
Limit exterior lightingpower to 0.08W/linear foot for walkways less than10ft wide, to
0.16W/ft
2
for walkways10ft wideor greater andplazaareasandspecial featureareasinLZ3
andLZ4, to0.07W/linear foot for walkwayslessthan10ft wide, andto0.14W/ft
2
for walk-
ways 10ft wideor greater andplazaareas andspecial featureareas inLZ2. Excludegrounds
that arelightedtolessthan0.1fc.
EL23 Decorative Faade Lighting (Climate Zones: all)
Avoidtheuseof decorativefaadelighting. If faadelightingisdesired, limit thelighting
power to0.075W/ft
2
inLZ3andLZ4andto0.05W/ft
2
inLZ2for theareaintendedtobeillu-
minatedtoalight level nolessthan0.1fc.
Faade lighting that is installed is assumed to be programmed to turn off between the
hours of midnight and6:00a.m. This does not includelightingof walkways or entry areas of
thebuildingthat mayalsolight thebuildingitself.
Table 5-5 Exterior Lighting Zones
Lighting Zone Description
0
Undeveloped areas within national parks, state parks, forest lands, rural areas, and other
undeveloped areas as defined by the authority having jurisdiction
1 Developed areas of national parks, state parks, forest lands, and rural areas
2
Areas predominantly consisting of residential zoning, neighborhood business districts,
light industrial buildings with limited nighttime use, and residential mixed-use areas
3 All other areas
4
High-activity commercial districts in major metropolitan areas as designated by
the local jurisdiction
Source: ASHRAE (2010)
EL24 Sources (Climate Zones: all)
All parkinglot fixturesshoulduseLEDlight sources.
All groundsandbuildinglightingshouldusepulsestart metal halide, fluorescent, or com-
pact fluorescent amalgamlampswithelectronicballasts.
Standardhigh-pressuresodiumlampsarenot recommendedduetotheir reducedvisibility
andpoor color-renderingcharacteristics.
Incandescent lamps are only recommended when used on occupancy sensors for lights
that arenormallyoff.
For colder climates, fluorescent and compact fluorescent luminaires must be specified
withcold-temperatureballasts. Usecompact fluorescent amalgamlamps.
Exterior Lighting
Parking Lot Lighting Example
Parking lot lighting locations should be coordinated with landscape plantings so that tree growth does
not block lighting frompole-mounted luminaires. In this example, note the separation of the lighting
poles to the left of the walkway and the planting areas to the right of the walkway. Additionally, the
trees are plantedcenteredbetweenthe pole locations so whenthe trees are mature theywill not block
the light fromlighting the parking lot.
The pole height is approximately 20 ft, and the luminaires are flat glass lenses that produce all light
belowthe horizontal plane. These styles of luminaires help reduce light trespass and light pollution.
EL25 Controls (Climate Zones: all)
Usephotocell or astronomical timeswitches onall exterior lighting. If abuildingenergy
management systemisbeingusedtocontrol andmonitor mechanical andelectrical energyuse,
it canalsobeusedtoscheduleandmanageoutdoor lightingenergyuse.
Turnoff exterior lightingnot designatedfor security purposeswhenthebuildingisunoc-
cupiedbyincorporatingatimeclockcontrol. Designthetotal exterior lightingpower (for park-
ing, faades, buildinggrounds, entry lights) tobereducedto25%of thedesignlevel whenno
occupantsarepresent between12:00p.m. and6:00a.m.
REFERENCES AND RESOURCES
DiLouie, C. 2007. Lighting Controls Handbook. NY: Illuminating Engineering Society of
NorthAmerica.
IES. 1994. IES DG-5-94, Recommended Lighting for Walkways and Class 1 Bikeways. NY:
IlluminatingEngineeringSocietyof NorthAmerica.
IES. 1998. IESRP-20-98, Lighting for Parking Facilities. NY: IlluminatingEngineeringSoci-
etyof NorthAmerica.
IES. 1999. IES RP-33-99, Lighting for Exterior Environments. NY: IlluminatingEngineering
Societyof NorthAmerica.
IES. 2003. IES G-1-03, Guideline on Security Lighting for People, Property, and Public
Spaces. NY: IlluminatingEngineeringSocietyof NorthAmerica.
IES. 2004. ANSI/IES RP-1-04, American National Standard Practice for Office Lighting.
NY: IlluminatingEngineeringSocietyof NorthAmerica.
IES. 2011. The Lighting Handbook, 10thed. NY: IlluminatingEngineeringSociety of North
America.
NBI. 2011. Advanced Lighting Guidelines. www.algonline.org. White Salmon, WA: New
BuildingsInstitute.
PLUG LOADS
EQUIPMENT AND CONTROL GUIDELINES
Good Design
Practices
PL1 Connected Wattage (Climate Zones: all)
To reduce the connected wattage for plug load equipment, select office equipment and
appliances that achieve low energy usage. ENERGY STAR
-rated equipment typically has

significantly lowered operational wattageand may includeimproved sleep modealgorithms
(EPA 2009). Desktop computers, laptops, desktop printers, fax machines, copy machines,
refrigerators, microwave ovens, coffeemakers, and dishwashers are typical equipment types
used in offices that haveENERGY STAR ratings. Look for efficient equipment even if not
ratedbyENERGY STAR, suchashigh-output photocopyingmachines.
PL2 Laptop Computers (Climate Zones: all)
Laptopcomputersaredesignedtooperateefficientlytoextendbatterylife. Efficient oper-
ation includes lower connected wattage and effective power management. Laptops with
ENERGY STAR ratings should be selected. Desktop computers generally use significantly
moreenergyandmaynot benecessaryfor most users.
Applicationof PL1andPL2canresult insubstantial reductioninequipment power den-
sity relativeto arepresentativebuilding with non-ENERGY STAR and other unrated equip-
ment with half of the computers desktops and half laptops. The equipment power density
valuesshowninTable5-6for asimulatedmediumofficebuildingof 53,600ft
2
showareduc-
tionfrom0.75W/ft
2
to0.55W/ft
2
basedontotal wattageof equipment for theentirebuilding,
not just actual officearea(Robersonet al. 2004).
Table 5-6 Reduction in Equipment Wattage for PL1 and PL2
Plug Load Equipment
Inventory
Baseline Advanced
Qty
Plug Load,
Each, W
Plug Load,
W
Qty
Plug Load,
Each, W
Plug Load,
W
Computerservers 8 65 520 8 54 432
Computerdesktop
a
134 65 8710 89 54 4806
Computerlaptop
a
134 19 2546 179 17 3043
MonitorserverLCDs 8 35 280 8 24 192
MonitordesktopLCDs 268 35 9380 268 24 6432
Laser printernetwork 8 215 1720 8 180 1440
Copy machine 4 1100 4400 4 500 2000
Fax machine 8 35 280 8 17 136
Water cooler 8 350 2800 8 193 1544
Refrigerator 8 76 608 8 65 520
Vending machine 4 770 3080 4 770 3080
Coffeemaker 4 1050 4200 4 1050 4200
Portable heaters, fans, etc.
b
30 30 900 30 30 900
Other small appliances, chargers 250 4 1000 250 4 1000
Total plug load, W 40,424 29,725
Plug load density, W/ft
2
0.75 0.55
a
Assumesshift towardhigher proportionof laptopsinsteadof desktopcomputers.
b
Valuesshownper unit arenot full connectedwattageandarereducedfor estimatesof seasonal usageandaveragesfor amixof devices.
PL3 Occupancy Controls (Climate Zones: all)
Consider the use of occupancy-based control of devices to reduce energy consumption
whentheequipmentisnotinuse. Occupancy-sensor-controlledplugstripscanbeusedtopower
down monitors and other items typically plugged in at individual workstations, such as fans,
chargers, andtasklighting(tasklightingcontrol isdescribedindetail inEL5). Another approach
well suitedtoindividual enclosedofficesistocontrol selectedoutletswitharoom-basedoccu-
pancysensor. Thisapproachcanalsoreduceparasiticlossessmall amountsof electricityused
byappliancesevenwhentheappliancesareswitchedoff. Goodeducationcanencourageoccu-
pantstoplugthemajorityof their appliancesintotheoccupancy-controlledplugs.
Vendingmachinesshouldbeequippedwithoccupancy sensor control for lightingandfor
coolingoperation, if applicable. ENERGY STAR-ratedvendingmachinesincludethistypeof
control or canberetrofittedwithadd-onequipment.
Timer switchesshouldbeappliedfor central equipment that isunusedduringunoccupied
periodsbut that shouldbeavailablethroughout occupiedperiods. Exampleequipment includes
water coolersandcentral coffeemakers.
Computer power management allows computers to go into minimumenergy usagewhen
not activeor turnoff duringscheduledhours. Individual deviceswithlowpower sleepmodes
canbepurchased, suchasENERGY STAR-ratedlaptops. Power managementcanbefullyacti-
vatedindevicesthat may not usethesemodesintheir default setup. Network power manage-
ment softwarecanallowcentral control for scheduledoff hoursandfull activationof available
power-saving modes whileallowing thenetwork management to turn units on for computer
updatesandmaintenance.
PL4 Parasitic Loads (Climate Zones: all)
Reduceandeliminateparasiticloads. Theseloadsincludesmall energyusagefromequip-
ment that isnominally turnedoff but still usingatrickleof energy. Transformersthat provide
some electronic devices with low-voltage direct current fromalternating current plugs also
drawpower evenwhentheequipment isoff. Transformersareavailablethat aremoreefficient
andhavereducedstandbylosses. Wall switchcontrol of power strips, notedinPL3, cutsoff all
power to theplug strip, eliminating parasitic loads at that plug strip when theswitch is con-
trolledoff. Newer power management surgeprotector outlet devices havelowor no parasitic
losses(Lobatoet al. 2011).
PL5 Printing Equipment (Climate Zones: all)
Consolidateprintingservicestominimizethenumber of requireddevices. Onestudypro-
vides information on astrategy being applied in anew officebuilding to eliminatepersonal
printingdevicesandconsolidateprintingservicestoasmaller number of multifunctiondevices
that reducesconnectedpower andprovidesanticipatedreductioninenergyusage(Lobatoet al.
2011). Use of multifunction devices that provide printing, copying, and faxing capabilities
reduces power demandfrommultipledevices. Thestudy indicates that printingservices from
thesedeviceswill beprovidedwith1deviceper 60occupantsrather than1deviceper 40occu-
pants, asinthebuildingoccupants oldspace.
PL6 Unnecessary Equipment (Climate Zones: all)
Determinewhether therearepiecesof equipment that operateasnice-to-have but which
are not fundamental to the core function of the business. For example, large flat-screen TV
arrays in lobby areas can be eliminated, and mechanically cooled drinking water can be
replacedwithfilteredtapwater.
EPA. 2009. ENERGY STAR Qualified Products. www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?fuse
action=find_a_product.html. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental ProtectionAgency.
Hart, R., S. Mangan, andW. Price. 2004. Who left thelights on? Typical loadprofiles inthe
21st century. 2004ACEEE Summer StudyonEnergyEfficiencyinBuildings. August 22
27, PacificGrove, CA.
Lobato, C., S. Pless, M. Sheppy, andP. Torcellini. 2011. Reducingplugandprocessloadsfor a
large-scale, low-energy office building: NRELs Research Support Facility. ASHRAE
Transactions 117(1):33039.
Maniccia, D., and A. Tweed. 2000. Occupancy Sensor Simulations and Energy Analysis for
Commercial Buildings. Troy, NY: Lighting Research Center, Renssaelaer Polytechnic
Institute.
Roberson, J .A., C. Webber, M. McWhinney, R. Brown, M. Pinckard, and J . Busch. 2004.
After-hours power status of officeequipment andenergy useof miscellaneous plug-load
equipment. LBNL-53729. Berkeley: LawrenceBerkeleyNational Laboratory.
Sanchez, M.C., C.A. Webber, R. Brown, J . Busch, M. Pinckard, andJ . Roberson. 2007. Space
heaters, computers, cell phone chargers: How plugged in are commercial buildings?
LBNL-62397. Proceedings of the 2006 ACEEE Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in
Buildings, August, Asilomar, CA.
ings, PNNL-19004. Richland, WA: PacificNorthwestNational Laboratory. www.pnl.gov/
main/publications/external/technical_reports/PNNL-19004.pdf.
Thornton, B.A., W. Wang, Y. Huang, M.D. Lane, andB. Liu. 2010. Technical Support Docu-
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. www.pnl.gov/main/publications/external/
technical_reports/PNNL-19341.pdf.
SERVICE WATER HEATING
GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS
Good Design
Practice
WH1 Service Water Heating Types (Climate Zones: all)
Theservicehotwater requirementsfor officebuildingsaretypicallyverylowandconfined
torestrooms, janitor closets, andbreakrooms. Themostdifficultproblem, typically, isthewait
timefor hot-water delivery, especially whenthewater heater isremotefromtheenduse. The
typical remedy for longwait timesfor servicehot water systemsisapumpedreturntoensure
immediatehot-water delivery. Thetypical servicehotwater loadinanofficebuildingissolow,
however, that pump return energy and heat loss through thepiping may outweigh theactual
energyconsumptionfor producingtherequiredhot water.
Theservicewater heating(SWH) equipment includedinthisGuidearefor gas-firedwater
heaters andelectric water heaters. Natural gas andpropanefuel sources areavailableoptions
for gas-firedunits.
Referencewill bemadetoprovisionsfor solar SWH or heat recovery, but detailedguide-
linesarenot given.
WH2 System Descriptions (Climate Zones: as indicated below)
Gas-fired storage water heater (Climate Zones: all): awater heater withavertical or hori-
zontal water storagetank. A thermostat controls thedelivery of gas to theheaters burner. The
heater requiresaventtoexhaustthecombustionproducts. Anelectronicignitionisrecommended
toavoidtheenergylossesfromastandingpilot.
Gas-fired instantaneous water heater (Climate Zones: all): awater heater withminimal
water storagecapacity. Suchheatersrequireventstoexhaust thecombustionproducts. Anelec-
tronic ignitionis recommendedto avoidtheenergy losses fromastandingpilot. Instantaneous,
point-of-use water heaters should provide water at a constant temperature regardless of input
water temperature.
Electric resistance storage water heater (Climate Zones: all): awater heater consistingof
avertical or horizontal storagetank withoneor moreimmersionheatingelements. Thermostats
controllingheatingelementsmaybeof theimmersionor surface-mountedtype.
Electric resistance instantaneous water heater (Climate Zones: all): acompact under-
cabinet or wall-mounted water heater with an insulated enclosure and minimal water storage
capacity. A thermostat controlstheheatingelement, whichmay beof theimmersionor surface-
mountedtype. Instantaneous, point-of-usewater heatersshouldprovidewater at aconstant tem-
peratureregardlessof inputwater temperature.
Heat pump electric water heater (Climate Zones: ): astorage-typewater heat
usingrejectedheat fromaheat pumpastheheat source. Water storageisrequiredbecausethe
heatpumpistypicallynotsizedfor theinstantaneouspeakdemandfor servicehotwater, evenin
anofficebuilding. Theheatsourcefor theheatpumpmaybetheinterior air (suchasthatfroma
motor or switchingroom), whichisbeneficial incooling-predominant climates; thecirculating
loop for awater-sourceheat pump (WSHP) system, also beneficial in cooling dominated cli-
mates; or aground-coupledhydronic loop. Heat pumpwater heatersshouldshowacoefficient
of performance(COP) of at least 3.0.
WH3 Sizing (Climate Zones: all)
Thewater heatingsystemshouldbesizedtomeet theanticipatedpeakhot-water load, typ-
ically for office buildings about 0.4 gallons per person per hour. Calculate the hot-water
demandbasedonthesumof thefixtureunitsservedbyeachunit accordingtolocal code.
While hot-water temperature requirements for restrooms and break rooms of an office
buildingvarybylocal andstatecodeswithintherangeof 100F to120F, notethat production
of servicehot water at temperaturesbelowapproximately135F mayresult inbacterial growth
withinstorage-typewater heaters.
WH4 Equipment Efficiency (Climate Zones: all)
Efficiency levels areprovidedinthis Guidefor gas instantaneous, gas-firedstorage, and
electric resistancestoragewater heaters. For gas-firedinstantaneouswater heaters, theenergy
factor (EF) andthermal efficiency(E
t
) levelsarethesamebecausetherearenostandbylosses.
Theincorporationof condensingtechnologyisrecommendedfor gasinstantaneouswater heat-
erstoachieveaminimumE
t
of 0.90%andanEF of 0.90.
Therecommended efficiency levels for gas-fired storagewater heaters also requirecon-
densingtechnology(E
t
>90%or EF >0.80).
Theconstructionof acondensingwater heater aswell asthewater heater ventingmust be
compatiblewiththeacidicnatureof thecondensatefor safetyreasons. Disposal of theconden-
sateshouldbedoneinamanner compatiblewithlocal buildingcodes.
Efficiency metrics for high-efficiency electric storage water heaters (EFs) are also pro-
vided in this Guide. Theseefficiency metrics represent premiumproducts that havereduced
standbylosses. Table5-7summarizesrequiredEFsfor electricstoragewater heatersof various
storage capacities based upon the equation for EF shown in the recommendation tables in
Chapter 4.
Electric instantaneous water heaters areanacceptablealternativeto high-efficiency stor-
agewater heaters. Electric instantaneouswater heatersaremoreefficient thanelectric storage
water heaters, and point-of-use versions minimize piping losses. However, their impact on
building peak electric demand can be significant and should be taken into account during
design. Where unusually high hot-water loads (e.g., showers) are present during periods of
peakelectrical use, electricstoragewater heatersarerecommendedover electricinstantaneous
water heaters.
WH5 Location (Climate Zones: all)
Thewater heater shouldbeclosetothehot-water fixturestoavoidtheuseof ahot-water
returnloopor of heat tracingonthehot-water supplypiping. Withgas-firedwater heaters, flue
and combustion air considerations and, in some jurisdictions, code requirements, may limit
potential locations.
Accommodationof renewableor free heat sourceswill most oftennecessitateacentral-
izedservicehot water system, sincethesesources arelikely to befromasinglepoint. Simi-
larly, full utilizationof therenewableor free sourceoftenrequires astoragetank sincethe
heatingloadmay not coincidewiththeheat availablefromthesource. Thesesystems should
bedesignedcarefully, sothatparasiticenergyconsumptionfor circulationloopsdoesnotoffset
energyconservationgainsfromtherenewableor free resource.
Table 5-7 Electric Water Heater Energy Factors
Storage Volume EF Requirement
30 gal 0.95
40 gal 0.94
50 gal 0.93
65 gal 0.91
75 gal 0.90
80 gal 0.89
120 gal 0.85
WH6 Pipe Insulation (Climate Zones: all)
All SWH pipingshouldbeinstalledinaccordancewithacceptedindustrystandards. Insu-
lationlevels shouldbeinaccordancewiththerecommendationlevels intheclimate-specific
recommendation tables in Chapter 4, and the insulation should be protected fromdamage.
Includeavapor retardant ontheoutsideof theinsulation.
RESOURCES
AHRI. 2010. GAMA CertificationPrograms. http://www.ahrinet.org/gama+certification+pro-
grams.aspx. Arlington, VA: Air-Conditioning, Heating, andRefrigerationInstitute.
ASHRAE. 2007. ASHRAE HandbookHVAC Applications. Atlanta: American Society of
HVAC SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT
HVAC SYSTEM TYPES
Althoughmanytypesof HVAC systemscouldbeusedinofficebuildings, thisGuidepre-
scriptively coversthefollowingfivesystemtypes, eachof whichhasdemonstratedtheability
tomeet the50%savingscriteriathroughextensivecomputer simulations.
Single-zone, packagedair-sourceheat pumpsystemswithelectricresistancesupplemental
heat anddedicatedoutdoor air systems (DOASs). Recall that this Guideuses DOAS and
100% outdoor air system (100% OAS) interchangeably. (SeeHV3.)
Single-zone, high-efficiencyWSHPsor ground-sourceheatpumps(GSHPs) withDOASs.
(SeeHV4andHV5.)
Multiple-zone, variable-air-volume(VAV) packageddirect-expansion(DX) rooftopunits
witheither ahydronic heatingsystem, includingboiler, internal heatingcoil, andperime-
ter heating system(convectors or terminal heating coils); an indirect gas furnace; or an
electric resistance internal heating source with perimeter electric convection heat and
high-performancesystemcontrols. (SeeHV6.)
Multiple-zone, VAV air-handlingunitswithpackagedair-cooledchiller andgas-firedboil-
ers. (SeeHV7.)
Fan-coilswithanair-cooledchiller andagas-firedboiler andaDOAS. (SeeHV8.)
Radiant systemswithDOASs. Chilledwater (CHW) providedbyanair-cooledchiller and
hot water providedbyacondensingboiler. (SeeHV9.)
Uniquerecommendationsareincludedfor eachHVACsystemtypeintheclimate-specific
recommendationtablesinChapter 4. It isnotedthat insomeclimatezones, achievement of the
50%savingscriteriaisdependent onhigher-efficiencycomponents.
Good Design
Practice
HV1 Cooling and Heating Loads (Climate Zones: all)
Heatingandcoolingsystemdesignloadsfor thepurposeof sizingsystemsandequipment
should becalculated in accordancewith generally accepted engineering standards and hand-
books such as ASHRAE HandbookFundamentals (ASHRAE 2009a). Any safety factor
applied should bedonecautiously and applied only to abuildings internal loads to prevent
oversizingof equipment. If theunit isoversizedandthecoolingcapacity reductionislimited,
short cyclingof compressorscouldoccur andthesystemmaynot havetheabilitytodehumid-
ifythebuildingproperly; inaddition, oversizedequipment mayoperatelessefficiently.
Calculationof HVAC unit heatingandcoolingcapacitiesshouldincludeboththecapacity
for meetingspaceloadsandthecapacity for heating, cooling, anddehumidifyingtherequired
maximumflowof ventilationair. Whereenergyrecoveryisused, thereductionof coolingand
heating loads, and the subsequent reduction of mechanical equipment size, should be taken
intoaccount. For heating, theOA temperaturemust beheatedtotheroomtemperatureandthe
heatrequiredaddedtothebuildingheatloss. OnVAV systems, theminimumsupplyairflowto
a zone must comply with local codes, ASHRAE Standard 62.1 (ASHRAE 2010a), and
ASHRAE/IES Standard90.1(ASHRAE 2010b) andshouldbetakenintoaccount incalculat-
ingheatingloadsof theOA.
HV2 Certification of HVAC Equipment (Climate Zones: all)
Ratingandcertificationby industry organizationsisavailablefor varioustypesof HVAC
equipment. Ingeneral, thecertificationis providedby industry-widebodies that developspe-
cificprocedurestotest theequipment toverifyperformance; ASHRAE/IESStandard90.1has
requirements for units for which certification programs exist. Certifications that incorporate
publishedtestingproceduresandtransparencyof resultsaremuchmorereliablefor predicting
actual performancethanarecertificationsthat arelesstransparent. For typesof equipment for
whichcertificationisavailable, selectionof productsthat havebeencertifiedishighly recom-
mended. For productsfor whichcertificationisnot availableor that havenot beensubjectedto
certificationavailablefor their typeof equipment, theproductsshouldberigorouslyresearched
for backupfor performanceclaimsmadebythesupplier. Theprojectteamshoulddetermineby
what proceduretheperformancedatawasdevelopedandestablishany limitationsor differen-
tialsbetweenthetestingprocedureandtheactual use. Examplesof equipment typesthat have
recognizedcertificationsincludepackagedheat pumps, packagedair-conditioningunits, water
chillers, gasfurnacesandboilers, coolingtowers, andwater heaters.
HV3 Single-Zone, Packaged Air-Source Heat Pump Systems (or Split Heat Pump
Systems) with Electric Resistance Supplemental Heat and DOASs
Inthissystem, aseparatepackagedheat pumpunit (or split heat pumpfan-coil) isusedfor
eachthermal zone. Thistypeof equipment isavailableinpreestablishedincrementsof capac-
ity. The components are factory designed and assembled and may include outdoor-air and
return-air dampers, fans, filters, aheatingsource, acoolingcoil, acompressor, controls, andan
air-cooled condenser. Theheatingsourceis provided by reversing therefrigeration circuit to
operatetheunit asaheat pumptobesupplementedbyelectricresistanceheatingif heat pump
heatingcapacityisreducedbelowrequiredcapacitybylowexterior air temperatures. Indirect-
firedgasfurnacescanbeusedasanalternativeheat sourcewithheat pumpsbut cannot operate
tosupplement theheat pumpoutput. Thisalternativewasnot evaluatedfor thisGuide.
Thesystemsevaluatedfor thisGuidetreat recirculatedair only, sothat theunit fanscanbe
cycled with load without interrupting ventilation air supply. Ventilation air is provided by a
DOAS. Heat pumpsmaybeusedwiththeDOAS(seeHV10).
Thecomponents canbeassembledas asinglepackage(suchas arooftopunit) or asplit
systemthatseparatestheevaporator andcondenser/compressor sections. Singlepackagedunits
aretypically mountedontheroof or at gradelevel outdoors. Split systems generally havethe
indoor unit or units (including fan, filters, and coils) located indoors or in an unconditioned
spaceandthecondensingunit locatedoutdoors ontheroof or at gradelevel. Theindoor unit
may alsobelocatedoutdoors; if so, it shouldbemountedontheroof curbover theroof pene-
trationfor ductworktoavoidinstallingductworkoutsidethebuildingenvelope. Theequipment
shouldbelocatedtomeet theacoustical goalsof thespacewhileminimizingfanpower, duct-
ing, andwiring.
Performancecharacteristicsvaryamongmanufacturers, andtheselectedequipmentshould
matchthecalculatedheatingandcoolingloads (sensibleandlatent), also takinginto account
theimportanceof providingadequatedehumidificationunder part-loadconditions(seeHV11).
Theequipment shouldbelistedas beingin conformancewithelectrical andsafety standards
withitsperformanceratingscertifiedbyanationallyrecognizedcertificationprogram.
Thefanenergyisincludedinthecalculationof theenergyefficiencyratio(EER) for heat
pump equipment, based upon standard rating procedures of Air-Conditioning, Heating, and
Refrigeration Institute (AHRI) that include an assumed external air delivery pressure drop
(AHRI 2007, 2008). Pressuredrop in theair delivery system, including ductwork, diffusers,
andgrilles, shouldnot exceed0.7in. w.c.
Thecoolingequipment, heatingequipment, andfansshouldmeet or exceedtheefficiency
levelslistedinTable5-8.
Of critical importance for this type of systemis the minimumoutdoor temperature at
which the unit can provide the required heating capacity to meet the building heating load.
Heat pumpproductsareavailablethat areratedtoprovideasmuchas70%of their AHRI rated
capacity (47F outdoor dry-bulbtemperature, 70F indoor dry-bulbtemperature) at 4F OA
temperature. Ingeneral, heat pumpunitsselectedfor anapplicationshouldberatedtoprovide
heatingat the99.6%heatingdesignOA temperaturefor thesite. Theunitsshouldbesizedto
meet 100%of thebuildinginternal heatingrequirement (not includingOA heating) at a98%
heatingdesignOA temperature.
HV4 Water-Source Heat Pumps (WSHPs) (Climate Zones: all)
Typically, a separate WSHP is used for each thermal zone. This type of equipment is
availableinpreestablishedincrementsof capacity. Thecomponentsarefactory designedand
assembled and include a filter, a fan, a refrigerant-to-air heat exchanger, a compressor, a
refrigerant-to-water heat exchanger, andcontrols. Therefrigerationcycleisreversible, allow-
ingthesamecomponentstoprovidecoolingor heating.
Individual WSHPsaretypicallymountedintheceilingplenumover thecorridor (or some
other noncritical space) or in a closet next to the occupied space. The equipment should be
locatedtomeet theacoustical goalsof thespaceandminimizefanpower, ducting, andwiring.
Thismayrequirethat theWSHPsbelocatedoutsideof thespace.
PackagedWSHPs four tons andaboveshouldincorporateatwo-stageor variable-speed
compressor with variable-speed fans and a multistage thermostat. The unit should be con-
trolledsothat airflowwill reducewithcompressor staging.
Thecooling, heating, andfanperformanceof theheat pumpunit shouldmeet or exceed
thelevelslistedbelow.
Refrigeration:
Twostagelower stageat 70%andlower load, full-loadgreater than70%
CoolingEER, part load/full load17.6/15.0, heatingCOP 5.7/5.0
Single-stagewithvariable-speedmotor, coolingEER 16.4, heatingCOP 5.2
Air Delivery: Thefanenergy isincludedinthecalculationfor theEER for WSHP equip-
ment based on standard rating procedures (AHRI/ASHRAE 2005) that include an assumed
external air delivery pressuredrop. Pressuredrop in theair delivery system, including duct-
work, diffusers, andgrilles, shouldnot exceed0.5in. w.c.
Per ASHRAE/IES Standard90.1(ASHRAE 2010b), theWSHP unit shouldincorporatea
solenoidvalvetoshutoff flowof circulatingloopwater throughtheunitwhenthecompressors
arede-energized. Theunit shouldalsocyclefanswhennoconditioningiscalledfor.
Inatraditional WSHP system, all theheat pumpsareconnectedtoacommonwater loop.
A closed-circuit coolingtower andahot-water boiler arealsoinstalledinthislooptomaintain
thetemperatureof thewater withinadesiredrange. SeeHV14for requiredequipmentefficien-
cies. The circulation loop should have a variable-speed pump. The circulating loop may
includeacontroller to reset circulating loop temperatureaccording to exterior and operating
conditions.
Table 5-8 Constant-Volume Heat Pump Efficiency Levels*
Primary Space Heating and Cooling
Size Category,
Air-Source Heat Pump
Cooling Efficiency Heating Efficiency
<65,000 Btu/h
15.0 SEER
12.0 EER
9.0 HSPF
65,000 135,000 Btu/h
11.5 EER
12.8 IEER
47F db/43F wb outdoor air 3.4 COP
135,000 240,000 Btu/h
11.5 EER
12.3 IEER
240,000 Btu/h
10.5EER
11.3 IEER
* SEER =seasonal energyefficiencyratio, EER =energyefficiencyratio, IEER =integratedenergyefficiencyratio, HSPF =heatingseasonal performancefactor,
db=drybulb, wb=wet bulb, COP =coefficient of performance.
OA is conditioned and delivered by a separate dedicated ventilation system. This may
involveductingtheOA directlytoeachheat pump, deliveringit incloseproximitytotheheat
pumpintakes, or ductingit directlytotheoccupiedspaces. Dependingontheclimate, theded-
icatedOA unit may includecomponents tofilter, cool, heat, dehumidify, or humidify theOA
(seeHV10).
HV5 Ground-Coupled Water-Source Heat Pump (WSHP) System (Climate Zones: all)
A variationof theWSHP systemtakes advantageof thehighthermal capacitanceof the
earthtostoreheat rejectedintothegroundduringthecoolingsystemas aresourcefor winter
heating. Ingeneral, successful implementationof aground-coupledheat pumpsystemrequires
relativebalancebetween theamount of heat extracted fromtheground for theheating cycle
andtheamount of heat rejectedinto thegroundfor thecoolingcycle. Anappropriately sized
ground-coupling systemwill result in relatively lower heat rejection temperature during the
summer comparedwithcoolingtower heat rejection. Whilethelower heat extractiontempera-
tureof aground-coupledsystemcomparedwithfuel-firedmakeuptypically resultsinalower
COP, performanceisimprovedbythefact that noenergyisconsumedfor makeupheating.
Performance characteristics of selected GSHP units should be the same as the WSHP
specifications listedinHV4. GSHP units usedwithaclosed-loopwell systemshouldhavea
low-temperatureheatingcapability allowingthemto heat at anenteringtemperedwater-loop
temperatureof nomorethan30F. Thecirculatingfluidfor aclosed-loopground-coupledheat
pumpsystemshouldincorporateanantifreezeadditivetoprevent icingof theloop.
External pressuredropfor theseunits, aswiththeWSHPs, shouldbelimitedto0.5in. w.c.
Followingaresomeconsiderationsfor incorporationof aground-coupledheat pump:
Balanceof winter heatingloadswithsummer coolingloads.
Accuratedeterminationof heatdiffusivityof earthincontactwiththeground-coupledheat
transfer system, at aminimumthroughuseof atest well todeterminethenatureof ground
strataandgroundwater levels.
Adequatesizingof theground-couplingsystem, usingaccurategroundthermal diffusivity
information, tolimit minimumsupply water temperatureduringthewinter andmaximum
supplywater temperatureduringthesummer.
Appropriatedesign and control of thehydronic circulation systemto optimizepumping
energyandmaximizationof heat pumpannual heatingandcoolingefficiency.
HV6 Multiple-Zone, VAV Packaged DX Rooftop Units with a Hot-Water Coil,
Indirect Gas Furnace, or Electric Resistance in the Rooftop Unit and
Convection Heat in the Spaces (Climate Zones: all)
Inthis system, apackagedDX rooftopunit serves several individually controlledzones.
Eachthermal zonehasaVAV terminal unit that iscontrolledtomaintaintemperatureinthat
zone. Thecomponentsof therooftopunit arefactorydesignedandassembledandincludeOA
and return-air dampers, filters, fans, a cooling coil, a heating source, compressors, a con-
denser, andcontrols. Thecomponentsof theVAV terminal unitsarealsofactorydesignedand
assembled and include an airflow-modulation device, controls, and possibly a heating coil,
fan, or filter.
VAV terminal unitsaretypicallyinstalledintheceilingplenumabovetheoccupiedspace
or adjacent corridor. However, theequipment shouldbelocatedtomeet theacoustical goalsof
thespace; fanpower, ducting, andwiringshouldbeminimized.
All theVAV terminal unitsservedbyeachrooftopunitareconnectedtoacommonair dis-
tribution system(seeHV20). Cooling is provided by thecentralized rooftop unit. Heating is
providedbyanelectricconvectionheater ineachspace.
levels listedinTable5-9andintherecommendationtables inChapter 4. Thecoolingequip-
ment shouldalsomeet or exceedthepart-loadefficiencylevel, whereshown.
Indirect gas-fired furnaces providing morning warm-up should be condensing furnaces
andhaveat least an80%efficiencylevel asrequiredinASHRAE/IESNA Standard90.1-2004
(ASHRAE 2004). Requirements for zoneheatingareshownintherecommendationtables in
Chapter 4. For systemsusinggas-firedboilers, condensingboilersshouldbeused.
For packagedVAV DX systems, fanpower isusually incorporatedintotheEER calcula-
tion. Toachievetherequiredlevel of energyefficiency, air supplyanddeliverysystemsfor the
packaged VAV units should bedesigned to requireno morethan 2.0 in. w.c. external static
pressure (ESP) and should include variable-frequency drives (VFDs) or other features that
result inimprovedpart-loadperformance. A reduceddesignsupply air temperature(SAT) of
50F is usedtolower systemairflowandtheresultant pressuredrop. Toenhanceeconomizer
operation, SAT isreset upto58F inclimatezones13and61F inother climatezones.
Unitswill haveair-sideeconomizersinall climatezonesexcept climatezone1, withcon-
trol basedoneither dry-bulbtemperaturesensorsor enthalpysensors. Seetherecommendation
tablesinChapter 4for therequirementsineachclimatezone.
For VAV systems, theminimumsupplyairflowtoazonemustcomplywithlocal codesand
the current versions of ASHRAE Standard 62.1 (for minimumOA flow) and ASHRAE/IES
Standard90.1(for minimumturndownbeforereheat isactivated) (ASHRAE 2010a, 2010b).
Use the recommendation tables in Chapter 4 to determine the required SAT control
sequences and the requirements for indirect evaporative precooling or ventilation air heat
recovery. Ventilation optimization, a combination of zone demand-controlled ventilation
(DCV) andsystemventilationreset usingtheprovisions of ASHRAE Standard62.1, reduces
OA duringoperation.
HV7 Multiple-Zone, VAV Air-Handling Units with Packaged Air-Cooled Chiller and
Gas-Fired Boiler (Climate Zones: all)
Requirements for this systemarevery similar to thoseof thepackagedVAV DX system
describedinHV6, except that thecoolingsource, coolingdistribution, andcoolingtoair heat
exchangeareseparately specified. Efficiency of thechilled-water equipment shouldmeet the
requirementsinHV14. Coolingcoilsshouldbeselectedfor aminimumof 15T onthewater
side. Coolingcoilsshouldalsobeselectedat nomorethan450ft/minair facevelocitytomini-
mizeair pressuredrop. Thechilled-water distributionsystemshouldbedesignedto meet the
requirementsof HV29. Inorder toachievetherequiredlevel of energy efficiency for air sup-
ply, thediffusers, ductsystem, returnair path, coils, andfiltersshouldbeselectedfor minimum
pressuredrop. Air delivery systempressuredrop, fanselectionfor mechanical efficiency, and
motor selectionfor efficiencyshouldresult innomorethan0.72W/cfmat designairflow. This
isderivedfrom
3.5in. of total staticpressure,
65%fanefficiency,
93%motor efficiency, and
95%variable-speeddrive(VSD) efficiency.
Table 5-9 VAV DX Cooling-Only Equipment Efficiency Levels*
Size Category Cooling Efficiency
<65,000 Btu/h 15.0 SEER
65,000 135,000 Btu/h
11.5 EER
12.8 IEER
135,000 240,000 Btu/h
11.5 EER
12.3 IEER
240,000 760,000 Btu/h
10.5 EER
11.3 IEER
760,000 Btu/h
9.7 EER
10.9 IEER
* SEER =seasonal energyefficiencyratio, EER =energyefficiencyratio, IEER =integratedenergyefficiencyratio.
HV8 Fan-Coils (Climate Zones: all)
Infan-coil systems, aseparatefan-coil unit isusedfor eachthermal zone. Thecomponents
arefactory designedandassembledandincludefilters, afan, heatingandcoolingcoils, con-
trols, andpossiblyOA andreturn-air dampers. OA supplyisprovidedbyaDOAS.
Fan-coilsaretypicallyinstalledineachconditionedspace, intheceilingplenumabovethe
corridor (or someother noncritical space), or in acloset adjacent to thespace. However, the
equipment shouldbelocatedtomeet theacoustical goalsof thespace; thismayrequirethat the
fan-coilsbelocatedoutsideof thespacewhilealsoattemptingtominimizefanpower, ducting,
and wiring. Fan-coils should be equipped with a variable-speed fan to automatically enable
VAV operationandenhancemotor efficiency.
All the fan-coils are connected to a common water distribution system. Cooling is pro-
vided by acentralized water chiller. Heating is provided by either acentralized boiler or by
electricresistanceheat locatedinsideeachfan-coil.
OA isconditionedanddeliveredby aDOAS that may involveductingtheOA directly to
eachfan-coil or ductingit directlytotheoccupiedspaces. Dependingontheclimate, thededi-
catedOA unit mayincludeaheat recoverydevice. (SeeHV10andHV12.)
levelslistedintherecommendationtablesinChapter 4or listedinthischapter (HV14, HV23).
Thecoolingequipmentshouldalsomeetor exceedthepart-loadefficiencylevel, whereshown.
Followingareperformancerequirementsfor ductedfan-coils:
0.30W/cfmdesignsupplyair tospacewithVAV operation
Coil Tsof at least 14F
HV9 Radiant Heating and Cooling and DOAS (Climate Zones: all)
Inthis system, ahigh-efficiency chilled-water systemdistributes water toradiant cooling
panelsor totubingimbeddedinfloor slabsineachthermal zonetoprovidelocal cooling. Ven-
tilationair is providedby aDOAS. Theenergy efficiency of radiant heatingandcoolingsys-
temsderivesfromtwocharacteristicsof thesystem:
Theextensivesurfaceareaof thesystemsallowsheatingandcoolingloadstobemet with
very low-temperature hot water and relatively high-temperature CHW. Chilled water is
typically supplied to thesystemat aminimumtemperatureof 60F, whileheating loads
canusuallybemet withamaximumhot-water temperatureof 95F.
Heatingor coolingenergyistransferredtothespacewithnoenergyexpenditurefor mov-
ingair. Heat transfer isentirelybynatural convectionandradiant means.
Radiant heating and cooling systems may be implemented through the use of ceiling-
mountedradiant panelsthat affix water tubingtoaceilingtile. Thistubingisservedby water
pipingabovetheceiling. Valvingcontrolswater flowtosectionsof theceilingtoprovidetem-
peraturecontrol inthespace. If theceilingradiant systemisusedfor bothheatingandcooling,
theceilingmay bedividedinto interior andperimeter zones with four pipes (hot andchilled
water) totheperimeter zones.
Another formof theradiant heatingandcoolingsystemusespolymer tubingimbeddedin
concretefloor slabs. This approachhas beenappliedto radiant heatingfor anumber of years
but recently has alsobeenextendedtospacecooling. Theprimary issuefor floor-slabradiant
heatingandcoolingischangeover betweenthetwomodesof operation. Control systemsmust
bedesigned with asignificant dead band so that rapid changeover (with time-lagged system
fightingintheslab) canbeavoided. Typically, radiantheatingandcoolingfloor-slabsystems
shouldnot becontrolleddirectlybyair thermostats, becausetransient conditionsmayresult in
frequent changeover. Well-designedsystemstakeadvantageof thethermal capacitanceof the
floor slabtomitigatetransient loadsandprovideconsistent interior comfort conditions.
Radiant ceilings areless effectivefor spaceheatingthanareradiant floors, whileradiant
floorsarelesseffectivefor spacecooling, except for offsettingcoolingloadsfromdirect solar
gainonthecoolingfloor. Radiant ceilings aremoreoftenseeninofficespaces, whileradiant
floorsareseeninlobbies, atriums, andcirculationspaces.
The radiant system, however, provides only sensible heating and cooling. All humidity
control (both dehumidification and humidification) must be provided by a DOAS. In some
cases, therequired dew-point temperatureof theincoming ventilation air may belower than
commonpracticeinorder toachievethenecessary dehumidification. For radiant coolingsys-
tems, especially in humidclimates, avoidanceof condensation on thecoolingsurfaces is the
most important designconsideration. Mechanisms for avoidingcondensationincludethefol-
lowing:
Control of enteringdew-point temperatureof ventilationair tomeet maximuminterior air
dew-point temperaturelimits.
Design of radiant cooling systems to meet sensiblecooling loads with elevated (>60F)
chilled-water temperatures.
Monitoringof spacedew-point temperaturewithradiant systemshutdownupondetection
of elevatedspacedew-point temperature.
Designof buildingenvelopesystems tominimizeinfiltration. Construction-phasequality
control of envelopesystemstomeet infiltrationspecifications.
Removal of radiant coolingelementsfromareasimmediatelysurroundingexterior doors.
Provisionof excess dehumidifiedventilationair adjacent to likely sources of exterior air
infiltration.
Passivechilledbeamsbehavesimilarlytoradiant chilledceilings. Thesameissuesof con-
densationavoidanceandcontrol apply. Passivechilledbeamsarealsorelativelyineffectivefor
spaceheating.
Radiant Heating/Cooling System
Radiant Floor Tubing Layout
Source: WSP Flack + Kurtz
The atriumof the Syracuse UniversitySchool of Management inSyracuse, NewYork, employs a radi-
ant heatingandcoolingsystem. The tubingis coveredbya concrete toppingslabandthen stone pav-
ers. The systemdoes only sensible heating and cooling; ventilation and dehumidification are provided
through displacement diffusers located in the sidewalls of the large triangular planters in the space.
The tubing is arrayed in the double serpentine pattern that is characteristic for radiant cooling slab
applications.
Design of radiant systems that incorporatecooling is avery specialized task that should
only be undertaken with experienced engineering input. Issues of temperature control, load
response, condensation avoidance, etc., are likely to be peculiar to each project and may
requirecustomsolutions.
HV10 Dedicated Outdoor Air Systems (100% Outdoor Air Systems) (Climate Zones: all)
Dedicatedoutdoor air systems (DOASs) canreduceenergy useby decouplingthedehu-
midificationandconditioningof OA ventilationfromsensiblecoolingandheatinginthezone.
The OA is conditioned by a separate DOAS that is designed to dehumidify the OA and to
deliver it dryenough(withalowenoughdewpoint) tooffset spacelatent loads, thusproviding
spacehumidity control (Mumma2001; Morris 2003). TheDOAS also can beequipped with
high-efficiencyfiltrationsystemswithstaticpressurerequirementsabovethecapabilityof fan-
coils. Terminal HVACequipmentheatsor coolsrecirculatedair tomaintainspacetemperature.
Terminal equipment may include fan-coil units, WSHPs, zone-level air handlers, or radiant
heatingand/or coolingpanels.
Therearemany possible100%outdoor air system(100%OAS) configurations(seeFig-
ure5-35for afewtypical ones). Thesalient energy-savingfeaturesof DOASsarethesepara-
tionof ventilationair conditioningfromzoneair conditioningandtheeaseof implementation
of energyrecovery.
DOASs canalso beusedinconjunctionwithmultiple-zonerecirculatingsystems, such
ascentralizedVAV air handlers, but most oftenVAV systemsdonot useseparateventilation
systems.
DOASs canreduceenergy useinprimarily threeways: 1) they oftenavoidthehighOA
intake airflows at central air handlers needed to satisfy the multiple spaces equation of
ASHRAE Standard62.1(ASHRAE 2010a), 2) they eliminate(or nearly eliminate) simultane-
ouscoolingandreheatthatwouldotherwisebeneededtoprovideadequatedehumidificationin
humidclimates, and3) withconstant-volumezoneunits(heat pumps, fan-coils), theyallowthe
unit tocyclewithloadwithout interruptingventilationairflow. A drawbackof manyDOASsis
that theycannot provideair-sideeconomizing. Thisismoresignificant indrier climateswhere
100%OA canbeusedfor economizingwithout theconcernof raisingindoor humidity levels.
Inaddition, populationdiversityanduseof unusedoutdoor air arenot allowedwhenventila-
tionisprovidedseparately.
Consider deliveringtheconditionedOA cold(not reheatedtoneutral) whenever possible
andreheat onlywhenneeded. Providingcold(rather thanneutral) air fromtheDOASoffsetsa
portion of the space sensible cooling loads, allowing the terminal HVAC equipment to be
downsizedanduselessenergy(MummaandShank 2001; Murphy2006). Reheatingthedehu-
midifiedair (toatemperatureabovetherequireddewpoint) maybewarranted
if thereheatconsumesverylittleenergy(usingenergyrecovery, solar thermal source, etc.)
andnoneof thezonesareinthecoolingmode,
if all of thezonesareintheheatingmode, or
if, for thosezonesinthecoolingmode, theextracoolingenergyneeded(tooffsetthelossof
coolingduetodeliveringneutral-temperatureventilationair) isoffset by higher-efficiency
coolingequipment andthereductioninheatingenergy neededfor thosezonesintheheat-
ing mode(this is morelikely to betrueon an annual basis if thereheat in theDOAS is
accomplishedviaair-to-air or condenser heat recovery).
In addition, implementing reset control strategies and exhaust air energy recovery (see
HV12) canhelpminimizeenergyuse.
For officebuildings, dedicatedOA unitsmaybecombinedwithterminal unitssuchasfan-
coils, radiant systems, or WSHPsthat providezonecontrol. WhenusedwithaWSHP system,
theDOAScanbeservedbyawater-to-water heat pumpsystemwithperformanceasspecified
intheclimate-specificrecommendationtablesinChapter 4.
Figure 5-35 (HV10) Examples of DOAS Configurations
levels listedin Table5-10. Thecoolingequipment shouldalso meet or exceedthepart-load
efficiency level, where shown. Presently thereis no energy performancerating standard for
100%OASs. Inorder tomeetthe50%energysavingsof thisGuide, all 100%OASmustincor-
porateenergyrecoverysystemssothat theincomingair conditionissimilar totheconditionof
incoming mixed air in aconventional system. This Guidespecifies 100%OAS performance
(withheat recovery) at thestandardAHRI conditionsusedtodetermineEERsandheatingsea-
sonal performancefactors (HSPFs) for conventional mixed-air systems. Gas furnaces should
becondensing.
Exhaust-air heat recovery is necessary for use of heat pumps with DOASs in locations
with low design heating temperatures. Most heat pump units do not operate well with low
enteringindoor air temperatures. Theuseof exhaust heat recoverywill raisetheincomingven-
tilationair toatemperaturemorecompatiblewithheat pumpoperation.
Systemsdelivering100%OA havemanydifferentconfigurations. Ingeneral, theair deliv-
ery systemshould beconfigured for no morethan 1.5 in. w.c. total static pressuredrop. For
units that do not have EER ratings per AHRI, fans should be selected for a minimum65%
mechanical efficiencyandmotorsat nolessthan93%efficiency.
HVAC SYSTEM CONSIDERATIONS
HV11 Part-Load Dehumidification (Climate Zones: all)
Most basic, constant-volume systems (small packaged rooftop units, DX split systems,
fan-coils, WSHPs, etc.) supply azonewithaconstant amount of air regardless of thecooling
load. Thesystemmust deliver warmer air under part-loadconditionstoavoidovercoolingthe
Table 5-10 DOAS Cooling and Heating Equipment Efficiencies*
Primary Space Heating and Cooling
Size Category Cooling Efficiency Heating Efficiency
Air-Source Heat Pump
<65,000 Btu/h
15.0 SEER
12.0 EER
9.0 HSPF
65,000 135,000 Btu/h
11.5 EER
12.8 IEER
135,000 240,000 Btu/h
11.5 EER
12.3 IEER
240,000 Btu/h
10.5 EER
11.3 IEER
VAV DX, Gas Heat
<65,000 Btu/h 15.0 SEER 80%
65,000 135,000 Btu/h
11.5 EER
12.8 IEER
80%
135,000 240,000 Btu/h
11.5 EER
12.3 IEER
80%
240,000 760,000 Btu/h
10.5 EER
11.3 IEER
80%
760,000 Btu/h
9.7 EER
10.9 IEER
80%
Water-to-Water Heat Pump
Any size 13.8 EER, 86F EWT
3.8 COP, 68F EWT
3.1 COP, 50F EWT
* SEER =seasonal energyefficiencyratio, EER =energyefficiencyratio, IEER =integratedenergyefficiencyratio, HSPF =heatingseasonal performancefactor,
db=drybulb, wb=wet bulb, EWT =enteringwater temperature, COP =coefficient of performance.
space. In atypical chilled-water constant-volumeair-handling unit application, amodulating
valvereduces systemcapacity by throttlingthewater flowratethroughthecoolingcoil. The
warmer coil surfacethat resultsprovideslesssensiblecooling(raisingthesupply air dry-bulb
temperature), but it alsoremoves less moisturefromthepassingairstream(raisingthesupply
air dewpoint). Fan-coil units, ontheother hand, oftenhavetwo-positionvalves that provide
either full coolingor nocooling.
In a typical single-compressor DX application or in a fan-coil unit with a two-position
chilled-water valve, coil coolingperiodicallycyclesoff completely(throughde-energizingthe
compressor or closingthechilled-water valve) toavoidovercooling. For atypical system, dur-
ingtheperiodthat thecoil isinactive, underhumidifiedOA isdeliveredtothespace. Whilede-
energizingthefanduringthetimethat coolingis disabledwouldavoidloss of humidity con-
trol, it wouldalsofail todeliver therequiredventilationvolumetothespace. Withaconven-
tional constant-volumesystem, thechoiceis amongloss of humidity control, failureto meet
ventilationstandards, or reheat tomaintainspacedry-bulbtemperature.
Briefly stated, abasic constant-volumesystemmatches sensiblecapacity to thesensible
load; dehumidification capacity is coincidental. As the load diminishes, the systemdelivers
ever warmer supply air or periodically delivers completely uncooledandcompletely undehu-
midified air. Dehumidification occurs at amuch reduced rateeither becausethecoil is only
intermittentlyactiveor becausethetemperatureof theair off thecoil (andprobablythesupply
air dew-point temperature) is raised. As aresult, inhumidoutdoor conditions, thespacerela-
tivehumiditywill tendtoincreaseunder part-loadconditions, unlessreheat isused.
Followingaresome(butnotall) of thepossiblemethodsfor improvingpart-loaddehumid-
ification.
For single-zone heat pump packaged units or split systems (see HV3). Packagedrooftop
units(or split systems) shoulduseaDOAS(seeHV10) todehumidifytheOA sothat it is
dryenough(hasalowenoughdewpoint) tooffsetthelatentloadsinthespaces. Thishelps
avoid high indoor humidity levels without additional dehumidification enhancements in
thelocal heat pumpunits.
For WSHPs or GSHPs (see HV4 and HV5). TheDOAS(seeHV10) shouldbedesignedto
dehumidify theOA so that it is dry enough (has alow enough dew point) to offset the
latent loadsinthespaces. Thishelpsavoidhighindoor humiditylevelswithout additional
dehumidificationenhancementsintheWSHP units. Alternatively, someWSHPscouldbe
equippedwithhot-gasreheat for direct control of spacehumidity.
For fan-coil units (see HV8). TheDOAS(seeHV10) shouldbedesignedtodehumidifythe
OA sothat it isdry enough(hasalowenoughdewpoint) tooffset thelatent loadsinthe
spaces. Thishelpsavoidhighindoor humidity levelswithout additional dehumidification
enhancements inthefan-coil units. Alternatively, fan-coils couldbeequippedwithvari-
able-speed fans for improved part-load dehumidification or with areheat coil for direct
control of spacehumidity. Consider usingrecoveredheat whenusingreheat.
For multiple-zone, packaged VAV rooftop units (see HV6). VAV systemstypically dehu-
midifyeffectivelyover awiderangeof indoor loads, aslongastheVAV rooftopunit con-
tinues to provide cool, dry air at part-load conditions. One caveat: use caution when
resettingtheSAT upwardduringthecoolingseason. Warmer supplyair meanslessdehu-
midificationat thecoil andhigher humidityinthespace. If SAT reset isused, includeone
or morezonehumiditysensorstodisablethereset if therelativehumiditywithinthespace
exceeds60%.
For multiple-zone, VAV air handlers (see HV7). VAV systemstypicallydehumidifyeffec-
tivelyover awiderangeof indoor loads, aslongastheVAV rooftopunit continuestopro-
videcool, dryair at part-loadconditions. Onecaveat: usecautionwhenresettingtheSAT
or chilled-water (CHW) temperatureupwardduringthecoolingseason. Warmer supplyair
(or water) meanslessdehumidificationatthecoil andhigher humidityinthespace. If SAT
or CHW reset is usedinahumidclimate, includeoneor morezonehumidity sensors to
disablereset if therelativehumiditywithinthespaceexceeds60%.
HV12 Exhaust Air Energy Recovery (Climate Zones: all)
Exhaust air energy recovery canprovideanenergy-efficient means of reducingthelatent
andsensibleOA coolingloadsduringpeaksummer conditions. It canalsoreducetheOA heat-
ing load in mixed and cold climates. HVAC systems that use exhaust air energy recovery
shouldto beresizedto account for thereducedOA heatingandcoolingloads (seeASHRAE
[2008a]).
For someHVAC systemtypes, theclimate-specific recommendationtables inChapter 4
recommend either exhaust air energy recovery or DCV. If the energy recovery option is
selected, thisdeviceshouldhaveatotal effectivenessasshowninTable5-11. Notethatinsome
climatesenergyrecoveryisnot required.
TheperformancelevelsinTable5-11shouldbeachievedwithnomorethan0.85in. w.c.
staticpressuredroponthesupplysideand0.65in. w.c. staticpressuredropontheexhaustside.
Sensibleenergy recovery devices transfer only sensibleheat. Commonexamples include
coil loops, fixed-plateheat exchangers, heat pipes, andsensibleenergy rotary heat exchangers
(sensibleenergywheels). Total energyrecoverydevicestransfer not onlysensibleheat but also
moisture (or latent heat)that is, energy stored in water vapor in the airstream. Common
examples includetotal energy rotary heat exchangers (also known as total energy wheels or
enthalpy wheels) and fixed-membrane heat exchangers (see Figure 5-36). Energy recovery
devices shouldbeselectedto avoidcross-contaminationof theintakeandexhaust airstreams.
For rotaryheat exchangers, avoidanceof cross-contaminationtypicallyincludesprovisionof a
purgecycleinthewheel rotationandmaintenanceof theintakesystempressurehigher thanthe
exhaust systempressure.
Anexhaust-air energyrecoverydevicecanbepackagedinaseparateenergyrecoveryven-
tilator (ERV) that conditionstheOA beforeit enterstheair-conditioningunit or thedevicecan
beintegral totheair-conditioningunit.
For maximumbenefit, thesystemshouldprovideasclosetobalancedoutdoor andexhaust
airflowsasispractical, takingintoaccounttheneedfor buildingpressurizationandanyexhaust
that cannot beductedbacktotheenergyrecoverydevice.
Exhaust for energy recovery may betakenfromspacesrequiringexhaust (usingacentral
exhaust duct systemfor each unit) or directly fromthe return airstream(as with a unitary
accessoryor integratedunit). (SeealsoHV19.)
Whereanair-sideeconomizer isusedalongwithanERV, addbypassdampers(or asepa-
rateOA path) to reducetheair-sidepressuredrop during economizer mode. In addition, the
ERV should beturned off during economizer modeto avoid adding heat to theoutdoor air-
stream. Whereenergyrecoveryisusedwithoutanair-sideeconomizer, theERV shouldbecon-
trolledto prevent thetransfer of unwantedheat to theoutdoor airstreamduringmildoutdoor
conditions.
Incoldclimates, followthemanufacturersrecommendationsfor frost prevention.
HV13 Indirect Evaporative Cooling (Climate Zones: OB OB OB OB)
Indryclimates, incomingventilationair canbeprecooledusingindirect evaporativecool-
ing. For this strategy, theincoming ventilation air (theprimary airstream) is not humidified;
instead, aseparatestreamof air (thesecondary or heat rejectionstream) is humidified, drop-
pingitstemperature, andisusedasaheat sinktoreducethetemperatureof theincomingventi-
lationair.
Table 5-11 Total System Effectiveness with Energy Recovery
Condition
Effectiveness
Sensible Latent Total
Heating at 100%airflow 78 70 75
Heating at 75%airflow 83 77 82
Cooling at 100%airflow 80 71 75
Cooling at 75%airflow 84 78 82
Figure 5-36 (HV12) Examples of Exhaust Air Energy Recovery Devices
Thesourceof theheat rejection streamof air can beeither OA or exhaust air fromthe
building. If theair sourceisexhaust air, thissystembecomesanalternativefor HV12.
Sensibleheat transfer betweentheventilationairstreamandtheevaporatively cooledsec-
ondary airstreamcan beaccomplished using plateor tubular air-to-air heat exchangers, heat
pipes, or apumpedloopbetweenair coilsineachstream(oftencalledarunaround loop). For
indirectevaporativecoolersthatuseexhaustair asthesecondarystream, theevaporativecooler
canalso functionfor sensibleheat recovery duringtheheatingseason. If arunaroundloopis
usedfor heat transfer bothfor indirect evaporativecoolingandheat recovery, thecirculating
fluidshouldincorporateantifreezelevelsappropriatetothedesignheatingtemperaturefor that
location.
Indirect evaporativecoolinghastheadvantagethat indoor air quality(IAQ) isnot affected,
astheevaporativecoolingprocessisnot intheindoor airstream. Air qualityisnot ascritical for
theexhaustedsecondaryairstreamasit isfor theventilationstreamenteringtheoccupiedspace.
Indirect evaporativecoolersshouldbeselectedfor at least 90%evaporativeeffectiveness
for theevaporativelycooledairstreamandfor at least 65%heat transfer efficiencybetweenthe
twoairstreams.
Indirect evaporativecoolersshouldalsobeselectedtominimizeair pressuredropthrough
theheat exchangers
HV14 Cooling and Heating Equipment Efficiencies (Climate Zones: all)
Thecoolingandheatingequipment shouldmeet or exceedtheefficiency levels listedin
theclimate-specific recommendationtables inChapter 4. Thecoolingequipment shouldalso
meet or exceed the part-load efficiency level where shown. In some cases, recommended
equipment efficienciesarebasedonsystemsize(capacity).
Therearemany factors involved in making adecision whether to usegas or electricity,
suchas theavailability of service, utility costs, operator familiarity, andtheimpact of source
energy use. Efficiency recommendations for bothtypes of equipment areprovidedintherec-
ommendationtablesinChapter 4toallowtheuser tochoose.
Air-Cooled Chillers. Air-cooledwater chillersshouldbecertifiedor independently tested
toproduceafull-loadEER of 10.0or higher andanintegratedpart-loadvalue(IPLV) of 12.5
or higher, accordingtoAHRI ratingmethods. Chillerslessthan40tonsshouldprovideat least
two steps of unloading while those 40 tons and above should provide at least four steps of
unloadingor continuousunloading. Chillersshouldincorporatecontrolscapableof accommo-
datingvariableevaporator water flowwhilemaintainingcontrol of leavingchilled-water tem-
perature. Water-cooledchillersandcoolingtowerswerenot analyzedfor thisGuide. A system
includingawater-cooledchiller, condenser water pump, andcoolingtower all withsufficient
efficiency andintegratedcontrols may givethesameor better energy performanceas anair-
cooledchiller.
Space-Heating Water Boilers. All gas-firedboilersspecifiedfor spaceheatingshouldbe
of thecondensingtypewithaminimumefficiency of 90%at 125F returnhot-water tempera-
ture. Zoneheattransfer equipmentshouldbesizedbasedon140F enteringhot-water tempera-
tureandaslargeatemperaturedropthroughtheair heatingcoil aspossible. Boilersshouldbe
operated with amaximumleaving hot-water temperatureof 140F and should incorporatea
leavinghot-water temperaturereset control basedontotal heatingload.
Closed-Circuit Cooling Towers (for WSHP Systems). Closed-circuit cooling towers
shouldbeselectedfor amaximum10F approachof coolingtower leavingwater temperature
todesignwet-bulbtemperature. Towersshouldalsobeselectedfor fanenergyinputatfull load
of nomorethan120Wper nominal tonof capacity. Coolingtower fanmotorslarger thanone
horsepower shouldbeequippedwithVSDs.
HV15 Ventilation Air (Climate Zones: all)
Thezone-level outdoor airflowsandthesystem-level intakeairflowshouldbedetermined
basedonthemost recent editionof ASHRAE Standard62.1(ASHRE 2010a) but shouldnot be
lessthanthevaluesrequiredbylocal codeunlessapprovedbytheauthorityhavingjurisdiction.
Thenumber of peopleusedincomputingthebreathingzoneventilationratesshouldbebased
onknownoccupancy, local code, or thedefault valueslistedinStandard62.1.
Cautions: Theoccupant load, or exit population, used for egress design to comply with
the fire code is typically much higher than the zone population used for ventilation system
design. Usingoccupant loadrather thanzonepopulationtocalculateventilationrequirements
canresult insignificant overventilation, oversizedHVAC equipment, andexcessenergyuse.
Buildingswithmultiple-zonerecirculatingventilationsystemscanbedesignedtoaccount
for recirculatedOA aswell assystempopulationdiversityusingtheVentilationRateProcedure
of ASHRAE Standard62.1(ASHRAE 2007a). Ineffect, themultiple-zonerecirculatingventi-
lationsystemdesignapproachallowsventilationair tobecalculatedonthebasisof howmany
peoplearein the building (systempopulationat design) rather thanthesumof howmanypeo-
plearein each space (sum-of-peakzonepopulationat design). UsingtheVentilationRatePro-
cedurecanreducetheenergy requiredtoconditionventilationair inofficebuildings. Refer to
62.1 Users Manual for specificguidance(ASHRAE 2007b).
For all zones, time-of-day schedules inthebuildingautomationsystem(BAS) shouldbe
usedtointroduceventilationair onlywhenazoneisexpectedtobeoccupied.
For Radiant Systems (see HV9). Eachzoneservedlocallybytheradiantsystemshouldbe
providedwithoutdoor ventilationair byaDOAS(seeHV10).
For WSHPs or GSHPs (see HV4 and HV5). TheDOAS (seeHV10) shoulddeliver the
conditioned OA directly to each zone, to the intake of each individual heat pump (where it
mixeswithrecirculatedair, either intheductworkprior totheheatpumpor inamixingplenum
attachedtotheheat pump), or tothesupplysideof eachWSHP (whereit mixeswithsupplyair
fromtheheat pumpbeforebeingdeliveredtothezone). Unitsshouldbeconfiguredsuchthat
ventilationair canbedeliveredto thespaceevenwhentheunit fanis not runningso that the
unit cancyclefor loadwithout interruptingventilationsupply.
For Fan-Coil Units (see HV8). TheDOAS(seeHV10) shoulddeliver theconditionedOA
directlytoeachzone, totheintakeof eachindividual fan-coil (whereit mixeswithrecirculated
air, either intheductwork prior tothefan-coil or inamixingplenumattachedtothefan-coil),
or tothesupply sideof eachfan-coil (whereit mixeswithsupply air fromthefan-coil before
being delivered to thezone). Fan-coils should beconfigured such that ventilation air can be
deliveredtothespaceevenwhentheunit fanisnot runningsothat theunit cancyclefor load
without interruptingventilationsupply.
For multiple-zone, packaged VAV rooftop units or VAV air handlers (see HV6 and
HV7). Eachrooftopunit shouldhaveanOA intakethroughwhichOA isintroducedandmixes
withtherecirculatedair prior tobeingdeliveredtothezones.
HV16 Economizer (Climate Zones: O O O O O O)
Economizers, when recommended, help save energy by providing free cooling when
ambient conditionsaresuitabletomeet all or part of thecoolingload. Inhumidclimates, con-
sider usingenthalpy-basedcontrols(versusdry-bulbtemperaturecontrols) tohelpensurethat
unwantedmoistureis not introducedintothespace. Seetheclimate-specific recommendation
tablesinChapter 4for economizer recommendationsbyclimatezone.
Non-dedicatedOA systemsshouldbecapableof modulatingtheOA, returnair, andrelief
air dampers to provideup to 100%of thedesign supply air quantity as OA for cooling. (See
HV10for adiscussionof DOASs.) A motorizedOA damper shouldbeusedinsteadof agravity
damper to prevent unwantedOA fromenteringduringunoccupiedperiods whentheunit may
recirculateair to maintainsetback or setuptemperatures. For all climatezones, themotorized
OA damper shouldbeclosedduringtheentireunoccupiedperiod, except whenit may openin
conjunctionwithunoccupiedeconomizer cycleoperationor apreoccupancypurgecycle.
Periodic maintenance is important with economizers, as dysfunctional economizers can
causesubstantial excessenergyusebecauseof malfunctioningdampersor sensors(seeHV34).
HV17 Demand-Controlled Ventilation (DCV) (Climate Zones: all)
DCV canreducetheenergyrequiredtoconditionOA for ventilation. Tomaintainaccept-
ableIAQ, thesetpoints (limits) and control sequencemust comply with ASHRAE Standard
62.1 (ASHRAE 2010a). Refer to Appendix A of 62.1 Users Manual for specific guidance
(ASHRAE 2007b).
For someHVACsystemtypes, theclimate-specificrecommendationtablesinChapter 4rec-
ommendeither exhaust air energy recovery or DCV. If theDCV optionisselected, thecontrols
shouldvarytheamountof OA inresponsetotheneedinazone. Theamountof OA couldbecon-
trolledby1) atime-of-dayscheduleintheBAS; 2) anoccupancysensor (suchasamotiondetec-
tor) thatindicateswhenazoneisoccupiedor unoccupied; or 3) acarbondioxide(CO
2
) sensor, as
aproxyfor ventilationairflowper person, that measuresthechangeinCO
2
levelsinazonerela-
tivetothelevelsintheOA. A controller will thenoperatetheOA, returnair, andrelief air damp-
ers tomaintainproper ventilation. For options 1and2above, ventilationrates for theoccupied
period should be based upon full occupancy and should be calculated in accordance with
Section6of Standard62.1-2007. For option3above, thefull-loadventilationrateshouldbecal-
culatedaccordingto Chapter 6of Standard62.1andventilationratereductions shouldbecon-
trolledaccordingtoInformativeAppendixCof Standard62.1(ASHRAE 2007a).
CO
2
sensors shouldbeusedinzones that aredensely occupiedandhavehighly variable
occupancypatternsduringtheoccupiedperiod, suchasconferenceroomsor meetingareas. For
theother zones, occupancysensorsshouldbeusedtoreduceventilationwhenazoneistempo-
rarilyunoccupied. For all zones, time-of-dayschedulesintheBASshouldbeusedtointroduce
ventilationair onlywhenazoneisexpectedtobeoccupied.
Multiple-zone recirculating systems (such as VAV systems) require special attention to
ensureadequateOA issuppliedtoall zonesunder varyingloads. EmployingDCV inaDOAS
requiresanautomaticdamper, aCO
2
sensor, andanairflowmeasurementdevicefor eachDCV
zone. If theautomaticdamper selectedisof thepressure-independent type, bydefinitionit has
flowmeasurement capability.
Control of a DCV systemto match airflow volume to occupancy requires a continuous
searchalgorithmfor thecontroller. Thecontroller continuouslycalculatesthevolumerequired
inthespacebaseduponthemeasuredCO
2
concentrationdifferential andthenupdatesthevol-
umesetpoint tothepressure-independent damper controller. Thefollowingequationgivesthe
requiredvolumeinthespacebaseduponthemeasuredCO
2
differential:
=R
a
A
z
/(E
z
((R
p
(C
R
C
OA
))/(8400 m))
where
=requiredairflowvolumeat anypoint intime
R
a
=zoneareaventilationrate(0.06cfm/ft
2
per ASHRAE Standard62.1-2007)
A
z
=areaof thezone
E
z
=air distributioneffectivenessof thezone
R
p
=zonepeopleventilationrate(5cfm/personper ASHRAE Standard62.1-2007)
C
R
=measuredCO
2
concentrationat theroom
C
A
=measuredCO
2
concentrationof theoutdoor air (OA)
m =metaboliclevel for occupantsof space(m =1.2for officework)
Theaboveequationhasbeenextractedfrom62.1 Users Manual (ASHRAE 2007b). The
control systemfor theDOAS must beableto calculatetherequired ventilation ratefor each
zonebasedupontheaboveequationthenreset theflowsetpoint for thezonetothecalculated
value. Theprocedurefor amultizoneVAV systemissomewhat morecomplicated. Thesystem
will requireaflowmeasurementdeviceontheOA inletfor theVAV air handler. Thecontroller
must thencalculatetheactual OA flowtoeachcontrol zonebaseduponthepercentageof OA
inthesupply air to thezone. Thesystemmust calculatetherequiredOA flowfor eachzone
V
ot
V
ot
usingtheaboveequationandthenmustmodulatetheOA damper tochangethesupplyOA per-
centageuntil all zonesreceiveat least theminimumrequiredOA flow.
Selection of CO
2
sensors is critical in both accuracy and response range. CO
2
sensors
shouldbecertifiedbythemanufacturer tohaveanerror of 75ppmor lessandbefactorycali-
brated. InaccurateCO
2
sensorscancauseexcessiveenergyuseor poor IAQ, sotheyneedtobe
calibratedasrecommendedbythemanufacturer (seeHV18).
Finally, whenDCV isused, thesystemcontrolsshouldpreventnegativebuildingpressure.
If theamountof air exhaustedremainsconstantwhiletheintakeairflowdecreases, thebuilding
maybeunder anegativepressurerelativetotheoutdoors. Whenair isexhausteddirectlyfrom
the zone (e.g., fromrestrooms or a janitors closet), the DCV control strategy must avoid
reducingintakeairflowbelowtheamount requiredtoreplacetheair beingexhausted.
HV18 Carbon Dioxide (CO
2
) Sensors (Climate Zones: all)
Thenumber andlocationof CO
2
sensors for DCV canaffect theability of thesystemto
accuratelydeterminethebuildingor zoneoccupancy. A minimumof oneCO
2
sensor per zone
isrecommendedfor systemswithgreater than500cfmof OA. Multiplesensorsmaybeneces-
saryif theventilationsystemservesspaceswithsignificantlydifferentoccupancyexpectations.
Wheremultiplesensors areused, theventilationshouldbebasedonthesensor recordingthe
highest concentrationof CO
2
.
Sensors usedinindividual spaces shouldbeinstalledonwalls withinthespace. Multiple
spaceswithsimilar occupanciesmay berepresentedby anappropriately locatedsensor inone
of thespaces. Thenumber andlocationof sensors shouldtakeinto account thesensor manu-
facturersrecommendationsfor their particular productsaswell astheprojectedusagesof the
spaces. Sensors shouldbelocatedsuchthat they providearepresentativesamplingof theair
withintheoccupiedzoneof thespace. For example, locatingaCO
2
sensor directlyintheflow
path froman air diffuser would provide a misleading reading concerning actual CO
2
levels
(andcorrespondingventilationrates) experiencedbytheoccupants.
TheOA CO
2
concentrationcanhavesignificant fluctuationinurbanareas. OACO
2
con-
centrationshouldbemonitoredusingaCO
2
sensor locatednear thepositionof theOA intake.
CO
2
sensors shouldbecertifiedby themanufacturer to haveanaccuracy to within50ppm,
factorycalibrated, andcalibratedperiodicallyasrecommendedbythemanufacturer. CO
2
sen-
sorsshouldbecalibratedonaregular basisper themanufacturersrecommendationsor every
sixmonths(per ASHRAE Standard62.1[ASHRAE 2007a]).
HV19 Exhaust Air Systems (Climate Zones: all)
Zoneexhaust airflows(for restrooms, janitorial closets, andbreakrooms) shouldbedeter-
minedbasedonthecurrent versionof ASHRAE Standard62.1but shouldnot belessthanthe
valuesrequiredbylocal codeunlessapprovedbytheauthorityhavingjurisdiction.
Central exhaust systemsfor restrooms, janitorial closets, andbreakroomsshouldbeinter-
lockedtooperatewiththeair-conditioningsystem, except duringunoccupiedperiods. Sucha
systemshould haveamotorized damper that opens and closes with theoperation of thefan.
Thedamper shouldbelocatedascloseaspossibletotheduct penetrationof thebuildingenve-
lopeto minimizeconductiveheat transfer throughtheduct wall andavoidhavingto insulate
theentireduct. Duringunoccupiedperiods, thedamper shouldremainclosedandtheexhaust
fan turned off, even if theair-conditioning systemis operating to maintain setback or setup
temperatures. Consider designing exhaust ductwork to facilitate recovery of energy (see
HV12) fromexhausttakenfromspaceswithair qualityclassificationof 1or 2(e.g., restrooms)
per Table6.1of Standard62.1(ASHRAE 2007a).
HV20 Ductwork Design and Construction (Climate Zones: all)
Low-energy-useductworkdesigninvolvesshort, direct, andlow-pressure-dropruns. The
number of fittingsshouldbeminimizedandshouldbedesignedwiththeleast amount of tur-
bulenceproduced. (Ingeneral, thefirst cost of aduct fittingisapproximatelythesameas12ft
of straight duct that is thesamesizeas theupstreamsegment.) Unwantednoiseintheduct-
work isadirect result of air turbulence. Roundduct ispreferredover rectangular duct. How-
ever, space(height) restrictionsmayrequireflat oval ductwork toachievethelow-turbulence
qualitiesof roundductwork. Alternatively, twoparallel roundductsmaybeusedtosupplythe
requiredairflow.
Air shouldbeductedthroughlow-pressureductwork withasystempressureclassification
of lessthan2in. w.c. Rigidductworkisnecessarytomaintainlowpressurelossandreducefan
energy. Supplyair shouldbeductedtodiffusersineachindividual space.
Ingeneral, thefollowingsizingcriteriashouldbeusedfor duct systemcomponents:
Diffusers and registers, including balancing dampers, should besized with astatic pres-
sure drop no greater than 0.08 in. w.c. Oversized ductwork increases installed cost but
reducesenergyuseduetolower pressuredrop.
Supplyductworkshouldbesizedwithapressuredropnogreater than0.08in. w.c. per 100
linear feet of duct run. Returnductwork shouldbesizedwithapressuredropno greater
than0.04in. w.c. andexhaust ductworkwithapressuredropnogreater than0.05in. w.c.
Flexibleductworkshouldbeof theinsulatedtypeandshouldbe
limitedtoconnectionsbetweenduct branchesanddiffusers,
limitedtoconnectionsbetweenduct branchesandVAV terminal units,
limitedto5ft (fullystretchedlength) or less,
installedwithout anykinks,
installedwithadurableelbowsupport whenusedasanelbow, and
installedwithnomorethan15%compressionfromfullystretchedlength.
Hangingstraps, if used, needto useasaddleto avoidcrimpingtheinsidecross-sectional
area. For ducts12in. or smaller indiameter, usea3in. saddle; thoselarger than12in. should
usea5in. saddle.
Long-radiuselbowsand45-degreelateral take-offsshouldbeusedwherever possible. The
angle of a reduction transition should be no more than 45 degrees (if one side is used) or
22.5degrees(if twosidesareused). Theangleof expansiontransitionsshouldbenomorethan
15degrees(laminar air expandsapproximately7degrees).
Air shouldbereturnedor exhaustedthroughappropriatelyplacedgrilles. Goodpracticeis
to direct supply air diffusers towardtheexterior envelopeandto locatereturnair grilles near
theinterior walls, closetothedoor.
Returningair toacentral location(asinamultiple-zonerecirculatingsystem) isnecessary
toreapthebenefitsof reducingventilationair duetosystempopulationdiversity (seeHV12).
Fullyductedreturnsystemsareexpensiveandmust beconnectedtoasingleair handler (or the
returnductsmust beinterconnected) tofunctionasamultiple-zonerecirculatingsystem. Open
plenumreturn systems areless expensivebut must becarefully designed and constructed to
prevent infiltrationof humidair fromtheoutdoors(Harrimanet al. 2001).
Theceilingplenummust alsobewell sealedtominimizeair infiltration. Infiltrationcanbe
reduced by using arelief fan to maintain plenumpressureat about 0.05 in. w.c. higher than
atmospheric pressure(seeHV28), andloweringindoor humidity levels canreducetherisk of
condensation(seeHV9). Inaddition, exhaustductsystemsshouldbeproperlysealedtoprevent
infiltration.
Caution: Ductwork shouldnot beinstalledoutsidethebuildingenvelope. Ductwork con-
nectedtorooftopunitsshouldenter or leavetheunit throughaninsulatedroof curbaroundthe
perimeter of the units footprint. Flexible duct connectors should be used to prevent sound
transmissionandvibration.
Duct board should be airtight (duct seal level B, from ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1
[ASHRAE 2010b]) andshouldbetapedandsealedwithproductsthat maintainadhesion(such
asmastic or foil-basedtape). Duct static pressuresshouldbedesignedandequipment anddif-
fuser selections should be selected not to exceed noise criteria for the space (see HV30 for
additional informationonnoisecontrol).
HV21 Duct Insulation (Climate Zones: all)
Thefollowingductworkshouldbeinsulated:
All supplyair ductwork
All returnair ductworklocatedabovetheceilingandbelowtheroof
All OA ductwork
All exhaust andrelief air ductworkbetweenthemotor-operateddamper andpenetrationof
thebuildingexterior
In addition, all airstreamsurfaces should beresistant to mold growth and resist erosion,
accordingtotherequirementsof ASHRAE Standard62.1(ASHRAE 2010a).
Exception: In conditioned spaces without a finished ceiling, only the supply air main
ductsandmajor branchesshouldbeinsulated. Individual branchesandrun-outstodiffusersin
thespacebeingserveddonotneedtobeinsulated, exceptwhereitmaybenecessarytoprevent
condensation.
HV22 Duct Sealing and Leakage Testing (Climate Zones: all)
The ductwork should be sealed for Seal Class B from ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1
(ASHRAE 2010b). All duct joints shouldbeinspectedtoensurethey areproperly sealedand
insulated, andtheductworkshouldbeleak-testedat theratedpressure. Theleakageshouldnot
exceed theallowablecubic feet per minuteper 100ft
2
of duct areafor theseal and leakage
classof thesystemsair quantityapportionedtoeachsectiontested. SeeHV20for guidanceon
ensuringtheair systemsperformance.
HV23 Fan Motor Efficiencies (Climate Zones: all)
Motorsfor fansshouldmeet National Electrical ManufacturersAssociation(NEMA) pre-
miumefficiency motor guidelines (NEMA 2006) when available. Electrically commutated
motorsmaybeanappropriatechoicefor manysmall unitstoincreaseefficiency.
Fansystems shouldmeet or exceedtheefficiency levels listedinthis chapter andinthe
recommendation tables in Chapter 4. Depending on the HVAC systemtype, the efficiency
level isexpressedintermsof either amaximumpower (W) per cubicfeet per meter of supply
air (for systemswherefanpower isnot includedinthepackagedHVAC unit efficiencycalcu-
lation) or amaximumESP loss(for packagedsystemswherefanpower isincludedintheEER
calculation).
HV24 Thermal Zoning (Climate Zones: all)
Officebuildingsshouldbedividedintothermal zonesbasedonbuildingsize, orientation,
spacelayout andfunction, occupant density, andafter-hoursuserequirements.
ZoningcanalsobeaccomplishedwithmultipleHVAC unitsor acentral systemthat pro-
videsindependent control for multiplezones. Thetemperaturesensor for eachzoneshouldbe
installedinalocationthat isrepresentativeof theentirezone.
Whenusingamultiple-zonesystem(suchasaVAV system) or aDOAS, avoidusingasin-
gleair handler (or rooftopunit) to servezones that havesignificantly different occupancy pat-
terns. Usingmultipleair handlersallowsair handlersservingunusedareasof thebuildingtobe
shut off, evenwhenanother areaof thebuildingisstill inuse. Analternateapproachistousea
BAStodefineseparateoperatingschedulesfor theseareasof thebuilding, thusshuttingoff air-
flow to the unused areas while continuing to provide comfort and ventilation to areas of the
buildingthat arestill inuse.
HV25 System-Level Control Strategies (Climate Zones: all)
Control strategies canbedesignedto helpreduceenergy. Having asetback temperature
for unoccupied periods during theheating season or asetup temperatureduring thecooling
seasoncanhelpsaveenergy by avoidingtheneedtooperateheating, cooling, andventilation
equipment. Programmablethermostatsalloweachzonetovarythetemperaturesetpoint based
ontimeof dayanddayof theweek. But theyalsoallowoccupantstooverridethesesetpoints
or ignoretheschedulealtogether (byusingthehold feature), whichreducesthepotential for
energy savings. A moresustainableapproachis to equipeachzonewithazonetemperature
sensor andthenuseasystem-level controller that coordinatestheoperationof all components
of thesystem. This system-level controller contains time-of-day schedules that definewhen
different areas of thebuildingareexpectedtobeunoccupied. Duringthesetimes, thesystem
isshut off andthetemperatureisallowedtodrift awayfromtheoccupiedsetpoint.
A preoccupancy ventilationperiodcanhelppurgethebuildingof contaminantsthat build
upovernight fromtheoff-gassingof products andpackagingmaterials. Cool temperatures at
night canalsohelpprecool thebuilding. Inhumidclimates, however, careshouldbetakento
avoidbringinginhumidOA duringunoccupiedperiods.
Buildingswithmultiple-zonerecirculatingventilationsystemscanbedesignedtoaccount
for recirculated OA as well as system population diversity using the equations found in
ASHRAE Standard62.1(ASHRAE 2010a). Ineffect, themultiple-zonerecirculatingventila-
tionsystemdesignapproachallows ventilationair to becalculatedonthebasis of howmany
peoplearein the building (systempopulationat design) rather thanthesumof howmanypeo-
ple are in each space (sum-of-peak zone population at design). This can reduce the energy
required to condition ventilation air in office buildings. Refer to 62.1 Users Manual
(ASHRAE 2007b) for specificguidance.
Optimal start uses a system-level controller to determine the length of time required to
bringeachzonefromthecurrent temperatureto theoccupiedsetpoint temperature. Then, the
controller waits as longas possiblebeforestartingthesystemso that thetemperatureineach
zonereachesoccupiedsetpoint just intimefor occupancy. Thisstrategyreducesthenumber of
hours that thesystemneeds tooperateandsaves energy by avoidingtheneedtomaintainthe
indoor temperatureat occupiedsetpoint eventhoughthebuildingisunoccupied.
CHW reset can reduce chiller energy use at part-load conditions. But it should be used
onlyinaconstant-flow(notvariable-flow) pumpingsystem, anditshouldbedisabledwhenthe
outdoor dewpoint temperatureisabove55F (for example) or if spacehumidity levelsriseto
60%rhor higher.
InaVAV system, SAT reset shouldbeimplementedto minimizeoverall systemenergy
use. This requires considering the trade-off between compressor, reheat, and fan energy as
well astheimpact onspacehumidity levels. If SAT reset isusedinahumidclimate, include
one or more zone humidity sensors to disable reset if the relative humidity in the space
exceeds60%.
Inorder toachievetheseends, control systemsshouldincludethefollowing:
Controlssequencesthat caneasilybecommissioned
A user interfacethat facilitatesunderstandingandeditingof buildingoperatingparameters
andschedules
Sensorsthat areappropriatelyselectedfor rangeof sensitivityandeaseof calibration
Means to effectively convey the current status of systems operation and of exceptional
conditions(faults)
Meanstorecordandconveyhistoryof operations, conditions, andefficiencies
Meanstofacilitatediagnosisof equipment andsystemsfailures
Meanstodocument preventivemaintenance
Seetheclimate-specific recommendationtables inChapter 4for temperaturereset strate-
giesineachclimatezone.
HV26 Testing, Adjusting, and Balancing (Climate Zones: all)
After thesystemhasbeeninstalled, cleaned, andplacedinoperation, thesystemshouldbe
tested, adjusted, andbalancedinaccordancewithASHRAE Standard111(ASHRAE 2008b)
or SMACNAstesting, adjustingandbalancingmanual (SMACNA 2002).
Testing, adjusting, andbalancingwill helptoensurethat thecorrectlysizeddiffusers, reg-
isters, andgrilleshavebeeninstalled, thateachspacereceivestherequiredairflow, andthatthe
fansmeettheintendedperformance. Thebalancingsubcontractor shouldcertifythattheinstru-
ments usedinthemeasurement havebeencalibratedwithin12months beforeuse. A written
report shouldbesubmittedfor inclusionintheoperationandmaintenance(O&M) manuals.
HV27 Commissioning (Cx) (Climate Zones: all)
After thesystemhasbeeninstalled, cleaned, andplacedinoperation, thesystemshouldbe
commissionedtoensurethat theequipment meetstheintendedperformanceandthat thecon-
trolsoperateasintended. SeeAppendixB for moreinformationoncommissioning.
HV28 Filters (Climate Zones: all)
Particulateair filtersaretypicallyincludedaspart of factory-assembledHVACequipment
andshouldhaveatleastaMinimumEfficiencyReportingValue(MERV) of 6, basedontesting
proceduresdescribedinASHRAE Standard52.2(ASHRAE 2007c).
As explained in Indoor Air Quality Guide: Best Practices for Design, Construction and
Commissioning (ASHRAE 2009b), EPA maps areas not in compliance(nonattainment) with
theNational Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) (EPA 2008a, 2008b). PM2.5particles
arethosesmaller than2.5mindiameter. InPM2.5nonattainment areas (virtually all major
metropolitan areas), useMERV 11 filters for OA. Useafilter differential pressuregaugeto
monitor thepressuredrop across thefilters and send an alarmif thepredetermined pressure
dropisexceeded. Filtersshouldbereplacedwhenthepressuredropexceedsthefilter manufac-
turers recommendations for replacement or when visual inspection indicates the need for
replacement. Thegaugeshouldbecheckedandthefilter shouldbevisually inspectedat least
onceeachyear.
If high-efficiency filters areto beused, consider usinglower-efficiency filters duringthe
construction period. When construction is complete, all filters should bereplaced beforethe
buildingisoccupied.
HV29 Chilled-Water (CHW) System (Climate Zones: all)
CHW systems efficiently transport cooling energy throughout the building. Often they
are combined with thermal storage systems to achieve electrical demand charge savings
throughmitigationof thepeak coolingloadsinthebuilding. Thermal storagesystemsarenot
coveredinthisGuide. CHWsystemsshouldgenerally bedesignedfor variableflowthrough
thebuilding.
Small systems(<100tons) shouldbedesignedfor variableflowif thechiller unit controls
cantolerateexpectedflowratechanges. CHWsystemsshouldusetwo-wayvalveswithapres-
sure-controlling bypass set to maintain the minimumevaporator water flow required by the
chiller. For chillersthat donot toleratevariableCHWflow, three-wayvalvesshouldbeused.
PipingshouldbesizedusingthetablesinASHRAE/IESStandard90.1(ASHRAE 2010b).
Select coolingcoilsfor adesignCHWT of at least 15F toreducepumpenergy. Select
cooling coils to minimize air pressure drop. CHW temperature setpoints should be selected
basedonalife-cycleanalysis of pumpenergy, fanenergy, anddesiredair conditions leaving
the coil. Use the recommended temperatures listed in the climate-specific recommendation
tablesinChapter 4.
HV30 Water Heating Systems (Climate Zones: all)
Condensingboilerscanoperateat upto97%efficiencyandcanoperateefficientlyat part
load. Toachievethesehighefficiencylevels, condensingboilersrequirethat returnwater tem-
peraturesbemaintainedat 70F to120F, wheretheboiler efficiencyis97%to91%. Thisfits
well with hydronic systems that aredesigned with Ts greater than 20F (theoptimal T is
30F to 40F). Thehigher Ts allowsmaller piping and less pumping energy. Becausecon-
densingboilersworkefficientlyat part load, VFDscanbeusedonthepumpstofurther reduce
energyuse.
Condensing boiler capacity can be modulated to avoid losses caused by cycling at less
thanfull load. Thisencouragestheinstallationof amodular (or cascade) boiler system, which
allows several small units tobeinstalledfor thedesignloadbut allows theunits tomatchthe
loadfor maximumefficiencyof thesystem.
HV31 Relief versus Return Fans (Climate Zones: all)
Relief (rather thanreturn) fansshouldbeusedwhennecessary tomaintainbuildingpres-
surization during economizer operation. Relief fans reduce overall fan energy use in most
cases, aslongasreturndampersaresizedcorrectly. However, if returnductstaticpressuredrop
exceeds0.5in. w.c., returnfansmaybeneeded.
Cautions
HV32 Heating Sources (Climate Zones: all)
Many factors come into play in making a decision whether to use gas or electricity for
heating, includingavailability of service, utility costs, operator familiarity, andtheimpact of
sourceenergyuse.
Forced-air electricresistanceandgas-firedheatersrequireaminimumairflowratetooper-
atesafely. Thesesystems, whether stand-aloneor incorporatedintoanair-conditioningor heat
pumpunit, shouldincludefactory-installedcontrolstoshutdowntheheater whenthereisinad-
equateairflowthat canresult inhightemperatures.
Ductsandsupply-air diffusersshouldbeselectedbasedondischargeair temperaturesand
airflowrates.
HV33 Noise Control (Climate Zones: all)
Acoustical requirements may necessitateattenuation of thesupply and/or return air, but
theimpact onfanenergyconsumptionshouldalsobeconsideredand, if possible, compensated
for inother duct or fancomponents. Acoustical concerns may beparticularly critical inshort,
direct runsof ductworkbetweenthefanandsupplyor returnoutlet. (SeeFigure5-37.)
Avoidinstallationof theair-conditioningor heat pumpunitsaboveoccupiedspaces. Con-
sider locations aboveless critical spaces suchas storageareas, restrooms, corridors, etc. (See
Figure5-38.)
ASHRAE HandbookHVAC Applications (ASHRAE 2007c) isapotential sourcefor rec-
ommendedbackgroundsoundlevelsinthevariousspacesthat makeupofficebuildings.
Figure 5-37 (HV33) Typical Noise Paths for Rooftop-Mounted HVAC Units
HV34 Proper Maintenance (Climate Zones: all)
Regularly scheduled maintenance is an important part of keeping the HVAC systemin
optimumworkingcondition. Neglectingpreventivemaintenancepractices canquickly negate
anyenergysavingsexpectedfromthesystemdesign.
Filtersshouldbereplacedwhenthepressuredropexceedsthefilter manufacturersrecom-
mendationsfor replacementor whenvisual inspectionindicatestheneedfor replacement. ERVs
needtobecleanedperiodicallytomaintainperformance. Dampers, valves, louvers, andsensors
must all beperiodically inspectedandcalibratedtoensureproper operation. This is especially
important for OA dampers and CO
2
sensors. Inaccurate CO
2
sensors can cause excessive
energyuseor poor IAQ, sotheyneedtobecalibratedasrecommendedbythemanufacturer.
A BAScanbeusedtonotifyO&M staff whenpreventivemaintenanceproceduresshould
beperformed. Thisnotificationcanbetriggeredbycalendar dates, run-timehours, thenumber
of timesapieceof equipment hasstarted, or sensorsinstalledinthesystem(suchasapressure
switchthat indicateswhenanair filter istoodirtyandneedstobereplaced).
HV35 Zone Temperature Control (Climate Zones: all)
Thenumber of spacesinazoneandthelocationsof thetemperaturesensors(thermostats)
will affectthecontrol of temperatureinthevariousspacesof azone. Locatingthethermostatin
oneroomof azonewithmultiplespacesprovidesfeedbackbasedonlyontheconditionsinthat
Figure 5-38 (HV33) Typical Noise Paths for Interior-Mounted HVAC Units
room. Locatingasinglethermostat inalargeopenareamay provideabetter responseto the
conditionsof azonewithmultiplespaces. Selectingtheroomor spacethat will best represent
thethermal characteristicsof thespaceduetobothexternal andinternal loadswill providethe
greatest comfort level for occupants.
Toprevent misreadingof thespacetemperature, zonethermostatsshouldnot bemounted
onexterior walls. Wherethisisunavoidable, useaninsulatedsub-basefor thethermostat.
In spaces with high ceilings, consider using ceiling fans or high/low air distribution to
reducetemperaturestratificationduringtheheatingseason.
Sixprimaryfactorsmust beaddressedwhendefiningconditionsfor thermal comfort:
Metabolicrate
Clothinginsulation
Air temperature
Radiant temperature
Air speed
Humidity
Appropriate levels of clothing, the cooling effect of air motion, and radiant cooling or
heatingsystems, for example, canincreaseoccupant comfort whilestill beingenergyefficient.
HV36 Evaporative Condensers on Rooftop Units (Climate Zones: OB OB OB OB)
Evaporativecondensers onrooftopDX packagedunits canbeconsideredindry climates
toimproveenergy efficiency. Thesedevicestakeadvantageof thelowambient wet-bulbtem-
peratureinorder to improveenergy efficiency by couplingconvectiveheat rejectionwiththe
evaporationof water off of wettedheat rejectioncondenser coils. Indry climates, upto 40%
reductioninenergyusecanresult.
Generally speaking, all of the wetted components and the condenser section should be
designedfor corrosionresistancetoensurereasonableequipmentlife. Drawbackstothesystem
includeextrafirst costs, extraweight that arisesfromtheextraequipment andthewater inthe
sump, additional controls, andtheneedtoprovidewater treatment regimens.
AHRI. 2007. ANSI/AHRI Standard340/360-2007, 2007 Standard for Performance Rating of
Commercial and Industrial Unitary Air-Conditioning and Heat Pump Equipment. Arling-
ton, VA: Air-Conditioning, Heating, andRefrigerationInstitute.
AHRI. 2008. ANSI/AHRI Standard210/240, 2008 Standard for Performance Rating of Uni-
tary Air-Conditioning and Air-Source Heat Pump Equipment. Arlington, VA: Air-Condi-
tioning, Heating, andRefrigerationInstitute.
AHRI/ASHRAE. 2005. ANSI/ARI/ASHRAE ISOStandard13256-1:1998, Water-source heat
pumpstesting and rating for performancePart 1: Water-to-air and brine-to-air heat
pumps. Atlanta: AmericanSociety of Heating, RefrigeratingandAir-ConditioningEngi-
neers.
Quality. Atlanta: AmericanSociety of Heating, RefrigeratingandAir-ConditioningEngi-
neers.
ASHRAE. 2007b. Standard 62.1 Users Manual. Atlanta: American Society of Heating,
ASHRAE. 2007c. ASHRAE Standard52.2-2007, Method of Testing General Ventilation Air-
Cleaning Devices for Removal Efficiency by Particle Size. Atlanta: AmericanSociety of
ASHRAE. 2007c. ASHRAE HandbookHVAC Applications. Atlanta: American Society of
ASHRAE. 2008a. ASHRAE HandbookHVAC Systems and Equipment. Atlanta: American
Societyof Heating, RefrigeratingandAir-ConditioningEngineers.
ASHRAE. 2008b. ASHRAE Standard111-1988, Practices for Measurement, Testing, Adjust-
ing, and Balancing of Building, Heating, Ventilation, Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration
Systems. Atlanta: AmericanSocietyof Heating, RefrigeratingandAir-ConditioningEngi-
neers.
ASHRAE. 2009a. ASHRAE HandbookFundamentals. Atlanta: American Society of Heat-
ing, RefrigeratingandAir-ConditioningEngineers.
ASHRAE. 2009b. Indoor Air Quality Guide: Best Practices for Design, Construction and
ingEngineers.
Quality. Atlanta: AmericanSocietyof Heating, RefrigeratingandAir-ConditioningEngi-
neers.
ASHRAE. 2010b. ANSI/ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1-2010, Energy Standard for Buildings
ASHRAE. 2010c. ASHRAE GreenGuide: The Design, Construction, and Operation of Sustain-
able Buildings, 3ded. Atlanta: AmericanSociety of Heating, RefrigeratingandAir-Con-
ditioningEngineers.
Dieckmann, J ., K. Roth, andJ . Brodrick. 2003. Dedicatedoutdoor air systems. ASHRAE Jour-
nal 45(3):5859.
EPA. 2008a. National Ambient Air Quality Standards. www.epa.gov/air/criteria.html. Wash-
ington, DC: U.S. Environmental ProtectionAgency.
EPA. 2008b. TheGreenBook Nonattainment Areasfor CriteriaPollutants. www.epa.gov/air/
oaqps/greenbk. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental ProtectionAgency.
Harriman, L., G. Brundett, andR. Kittler. 2001. Humidity Control Design Guide for Commer-
cial and Institutional Buildings. Atlanta: AmericanSociety of Heating, Refrigeratingand
Air-ConditioningEngineers.
Morris, W. 2003. The ABCs of DOAS: Dedicated outdoor air systems. ASHRAE Journal
45(5):2429.
Mumma, S. 2001. Designingdedicatedoutdoor air systems. ASHRAE Journal 43(5):2831.
Murphy, J . 2006. Smart dedicatedoutdoor air systems. ASHRAE Journal 48(7):3037.
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and12-13. Rosslyn, VA: National Electrical ManufacturersAssociation.
Schaffer, M. 2005. A Practical Guide to Noise and Vibration Control for HVAC Systems (I-P
edition), 2ded. Atlanta: AmericanSocietyof Heating, RefrigeratingandAir-Conditioning
Engineers.
Shank, K., andS. Mumma. 2001. Selectingthesupply air conditions for adedicatedoutdoor
air system working in parallel with distributed sensible cooling terminal equipment.
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Sheet Metal andAir ConditioningContractorsNational Association.
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38(1).
QUALITY ASSURANCE
OVERVIEW
Qualityassurance(QA) (seealsocommissioning[Cx]) will helpensureabuildingfunctions
in accordancewith its design intent and thus meets theperformancegoals established for it.
QA shouldbeanintegral part of thedesignandconstructionprocessesaswell asthecontinued
operation of the facility. General information on QA and Cx is included in Chapter 3, and
AppendixCprovidesexamplesfor theCxprocess.
Good Design
Practice
QA1 Selecting the Design and Construction Team (Climate Zones: all)
Selection of thedesign and construction teammembers is critical to aprojects success.
Ownersneedtounderstandhowteamdynamicscanplayaroleinthebuildingsresultingper-
formance. Ownersshouldevaluatequalificationsof candidates, past performance, costsof ser-
vices, andavailability of thecandidatesinmakingtheir selections. Ownersneedtobeclear in
their expectations of howteammembers should interact. It should beclear that all members
should work together to further teamgoals. The first step is to define members roles and
responsibilities. This includes defining deliverables at each phase during the design and Cx
processes.
QA2 Selecting the QA Provider (Climate Zones: all)
QA isasystematic processof verifyingtheOwnersProject Requirements(OPR), opera-
tional needs, andBasisof Design(BoD) andensuringthat thebuildingperformsinaccordance
withthesedefinedneeds. Theselectionof aQA provider shouldincludethesameevaluation
processtheowner wouldusetoselectother teammembers. QualificationsinprovidingQA ser-
vices, past performanceof projects, cost of services, andavailabilityof thecandidatearesome
of theparametersanowner shouldinvestigateandconsider whenmakingaselection. Owners
may select amember of thedesignor constructionteamas theQA provider. Whilethereare
exceptions, ingeneral most designersarenot comfortableoperatingandtestingassembliesand
equipment and most contractors do not havethetechnical background necessary to evaluate
performance. Cx requires in-depth technical knowledge of the building envelope and the
mechanical, electrical, and plumbing systems and operational and construction experience.
This function is best performed by a third party responsible to the owner because political
issues often inhibit amember of thedesign or construction organizations fromfulfilling this
responsibility.
QA3 Owners Project Requirements (OPR) and Basis of Design (BoD)
TheOPR detailsthefunctional requirementsof aproject andtheexpectationsof howthe
facilitywill beusedandoperated. Thisincludesstrategiesandrecommendationsselectedfrom
thisGuide(seeChapter 4) that will beincorporatedintotheproject, anticipatedhoursof opera-
tionprovidedbytheowner, andBoDassumptions.
TheOPR forms thefoundationof theteams tasks by definingproject anddesigngoals,
measurableperformancecriteria, owner directives, budgets, schedules, and supporting infor-
mationinasingle, concisedocument. TheQA process depends onaclear, concise, andcom-
prehensiveOPR. Development of theOPR document requiresinput fromall keyfacilityusers
andoperators. Itiscritical toalignthecomplexityof thesystemswiththecapacityandcapabil-
ityof thefacilitystaff.
Thenextstepisfor thedesignteammemberstodocumenthowtheir designrespondstothe
OPR information. Thisdocument istheBoD. It recordsthestandardsandregulations, calcula-
tions, design criteria, decisions andassumptions, andsystemdescriptions. Thenarrativemust
clearly articulatethespecific operatingparametersrequiredfor thesystemstoformthecorrect
basis for later quality measurements. Essentially, it is theengineeringbackgroundinformation
that isnot providedintheconstructiondocuments(CDs) that mapsout howthearchitectsand
engineers end up with their designs. For example, the BoD would state key criteria such as
future expansion and redundancy considerations. It should include important criteria such as
what codes, standards, or guidelines are being followed for the various engineered systems,
includingventilationandenergy. It providesagoodplacetodocument owner input neededfor
engineeredsystems, suchasidentifyingwhat electrical loadsaretobeonemergencypower.
QA4 Design and Construction Schedule (Climate Zones: all)
Theinclusionof QA activitiesintheconstructionschedulefulfillsacritical partof deliver-
ingasuccessful project. Identifytheactivitiesandtimerequiredfor designreviewandperfor-
mance verification to minimize time and effort needed to accomplish activities and correct
deficiencies.
QA5 Design Review (Climate Zones: all)
A secondpair of eyesprovidedbythecommissioningauthority(CxA)/QA provider gives
afreshperspectivethat allowsidentificationof issuesandopportunitiestoimprovethequality
of theCDs withverificationthat theOPR arebeingmet. Issues identifiedcanbemoreeasily
corrected early in theproject, providing potential savings in construction costs and reducing
risktotheteam.
QA6 Defining QA at Pre-Bid (Climate Zones: all)
The building industry has traditionally delivered buildings without using a verification
process. Changes intraditional designandconstructionprocedures andpractices requireedu-
cationof theconstructionteamthat explainshowtheQA processwill affect thevarioustrades
biddingtheproject. It isextremelyimportant that theQA processbereviewedwiththebidding
contractorstofacilitateunderstandingof andtohelpminimizefear associatedwithnewprac-
tices. TeamswhohaveparticipatedintheCx processtypically appreciatetheprocessbecause
they areableto resolveproblems whiletheir manpower andmaterials arestill ontheproject,
significantly reducing delays, callbacks, and associated costs whileenhancing their delivery
capacity.
Theserequirementscanbereviewedbythearchitect andengineer of recordat thepre-bid
meeting, asdefinedinthespecifications.
QA7 Verifying Building Envelope Construction (Climate Zones: all)
The building envelope is a key element of an energy-efficient design. Compromises in
assembly performancearecommon and arecaused by avariety of factors that can easily be
avoided. Improper placement of insulation, improper sealingor lack of sealingat air barriers,
wrongor poorly performingglazingandfenestrationsystems, incorrect placement of shading
devices, misplacement of daylighting shelves, and misinterpretation of assembly details can
significantly compromisetheenergy performanceof thebuilding(seetheCautions sections
throughout thischapter). Theperceivedvalueof theCxprocessisthat it isanextensionof the
qualitycontrol processesof thedesigner andcontractor astheteamworkstogether toproduce
qualityenergy-efficient projects.
QA8 Verifying Lighting Construction (Climate Zones: all)
Lightingplaysasignificant roleintheenergyconsumptionof thebuilding. Lightingfor the
all of thespacetypesshouldbereviewedagainstanticipatedschedulesof usethroughouttheday.
QA9 Verifying Electrical and HVAC Systems Construction (Climate Zones: all)
Performanceof electrical andHVACsystemsisakeyelementof thisGuide. Howsystems
are designed as well as installed affect how efficiently they will perform. Collaboration
betweentheentiredesignteamisneededtooptimizetheenergyefficiencyof thefacility. Natu-
ral daylight and artificial lighting will impact the heating and cooling loads, resulting in
impacts on both HVAC equipment capacity and hourly operation mode. Thedesign reviews
shouldpaycloseattentiontoelectrical andHVACsystems. Proper installationisjust asimpor-
tant asproper design. Makingsuretheinstallingcontractorsforemenunderstandtheowners
goals, theQA process, andtheinstallationdetails is akey factor to systemperformancesuc-
cess. A significant part of thisprocessisacareful andthoroughreviewof product submittalsto
ensurecompliancewiththedesign. It is ineveryones best interest to install thecomponents
correctlyandcompletelythefirsttime. Tryingtoinspectqualityonceaprojectisalreadyunder
constructionistimeconsuming, costly, andusuallydoesnt result inquality. Itsmuchbetter to
ensureall teammembers arealignedwith theQA process andgoals. Certainly, observations
and inspections during construction arenecessary. Timing is critical to ensurethat problems
are identified at the beginning of each systeminstallation. This minimizes the number of
changes(savingtimeandcost) andleavestimefor corrections.
QA10 Performance Testing (Climate Zones: all)
Performancetestingof systemsisessential toensurethat all thecommissionedsystemsare
functioningproperlyinall modesof operation. Thisisaprerequisitefor theowner torealizethe
energysavingsthat canbeexpectedfromthestrategiesandrecommendationscontainedinthis
Guide. Unlikemost appliances thesedays, noneof themechanical/electrical systems inanew
facility areplug and play. If theteamhas executed theCommissioning Plan and is aligned
withtheQA goals, theperformancetestingwill occur quicklyandonlyminor issueswill needto
beresolved. Owners withO&M personnel canusethefunctional testingprocess as atraining
tool toeducatetheir staff onhowthesystemsoperateaswell asfor systemorientationprior to
training.
QA11 Substantial Completion (Climate Zones: all)
Substantial completion generally means thecompletionandacceptanceof thelifesafety
systemsandthat thefacilityisreadytobeoccupied. All of thesystemsshouldbeoperatingas
intended. Expectedperformancecanonly beaccomplishedwhenall systems operateinterac-
tively to provide the desired results. As contractors finish their work, they will identify and
resolvemany performanceproblems. TheCxA/QA provider verifiesthat thecontractor main-
tainedaquality control process by directingandwitnessingtestingandthenhelps to resolve
remainingissues.
QA12 Final Acceptance (Climate Zones: all)
Final acceptance generally occurs after the Cx/QA issues in the issues log have been
resolved, except for minor issuestheowner iscomfortablewithresolvingduringthewarranty
period.
QA13 Establish a Building Operation and Maintenance (O&M) Program
Continuedperformanceandcontrol of operational andmaintenancecostsrequireamain-
tenanceprogram. TheO&M manualsprovideinformationthat theO&M staff usestodevelop
thisprogram. DetailedO&M systemmanual andtrainingrequirementsaredefinedintheOPR
andexecutedby theproject teamto ensuretheO&M staff has thetools andskills necessary.
Thelevel of expertisetypicallyassociatedwithO&M staff for buildingscoveredbythisGuide
is generally much lower than that of adegreed or licensed engineer, and they typically need
assistancewithdevelopment of apreventivemaintenanceprogram. TheCxA/QA provider can
helpbridgetheknowledgegapsof theO&M staff andassist theowner withdevelopingapro-
gramthat helps ensurecontinued performance. Thebenefits associated with energy-efficient
buildingsarerealizedwhensystemsperformasintendedthroughproper design, construction,
operation, andmaintenance.
QA14 Monitor Post-Occupancy Performance (Climate Zones: all)
Establishing measurement and verification procedures for actual building performance
after abuilding has been commissioned can identify when correctiveaction and/or repair is
requiredtomaintainenergyperformance. Utilityconsumptionandfactorsaffectingutilitycon-
sumptionshouldbemonitoredandrecordedtoestablishbuildingperformanceduringthefirst
year of operation.
Variationsinutilityusagecanbejustifiedbasedonchangesinconditionstypicallyaffect-
ing energy use, such as weather, occupancy, operational schedule, maintenance procedures,
andequipment operations requiredby theseconditions. Whilemost buildings coveredinthis
Guidewill not useaformal measurement andverificationprocess, trackingthespecificparam-
eters listed abovedoes allowtheowner to quickly reviewutility bills and changes in condi-
tions. Poor performance is generally obvious to the reviewer when comparing the various
parameters. CxA/QA providers cantypically helpowners understandwhenoperational toler-
ances are exceeded and can provide assistance in defining what actions may be required to
returnthebuildingtopeakperformance.
Another purposeof thepost-occupancy evaluationis to determinetheactual energy per-
formanceof thecurrent generation of low-energy buildings to verify design goals anddocu-
ment real-world energy savings. Additionally, post-occupancy evaluations provide lessons
learned in the design, technologies, operation, and analysis techniques to ensure these and
futurebuildings operateat ahigh level of performanceover time. For details and somecase
studiesandlessonslearned, refer tothepublishedreport byNational RenewableEnergyLabo-
ratory(NREL) (Torcellini et al. 2006).
ASHRAE. 2005. ASHRAE Guideline0-2005, The Commissioning Process. Atlanta: American
Societyof Heating, RefrigeratingandAir-ConditioningEngineers.
ASHRAE. 2007. ASHRAE Guideline 1.1-2007, HVAC&R Technical Requirements for The
Commissioning Process. Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-
ConditioningEngineers.
Torcellini, P., S. Pless, M. Deru, B. Griffith, N. Long, andR. J udkoff. 2006. Lessons learned
fromcase studies of six high-performance buildings, Technical Report NRETL/TP-55-
037542. www.nrel.gov/docs/fy06osti/37542.pdf. Golden, CO: National Renewable
EnergyLaboratory.
ADDITIONAL BONUS SAVINGS
DAYLIGHTINGTOPLIGHTING
DL21 Toplighting (Climate Zones: all)
Toplighting draws fromzenithal skylight, which makes toplighting the most effective
sourceof daylight. Toplightingthereforerequiressmaller aperturesthansidelightingtoachieve
the same level of light. In office buildings, toplighting is recommended for use in occupied
spacesthat havenoaccesstosidelight. Toplightingisbest usedincirculationareasandcontig-
uousspacesthat areusedfor receptionareasor lobbies. Toplightingincirculationareasneeds
careful coordinationwithoverheadductwork andlightingbut does not limit futureflexibility
asrequiredinprogramspaces.
Toplighting is a highly effective strategy that not only provides excellent daylight and
way-findingsupport but alsocansaveenergyfor electrical lightingandcooling. Thelimitation
of toplightingis that it canbeusedinsingle-story designs only or onthetopfloors of multi-
storydesigns. Twotypesof toplightingcanbedistinguished, asnotedinDL22andDL24.
DL22 Rooftop Monitors (Climate Zones: all)
Rooftop monitors are typically the toplighting strategy best suited for office building
applications. Themonitors vertical glazingdelivers excellent quality daylight anddelivers it
specifically to themonitors orientation (which is important for good controlling of theday-
light). Roof monitorsshouldnot faceeast or west. Southorientationispossibleif appropriately
sizedoverhangs areincluded, but undesiredsolar heat gainis blockedmost effectively when
themonitorsfacenorth. (SeeFigure5-39.)
Fenestration to Floor Area Ratio (FFR) of Rooftop Monitors. A 10% fenestration to
floor arearatio(FFR) of vertical glazingwithaVT inaccordancewiththevalues for vertical
fenestrationintheclimate-specificrecommendationtablesinChapter 4issufficient toachieve
goodqualitydaylight levelsandtoswitchoff electrical lightingduringdaytimeinall climates
Figure 5-39 (DL22) Rooftop Monitor
andunder partially cloudy sky conditions. Whenthemonitor faces south, theglazingareais
typically25%lessthanwhenit facesnorthtoprovidethesameamount of daylighting.
Rooftopmonitors addvolume. In spaces usingall-air systemenvironments withacubic
foot per minuteratebasedonsquarefootage, theaddedvolumeshouldbetakenintoconsider-
ation, as thevolumeincreasecanleadtoahigher cubic foot per minuterateandincur higher
energyconsumption.
DL23 Rooftop Monitor Design (Climate Zones: all)
To help reduce conductive gains and losses, the walls and ceilings of the roof monitor
shouldbeinsulatedandshouldincorporateappropriateinsulationbarriersasrecommendedin
EN2andEN6. Makesurethat thecolorsusedwithinthemonitor arelight andcomplywiththe
minimumreflectancesinTable5-3of thischapter. Whiteworksbest. Darker colorswill result
inaconsiderablelossof efficiency.
Also consider acoustic issues. If acoustical ceiling material is used, make sure that the
reflectance and the acoustical properties are high. Often, in presenting the reflectance of an
acoustical tile, manufacturers will specify thereflectanceof thepaint. Remember to account
for reducedreflectancecausedbythefissuresinthetile. (SeeFigure5-22.)
DL24 Skylights (Climate Zones: O O O O)
Skylightsareapowerful sourceof daylight; however, their difficultieswithhandlingsolar
heat gain, direct beamradiation, and glare pose challenges when designing for demanding
work environments. Themaximumskylight fenestrationarea, theamount of skylight opening
togrossroof area, shouldnotexceed5%. Applicationsinofficebuildingsshouldbeconsidered
withgreat careandonlyif north-facingrooftopmonitorsarenot deemedfeasible.
In general, the shape and interior wall reflectances of skylight wells limit the useful
amount of daylight transmitted into theroom. Interior reflectances should beabove70%. In
regardtoproportions, agoodruleof thumbisthat thewell depthshouldbelessthantwicethe
well width.
Workspacesneedtobeshieldedfromdirect sun. Diffusingskylightscancauseglare. Use
light-reflectingbafflesand/or diffusingglazingtocontrol direct sun. (SeeFigure5-40.)
Figure 5-40 (DL24) Roof Skylight and Space Section
Reducethermal gainduringthecoolingseasonbyusingskylightswithalowoverall ther-
mal transmittance(U-factor). Insulatetheskylight curbabovetheroof linewithrigidcontinu-
ousinstallation(c.i.). Shadeskylightswithexterior/interior suncontrol devicessuchasscreens,
baffles, or fins.
DL25 ToplightingThermal Transmittance (Climate Zones: O O O)
Inhot climates, usenorth-facingmonitors for toplightingwhenever possibleto eliminate
excessivesolar heat gain and glare. Typically, north-facing monitors haveone-sixth theheat
gainof skylights.
Reducethermal gainduringthecoolingseasonbyusingskylightswithalowoverall ther-
mal transmittance(U-factor). Insulatetheskylightcurbabovetheroof linewithrigidc.i. Shade
skylightswithexterior/interior suncontrol devicessuchasscreens, baffles, or fins.
DL26 ToplightingThermal Transmittance (Climate Zones: O O O O)
In moderate and cooler climates, use either north- or south-facing rooftop monitors for
toplighting but not east- or west-facing monitors. East-west glazing adds excessive summer
heatgainandmakesitdifficulttocontrol directsolar gain. Monitorswithoperableglazingmay
alsohelpprovidenatural ventilationintemperateseasonswhenair conditioningisnot inuse.
Reducesummer heat gainaswell aswinter heat lossbyusingskylightswithalowoverall
thermal transmittance(U-factor) andby controllingskylight fenestrationarea. Useaskylight
framethat hasathermal breaktoprevent excessiveheat loss/gainandwinter moistureconden-
sationontheframe. Insulatetheskylight curbabovetheroof linewithrigidc.i.
Shade south-facing rooftop monitors and skylights with exterior/interior sun control
devicessuchasscreens, baffles, or fins. AsshowninFigure5-41, splaytheskylight openingat
45tomaximizedaylight distributionandminimizeglare.
DL27 ToplightingCeiling Height Differentials (Climate Zones: all)
Differencesinfloor-to-floor height offer useful opportunitiesfor daylighting. Differentials
inceilingheight asaresult of programmaticrequirementsprovidecost-effectiveopportunities
toimplement daylight throughtoplighting. (SeeFigure5-42.)
Figure 5-41 (DL26) Roof Skylight Section
NATURAL VENTILATION
NV1 Natural Ventilation and Naturally Conditioned Spaces
(Climate Zones: OB OB OC OC OB and as appropriate elsewhere in a mixed-
mode approach)
Natural ventilation involves theuseof operableelements in thefaadeof a building to
bringinOA. ASHRAE Standard62.1requireseither engineeringanalysistoconfirmadequate
ventilationeffectivenessor compliancewithprescriptiverequirementsthat governthesizeand
spacing of theopenings, as well as permanent accessibility to thecontrols by theoccupants
(ASHRAE 2010a).
Occupant-controlled naturally conditioned spaces, as defined by ASHRAE Standard 55,
are those spaces where the thermal conditions of the space are regulated primarily by the
opening and closing of windows by the occupants (ASHRAE 2010b, p. 3). Standard 55
allowsanadaptivecomfort standardtobeusedunder alimitedset of conditions.
When considering either natural ventilation or naturally conditioned spaces, onemust first
consider theclimateandthenumber of hourswhenanoccupant might want toopenthewindows
and evaluate whether a natural scheme is possible for the range of outdoor temperatures and
humidities. If theclimateperformancesupportsnatural ventilation/conditioning, thenthedesigner
shouldalsoreviewtheOA quality(asOA pollutantsaregenerallynotfilteredandOA qualitywill
heavilyinfluenceIAQ), thenoiseimpactsfromadjacentstreets, andsecurityconcerns.
A mixed-modeapproachusuallyfallsintooneof threecategories(CBE 2005):
Zoned useoneareaof thebuilding is naturally conditioned/ventilated whileanother is
fullyair conditioned
Change-over usetheareaisnaturallyventilatedandconditionedfor aportionof theyear
but isfullyheatedandcooledduringextremeseasons
Concurrent usetheareaisnaturally ventilatedbut artificially cooled(usually througha
passiveradiant system)
It isimportant toevaluatethefrequencyof natural ventilationusebecauseinmixed-mode
systemstheowner isoftenpurchasingtwosystems(anair-conditioningsystemandtheopera-
blewindowsinthefaade).
Figure 5-42 (DL27) Toplighting Height DifferentialSouth-Facing
RENEWABLE ENERGY
RE1 Photovoltaic (PV) Systems (Climate Zones: all)
Photovoltaic(PV) systemshavebecomeanincreasinglypopular optionfor on-siteelectric
energyproduction. Thesesystemsrequireverylittlemaintenanceandgenerallyhavelonglife-
times.
Optionsfor installingPV systemsincludeonrooftops(includingcollectorsintegratedwith
theroofingmembrane), groundmounted, or as thetopof acoveredparkingsystem. Thesys-
temsmaybefixed-mountedor tracking. Eachinstallationmethodoffersdifferentcombinations
of advantagesanddisadvantages.
RE2 Solar Hot Water Systems (Climate Zones: all)
Simplesolar systemsaremost efficient whentheygenerateheat at lowtemperatures. Gen-
eral suggestionsfor solar domestichot water heatingsystemsincludethefollowing:
It istypicallynot economical todesignsolar systemstosatisfythefull annual SWHload.
Systemsaretypicallymost economical if theyfurnish50%80%of theannual load.
Properlysizedsystemswill meet thefull loadonthebest solar dayof theyear.
Approximately12gal of storageshouldbeprovidedper squarefoot of collector.
Ingeneral, 1ft
2
of collector heatsabout 1gal/dayof servicewater at 44latitude.
Glazedflat-platesystemsoftencost intherangeof $100to$150/ft
2
of collector.
Collectorsdonot havetofaceduesouth; they receive94%of themaximumannual solar
energyif theyare45east or west of duesouth.
Theoptimal collector tilt for servicewater applicationsisapproximately equal tothelati-
tude where the building is located; however, variations of 20 only reduce the total
energycollectedabout 5%. Thisisonereasonthat manycollector installationsareflat toa
pitchedroof insteadof beingsupportedonstands.
The optimal collector tilt for building heating (not domestic water heating) systems is
approximatelythelatitudeof thebuildingplus15.
Collectors canstill functiononcloudy days to varyingdegrees dependingonthedesign,
but they performbetter indirect sunlight; collectorsshouldnot beplacedinareasthat arefre-
quentlyshaded.
Solar systemsinmost climatesrequirefreezeprotection. Thetwocommontypesof freeze
protectionaredrainbacksystemsandsystemsthat containantifreeze.
Drainback solar hot water systems areoftenselectedinsmall applicationswherethepip-
ingcanbeslopedtowardacollectiontank. Bydrainingthecollectionloop, freezeprotectionis
accomplishedwhenthepumpshuts down, either intentionally or unintentionally. This avoids
theheat transfer penaltiesof antifreezesolutions.
Closed-loop, freeze-resistant solar systems should be used when piping layouts make
drainbacksystemsimpractical.
Inbothsystems, apumpcirculateswater or antifreezesolutionthroughthecollectionloop
whenthereisadequatesolar radiationandaneedfor servicewater heat.
Solar collectorsfor servicewater applicationsareusuallyflat-plateor evacuated-tubetype.
Flat-plateunits aretypically less expensive. Evacuated-tubedesigns canproducehigher tem-
peratures becausethey haveless standby loss but also can pack with snowand if fluid flow
stopsaremorelikelytoreachtemperaturesthat candegradeantifreezesolutions.
Annual savingscanbeestimatedusingperformancedatafromtheSolar RatingandCerti-
ficationCorporationWebsite(SRCC 2011). A freedownloadableprogramcalledRETScreen
fromNatural Resources Canada(NRCan2010) canassist witheconomic feasibility analysis,
and many utility rebateprograms useit in calculating rebates or determining eligibility. The
first cost of thesystemmust beestimated.
Using Solar Energy
PV Panels
Source: Cody Andresen, Arup
Evacuated-Tube Solar Heaters
Source: Gerard Healey
Where solar energy is prevalent, it can be used to create electricity fromPV panels or hot water from
evacuated-tube solar heaters.
Photovoltaics are now commonplace in most markets as a renewable energy source, with many
municipalities and utilities allowing a net-metering approach that allows the building owner to push
electricity into the grid during daytime hours and remove it at other times as needed. There is little
maintenance other than cleaning, which is required for PV panels.
Evacuated-tube solar heaters are a more complex option for the use of solar energy, as they require
that a base load of heating is required throughout the year. Most designers wishing to incorporate
solar heaters should consult a specialist regarding the specifics of the installation.
RE3 Wind Turbine Power (Climate Zones: all)
Windenergy is oneof thelowest-pricedrenewableenergy technologies availabletoday,
costingbetween5to11centsper kilowatt-hour, dependinguponthewindresourceandproject
financingof theparticular project. Small- tomedium-sizedwindturbinesaretypicallyconsid-
eredfor small tomediumofficebuildings. Theseturbinesrangefrom4to200kWandaretyp-
ically mounted on towers from50 to 100 ft and connected to the utility grid through the
buildingselectrical distributionsystem.
One of the first steps to developing a wind energy project is to assess the areas wind
resources andestimatetheavailableenergy. Fromwindresourcemaps, youcandetermineif
your areaof interest shouldbefurther explored. Notethat thewindresourceat amicro level
canvarysignificantly; therefore, youshouldget aprofessional evaluationof your specificarea
of interest.
Themap in Figure5-43 shows theannual averagewind power estimates at 50 mabove
ground. It combines high- and low-resolution datasets that havebeen screened to eliminate
land-based areas unlikely to bedeveloped dueto land useor environmental issues. In many
states, thewind resourcehas been visually enhanced to better showthedistribution on ridge
crests andother features. Estimates of thewindresourceareexpressedinwindpower classes
ranging fromClass 1 (lowest) to Class 7 (highest), with each class representing a range of
meanwindpower densityor equivalentmeanspeedatspecifiedheightsabovetheground. This
mapdoesnot showClasses1and2, asClass2areasaremarginal andClass1areasareunsuit-
ablefor windenergy development. Ingeneral, at 50m, Class 4or higher windpower canbe
useful for generating wind power. More detailed state wind maps are available at the U.S.
Department of EnergysOfficeof Energy Efficiency andRenewableEnergy Website(EERE
2011a).
Althoughwindturbinesthemselvesdonottakeupasignificantamountof space, theyneed
tobeinstalledanadequatedistancefromthenearestbuildingfor several reasons, includingtur-
bulencereduction(whichaffectsefficiency), noisecontrol, andsafety. It isessential that coor-
dinationoccursbetweentheowner, designteam, andsiteplanner toestablishtheoptimal wind
turbinelocationrelativetotheother facilitiesonthesite.
Thethreelargest complaintsabout windturbinesarethenoise, thekillingof birds, andthe
aesthetic appearance. Most of theseproblems havebeen resolved or greatly reduced through
technological developments or by properly siting wind turbines. Most small wind turbines
todayhaveanexcellent safetyrecord. Animportant factor istoconsider howthewindturbine
controls itself andshuts itself down. Canoperators shut it off andstoptheturbinewhenthey
want or needtodoso? Thisisextremelyimportant, andunfortunatelythereareveryfewsmall
turbines that havereliablemeans to stoptherotor oncommand. Thefewthat do may require
youtodosofromthebaseof thetowernot exactlywhereyouwant tobeif theturbineisout
of control inawindstorm. Look for asystemthat offersoneor moremeanstoshut downand
preferablystoptherotor remotely.
Usingenergy modeling, theelectric energy consumptionof thebuildingcanbemodeled.
Usingthisdatainconjunctionwiththefinancial detailsof theproject, includingtherebates, the
owner anddesigner must thenchosethecorrect sizeturbinethat meets their needs. Notethat
thecloser thematch of theturbineenergy output to thedemand, themorecost-effectivethe
systemwill be. Makesurethat all costsarelistedtogiveatotal cost of ownershipfor thewind
turbine. This includes the wind turbine, the tower, the electrical interconnection, controls,
installation, maintenance, concretefootings, guywires, andcabling.
Inadditiontoevaluatingtheinitial costof theturbine, itisextremelyimportanttoconsider
thefederal andstatepoliciesandincentiveprogramsthat areavailable. TheDatabasefor State
Incentives for Renewables and Efficiency (DSIRE) provides a list of available incentives,
grants, andrebates(EERE 2011b). Alsocritical tothefinancial successtoawindturbineproj-
ect isafavorablenet meteringagreement withtheutility.
REFERENCES
Quality. Atlanta: AmericanSocietyof Heating, RefrigeratingandAir-Conditioning.
ASHRAE. 2010b. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard55-2010, Thermal Environmental Conditions for
tioningEngineers.
EERE. 2011a. WindPoweringAmerica, WindandWater Program. www.windpoweringamer-
ica.gov/wind_maps.asp. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Energy, Officeof Energy
EfficiencyandRenewableEnergy.
EERE. 2011b. Database for State Incentives for Renewables and Efficiency (DSIRE).
www.dsireusa.org. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Energy, Officeof Energy Effi-
ciencyandRenewableEnergy.
NRCan. 2010. RETScreenfromNatural ResourcesCanada(www.retscreen.net)
NREL. 2009. WindResources(50m) of theUnitedStates. Imagemap_wind_national avail-
ableat www.nrel.gov/gis/images. Golden, CO: National RenewableEnergyLaboratory.
SRCC. 2011. Ratings. www.solar-rating.org/ratings/ratings.htm. Cocoa, FL: Solar Ratingand
CertificationCorporation.
CBE. 2005. About MixedMode. Center for theBuilt Environment Website, www.cbe.berke-
ley.edu/mixedmode/aboutmm.html. Berkeley: Universityof CaliforniaBerkeley.
Figure 5-43 (RE3) Average Annual Wind Power Estimates
Source: NREL (2009)
Each recommendation tablein Chapter 4 presents aprescriptiveconstruction option for
eachopaqueenvelopemeasure. TableA-1presentsU-factorsfor above-gradecomponents, C-
factors for below-gradewalls, and F-factors for slab-on-gradefloors that correspond to each
prescriptive construction option. Alternative constructions would be equivalent methods for
meetingtherecommendationsof thisGuideprovidedtheyarelessthanor equal tothethermal
performancefactorslistedinTableA-1.
Appendix A
Envelope Thermal
Performance Factors
A
11_AppendixA.fm Page199 Monday, April 25, 2011 11:30AM
Table A-1 Opaque Construction Options
Roof Assemblies Walls, Above Grade Floors
R U R U R C
Insulation Above Deck Mass Walls Mass
20 0.048 5.7 0.151 4.2 c.i. 0.137
25 0.039 7.6 0.123 10.4 c.i. 0.074
30 0.032 11.4 0.090 12.5 c.i. 0.064
35 0.028 13.3 0.080 14.6 c.i. 0.056
Attic and Other 19.0 0.066 16.7 c.i. 0.051
38 0.027 Steel Framed 20.9 c.i. 0.042
49 0.021 13 +7.5 c.i. 0.064 23.0 c.i. 0.038
60 0.017 13 +15.6 c.i. 0.042 Steel Framed
Metal Building 13 +18.8 c.i. 0.037 19 0.052
19 +10 FC 0.057 Wood Framed and Other 13 +7.5 c.i. 0.045
19 +11 Ls 0.035 13 0.089 30 0.038
25 +11 Ls 0.031 13 +3.8 c.i. 0.064 38 0.032
30 +11 Ls 0.029 13 +7.5 c.i. 0.051 49 0.027
25+11+11 Ls 0.026 13 +10.0 c.i. 0.045 60 0.024
13 +12.5 c.i. 0.040 Wood Framed and Other
Slabs 13 +15.0 c.i. 0.037 19 0.051
R - in. F 13 +18.9 c.i. 0.032 30 0.033
Unheated Metal Building 38 0.027
10 - 24 0.54 0 +9.8 c.i. 0.094 49 0.022
20 - 24 0.51 0 +13.0 c.i. 0.072 60 0.018
Heated 0 +15.8 c.i. 0.060
7.5 - 12 1.02 0 +19.0 c.i. 0.050
10 - 24 0.90 0 +22.1 c.i. 0.044
15 - 24 0.86 0 +25.0 c.i. 0.039
20 - 24 0.843
20 - 48 0.688 Walls, Below Grade
25 - 48 0.671 R C
20 full slab 0.373 7.5 c.i. 0.119
10.0 c.i. 0.092
15.0 c.i. 0.067
C =thermal conductance, Btu/hft
2
F
c.i. =continuousinsulation
F =slabedgeheat losscoefficient per foot of perimeter, Btu/hftF
FC =filledcavity
Ls=liner system
R =thermal resistance, hft
2
F/Btu
R - in. =R-valuefollowedbythedepthof insulationininches
U =thermal transmittance, Btu/hft
2
F
11_AppendixA.fm Page200 Monday, April 25, 2011 11:30AM
TableB-1showstheclimatezonedefinitionsthatareapplicabletoanylocation. Theinfor-
mation is fromASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-2007, Normative Appendix B, Table B-4
(ASHRAE 2007). Weather dataisneededinorder tousetheclimatezonedefinitionsfor apar-
ticular city. Weather databycityisavailablefor alargenumber of international citiesin2009
ASHRAE HandbookFundamentals (ASHRAE 2009).
Table B-1 International Climatic Zone Definitions
Climate Zone
Number
Name Thermal Criteria*
1A and 1B
Very HotHumid (1A)
Dry (1B)
9000 <CDD50F
2A and 2B
HotHumid (2A)
Dry (2B)
6300 <CDD50F 9000
3A and 3B
WarmHumid (3A)
Dry (3B)
4500 <CDD50F 6300
3C WarmMarine (3C) CDD50F 4500 ANDHDD65F 3600
4A and 4B
MixedHumid (4A)
Dry (4B)
CDD50F 4500 AND3600 <HDD65F 5400
4C MixedMarine (4C) 3600 <HDD65F 5400
5A, 5B, and 5C
CoolHumid (5A)
Dry (5B)
Marine (5C)
5400 <HDD65F 7200
6A and 6B
ColdHumid (6A)
Dry (6B)
7200 <HDD65F 9000
7 Very Cold 9000 <HDD65F 12600
8 Subarctic 12600 <HDD65F
*CDD=coolingdegree-day, HDD=heatingdegree-day.
Appendix B
International Climatic
Zone Definitions
B
12_AppendixB.fm Page201 Monday, April 25, 2011 11:30AM
DEFINITIONS
Marine (C) DefinitionLocationsmeetingall four of thefollowingcriteria:
Meantemperatureof coldest monthbetween27F and65F
Warmest monthmean<72F
At least four monthswithmeantemperaturesover 50F
Dryseasoninsummer. Themonthwiththeheaviest precipitationinthecoldseasonhasat
least threetimesasmuchprecipitationasthemonthwiththeleast precipitationintherest
of theyear. Thecold season is October through March in theNorthern Hemisphereand
April throughSeptember intheSouthernHemisphere.
Dry (B) DefinitionLocationsmeetingthefollowingcriterion:
Not marineandP <0.44(T 19.5)
where
P =annual precipitation, in.
T =annual meantemperature, F
Moist (A) DefinitionLocationsthat arenot marineandnot dry.
REFERENCES
ASHRAE. 2009. ASHRAE HandbookFundamentals. Atlanta: AmericanSociety of Heating,
RefrigeratingandAir-ConditioningEngineers. [AvailableinprintformandonCD-ROM.]
12_AppendixB.fm Page202 Monday, April 25, 2011 11:30AM
Following areexamples of what acommissioning scopeof services and aresponsibility
matrix (TableC-1) might include. Project teams shouldadjust theseto meet theneeds of the
owner andproject scope, budget, andexpectations.
COMMISSIONING SCOPE OF SERVICES
INTRODUCTION
Commissioning(Cx) is aquality assurance(QA) process withfour mainelements. First,
thearchitectural andengineeringteammust clearlyunderstandthebuildingownersgoalsand
requirementsfor theproject. Next thearchitectural andengineeringteammust designsystems
that support or respondtothoserequirements. Theconstructionteammust understandhowthe
components of thesystemmust cometogether to ensurethat thesystemis installedcorrectly
andperformsasintended. Last, theoperatorsof thesystemmust alsounderstandhowthesys-
temis intendedto functionandhaveaccess to informationthat allows themto maintainit as
such. This process requires more coordination, collaboration, and documentation between
project teammembersthantraditionallyhasbeenprovided.
Theintent of thisappendix istohelpprovideanunderstandingof thetasks, deliverables,
and costs involved. An independent commissioning authority (CxA), one that is contracted
directlywiththebuildingowner, will bethebuildingownersrepresentativetofacilitatetheCx
process andall of its associatedtasks. TheCxA will leadtheteamto ensureeveryoneunder-
stands thevarious tasks, theroles they play, andthedesiredoutcomeor benefit for following
the Cx process. The systems required to be commissioned are those that impact the use of
energy. Project teammembers responsiblefor thedesignor installationof thosesystems will
havethemajority of theCx work. Themajority of thefieldwork will betheresponsibility of
themechanical, electrical, andcontrol contractors.
Cxof anewbuildingwill ultimatelyenhancetheoperationof thebuilding. Reducedutility
bills, lower maintenancecosts, andamorecomfortableandhealthier indoor environment will
result. Cx focuses oncreatingbuildings that areas closeto theowners andusers objectives
(asdelineatedintheOwnersProjectRequirements) aspossible. Earlydetectionandresolution
of potential issuesarethekeystoachievingahigh-qualitybuildingwithout increasingthetotal
effort and cost to theteammembers. Resolving design issues early will significantly reduce
C
Appendix C
Commissioning
Information and Examples
13_AppendixC.fm Page203 Monday, April 25, 2011 11:31AM
efforts duringconstruction. Findingmistakes after installationor duringstart-uparecostly to
everyone. Checklists will assist thecontractors duringinstallation, andinstallationissues will
bedetectedearly. Early detectionwill reducetheamount of rework requiredcomparedtolate
detectionat final inspection. Thiswill alsobenefit theowner andoccupantssincethebuilding
will workasintendedfromdayoneof operation.
SYSTEMS
Thesystemsunder thisscopeof servicesincludethefollowing.
The entire heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) system(boilers, chillers,
pumps, piping, andair distributionsystems).
Thebuildingautomationsystem(BAS) for theHVAC system.
Thedomestichot-water system.
The electrical systems (lighting and receptacle systems, electrical panels, transformers,
motor control centers, electrical motors, and other electrical items excluding emergency
power systems).
Thebuildingenvelopeasit relatestoenergyefficiency(insulation, wall framingthermal
bridging, air leakage, glazingsolar andthermal characteristics, andfenestrationframing
thermal bridging).
Theselistedsystemswill becommissionedbythetasksdescribedintheCommissioning
Tasks sectionof thischapter.
DELIVERABLES
Thefollowingdeliverablesarepart of theCxscopeof services.
CommissioningPlan
OwnersProject Requirements(OPR)
CxAsdesignreview
Constructioninstallationchecklists
CxAssitevisit reports
Systemfunctional performancetests
Systemsmanual
Owner training
Cxreport
Systemswarrantyreview
Final Cxreport
SCHEDULE
Cx begins intheearly stageof designandcontinues throughbuildingoperation. Thefol-
lowingsectionsdetail thespecific step-by-stepactivitiesthat owners, designers, andconstruc-
tionteammembersneedtofollowineachphaseof theprojectsdelivery.
Planning Phase
Document OPR (project intent)
DevelopCommissioningPlan
Specifyarchitect/engineer Cxrequirements
Assist withthearchitect/engineer selectionprocess
Design Phase
Verifythat thedesignmeetstheOPR
WriteCxspecifications
Appendix CCommissioning Information and Examples | 205
Construction Phase
Verifythat thesubmittalsmeet OPR
Verifythat theinstallationmeetsOPR
Verifythat thecomponentsfunctionasrequired
Facilitatetrainingof buildingoperators
Acceptance Phase
Verifythat thesystemsworkasrequiredandmeetsOPR
Verifythat theOPR aremet throughout thebuilding
Developsystemsmanual
Reviewcontractors operationandmaintenanceandsystemsmanuals
Operational Phase
Warrantyreview
Verifythat theoperationof thebuildingisoptimal
COMMISSIONING TASKS
Commissioning Plan
TheCxA will writetheCommissioningPlananddetail theCxtasksandschedulefor exe-
cutingtheCommissioningPlantasks. Inaddition, thecommunicationchannels will belisted
andsamplesof all forms, procedures, andchecklistsusedfor theproject will beprovided. The
Cx responsibilities of each of the project teammembers will be listed. The Commissioning
Planwill beupdatedastheproject progressesandasforms, procedures, checklists, schedules,
agendas, reports, etc., arefinalizedor revised. Theseupdateswill bedistributedat major mile-
stonestoall project teammembers.
Owners Project Requirements (OPR)
TheOPR document describesthemainexpectationstheowner wantstheproject tomeet.
Astheowner usually wantstomeet most of theexpectationsof all stakeholders, input froma
representativeof eachstakeholder isbeneficiary.
For thereferencedproject theCxA will facilitateandwritetheOPR withinput fromthe
owner.
Commissioning Specifications
TheCx specifications will clearly statewhat will beexpectedfromthecontractors. This
will include activities the contractor needs to participate in and documentation procedures
requiredthroughout theconstructionperiod. Sampleformsandprocedureswill beprovidedto
showthecontractorsvisualsof what theywill needtocompleteintheconstructionandaccep-
tancephases. TheCx specifications will also includethetrainingrequirements as well as the
documentationneededtodevelopthesystemsmanual.
TheCxA will providetherequirements for Cx intheconstructionphaseto beintegrated
intothespecifications.
Basis of Design (BoD)
The Basis of Design (BoD) includes all engineering and architectural calculations and
assumptions onhowtodesignthesystems suchthat theOPR aremet. This document will be
writtenby thearchitect andengineersandwill bereviewedby theCxA for completeness and
quality. Comments will beprovidedif any pertinent informationis missingor if moredetails
areneeded. TheBoD will needtobeupdatedif any changes occur duringtheproject. This is
neededtoinformall project teammembers about revisedassumptions andnewdirections the
project isheadingin.
Design Review
During thedesign reviewtheCxA will focus on verifying that theOPR will bemet. In
addition, thedesigndocumentswill bereviewedfor constructability, operability, andmaintain-
ability. Thereviewwill takeplaceat 70%completionandbeback-checkedfor resolutionof
issuesat 95%anddesigncompletion. Effort will bemadetoresolveall designissuesthrough-
out theremainingdesignphaseandverifythat theyhavebeenresolvedinthelater designsub-
mittalsandtheconstructiondocuments(CDs).
Thedesignreviewwill alsofocusontheselection, evaluation, andchoiceof themainsys-
tems. Reviewthedesign documents against theOPR to verify that theproject will meet the
intent of theowner. Anychoices, conclusions, or designdetailsthat deviatefromtheOPR will
bebrought totheattentionof theowner andthegeneral contractor. Additional informationwill
be requested when documentation is insufficient to support the conclusions and choices or
whenrequireddesignassumptionsor calculationshavenot beenprovided.
Energyefficiencyisachievedbyverifyingthedesignandoperationof thesystemsandby
makingthebuildingowner awareof alternativebuildingsystemsandequipment options.
Examplesof buildingsystemsthat will beevaluatedincludethefollowing:
Buildingenvelope
Buildingventilation
Lighting
Officeequipment
HVAC equipment
Control systemsandstrategies
HVAC distributionsystems
Domestichot-water systems
Water use
Occupancyschedules
Utilityratestructures
Installation Checklist Database
A checklist databasewill beestablishedfor all componentsincludedinthecommissioned
systems. Thechecklistswill focusonprovidingthecontractor guidanceabout critical require-
mentsduringinstallationtoclearlyestablishtheexpectationsof theinstallations.
TheCxA will designthesecheckliststominimizethepaperwork for thecontractorsbut at
thesametimetocover thecritical installationissues.
Construction Verification
TheCxA will facilitatemonthly on-siteconstruction meetings to ensureall design, con-
struction, andbuildingowner representativesunderstandtheprocess, thedesiredoutcomes, and
theroles/responsibilities of thevarious teammembers. TheCxA will focus ontrainingandon
theCxprocessduringconstructionwhileat thesesitevisits. Duringtheconstructionreview, the
CxA will focus onverifyingthat theCx process is beingfollowedby statistical samplingand
verifying that the construction checklists are completed and submitted as required. The CxA
will alsoverifythattherecorddrawingsareonsiteandarebeingupdatedwithanydeviationsin
installationscomparedtotheconstructiondrawings. Inaddition, theconstructionprogresswill
beevaluatedagainsttheestablishedOPR. TheCxA will verifythattheCxprocessisproceeding
asintendedduringtheconstructionphaseandwill reviewthesitevisit reportsandCx meeting
minutes. TheCxA will notifythebuildingowner andgeneral contractor if theCxprocessisnot
progressingas intendedby identifyingandresolvingissues. Theday-to-day follow-upwill be
theresponsibilityof thegeneral contractor andthesubcontractors.
Review Submittals
TheCxA will review thesubmittals concurrently with thearchitect and engineers. Any
observeddeviationsfromtheOPRwill benotedandsubmittedtothearchitectandengineersto
beevaluatedandsubmittedwiththeir commentsbacktothecontractor. Thearchitect andengi-
neers submittal reviewprocess will also beevaluated. A selectionof thearchitect andengi-
neers submittals responses will be reviewed to verify that any deviations fromthe design
documents areproperly addressed. TheCxA must understandthegeneral contractors project
deliveryprocessanditsimpact onthesubmittal reviewstep.
Training
Thetraining agendaformat will besubmitted by theengineers to thegeneral contractor
andowner toscheduletherequiredtrainingsessions. TheCxA will reviewthistrainingagenda
andattendakey trainingsession. Eachtrainingsessionwill beevaluatedafter completionof
thetraining. Any deviationsfromtheexpectedcompetencelevel of theoperationandmainte-
nance(O&M) staff will bediscussedwiththeowner andcontractors, andtheremainingtrain-
ingagendaswill berevisedtoaccommodateanylackingknowledge.
Systems Performance
Thesystemsperformancetestswill becompletedassoonasall submittalsfor thesystems
manual havebeenreceivedandall installationchecklists havebeencompleted. Thesesystems
performancetestswill focusontheinstalledsystems capabilitiestomeet thedesignintent. The
CxA will document theproceduresrequiredfor thesetestsandsubmit thesetest procedures to
general contractor for theprojectteamsandgeneral contractorsreview. Thesubcontractorsare
responsiblefor ensuring that all systems can meet thespecified requirements and for demon-
stratingthatthesystemsareabletoperformall proceduressuccessfully. TheCxA will witnessa
representativenumber of systemsperformanceteststoverifythat all systemsworkasintended.
If any of thesystems performancetests areunsatisfactory, thesesystems andarepresentative
number of other similar systemswill berequiredtoberetestedat thecontractors expense.
Review Systems Manual
Thegeneral contractor will generatethesystems manual basedonthesubcontractor sub-
mittals for theinstalledequipment andthetest andstart-upresults. TheCxA will reviewthis
systemsmanual andprovideanycommentstogeneral contractor.
Commissioning Report
TheCx report will summarizetheresults of Cx activities for theproject. This Cx report
will essentially betheCommissioningPlanwithall theresultsof theCx activities. Theinitial
Cxreport will besubmittedtwoweeksafter substantial completion, andthefinal report will be
submittedoneyear after substantial completion. Thisistheresponsibilityof theCxA.
Operation and Warranty Review
Theoperationandwarrantyreviewwill becompletedat tenmonthsafter completion. The
reviewwill focusontheexperiencesof theO&Mstaff withthebuildingoperationandevaluate
thesystems performanceandoperationrelativeto theOPR. Any deviations fromtheoriginal
operational intent and any component failures will benoted and addressed with theowners
representative. A report will beissuedtotheowner withsuggestedactionstotake.
Table C-1 Sample Commissioning Scope MatrixResponsibilities and Schedule
Responsibility Project Phase
Commissioning Task
A
r
c
h
i
t
e
c
t
E
n
g
i
n
e
e
r
G
e
n
e
r
a
l
C
o
n
t
r
a
c
t
o
r
/
C
o
n
s
t
r
u
c
t
i
o
n
M
a
n
a
g
e
r
S
u
b
c
o
n
t
r
a
c
t
o
r
s
C
x
A
O
w
n
e
r
P
r
e
d
e
s
i
g
n
D
e
s
i
g
n
C
o
n
s
t
r
u
c
t
i
o
n
C
o
n
s
t
r
u
c
t
i
o
n
X Designate CxA (qualifications apply)
Provide name, firm, and experience information for the CxA
X Develop the OPR; include:
Primary purpose, program, and use of proposed project
Project history
Programneeds, future expansion, flexibility, quality of materials,
and construction and operational cost goals
Environmental and sustainability goals
Energy efficiency goals
Indoor environmental quality requirements
Equipment and systemexpectations
Building occupant and O&M personnel requirements
X Develop a Commissioning Plan
Cx programoverview
Goals and objectives
General project information
Systems to be commissioned
Cx team
Teammembers, roles, and responsibilities
Communication protocol, coordination, meetings, and management
Description of Cx process
X Implement a Commissioning Plan
Document the OPR
Prepare the BoD
Document the Cx reviewprocess
Develop systems functional test procedures
Reviewcontractor submittals
Verify systems performance
Report deficiencies and resolution processes
Develop the systems manual
Verify the training of operations
Accept the building systems at substantial completion
Reviewbuilding operation after final acceptance
X BoD
Include narrative of systems to be commissioned
Document design assumptions
Reference applicable standards and codes
X Cx requirements in CDs (include in specifications)
Specify Cx teaminvolvement
Specify contractors responsibilities
Specify submittals and submittal reviewprocedures
for Cx process/systems
Specify O&M documentation requirements
Specify meetings documentation process and responsibilities
Specify construction verification procedures and responsibilities
Specify start-up plan development and implementation
Specify responsibilities and scope for functional performance testing
Specify criteria for acceptance and closeout
Specify rigor and requirements for training
Specify scope for warranty reviewsite visit
X Conduct Cx Design Review
Reviewand update OPR for clarity, completeness, and adequacy
ReviewBoDfor all issues identified in OPR
Reviewdesign documents for coordination
Reviewdesign documents for compliance with OPR and BoD
If multiple reviews are performed, check compliance with previous
reviewcomments
X Review of Contractor Submittals
Reviewall product submittals to make sure theymeet BoD, OPR, and
O&M requirements
Evaluate submittals for facilitating performance testing
Reviewall contractor submittals for compliance with design intent
and CDs
Table C-1 Sample Commissioning Scope MatrixResponsibilities and Schedule (Continued)
Commissioning Task
A
r
c
h
i
t
e
c
t
E
n
g
i
n
e
e
r
G
e
n
e
r
a
l
C
o
n
t
r
a
c
t
o
r
/
C
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n
s
t
r
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c
t
i
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a
n
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r
S
u
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r
a
c
t
o
r
s
C
x
A
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r
P
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e
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e
s
i
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n
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s
i
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n
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o
n
s
t
r
u
c
t
i
o
n
C
o
n
s
t
r
u
c
t
i
o
n
X
Verify Installation and Performance of the Systems
to be Commissioned
Performinstallation inspection (pre-functional checklist)
Performsystemperformance testing (functional test)
Evaluate results compared to OPR and BoD
X Complete Summary Cx Report
Executive summary
Document history of systemdeficiencies/issues
Record systemperformance test results
X Develop Systems Manual
Develop systems manual in addition to O&M manuals submitted by
contractor
Include in systems manual:
Final version of BoD
Systemsingle-line diagrams
As-built sequence of operations, control drawings,
and original setpoints
Operating instructions for integrated building systems
Recommended schedule of maintenance requirements and
frequency
Recommended schedule for retesting of commissioned systems
Blank testing forms fromoriginal Commissioning Plan for retesting
Recommended schedule for calibrating sensors and actuators
X X X Project Training Requirements
Create project training requirements document with owner
Participate in project training session
Ensure O&M staff and occupants receive required training and
orientation
Create and document post-training survey
Verify and document that training requirements are met
X X 810 Month Warranty Walkthrough
Performa warrantysystems reviewwithintenmonths after substantial
completion
Resolve any issues found
Create a plan for resolution of outstanding Cx-related issues
Table C-1 Sample Commissioning Scope MatrixResponsibilities and Schedule (Continued)
Commissioning Task
A
r
c
h
i
t
e
c
t
E
n
g
i
n
e
e
r
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a
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e
d
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s
i
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s
i
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s
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u
c
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C
o
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s
t
r
u
c
t
i
o
n
One of the key changes fromthe 30% to the 50% Advanced Energy Design Guides
(AEDGs) ismoreexplicitlyacknowledgingthat designerswant todesigntheydont want to
just sticktoprescriptivemeasuresthat might constraintheir creativityor theapplicationof the
design on their particular site. The authors assume that designers pick up 50% AEDGs
becausethey want to achieveat least a50%savings as comparedto ASHRAE/IESNA Stan-
dard90.1-2004(ASHRAE 2004) but want somehelpdoingit their ownway (withinreason).
This appendix presents an overview of a method for accounting for reasonable deviations
fromthe50%AEDGprescriptive solutiondescribedintherecommendationtablesinChap-
ter 4whilestill holdingto theabsoluteenergy useintensity (EUI) valuethat provides for an
equivalent 50%solution. This methodcanbeusedtoapproximateenergy savings duringthe
schematicdesignphaseinorder toinformkeydesigndecisions.
PERIMETER ZONE OPTIMIZATION METHOD
Theperimeter zoneoptimizationmethodisaniterativemethodthatusestraditional whole-
buildingenergymodelingtoolsinaverylimitedwaybyexaminingonlyasmall 1015ft wide
pieceof perimeter zoneandrunningaseries of permutations onglazing, faade, andshading
configurations. This effectively is a sensitivity analysis approach that concentrates on the
buildingenvelopepermutationsandtheir potential impactsonincomingheat gainarisingfrom
the outdoors. The benefits of this approach are that there is total freedomfor the faade
designer, thereisaconsistency inthetoolsusedbetweenearly phasesandthewhole-building
energy modeling at later phases, and themethod can beapplied to any occupancy type. The
drawbackof thisapproachisthat it isprimarilyfocusedonthefaade, which, whileimportant,
represents only afractionof thewhole-buildingenergy savings available. It is recommended
that the perimeter zone optimization method be applied as a precursor to whole-building
energymodelingtolockdowntheaestheticsversusenergy-usequestionsrelatedtothefaade,
asthismethodoffersafaster turnaroundtimewhenexploringdesigniterations.
Thismethodeasilyandefficientlyprovidesearlyperformancemodelingbyevaluatingthe
combinedimpact of buildingorientationandenvelopealternatives onperimeter-zoneperfor-
manceand associated heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) and lighting design
choices and, therefore, buildingenergy efficiency. This methodology canbeemployedusing
any number of energy modelingsoftwarecurrently availableandis aneffectiveearly design
D
Appendix D
Early-Phase Energy
Balancing Calculations
14_AppendixD.fm Page211 Wednesday, April 27, 2011 9:44AM
tool/methodtoengagearchitectsandownersinproactiveandfruitful designdiscussionsabout
siting, buildingconfiguration, andbuildingenvelopethat includebuildingenergyefficiencyas
anequal decisioninfluencer.
It is important to remember that thereareanumber of code, planning, sociological, pro-
gramming, andother constraintsthat thedesignteammust consider alongsideoptionstoopti-
mize site, orientation, building configuration, and envelope energy-efficiency desires. And
there are invariably times when one or the other of these design issues will be considered
sacredandunabletobemodifiedtosuittheoptimal solutionfromanenergy-efficiencypointof
view(i.e., city-center compressedsitesandlandvaluesmaydictateanorientationandabuild-
ingconfigurationthat arenot ideal for easyor cost-effectiveenergy-efficient envelopedesign).
Thus, performance/energy modelingintheearly designstagesmust beabout providinginfor-
mationrather thana(singular) solutionthat caninformandinstigateknowledgeabledeci-
sions.
Thefollowing areafewessential key points to theperimeter zoneoptimization method
itself.
Whenmodelinganddiscussingefficiencywiththedesignteam, it isnot just about energy
efficiency but rather must beabout abalanceof efficiency betweenany number of differ-
ent performance indicatorsspecifictotheparticular systeminquestion. (For example, for
thebuildingenvelope, energy efficiencyneedstobebalancedwiththermal comfort, visual
comfort, etc., toachieveperformance efficiency. Thisbalancerepresentsamorecomplete
andoptimizedsetof interrelatedefficienciesfor eachsystem, of whichenergyefficiencyis
asubset).
Themodelinganalysismust includemultipleissuesthat illustrateimpactsonadjacent sys-
temswherever possible. Asanexample, windowshadingoptionsfor different orientations
may informsiting alternates and their ability to work with different HVAC options. For
instance, if solar loadscanbecontrolled, low-energy-usesystemssuchasradiant cooling
or natural-ventilation-induced cooling might be used. While it is exactly this type of
impact informationthat facilitatesthedesignteamsdecision-makingprocess, thisinvari-
ablymeansessentiallyamatrixof performanceanalysisoptions, alargenumber of perfor-
manceanalysisruns, andagreat deal of datatokeeporganized.
Particularlyimportant duringtheinitial designphasesistheweighingof different options/
alternatives/choices. Thus, tospark effectivediscussion, earlydesignperformancemodel-
ingmust becomparativeaswell asattempt toincludeall of therelevant performanceindi-
catorsintheanalysis. Thisagaininvariablymeansmanyperformanceanalysisoptionsand
analysisrunsaswell asmuchdatatoorganize.
Theperformancemodeling/analysis results will berepresentedto owners, architects, and
other high-level decision makers, many of whomlikely do not often think in definitive
numerical values(alanguageinherent totheengineer). Thus, again, tosparkeffectivedis-
cussion, performanceanalysisresultsmust beportrayedinamanner that theaudiencewill
understandor canquickly/easily beeducatedto understand; charts, graphs, graphics, and
thecomparativenatureof theanalysisall lendthemselvestothisandfacilitateeasyunder-
standinginthesetypes of forms. This invariably means plenty of post-processingof per-
formanceanalysisresults(typicallynumericintheir baseform).
To offset thelarge number of analysis models and runs and theamount of data post-
processing, thismethodologyrequiresthat averysimpleone-roommodel bedevelopedand
used(witheachof thevariablesof orientation, faadetreatments, HVAC options, andlight-
ing control alternatives modified one at a time, in that same one-roommodel). Because
thereisasyet noactual buildingnor thedetailsof systemcomponent choices, thissimplifi-
cationsavesanenormousamount of model development time.
Nonetheless, experiencehasshownthat however carefully oneattemptstolimit thenum-
ber of alternatives to each system, the need for information involves multiple performance
parameters, results, andmodels, eachwithavarietyof componentsthatmustbeanalyzedsepa-
Appendix DEarly-Phase Energy Balancing Calculations | 213
rately. Thus, thisprocessinvariablyrequiresaconsiderableamount of modelinganalysistime.
Additionally, thecurrent linear designprocessstructuredoesnt typicallyincludethetechnical
staff needed to provide this type of information, nor is such staff typically present to be
involved in representing, explaining, and discussing the results and ramifications in early
designteamdeliberations.
Theresultsof thismethodof analysisarethetypesof informationanddiscussionneeded
for thedesignteamtoincludeperformanceefficiency(includingenergyefficiency) asanequal
parameter intheearly designdecisionprocess. Thesetypesof informationanddiscussionare
absolutely essential if an integrated approach to high-efficiency systems and buildings is a
project goal. Investing in robust technical analysis early in the process is a low-cost but
extremely valuableway of putting theproject on theright track froman efficiency point of
view.
However, to gain wider adoption of both the process (including technical staff in early
designdiscussions) andtheinformation(whichrequiresperformancemodelinginearlydesign
phases) presented above, some key design structures and perceptions will likely need to be
addressed:
Theallocationof timeandmoney tosupport theeffort todevelop, represent, anddiscuss
interrelatedtechnical informationintheearly designphaseis essential to theability of a
project teamtoincludetheeffort andinformationsofundamental toefficient designdeci-
sionmakinginthedesignof highlyenergy-efficient buildingsandprojects.
Anagreement that spendingthetimetoincludethisinformationtoenlightendesigndeci-
sionsearlyinthedesignprocessisbyfar cheaper thanspendingthetimelater toinclude
this information to modify design decisions in subsequent design phases. The later this
elemental information is included, themorepotential it has to requireadditional timeto
unravel, withtheresultingredesignof all thesystemslinkedtoaseemingly minor design
change. (A goodexampleis removing, increasing, or fundamentally changingthenature
of external shading, which will impact not only thestructural design efficiency and the
cost of theglazingsupport members but also theredesignof associatedHVAC systems,
lightingsystemsandcontrols, etc.)
Theremay betheperception that includingtheproposeddiscussions early in design will
imposepressuretocommit early, thereby limitingadesignersability tomakethoughtful,
considered design decisions. However, including technically knowledgeable individuals
anddetailedperformanceinformationandhavingthisinformationinformdesigndecisions
doeshappenat somepoint inthedesignprocess, itsjust aquestionof when. Sincemany
designdecisionsthatinfluenceintegratedsystemperformance(includingenergy-efficiency
performance) happenearly inthedesignprocess, havingtheinformationavailableat that
timemakes alot of sense. Timecanstill betakento makethoughtful, considereddesign
decisionsinformedbyperformanceanalysisconsequencesasapart of theprimarydecision
makingrather thanretroactively.
Thechangeinprocesswill inevitablymeanthat therearemorecooksinthekitchen dur-
ingtheearlydesignphase, whichcanmeanmoreproject management burdenimposedon
thedesign-teamleaders(theproject architect, designarchitect, andarchitect project man-
ager); however, coordination and control is needed whether it is in theearly or thelater
stages. If appropriatetimeand funding can bereallocated to theearly design phase, the
benefits to the design (a highly energy-efficient building with less impact on relevant
designaesthetics) canfar outweighthisconcern.
Figures D-1andD-2represent partial examples of typical schematic designcomparative
envelopeandfaadeperformanceanalyses (includingpotential energy-efficiency impacts) to
illustrate performance modeling information that proved to be useful for generating discus-
sionsandinformingearlydesigndecisions.
WEST-FACINS energy und thermuI comfort impucts compurison
1 Z 3 4
PIun
key
N
Energy ThermuI Comfort
Figure D-1 Schematic Design Comparative Envelope Performance Analysis
Appendix DEarly-Phase Energy Balancing Calculations | 215
WEST-FACINS soIur guin controI duyIight + gIure impucts compurison
1 Z 3 4
DuyIight Penetrution 3:00pm
SoIur Suin ControI
SIure 3:00pm
ZLQGRZ
Figure D-2 Schematic Design Comparative Faade Performance Analysis
REFERENCE
Achieving 50% Energy Savings
Toward a Net Zero Energy Building
A
d
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f
o
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S
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a
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t
o

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Developed by:
50
%
50
%
This Guide was prepared under ASHRAE Special Project 133.
Advanced Energy Design Guide for Small to Medium Ofce Buildings is the rst in a
series designed to provide recommendations for achieving 50% energy savings over the
minimum code requirements of ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-2004. The energy
savings target of 50% is the next step toward achieving a net zero energy building, which
is dened as a building that, on an annual basis, draws from outside resources equal
or less energy than it provides using on-site renewable energy sources. ANSI/ASHRAE/
IESNA Standard 90.1-2004 provides the xed reference point and serves as a consistent
baseline and scale for all of the 50% Advanced Energy Design Guides.
This Guide focuses on small to medium ofce buildings up to 100,000 ft
2
. Ofce buildings
include a wide range of ofce types and related activities such as administrative,
professional, government, bank or other nancial services, and medical ofces without
medical diagnostic equipment. These facilities typically include all or some of the following
space types: open plan and private ofces, conference and meeting spaces, corridors and
transition areas, lounge and recreation areas, lobbies, active storage areas, restrooms,
mechanical and electrical rooms, stairways, and other spaces. This Guide does not cover
specialty spaces such as data centers, which are more typical in large ofce buildings.
The specic energy-saving recommendations in this Guide are summarized in a single
table for each climate zone and will allow contractors, consulting engineers, architects,
and designers to easily achieve advanced levels of energy savings without detailed
energy modeling or analyses.
In addition, this Guide provides a greater emphasis on integrated design as a necessary
component in achieving 50% energy savings and devotes an entire chapter to integrated-
design strategies that can be used by teams who do not wish to follow the specic energy-
saving recommendations.
Those looking for help in implementing the climate-specic recommendations of this
Guide will nd an expanded section of tips and approaches in the How to Implement
Recommendations chapter. These tips are cross-referenced with the recommendation
tables. The chapter also includes additional bonus recommendations that identify
opportunities to incorporate greater energy savings into the design of the building.
Case studies and technical examples are sprinkled throughout the Guide to illustrate the
recommendations and to demonstrate the technologies in real-world applications.
For more information on the entire Advanced Energy Design Guide series, please visit
www.ashrae.org/aedg.
9 781936 504053
ISBN: 978-1-936504-05-3
Product Code: 90383 4/11
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Advanced Energy Design Guide

for Small to Medium Ofce Buildings

(EPA 2011), Build-

ASHRAE 2009b, Chapter 18, Table 11.

External Venetian Blinds* Internal Courtyard*

Photograph reprinted with permission of High Performing Buildings

-rated equipment typically has

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