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DEVELOPMENT OF AN APPROPRIATE SOLAR AND WIND HYBRID CHARGING STATION FOR ELECTRIC VEHICLES IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a baccalaureate degree in Mechanical Engineering with honors in Engineering Design
Reviewed and approved* by the following: Andrew S. Lau Associate Professor of Engineering Thesis Supervisor Thomas H. Colledge Assistant Professor of Engineering Design Thesis Supervisor Richard F. Devon Professor of Engineering Design Honors Adviser
Date of Signature _______________________________ Andrew S. Lau Associate Professor of Engineering Thesis Supervisor ______________
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9-3087-7017
Abstract
! Mustard Seed Communities (MSC) is a faith based non-prot organization working in
Jamaica to provide care for mentally and physically disabled youth. MSC began a partnership with Penn State to develop sustainable technologies for Jacobs Ladder a new care facility for 500 residents. Until the donation of two golf carts, the Jacobs Ladder operators were having problems getting caretakers to travel the nal mile into the site every morning. The path is dangerous, and taxi drivers charge exorbitantly. Jacobs Ladder operators identied the charging of these electric vehicles as a signicant need for the development of the site. ! A solar and wind hybrid charging station was designed to take advantage of seasonal
wind and sun. According to the predicted vehicle usage data, estimations of vehicle and charger efciencies, the charger is required to generate two kilowatt hours daily. The charge demand will be met with a wind turbine rated for 400 W, and a 260 W solar array. The charge storage is designed to allow the vehicles to be in operation during the day, and onboard vehicle batteries during the night. To increase the versatility of the charging station, the direct current is inverted to 110 V alternating current receptacles. ! The charing station will be constructed on the roof of the site library, built by Penn State
University in Fall 2008. The solar panels will help to shade the roof of the library, cooling the structure. To promote the continued sustainability of the charger, the station will be installed by Students from the University of Technology (UTech) in Jamaica, providing a local knowledge bank capable of maintaining the energy system. After successful installation, MSC will host a one day alternative energy conference. University students from Penn State and UTech, local businesses, and curious neighbors will join to reassemble portions of the charger, and share knowledge about alternative energy technologies.
Keywords
Alternative Energy Systems, Solar, Wind, Hybrid Power System, Renewable Energy, Sustainability, Jacobs Ladder, Mustard Seed Communities, Jamaica, Charge Controller, Inverter, Lead-Acid Batteries, Solar Panels Wind Turbine, Sustainable Community, Appropriate Technology, Shipping Container
Table of Contents
2. Introduction !
2.1 Project Background Information!
2.1.1 Mustard Seed Communities! 2.1.2. Jacob"s Ladder! 2.1.3 Bauxite Mining: A Local Problem ! 2.1.4 Future Goals For Jacob"s Ladder! 2.1.5 Preliminary Community Assessment of Jacob"s Ladder!
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4. Preliminary Research!
4.1 Solar Photovoltaic System Sizing Research!
4.1.1 Science of Solar Photovoltaic Cells ! 4.1.2 Types of Solar Modules ! 4.1.3 Solar Insolation! 4.1.4 Array Orientation! 4.1.5 On-Grid and Off-Grid Systems ! 4.1.6 System Components ! 4.1.7 System Sizing!
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5. Concept Development !
5.1 Existing Product Search! 5.2 Problem Decomposition! 5.3 Preliminary Design Concepts and Ideation! 5.4 Charge Storage Design Concepts!
5.4.1 Description of Concepts ! 5.4.2 Option 1: DC to AC! 5.4.3 Option 2: DC With Storage ! 5.4.4 Option 3: Onboard Storage !
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6.4 Station Location Selection! 6.5 Station Conguration Concepts: A Functional Design!
6.5.1 Mounted on Existing Building! 6.5.2 Mounted on Proposed Library ! 6.5.3 Ground Mount!
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Detailed Design!
7.1 Station Design: The Charge Sources!
7.1.1 Solar Array ! 7.1.2 Solar Integrated Green Roof! 7.1.3 Solar Array Mounting Conguration ! 7.1.4 Wind Turbine ! 7.1.5 Wind Turbine Placement!
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Conclusions !
9.1 Experiences and Lessons Learned! 9.2 Improvements: A Marketable Design!
9.2.1 A Justication for Alternatives: The Cost of Power! 9.2.2 An Analysis of the Project Costs! 9.2.3 The Redesign!
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9.3 Feasibility of Implementing Design in Developing Nations ! 9.4 Personal Impact of Development Work!
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2. Introduction
2.1 Project Background Information
2.1.1 Mustard Seed Communities!
! Mustard Seed Communities (MSC) is a faithbased non-prot organization working in central Jamaica to care for mentally and physically disabled young adults.1 Although care facilities for the disabled exist in Jamaica, they do not continue care for individuals after reaching the age of 18. MSC operates seven sites on the island, striving to build a community of caring, sharing, and training.2 The goals of MSC are to provide exceptional care for disabled individuals, present them with opportunities to develop skills, and to live in an encouraging community setting.3 ! Funding for MSC comes primarily from donors and supporting congregations abroad. Figure 1: MSC LogoA
To build this funding base, and to decrease the operation costs of their sites, MSC attempts to use sustainable technologies in their communities. These technologies are able to reduce the nancial strain on operation costs by replacing previously outsourced tasks with local products.2 At the Jerusalem! site in Spanish Town, MSC is cultivating sustainable agriculture programs to feed the residents. At the My Fathers House site in Kingston, MSC raised chickens to provide a source of protein for the residents, and used the manure to provide energy for cooking.4 Figure 2: Jerusalem! resident participating in MSC sustainable agricultural development
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north of Moneague, and approximately ten miles South of Ocho Rios. This mountainous area contains the largest deposits of bauxite on the island, and is also home to many of the nations poorest people. For many, the reclaimed mines are the only affordable lands for their farms and homes. As a result, the problems existing at Jacobs Ladder: poor soil for crops, limited energy resources, and scarce water supplies, are very real and practical problems for many Jamaicans.2
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Jacobs Ladder
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II. Improve transportation systems for staff. III. Design a simple and appropriate charging station for site vehicles.
according to their needs, and that an objective design and implementation are chosen, a project planning diagram has been developed.
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encountered throughout the duration of the work, from preliminary planning to nal development. International projects working with limited time and budget constraints face many challenges and risks. These are listed below in the Risk Assessment Figure 8.
Long-Range MSC Planners The Long-Range MSC Planners are geographically separated from the day to day operations at the Jacobs Ladder site, although an individual in this role does not immediately see the impact of his or her decisions on the site, with proper communication, these individuals are able to develop successful goals for site development.
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Matthew Moran Students from Penn State University began working with Mustard Seed Communities in the Fall of 2007. Matthew Moran is the United States project relations director for Mustard Seed, based in New York. He contacted the University beginning a partnership to develop sustainable initiatives into the site, with hopes that Jacobs Ladder would become a community showcase of sustainable and renewable technologies.
! Brother Anthony Brother Anthony is the site operator for the MSC Jacobs Ladder.
Through two visits, Brother Anthony communicated the need for improved transportation for staff workers to and from the site.7 ! Clyde Ramkissoon Clyde coordinates supplies, and manages many of the day to day needs for all of the Mustard Seed Jamaica sites. When questioned about Brother Anthonys golf cart request During a March 13, 2008 meeting, Clyde informed the Penn State engineers that Jacobs Ladder would be receiving a shipment of two electric powered golf carts to be used for transportation on and to the site.4
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Matrix. This tool is used to translate the customer needs into engineering specications, which can then be used to develop the design concepts. The QFD matrix can be found in Appendix F.
4. Preliminary Research
4.1 Solar Photovoltaic System Sizing Research
! To meet the sustainability design objectives expressed by the Mustard Seed planning staff, alternative sources will be used to provide the energy required to charge the electric golf carts used on site.
photon strikes the surface of a solar cell, electrons are transferred through the cell, and a measurable current is formed. This process is known as the photoelectric effect, and it is the basis for solar power. The total power produced by a solar module is limited by the total amount of solar energy, in the form of photons, striking the surface of the panels.8
polycrystalline cell is created by chemically treating thinly sliced silicon sheets. Monocrystalline cells are cut in the same manner, but are uniquely sliced from a single crystal of silicon. Though thin lm panels lack the efciency of the crystalline cells, the thin lm technique is becoming more common because the coating can be deposited cost effectively using similar techniques to an ink jet printer.8
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Figure 9: From Left to Right: Monocrystalline, Polycrystalline, and Thin Film CellsD
expressed as the ideal number of kilowatt hours per square meter per day. For example, if a region has a solar insolation of 4.5, a solar panel (with 100% efciency) could produce 4.5 kWh in one day of operation.8 It is important to remember that solar panels seldom operate at efciencies better than 20%.9
to maximize the total power output of the system. In the course of the year, the altitude of the Sun may vary greatly depending on the latitude of the installation site. In order to maximize the power generation capabilities of a solar array, some mounting structures are constructed to adjust angle throughout the year. As a general rule, the optimum annual altitude angle for a solar panel is the degrees latitude of the installation site.8 For example, a solar array installed in State College, PA (40 48' N 77 52' W) would be installed at approximately 41 degrees from horizontal.10 Figure 10: Operable Solar WindowE
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power systems. Grid-connected systems are used to replace a portion of the power provided by the energy companies. Users installing grid-connected systems are typically attempting to cut their energy costs by reducing the quantity of power purchased from the power companies. Offgrid systems are able to deliver electricity to users far from power lines.8 In many remote areas, the cost of running an electric cable from the electric service can be insurmountable. Here, offgrid systems can be used to provide the required power. Off-grid systems are relatively simple. They only require a charge generation source, and typically utilize some form of charge storage.
source, a charge storage, and a charge monitoring device. Charge Sources ! Solar panels and wind turbines are commonly used charge sources for alternative energy
systems. These devices are relatively inexpensive, require no input fuel, and little maintenance. Charge Storage ! Although the energy produced by a charge source can be used immediately by a load,
few systems are sized exactly to match the load. A charge storage is often utilized to build a reserve of power which can be used as needed. An example of a system not requiring a charge storage would be a solar powered attic fan. The fan would only operate during the brightest sun lit hours of the day. This is an ideal schedule for an item such as fan, where the only necessary run time is during the heat of the day. Systems must be carefully evaluated to determine if a charge storage device is necessary.
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Charge Monitoring ! If a charge storage device is utilized, a control system is usually required to monitor the
charge state of the storage. These devices, called charge controllers, often contain microprocessors that can determine what to do with the incoming charge: store it or dissipate the excess. More sophisticated charge controllers offer monitoring options to determine total power production.
produced on a sunny day, and preferably enough to carry the loads through a few days of poor electric generation potential. All system sizing begins with a thorough analysis of the load. Whenever possible, the load should be reduced. Load reductions can dramatically decrease the cost of alternative energy systems. Different charge storage scenarios also require additional considerations to determine the total amount of charge storage demanded by the system. For example, electrochemical batteries will last longer if not discharged completely. A common recommendation for the regular, or cycling, depth of discharge of a battery is 50%. This means that the total charge storage potential of the battery is only half of the listed to avoid over discharge of the battery.8
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5. Concept Development
5.1 Existing Product Search
! Many electric vehicles are designed to meet some portion of their electrical demand with alternative power sources. Many of these systems utilize solar panels to generate the charge needed for powering the vehicles. These various designs can be used as benchmarks to rate the success of the golf cart charging system for Jacobs Ladder. Following are some of the best competing products:
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! Sunray Solar Roof Kit The Sunray Solar Roof Kit is sold through the Cruise Car golf cart company of Sarasota, Florida. The kit utilizes a 180 watt panel to supply a current of three amperes at 60 volts. A charge controller regulates the charging of the onboard cart batteries. The panel is integrated into a roof replacement kit which can be purchased for $1895.00.12 The company claims that the cart can travel 30% farther because power is constantly being supplied to the batteries.13
Santa Monica 2.1 kW Solar Electric Vehicle Charging Station Electric vehicles were rst marketed in Arizona and California in the 1997 model year.4 To prepare for these new vehicles, several cities began incorporating solar charging stations for electric vehicles into the plans for new development areas. Some of these, such as the 2.1 kW charging station in Santa Monica, California utilized solar photovoltaic cells to provide the necessary power for the charging of seven electric vehicles.5 The station is located near, and grid connected to, the Santa Monica City Hall building. The photovoltaic panels provide a shaded parking stall for the electric vehicles they charge, and incorporate educational displays to demonstrate the power generated.4
Solar-Shell Electric Bike Charging Station The Solar-Shell is an enclosure that provides shelter and power for two electric bicycles. The Shell uses solar panels to charge a 12 VDC battery bank. Charge is converted from the DC battery storage back to AC with an inverter, allowing for any 110 VAC bike charger to be used inside the station. The unit retails for $2,700. 6
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Regardless of the specic design used for the charging station, these components must be present for the charging station to function. An important result of the black box model is determining the desired outputs, and required inputs. The system outlined below will produce a charged vehicle, and allow for a means to monitor the charge state of the vehicle given an input of charge, here from solar energy.
ideas and gathering them into design concepts. In the weeks after the community assessment site visit, ideas were generated, and developmental concepts were produced to match the functions described in the black box model. The charging system shown in gure 12 was one of the rst complete concepts for a stand-alone charging station. Figure 12: Preliminary Charger Concept
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5.4.2 Option 1: DC to AC
! The direct current (DC) produced by the solar array would be stored in a battery bank to allow charging to take place at night, when the vehicle would not be in use. The batteries would be protected from overcharge or overdraw by a charge controller. The current would be transformed from direct to alternating current (AC) with an inverter. After the inverter, the current will be the same as nominal household current at 110 V, 60 Hz, and can be used to power a receptacle. This design allows for the most versatile end use because any AC appliance or device could be plugged into the AC receptacle. If the charging station is located in a remote part of the site, work lights, tools, and other equipment could be powered by the charging station. Although the design is not complex, adding an inverter adds complexity, opportunity for equipment failure, and added difculty in servicing a broken system.
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incurring the losses of inverting the charge current twice, once to operate the AC charger, then back to DC within the commercial charger unit itself. This design also avoids the complexity and cost of the inverter. The charge controller monitors the state of the batteries, as the bank is charged by the DC power generated by the solar array. In the evenings, the electric vehicle is plugged directly into the charge controller load circuit, and is charged by the stored energy in the batteries. This arrangement cannot be used to power anything except golf carts with a similar voltage. No tools or other AC devices can utilize power generated by the charging station. This is benecial because it focuses the use of the charging station, and guarantees that the station will be able to charge the vehicles it was designed for. No other devices can steal power intended for the vehicle charge.
on the roof of the electric vehicles. This system would not likely provide enough power to completely recharge the vehicle, however, it would be able to extend the traveling range of the
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cart, or lessen the required amount of charge time in the overnight hours. A mobile power source would also help if the vehicle ran out of charge while far away from the charging station. The DC solar array would be connected to the batteries of the cart through a charge controller. The system is simple and inexpensive, however, it can not meet the entire power demand of the electric vehicle. The vehicle must also always be in direct sunlight for charging to take place.
demonstration value and versatility of the charging station were the most important criterion for designing the method of charge storage. The heavy weight of these, led to the selection of the DC to AC charge storage system. This charger model will function similarly to the Solar Shell Electric Bike Charging Station. An inverter will be used to convert the DC power back to AC. The versatility of this design will allow for any AC device to operate from the output of the inverter.
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The matrices revealed that the charger must be able to perform a wide variety of tasks, though specically designed for powering the golf carts.
main road. The road is known to be dangerous, and when the weather is stormy, workers will not walk into the site. At a care facility like Jacobs Ladder where the majority of the residents require constant care, it is essential that as many staff as possible arrive for work. ! The path that workers must traverse is one mile long dirt road, constructed for bauxite
mining operations. The location of the road is shown in gure 16. Anticipated use of the golf cart is to make two shuttle trips to the road and back in the mornings, and two shuttle trips in the evenings, as well as some light random travel about the site throughout the day. The estimated daily total for vehicle use is approximately ten miles.
Figure 16: Location and length of road to Jacobs LadderB ! The site workers are currently used to having the electric vehicle available at any point throughout the day, and are not accustomed to charging the vehicle at any point through the -18-
working hours of the day. Although they may be willing to change habits, the charging station should be designed to meet their needs, not to change their customs. This requires the station to have the charge storage capabilities to hold the energy needed to charge the golf carts through the night.
Figure 17: Comparison of several electric vehicle efciencies14 ! It will be assumed that the golf carts operate at an efciency of 5 miles/kWh for
calculations to develop the necessary power requirements. Using the estimated trip distance, trip frequency, and vehicle efciency as calculation factors, the cart will require approximately 2 kWh each day.
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insolation value is a way to compare the equivalent power radiated on each portion of the earths surface. Jamaica receives an equivalent average of ve hours of full power sunlight each day.
each step in this process also results in additional inefciencies of the system. The table in gure 19 shows the anticipated losses for each component. These efciencies can be multiplied together to get the total system efciency. The system will deliver an estimated 50% of the energy generated by the solar panels. Although this charge shufing results in a great loss, the versatility of the design makes this an essential and unavoidable cost.
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required loads. Compiling the information of the total distance the vehicles travel in a day, the efciencies of the vehicle and of the charging process, and the power available in Jamaica, the required watt produced in the day can be determined. The approximate power demand is 660 W. These calculations are shown in gure 20.
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The panels are a thin-lm design manufactured in 1999. A weakness of the panels is a
high inefciency; each panel is rated at 43.0 W.16 The six panels available from the Center for Sustainability total 260 W. Using the solar insolation value for Jamaica, the panels would produce approximately .65 kWh on a sunny day. This leaves 1.35 kWh to be produced by alternative means. The remaining panels needed to produce this remaining power could be purchased at approximately $1000 for a 200W panel.
available at the Penn State Renewable Energy Homestead, a small wind turbine has also been decommissioned. Another option to provide power for the charging station would be to use a hybrid system including both solar and wind energy sources. Wind turbines are cost effective. The Southwest Air X turbine is priced at approximately $600, and can provide 400 W.17 Figure 22: Air X Turbine at CFS Site
take advantage of the benets of both the solar and wind. Hybrid wind and solar energy production methods work together to supply a more constant power source than either system would do in a stand alone format. In many areas, wind speeds vary seasonally. In much of Figure 23: Hybrid Power System
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the United States, wind speeds are low in the summer when the sun shines brightest and longest. The wind is strong in the winter when less sunlight is available.18 This arrangement produces a smooth power source, and can be installed with little extra equipment or effort. The diversication of power sources is a key advantage of hybrid arrangement.
include power generated from biofuels, waste methane, and wind energy. Small wind turbines are simple, relatively efcient, require little maintenance, and provide an exciting visual appearance of sustainable energy sources.2
successfully placing a wind turbine on the site. This data can be found in Appendix D. In a statement accompanying the data, however, AWS states: the proprietary data is an estimate, and an on-site Met station must be established to conrm the potential of the region.19 Although no anemometer has been placed on site, two site visits conrmed a steady breeze blowing out of the mountains in the Northeast, and peaking in velocity near the crest of the main hill at the center of the site. If any area of the site has the wind potential necessary to generate power, it would be the location planned for the station. Regardless of the preliminary wind data, Mustard Seed is planning to develop wind turbines on the site anyway to provide a visual of sustainability.2
This position would provide optimum accessibility for staff, using the carts for transportation into the site. As homes continue to be constructed stretching deeper into the site, this location will not be central to the operations.
6.3.2 Chapel
! Faith is at the center of the mission of Mustard Seed Communities, and the chapel is
located near the proposed center of the site. This location would be an easily accessible location for a charger. Visitors to the site, and investors interested in the development of sustainable technologies at Jacobs Ladder will pass through this location. The chapel also serves as a valuable central hub for transportation and the movement of people throughout the site, forming a bridge to the rest of the currently undeveloped site.
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site. This land will serve as a demonstration village to showcase the sustainable and renewable agriculture methods Penn State is working to develop on the site.5 Locating the charging station here would group all of the Penn State contributions in one area, and would become a more centralized facility as the site continues development.
criteria were determined to be the educational value of the location, and the ability of the location to benet future development of the site. The results of the concept selection matrix showed that the chapel location provided the greatest benet for educational potential, locating the charger at the center of the site, and at the gateway to the Penn State Demonstration Village. The AHP and concept selection matrices can be found in Appendix H.
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steel roofs, and are adequately oriented to optimize solar panel efciency. Panels mounted in this location would be visible, but would not have an obvious link to the load driven by the charger.
installed at Jacobs Ladder is a sustainable library constructed from a recycled shipping container. This library will serve as the gateway to the demonstration village, and contain resources for the Mustard Seed staff to maintain and learn about the technologies on site. This scenario groups the charger with other Penn State projects, and keeps the solar panels from being shaded or damaged. Figure 28: Container Library Mount
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solar panel mounting is a ground rack. The ground mount provides a low prole, a reduced wind load for hurricanes, and is a stand-alone system. The ground mount also has an associated risk: the panels could easily be blocked by vehicles, growing vegetation or even buildings constructed after the installation of the panels. The power output of shaded panels is dramatically reduced. Panels on the ground also are at a higher risk of being damaged. Figure 29: Ground Mounted
educational value, safety, and durability of the design were the most important factors inuencing the design choice. The library mounting scenario was chosen. This design places the panels at a facility that is meant to be the center for educational information regarding sustainability, and gets the panels off of the ground where they could be blocked, or damaged. The AHP and concept selection matrices can be found in Appendix I.
7. Detailed Design
! The charging station is made up of three basic components: the charge source, processing
electronics, and the charger - user interface. This section is an exploration of each of these systems, and the decisions and procedures used to arrive at the nal design.
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current voltage curve (I-V curve) as designated by the manufacturer. The curve is used to determine the maximum current and voltage of the panel.8 Figure 30 shows the I-V curve for the MST43-MV. The two curves shown in the gure represent different light test illuminations: the upper curve is tested at 1 kW/m2 and the lower is tested at 250 W/m2. Electrical power is the product of current and voltage, therefore the maximum power point of the panel is at the knee of the curve. The I-V curve conrms the panel specications that claim a maximum power point of 43 W when the voltage is 72 VDC, and the current is 0.6 A.16 Figure 30: MST43-MV I-V Curve
container. Recycled shipping containers are widely used across Jamaica for houses and shops. Jamaica receives the majority of their goods in a constant stream of container ships, creating an
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available supply of shipping containers. The metal box provides a weather-tight, sturdy shell for a wide variety of needs. ! One weakness of shipping containers is a lack of insulation. Especially in tropical
climates like Jamaica, containers are prone to overheating if placed in direct sunlight. One advantage of the solar integrated green roof design is provide a form of insulation for the roof. Growing plants on a roof requires approximately four inches of soil, but builds thermal mass on the roof, moderating the temperature of the living space below. The solar array will also shade the majority of the container roof, and will be elevated Figure 31: Solar Array and Green Roof slightly to allow air ow to whisk excess heat from the roof.20
To support the combined weight of the green roof and solar array, a frame has been designed to transmit the weight to the four corner support posts of the container. Loaded containers are normally stacked on ships up to eight containers high. The added roof weight is insignicant if carried by these supports. To accomplish this, a frame has been designed from 2 x 6 boards to sit on the side rails of the container. The frame serves to contain the support the green roof, and to provide a mounting location for the solar array. The solar array will be mounted on a wooden
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frame constructed from 2 x 4 boards. The frame is angled at eighteen degrees from horizontal, equal to the latitude for the site.20
Figure 31: Solar Array Roof Mount Assembly ! The six Solarex MST-43MV panels are afxed to the mount with two angle iron rail pieces
on the top and bottom of the panel. Neighboring panels are bolted together, and the entire assembly is secured to the roof rack with lag bolts. The mount for solar panels must be safe and secure, especially in Caribbean, hurricane-prone locations. To ensure that the solar roof rack would survive the high winds of the hurricane, the structure was was designed with similar or stronger materials and techniques than the buildings already on site. All connections on the roof rack are also to be made with screws instead of nails. Screws hold stronger in the wood, and rip out less frequently in a hurricane.21
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diameter is small, only 46 inches, yet the turbine is capable of generating 400 W with a 28 mph wind. A unique feature of the turbine is the speed control function. The turbine is controlled by a microprocessor, allowing the turbine to be connected directly to a battery bank. The turbine will reduce rotation speed if the wind speed is to
17 Figure 33: Monthly Output of Air X TurbineH high, or if the battery is charged.
Wind Direction
Chapel
Admin
Figure 34: Red Dot Shows Proposed Location of Wind Turbine on North Side of
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The wind turbine may face power losses due to the proximity of the turbine to the
chapel. Although the structure is currently open-air, Mustard Seed plans to enclose the sides as the development of the site continues. The primary wind direction is not impeded by the structure, but turbulence from the building may reduce the power generated. Another option for the mount of the turbine was to attach the support poles to the main beams of the chapel. This mounting scenario was discarded due to concerns of vibration, noise, and the difculty to repair and access the turbine in the case of a hurricane. A ground mounted turbine can quickly be disassembled, and will not face as the same strength winds as a turbine mounted high on an existing building. ! To provide rigidity yet ease of disassembly, the
turbine will be mounted on a twenty foot long piece of metal schedule 40 pipe, and afxed to the ground with three guy wires. The guy wires are attached to the cement piers surrounding the pole. All areas of cement will need to be reinforced with rebar. Figure 35: Sketch of Guy Wires
strung through electrical conduit. The plastic enclosure on conduit keeps the wire from deteriorating in the sunlight, and also helps to keep the wiring organized.
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wire determines the total current that can safely ow through wire. Decreasing the wire diameter increases the resistance of the current through the wire. As resistance increases, the wire is in danger of overheating, with the potential of starting electrical res. To avoid possible hazards, wire gauge has been standardized by the American Wire Gauge (AWG).8 Figure 36 shows the relative wire cross sections of several different wire gauges. Figure 36: AWG Sizing Scale8
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Outback MX-60. A solar array typically operates at 12 - 24 VDC, and therefore most charge controllers operate at this range. The Solarex MST43-MV panels operate at a moderate voltage range of 72 VDC nominal. Few commercially available charge controllers can actually accept a voltage this high. The MX-60 was primarily chosen for the wide voltage range of input and outputs; accepting any PV array voltage up to 72 VDC, and 12, 24, 36,48, and 60 VDC battery banks. The voltage step down from the 72 VDC array to a 12 VDC battery bank is made possible by the digital Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) circuitry. This function searches the array to determine the maximum power point voltage, and proceeds to charge the batteries at this point.22 The MST43-MV I-V curve in Figure 37 has been annotated to describe the effect of MPPT on the power output of the Figure 37: Effects of MPPTI
A B
system. Without the step-down abilities of the MX-60, the charge controller could only charge the batteries at the voltage of the battery bank, here 12 V. The location of 12 V is designated on the IV curve by the letter A. The maximum power point is marked by the letter B. The power output at A can be calculated by multiplying 12 V by approximately 0.78 A current, resulting in an output of 9.36 W compared to the rated output of the panels at 43 W, an 80 percent power loss in the output of the panels.8
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In other areas, the Outback MX-60 is more of a powerful and sophisticated device than
the charging station would require. It can handle up to 60 A of input current, where the solar array will likely output no more than 3.6 A. The unit also has many features that are benecial for educational demonstration. The MX-60 logs and saves 64 days of operational data that can be reviewed. These data can be used to compare the output of the power generation sources with weather conditions, and be used to log the energy production of the entire system.22
Solar Decathlon team. The four UB12900 batteries had been purchased as a replacement batteries for a set used in the 2007 Solar Decathlon competition. The batteries operate at 12 VDC nominal, are each 90 Amp hours, totaling 360 Amp hours of storage. The four batteries will be wired in parallel. In this conguration, the current will add and the voltage will remain constant.8 ! To maximize the life of the battery, the bank should be designed to operate in the
required range without discharging below 50% of the total storage capacity. This battery bank then has 180 Amp hours of storage. A simple conversion can be used to convert the total Amp hours to the number of kilowatt hours stored in the batteries. Since power is the product of current and voltage, a kilowatt hour is equal to the Amp hour storage of the battery bank multiplied by the voltage of the battery bank, and divided by 1000. Here, the total kilowatt hours stored by the four UB12900 batteries is 2.16 kWh. The approximate required demand for the golf carts is 2 kWh. As anticipated, the storage in the battery bank is larger than a single day of operation. Ideally, the battery bank would be large enough to allow for more than one day of storage. The relatively high cost of batteries, and the tight budget demands on this project did not allow additional batteries to be purchased to expand the bank, although the bank can be
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expanded at any point. Also, because the batteries are wired in parallel, additional batteries can be added at any time.
7.2.5 Inverter
! Inverters are separated into two primary categories: those that
produce a modied sine wave, and those that generate a pure sine wave. The difference is in the quality of the power, and the price of the inverter. The voltage provided by a modied sine wave inverter does not follow the same smooth oscillation as a pure sine wave generator as shown in Figure 38.
Figure 38: Comparison of Modied Sine Wave and Pure Sine PowerJ ! The consequence of using a modied sine wave instead of a pure sine wave is
diminished performance from electrical equipment using the output power of the inverter. The efciency of motors and transformers will be reduced, and more sensitive electronics will experience uncharacteristic performance problems. Problems such as crackling in audio equipment or rolling lines on digital display screens are common results of diminished power quality.24 -36-
In this case, the modied sine wave inverter may cause decreased performance for the
charger. When designing a system for the lowest possible cost, it can be difcult to determine where to sacrice quality for price. In this instance, where the donated solar panels and wind turbine prevent the quantity of available charge from being the most serious concern, a modied sine wave inverter was chosen. ! The Go-Power GP-1750HD inverter is capable of continuously producing 1500 W of
output power. The side view of the inverter in gure 39 shows the output and status indicators on the GP-1750HD inverter.25 The bar graph meters, over temp and overload indicators are valuable status indicators to help diagnose possible problems with the inverter. The most signicant feature of the inverter for a small scale charging station with few loads is the pair of AC outlets. These outlets allow the charger to simply plug into the inverter.
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the Jacobs Ladder site operators keep the charger on the golf cart at all times in a small compartment beneath the rear seat. The charger is plugged into the golf cart, and has a standard US three-prong plug to connect to a 110 VAC source. When the golf carts pull up to the library container, the plug can be inserted into the 110 VAC receptacle for the duration of the charge. After an unfortunate string of days with little wind or sun, when the station is depleted of charge, the cart can dock instead at another receptacle.
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Figure 40: Container Floor PlanC ! In this arrangement, visitors will be able to view the solar electrical components
immediately upon entering the door of the container. This location has been chosen to reduce the risk of water damage to the electrical components. All equipment is wall mounted above the level of the air vents. This placement of the electrical components will unify the entire North half of the container as an informational area for sustainable development of the site.
Wires from the solar array will rst enter the disconnect box (A), then enter the Outback
breaker box. The breaker box forms the central network for the remaining components; both the charge controller and inverter are wired onto respective terminals of the breaker box. The nal disconnect box is used to separate the batteries from the breaker box. The full circuit diagram of the breaker box, is found in Appendix O.
protected, yet visible for viewing. The batteries will be placed off the ground on an extended bookshelf, and will be covered by plexiglass. Although batteries are not particularly dangerous, they should be kept out of reach. The rear 2x4 support posts will be bolted to the Western wall of the container. Upon completion of the container library, bookshelves will interface with the edges of the charging station rack mount to form a unied transition between library and electrical container spaces. Figure 42: Component Mounting Scenario
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acquired for approximately $1100. Detailed budget information can be found in Appendix P. An additional $750 was spent to ship the components to Jamaica.
to caution during the build week. Similar concrete blocks on site crumbled when used as a stepping stool, or even when moved. As a result, massive Figure 43: Temporary Block Foundation
building components were not assembled such as the green roof and solar mounting rack
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were made to ship many of the donated materials to the site. These plans were formulated after learning that MSC has free international shipping with Food For the Poor, a faith-based non prot organization. MSC representatives reported to the Penn State Jacobs Ladder development team that a shipment could be sent to Jamaica in the period of two weeks, and arrive on site.2 Little more than a month before the implementation week, the team was informed by MSC staff that the two week quote had been a mistake; rather, a two week notication was needed to get the materials picked up. Shipping required another two months. Another shipping option was necessary. ! Next, the Jacobs Ladder team contracted with an independent shipping company,
promising arrival of the solar components over a week before the team was schedule to arrive in Jamaica. The components were packed, and the shipment was made. The day before departure for Jamaica, the team learned that the shipment of the components had been delayed, and the new estimated arrival date was after the implementation week.
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The nal question set a new standard for the continuation of the project that shouldve
been with the project from the beginning. Appropriate technology utilizes environmentally, economically, and socially sustainable solutions for communities to reduce poverty and protect natural resources.26 When implementing a new technology, can a build-and-run installation ever be successful? Although the charging station encompassed many aspects of sustainability, it lacked the self-sustaining component that frequently makes similar projects fail. A technology is not a solution if individuals on the ground cannot understand enough to keep it working.
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2009. This student will work with the Penn State Jacobs Ladder design team to install the power system.
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9. Conclusions
9.1 Experiences and Lessons Learned
! The difculty planning for and organizing the build week in Jamaica revealed many realities of international work. It is difcult. Proper preparation and planning does not guarantee a successful implementation. When weather, language, and cultural differences clash, plans change, and project goals are redened. The shipping problems changed the scope of the project, and as a result, the entire design became more sustainable. International relationships are being developed that would not have otherwise. The project revealed that problems can be an opportunity to improve a design.
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non-prot organization did not pay for the transmission lines, they are quite costly. When long power-line runs are brought into consideration, off-grid power systems may become the only option. ! Electricity in many developing Figure 47: Power Lines Stretching to MSC Site countries is largely a temporary notion. Variable rates and intermittent service keep the grid from being a reliable power source, even if a community is lucky enough to have a power transmission line stretching to their homes.
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Southwest Wind Power Air X 12 V Turbine The Southwest wind turbine is the same design as the turbine used in the charging station. The turbine is microprocessor controlled, and does not require a charge controller.17
Kyocera KC130TM 130 W The Kyocera polycrystalline panel operates at 12 VDC, and outputs a current of 7.39 A, producing a total power rating of 130 W. Two of these panels produce the same power as the six Solarex thin-lm panels used in the charging station.27
Morningstar Prostar 15A, 12V Charge Controller The charge controller is the most signicant change from the original design. The Morningstar Sunsaver is simple, but complete in operational functionality. The primary disadvantage of the Sunsaver compared to more expensive charge controllers is the lack of Maximum Power Point Tracking capabilities, therefore the system will loose efciency as the solar intensity changes throughout the day.28
Go Power GP-1750HD Inverter The Go Power inverter is the same model as implemented in the charing station
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design. The inverter is low cost and delivers dual 110 VAC outlet for plug loads, making transitions quick and easy.25
UB12900 Sealed 12 V AGM Battery 90 Ah The redesign utilizes the same battery bank, providing 360 Ah of storage. The batteries are connected in parallel. The bank could be expanded by adding an additional battery if additional storage is desired.23
Midnite Solar MNPV6 Combiner Box The combiner box is the central linking unit for all electrical components. The combiner box contains the busbars and fuses for electrical interconnections.29
Square D Disconnects Electrical disconnects are needed to cut electrical power to components during system maintenance. The Square D disconnect utilizes 100 A fuses to protect electrical inputs.30
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As expected, the cost of the components is far greater than the project budget, however,
when shipping costs are added, the gures become much closer. The system cost is certainly reasonable for a small scale power system.
sold as kits, manufacturers use interchangeable parts, and knowledgeable technicians exist to answer questions and repair broken systems. A benet of solar power is that there are no moving parts, creating systems requiring very low maintenance. The cost of solar power systems is signicant, however, in many cases this cost may be the only option for power.
experiences have happened outside of the classroom. I believe that an international education is one of the most important prerequisites for life after college. Whether working internationally or at home, past experiences abroad are valuable in shaping a global worldview. My work with Mustard Seed Communities and their Jacobs Ladder community has been my longest extended international experience, with three trips and counting. Each time I leave Jamaica, I have the knowledge that I will be back before long. This project has helped me to understand the importance of sustainability. I am now beginning to grasp the importance of all aspects of a sustainable design: how does it benet the people, their nancial well-being, and the health of their environment.
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10. Acknowledgments
! This project never would have been completed without the patience, sacrice, and
assistance of many professors, friends, and family. To Dr. Colledge, thank you for opening the door to international development and appropriate technology. Thank you Dr. Lau for teaching me about sustainability. To Dr. Riley and the Penn State Center for Sustainability, thank you for donating a wealth of system components. To the Carter Academic Service Entrepreneur (CASE) Grant Selection Committee, the Alliance for Earth Sciences, Engineering, and Development in Africa (AESEDA), and the Schreyer Honors College, thank you for providing the funding to make this project possible. To Vaughn, Mclean, and Grim, thank you for sacricing your Thanksgiving break to work from dawn to dusk in Jamaica. To Dr. Neil Brown for the mentoring and friendship. Thank you for placing trust, hope, and condence in idealistic undergraduates. To my family, thank you for sending me to Penn State, and encouraging my educational development. To Spud, I think were still on track to save the world. Finally, to Ruth, thank you for your endless love and encouragement. I love you, and cannot wait till I can call you my wife.
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Appendix
Appendix A: References ! Appendix B: Image Credits ! Appendix C : Community Assessment: Site Maps ! Appendix D: Wind Data ! Appendix E: Needs Assessment Evaluation ! Appendix F: Quality Function Deployment (QFD) Matrix! Appendix G: Charge Storage Selection Matrices !
G.1 Analytical Hierarchy Process Matrix ! G.2 Concept Selection Matrix!
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Appendix J: Dimensioned Library Drawings ! Appendix K: Dimensioned Solar Mounting Rack ! Appendix L: Wind Turbine Mounting Design ! Appendix M: Dimensioned Solar Charger Drawings ! Appendix N: Wind Turbine Hybrid Wiring Scheme ! Appendix O: Breaker Box Wiring Schematic ! Appendix P: Detailed Budget and Cost Analysis !
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Appendix A: References
1. "Mission Statement." 2007. Mustard Seed Communities. Nov. 2007 <http:// www.mustardseed.com/about/mission_statement.html>. 2. Moran, Matthew. "Jacob's Ladder Planning Sessions." Telephone interview with Steven F. Marshall and Eric M. Sauder. Dec. 2008. 3. Ramkissoon, Gregory. Interview with Eric M. Sauder, Steven F. Marshall and Neil E. Brown. Mar. 2008. 4. Ramkissoon, Clyde. Interview with Eric M. Sauder and Neil E. Borwn. Mar. 2008. 5.Brown, Neil E., Steven F. Marshall, and Eric M. Sauder. "The Plan for Jacobs Ladder." Jacob's Ladder: A Sustainable Community for Disabled Individuals of Jamaica. Vol. 1. Oct. 2008. 2-3. 6. "Mining." The Gleaner. 4 Dec. 2008 <http://www.discoverjamaica.com/gleaner/discover/ geography/mining.htm> 7. Brother Anthony. Interview with Eric M. Sauder, Steven F. Marshall and Neil E Brown. Mar. 2008. 8. Dunlop, Jim. Photovoltaic Systems. Ed. Todd W. Stafford. Homewood, Illinois: American Technical, Inc., 2007. 9. "Nanosolar to build world's largest solar cell factory." 21 June 2006. Nanosolar. 4 Dec. 2008 <http://nanotechweb.org/cws/article/tech/25180>. 10. "Latitude and Longitude: USA." BCCA. 22 Nov. 2008 <http://www.bcca.org/misc/qiblih/ latlong_us.html#pennsylvania>. 11. Baxter, Richard. Energy Storage : A Nontechnical Guide. New York: PennWell Corporation, 2005.
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12. Sunray Solar Roof Kit. Electric Transportation of Arkansas. 2007. 18 August 2008. <http:// shop.etarkansas.com/product.sc;jsessionid=DC1A02EA6D520EA191880B9 4D762044F.qscstrfrnt02?categoryId=1&productId=1> 13. Solar Roof Kit. Cruise Car. 2007. 18 August 2008. <http://www.cruisecarinc.com/ product-solar-roof-kit.htm> 14. Transportation Analysis for the Solar Decathalon Competition. Tech.No. Solar Decathalon Team, Colorado University. 2-4. 15. Mexico and Central America Solar Insolation Map. Alternative Energy Store. 7 Sept. 2008 <http://howto.altenergystore.com/reference-materials/solar-insolation-map-caribbean,-mexico--central-america/a67/>. 16. Photovoltaic Modules: MST-43MV. Solarex, 1999. 17. Air X Owners Manual. Southwest Windpower, Inc. 9 October 2002. 18. Small "Hybrid" Solar and Wind Electric Systems. 12 Sept. 2005. Energy Efciency and Renewable Energy. 5 Oct. 2008 <http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/consumer/your_home/ electricity/index.cfm/mytopic=11130>. 19. "AWS Truewind Wind Resources." Email to Matthew Moran. 20. Marshall, Steven F. "Sustainable Design and Construction of a Library for Disabled Children of Jamaica." Thesis. 21. The Denitive Guide to Hurricane Protection." 4 Oct. 2007. Hurricane Protection Guidance. 2 Dec. 2008 <http://www.hurricaneprotectionguidance.com/hurricane-protection/ protecting-yourself-from-hurricanes/home-hurricane-protection.html>. 22. MX60 PV MPPT Charge Controller: Installation, Programming and Users Manual. Outback Power Systems. 29 January 2007. 23. UB12900 Specications Sheet. Universal Battery, 2008.
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24. DC - AC Converter Sizing Considerations. 2007. BD Batteries. 2 Dec. 2008 <http:// www.bdbatteries.com/inverterconsiderations.php>. 25. GO Power! Modied Sine Wave Inverter Owners Manual. Go Power! Electric Inc. 26. The National Center for Appropriate Technology. 2008. NCAT. 6 Dec. 2008 <http:// www.ncat.org/>. 27. Kyocera KC130TM Specications Sheet. Kyocera, 2008. 28. Morningstar Prostar Specications Sheet. Morningstar Corporation, 2008. 29. Midnite Solar MNPV6 Installation Instructions. Midnite Solar, 2007. 30. Enclosed Safety Switches. Square D, 1999.
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To Moneague
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Figure 51: Preliminary Wind data for MSC Jacobs Ladder Compiled by AWS TruewindM
Figure 52: Wind Rosette Showing Primary Wind Directions At Jacobs LadderN -7-
customer needs, develop design criteria, and determine weightings. The following diagram can be used to clarify the ow of information into the design process. Both MSC planners, and staff operators feed customer input into the concept development stage of the design process. Penn State engineers and site planners will also contribute expertise to create a design-build project that can be used by the Jacobs Ladder community.
! Matthew Moran ! Students from Penn State University began working with Mustard Seed Communities in
the Fall of 2007. Matthew Moran is the United States project relations director for Mustard Seed, based in New York. He contacted the University beginning a partnership to develop sustainable initiatives into the site, with hopes that Jacobs Ladder would become a community showcase of sustainable and renewable technologies. ! Moran and Penn State engineers have been working on a plan to phase sustainable
technologies into the Jacobs Ladder project. Moran plans to use sustainability as a marketing point of attraction. Moran feels that bringing sustainability to the site will not only benet -8-
Mustard Seed by controlling the cost of utilities and supplies, but garner grants and international interest. ! Since the beginning of the project, Moran supported the idea of using solar power as a
simple, versatile and reliable alternative energy source for any possible device installed in the community.2
Brother Anthony ! The tangible need for this design project was originally expressed by Brother Anthony,
Jacobs Ladder site operator, in a January 2008 visit to Jamaica. During a January 5th, 2008 meeting, Brother Anthony explained that few staff persons from the surrounding towns own vehicles for personal transportation. He mentioned that they were hoping to get golf carts to shuttle staff into the site. ! ! During a meeting with Brother Anthony on March 13, 2008, the need for
improvements in staff transportation was again mentioned by Brother Anthony. This time, the problem was explained more fully. The most common method for transportation to the site is the local taxi service. Although taxi fares are reasonable on well traveled routes, travel the last mile back into the site incurs signicant rate increases. Brother Anthony explained that this cost for this nal mile could exceed $14,000 Ja ($200 US). Anthony explained that in a country where a large percentage of the population is living in poverty, this cost could be more than a quarter of their monthly income. This cost forces most of the workers to walk the nal distance into the site. On days with inclement weather, the staff wont come. This results in a highly variable staff attendance for a medical facility which requires all of its personnel to be in attendance.
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Brother Anthony stated that MSC staff was working to nd electric golf carts to carry
staff to and from the main road, back into the site. Anthony felt that irregularities and deciencies in transportation were some of the greatest problems for preserving the operation of the site.7
Clyde Ramkissoon
Clyde is in charge of coordinating supplies, and managing many of the day to day needs
for all of the Mustard Seed Jamaica sites. Clyde was questioned about Brother Anthonys golf cart request During a March 13, 2008 meeting. Clyde informed the Penn State engineers that Jacobs Ladder would be receiving a shipment of two electric powered golf carts to be used for transportation on and to the site.4
Neil Brown
Neil is a Post-Doctoral student in animal science at Penn State, and a native Jamaican.
Neil has worked on the Mustard Seed project with Penn State since the beginning, developing long range solutions for Penn States future involvement. This long range plan includes a detailed integration of solar power with the developing Jacobs Ladder site. ! Neil provided valuable insight to culturally shape designs to work in the country he is
most familiar with. Early on in the project, Neil expressed the need to keep any designs simple, and as free as possible of maintenance concerns. Neil also emphasized the importance of securing and maintaining the safety of any equipment placed on site from theft.5
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Figure 65: Wind Turbine Guy Wire Arrangement Design and Installation Notes: ! The pole will be greased, wrapped in plastic, then cement will be poured around it.
After the cement hardens, the pole can be pulled out, plastic removed, and a shaft will be formed in the cement. This eliminates the need for nested metal pipe to support the turbine. The guy wires will be attached to the cement piers surrounding the pole. All areas of cement will need to be reinforced with rebar. The turbine post is approximately 25 schedule 40 metal pipe, and the guy wire posts are mounted on a circle with a radius of 10.
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Figure 69: Detailed Budget Showing Components Acquired on Build Trip, And Components Purchase on Subsequent Trips.
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ACADEMIC VITA
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! !
EDUCATION
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The Pennsylvania State University Graduation: December 2008 University Park, PA 16801 Bachelor of Sciences in Mechanical Engineering Certicate of Community Service and Engineering Current GPA: 3.52/4.0 ! Schreyer Honors College Scholar Honors in Engineering Design. Thesis: Development of an Appropriate Solar and Wind Hybrid Charging Station for Electric Vehicles in Developing Countries. ! ! Jacobs Ladder Penn State Development Team Leader September 2007 Present Haddon, Jamaica Presented Penn State development plan to Prime Minister of Jamaica and MSC Founder Traveled to MSC Jamaica three times to perform community assessments and thesis research Public relations with Mustard Seed Communities (MSC) Penn State, Jamaican Bauxite Institute, and University of Technology Jamaica Prepared water storage and solar pumping proposal for the Jamaican Bauxite Institute and the Prime Minister of Jamaica Honors Thesis Research Project! ! ! ! ! September 2007 Present Penn State University Park Designed 1kW off-grid solar power system for charging electric vehicles in Jamaica Charger constructed at Jacobs Ladder in November 2008 American Indian Housing Initiative! ! ! ! June 2007 Lame Deer, MT Participated in Design Build of Morningstar Montana Home
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ADDITIONAL SKILLS Mac OS, Matlab, AutoCAD, Solidworks, MS Ofce, Sketchup, Adobe CS3, Windows AWARDS Humanitarian Engineering Community Engagement Award (April 2008) College of Engineering Deans List (3/7 semesters) George Settlemyer Fund for International Agriculture Experiences (April 2008) Nominated for Lamarr Kopp International Achievement Award (December 2008)
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