CHAPTER 8: SALTS

What is salt?

In the preparation of salts, we must identify the type of salt. This can be done by
analysing the cations and the anions that are present in salts.
Two types of salts
Soluble salt salts that can be dissolve in water at room temperature
Insoluble salt salts cannot be dissolve in water at room temperature
Type of salt Solubility in water
Sodium salts
Potassium salts
Ammonium salts
All dissolves in water
itrate salts All dissolves in water
!hloride salts
All dissolves in water, Except" #ead$II% chloride, PbCl
2
Sil&er chloride, AgCl
'ercury chloride, HgCl
Sulphate salts
All dissolves in water Except" #ead$II% sulphate, PbS
!
(arium sulfat, "aS
!
!alcium sulfat, CaS
!
!arbonate salts
All did not dissolves in water, Except" Sodium carbonate, #a
2
C
$

Potassium carbonate, %
2
C
$
Ammonium carbonate, &#H
!
'
2
C
$
Special P(ope(ties o) lead&**' chlo(ide and lead&**' iodide
#TES" #ead halide such as lead$II% chloride $PbCl
2
%, lead$II% bromide $Pb"(
2
%, and
lead$II% iodide $Pb*
2
% did not dissol&e in cold wate( but dissol&e in hot wate(.
)
White precipitate of
Pb!l
*
White precipitate
dissol&es in hot
water
White precipitate formed
when the water is cooled
down.
Salt is an ionic co+po,nd )o(+ed when the hyd(ogen ion- H
.
)(o+ acid
is (eplaced by a +etal ion o( a++oni,+ ion- #H
!
.
+se of salts,
Item Use Example
-ood preparation
-la&or
Monosodium glutamate (MSG)
Sodium chloride
Preser&ati&es
Sodium chloride salted fish
Sodium ben!oate sauce
Sodium nitrite processed meat" burger
(a.ing powder Sodium hydrogen carbonate
Agriculture
itrogen fertili/ers
#otassium nitrate
Sodium nitrate
Pesticide
$opper(II) sulphate
Iron(II) sulphate
'edicine
0educe stomach acidic
$gastric%
$alcium carbonate
$alcium hydrogen carbonate
Sniff salt $fainted% %mmonium carbonate
Plaster of Paris $cement
to support bro.en bone%
$alcium sulphate
A/ P(epa(ation o) Salt
The procedure of preparation salt depends to the type of salt.
a. *nsol,ble salt is prepared through p(ecipitation (eaction.
b. Sol,ble salt is prepared by one of these reactions,
i. Acid and al.ali
ii. Acid and metal o1ide
iii. Acid and metal carbonate
i&. Acid and reacti&e metal
*
2ellow precipitate of
PbI
*
2ellow crystals formed when
the water is cooled down.
2ellow precipitate
dissol&es in hot water
a/ *nsol,ble Salts
i/ P(epa(ing *nsol,ble Salts
). Insoluble salts can be prepared through p(ecipitation reactions or do,ble deco+position reactions.
*. Precipitation or double decomposition reaction in&ol&es,
3 two a0,o,es sol,tions1sol,ble salts were mi1 together
3 one of the solutions contains the cations of the insoluble salt.
3 one of the solutions contains the anions of the insoluble salt.
3 the ions of the two a4ueous solutions abo&e inte(change to produce two new compound
which is insol,ble salt or p(ecipitate, and a4ueous solution.
3 the precipitate produced is obtained by )ilt(ation. The (esid,e left in the filter paper is the
insol,ble salt. The filtrate is sol,ble salt.
3 the (esid,e1p(ecipitate &insol,ble salt' then rinsed with distilled water to remo&e any other
ions as impurities.
5
Na
+
Na
+
NO
3
-
NO
3
-
Pb!l
*
Pb
2.
ions co+bined
with Cl
2
ions to )o(+
white p(ecipitate
#a
.
ions and #
$
2
ions do not
ta3e pa(t in the (eaction and
a(e )(ee to +ove in the sol,tion
Ionic e4uation" Pb
*6
6 *!l
3
Pb!l
*
Anion
&#on2+etal ion'
Cation
&4etal ion'
n n m m
Che+ical and ionic e0,ations
Che+ical e0,ation : 45&a0' . #6&a0' 7 46&s' . #5&a0'
sol,tion sol,tion p(ecipitate sol,tion
*onic e0,ation : 4
.
&a0' . 6
2
&a0' 7 46&s'
Study this reaction carefully
In the formation of the precipitate of barium sulphate, (aS78, the chemical e4uation can be written"
(a!l
*
$a4% 6 a
*
S7
8
$a4% (aS7
8
$s% 6 *a!l $a4%
Ions (a
*6
6 !l
3
6 a
6
6 S7
8
*3
(aS7
8
6 a
6
6 !l
3

Ionic e4uation " (a
*6
6 S7
8
*3
(aS7
8
$shows the ions that ta.e part in the reaction to form precipitate9insoluble salts%
'ore e1amples,
*nsol,ble Salt *ons *onic e0,ation
:n!7
5
:n
*6
, !7
5
*3
:n
*6
6 !7
5
*3
:n!7
5
Ag!l Ag
6
, !l
3
Ag
6
6 !l
3
Ag!l
(aS7
8
(a
*6
, S7
8
*3
(a
*6
6 S7
8
*
(aS7
8
Pb!l
*
Pb
*6
, !l
3
Pb
*6
6 !l
3
Pb!l
*
8
;lass rod
0esidue9precipitate
$Insoluble salt%
-iltrate
$Soluble salt%
'i1ture of solutions
-ilter funnel
-ilter paper
0etort stand
PbS7
8
Pb
*6
, S7
8
*3
Pb
*6
6 S7
8
*3
PbS7
8
!a!7
5
!a
*6
, !7
5
*3
!a
*6
6 !7
5
*3
!a!7
5
ii/ P(epa(ation and p,(i)ication o) insol,ble salts
#reparation of #lumbum(II) iodide
!hemical e4uation " Pb$7
5
%
*
$a4% 6 *<I $a4% = PbI
*
$s% 6 *<7
5
$a4%
Ionic e4uation " Pb
*6
$a4% 6 *I
3
$a4% = PbI
*
$s%
Step 8: P(epa(ation
). *> cm
5
lead$II% nitrate >.) mol dm
35
solution is measured with measuring cylinder ?> ml,
and poured into a bea.er.
*. *> cm
5
potassium iodide >.) mol dm
35
solution is measured with measuring cylinder ?> ml
and poured into a bea.er contains lead$II% nitrate solution.
5. The mi1ture is stirred with a glass rod. A yellow precipitate is formed.
?
6 =
*> cm
5
#ead $II% nitrate
>.) mol dm
35
*> cm
5
Potassium iodide
>.) mol dm
35
8. The mi1ture is filtered to obtain the yellow solids of lead$II% iodide as the residue.
Step 2: P,(i)ication
?. The residue is rinsed with distilled water to remo&e other ions in it.
@. The yellow solid is dried by pressing between two pieces of filter paper.
b/ Sol,ble Salt
i/ P(epa(aing Sol,ble Salt
@
;lass rod
Precipitate of lead$II% iodide
$yellow%
Sodium nitrate solution
'i1ture of solutions
-ilter funnel
-ilter paper
0etort stand
(ea.er
;lass rod
Aistilled water
Precipitate of lead$II%
iodide
Precipitate of lead$II%
iodide
-ilter paper
- Sodi,+ salts
- Potassi,+ salts Acid 6 al.ali salts 6 water
- A++oni,+ salts
Soluble Salts
Acid 6 +etal oxide salts 6 water
- 7ther salts Acid 6 (eactive +etal salts 6 hydrogen gas
Acid 6 +etal ca(bonate salt 6 water 6 carbon
dio1ide
otes" 0eacti&e metal is +agnesi,+- al,+ini,+- and 9inc
+nreacti&e metal is i(on- lead- silve(
a. Sodi,+- potassi,+ o( a++oni,+ salts prepared from acid and al3ali reaction.
Salt %l&ali %cid $hemical e'uation
a!l a7B B!l a7B 6 B!l = a!l 6 B
*
7
<
*
S7
8
<7B B
*
S7
8
*<7B 6 B
*
S7
8
= <
*
S7
8
6 *B
*
7
B
8
7
5
B
5
9B
8
7B B7
5
B
5
6 B7
5
= B
8
7
5
6 B
*
7
!B
5
!77a a7B !B
5
!77B a7B 6 !B
5
!77B = !B
5
!77a 6 B
*
7
ote" To prepare the abo&e salts, tit(ation techni0,e is use.
b. Soluble salt $e1cept sodi,+- potassi,+ and a++oni,+ salt% is prepared using these methods
3 Acid and metal
3 Acid and metal o1ide
3 Acid and metal carbonate
(ame of Salt
%cid that must be
used
Substance that can be use to react with acid
Metal Metal oxide Metal carbonate
:n!l
*
B!l :n :n7 :n!7
5
'g$7%
5
B7
5
'g 'g7 'g!7
5
!uS7
8
B
*
S7
8
C !u7 !u!7
5
Pb$7
5
%
*
B7
5
C Pb7 Pb!7
5
Write a chemical e4uation for each e1periment abo&e.
D
0emember this notes o.
). 'etal that is less (eactive from hydrogen such as copper, lead and
sil&er9argentum did not react with dil,te acid.
*. 'etal, metal o1ide and metal carbonate abo&e is a solid that cannot dissol&es in
water, hence during reaction that solid must be added e1cessi&ely to ma.e sure
all hydrogen ions in acid is completely reacted. E1cess solid can be e1pelling
through )ilt(ation.
5. Impure soluble salt can be purified through c(ystalli9ation process.
ii/ P(epa(ation and p,(i)ication o) sol,ble salts
%) #reparing soluble salt through reaction between acid and al&ali)

P(epa(ation o) Sol,ble Sodi,+- Potassi,+ and a++oni,+ Salts
Soluble salts of sodium, potassium and ammonium can be prepared by the reaction between an
acid and al.ali.
Acid &a0' . al3ali &a0' Salt &a0' . :ate( &l'
#rocedure *
+sing pipette, *? cm
5
of al.ali solution is measured and
transferred into a conical flas..
Two drops of phenolphthalein are added to the al.ali solution.
Ailute acid is place in a burette. The initial reading is recorded.
Acid is added slowly into the al.ali solution while sha.ing
the conical fla.s, until the pin. solution turn colourless.
The final reading of the burette is recorded.
The &olume of acid added, F cm
5
is calculated.
The e1periment is repeated by adding F cm
5
of acid to
*? cm
5
of al.ali solution in a bea.er without using
phenolphthalein as an indicator.
The mi1ture is transferred into a e&aporating dish.
The mi1ture is heated until saturated and the saturated solution
is allowed to cool at room temperature.
Salt crystals formed are filtered and rinsed with a little of cold distilled water.
Salt crystals are dried by pressing it between filter papers $or in o&en%
Example* #reparing sodium chloride
Step 8: P(epa(ation &Tit(ation'
G
). *?.> cm
5
sodium hydro1ide solutions is pipette into conical flas..
*. Two drops of phenolphthalein indicator are added into conical flas.. The colour of solution is
recorded.
5. A ?> cm
5
burette is filled with hydrochloric acid. The initial burette reading is recorded.
8. Bydrochloric acid is added gradually from a burette into conical flas. and swirling the conical
flas..
?. Titration is stopped when phenolphthalein changes from pin. to colourless. The final burette
reading is recorded.
@. The &olume of hydrochloric acid used is calculated.
D. The e1periment is repeated by adding hydrochloric acid $.nown &olume% to *?.> cm
5
sodium
hydro1ide in a bea.er without using phenolphthalein.
Step 2: P(epa(ation &C(ystalli9ation'
G. The mi1ture is transferred into a e&aporating dish.
H. The colourless solution is slowly heated9e&aporated until its saturated or to about one3third
$)95% of the original &olume.
)>. The saturated solution is then cooled to allow crystalli/ation to occur.
H
0etort
stand
(urette
Bydrochloric acid
!onical flas.
*? cm
5
a7B 6 phenolphthalein
indicator
(unsen burner
E&aporating dish
Salt solution
Step $: P,(i)ication
)>. The white crystals formed are then filtered, rinsed with a little distilled
water and dried by pressing between filter paper.

ote" Phenolphthalein indicator is used at the beginning of the e1periment to determine the &olume
of hydrochloric acid that is re4uired to react completely with *? cm
5
of sodium hydro1ide.
Bowe&er e1periment is repeated without using phenolphthalein so that the salt prepared will
not contaminated by the indicator.
+) #reparing soluble salt through reaction between acid
i) Metal oxide) ii) Metal iii) Metal carbonate
P(oced,(e To P(epa(e a Sol,ble Salt &not #a- % o( #H
!
.
'
?> cm
5
of acid is measured using a measuring cylinder and poured into a bea.er. The acid is
heated slowly.
+sing a spatula, metal 9 metal o1ide 9 metal carbonate powder is added a little at a time while
stirring the mi1ture with a glass rod.
The addition of the solid powder is stopped when some solids no longer dissol&e anymore. $the
solid is excess and all the acid is completely neutralised by the solid%
)>
;lass rod
Aistilled water
!opper$II% sulphate
-ilter funnel
Heating
Acid
Powde(
o) :
4etal oxide
4etal ca(bonate
4etal
The mi1ture is filtered to remo&e the e1cess solid powder.
The filtrate is transferred to an e&aporating dish.
The filtrate is heated until saturated. $The filtrate is e&aporated to about one3third $)95% of the
original &olume%
The saturated solution is then allowed to cool to room temperature and the salt crystals are
formed.
The crystals are filtered and rinsed with a little cold distilled water.
Salt crystals are then dried by pressing it between filter papers.
Example* #reparing copper(II) sulphate
(Sulphuric acid and copper(II) oxide powder)

Step 8: P(epa(ation
))
Excess o) solid powde(
;ilt(ate &Salt sol,tion'
Heating
Sat,(ated sol,tion
C(ystals
;ilt(ate
). ?> cm
5
sulphuric acid >.) mol dm
35
is put in a bea.er and is heated.
*. +sing spatula copper$II% o1ide powder is added a little at a time to the hot sulphuric acid while
stirring continuously with glass rod.
5. The addition of copper$II% o1ide is stopped when solids powder remain undissol&ed.
8. The mi1ture is filtered to remo&e the e1cess copper$II% o1ide.
?. The filtrate is transferred to an e&aporating dish.
)*
1111111111111111
!opper$II% o1ide
;lass rod
(ea.er
Wire gau/e
?> cm
5
sulphuric acid >.) mol dm
35
Tripod
(unsen
burner
Spatula
Stir
;lass rod
0eactant mi1ture
E1cess copper$II% o1ide
!opper$II% sulphate solution
@. The filtrate is slowly heated9e&aporated until its saturated, or to about one3third $)95% of the
original &olume.
D. The saturated solution is then allowed to cool to room temperature.
Step $: P,(i)ication
G. The crystals are filtered and rinsed with a little cold distilled water.
H. Salt crystals are then dried by pressing it between filter papers.
RE4E4"ER</ TH*S #TES %
+nreacti&e metal such as lead &Pb'- coppe( &C,'- and silve( &Ag' cannot react with dilute asid. So to
prepare salt contains lead ions $Pb
*6
%, copper ions $!u
*6
%
or sil&er ions $Ag
6
%, we must use either oxide powde( or ca(bonate powde( only.
E1ample" !u7 6 B
*
S7
8
!uS7
8
6 B
*
7
!u!7
5
6 B
*
S7
8
!uS7
8
6 B
*
7 6 !7
*

!u 6 B
*
S7
8
no reaction
"/ Physical Cha(acte(istics o) C(ystals/
)5
(unsen burner
E&aporating dish
CCCCCCCCCCCC
!opper$II% sulphate
solution
;lass rod
Aistilled water
!opper$II% sulphate
A salt is made up of positi&e and negati&e ions. When these ions are pac.ed closely with a (eg,la(
and (epeated a((ange+ent in an o(de(ly +anne(, a solid with definite geometry .nown as c(ystal
lattice is formed.

All crystals ha&e these physical characteristics"
a% 0e4ular geometry shapes, such as cubic or he1agonal.
b% -lat faces, straight edges and sharp angles.
c% Same angle between adIacent faces.
d% All crystals of the same salt ha&e the same shape although the si/es may be different.
The solubility of a salt in water depends on the types of cations and anions present.
C/ =,alitative
Analysis o) Salts
What is Jualitati&e analysis?

In the 4ualitati&e analysis of salts, we need to identify the ions that are present in salts. This can be
done by analysing their physical and che+ical p(ope(ties.
bse(vations on the physical p(ope(ties o) salts
8/ Colo,( and sol,bility in wate(
)8
Salt Sol,bility in wate(
Sodium, potassium
and ammonium salts
$(a
,
" -
.
- (.
/
,
)
All are sol,ble
#it(ate salt $(0
1
3
% All are sol,ble
Chlo(ide salt $$l

%
All chlo(ide salts are sol,ble in water except
PbCl
2
- AgCl and HgCl
2
S,lphate salt $S0
/
2
%
All s,lphate salts are sol,ble in water
except PbS
!
- "aS
!
and CaS
!
Ca(bonate salt
$$0
1
2
%
All carbonate salts are insol,ble except
#a
2
C
$-
%
2
C
$
and

&#H
!
'
2
C
$
=,alitative analysis is a che+ical techni0,e ,sed to dete(+ine what
s,bstances a(e p(esent in a +ixt,(e b,t not thei( 0,antities/
!ertain physical properties of salts such colour and solubility in water are obser&ed to help us infer
certain cations and anions that are present in salts.

The table shows the colour of salts in solid , in a4ueous solution and the solubility of salts in water
Salt
Colo,( in
solid
Sol,bility
in wate(
Colo,( in A0,eo,s sol,tion
). Ammonium chloride B
8
!l white soluble colourless
*. Ammonium nitrateB
8
$7
5
%
5
white soluble colourless
5. !alcium carbonate !a!7
5
white insoluble 3
8. !alcium nitrate !a$7
5
%
*
white soluble colourless
?. 'agnesium sulphate 'gS7
8
white soluble colourless
@. 'agnesium carbonate 'g!7
5
white insoluble 3
D. :inc sulphate :n S7
8
white soluble colourless
G. :inc nitrate :n$7
5
%
*
white soluble colourless
H. #ead$II% chloride , Pb!l
*
white insoluble 3
)>. #ead$II% sulphate , PbS7
8
white insoluble 3
)). #ead$II% carbonate , Pb!7
5
white insoluble 3
)*. !opper$II% chloride , !u!l
*
(lue soluble (lue
)5 !opper$II% sulphate , PbS7
8
(lue soluble (lue
)8. !opper$II% carbonate , Pb!7
5
;reen insoluble 3
)?. Iron$II% sulphate , -eS7
8
;reen soluble Pale green
)@. Iron$III% chloride , -e!l
5
(rown 9
2ellow
soluble
(rown92ellow9 2ellowish3
brown
)D. Sodium nitrate , a7
5
white soluble colourless
)G, Sodium carbonate , a
*
!7
5
white soluble colourless
)H. Potassium nitrate , <7
5
white soluble colourless
*>. Potassium carbonate , <
*
!7
5
white soluble colourless
The table shows the colour of different cations in the solid form or in a4ueous solution.
bse(vation *n)e(ence
(lue solution Ion copper $!u
*6
% present
Pale green solution Ion Iron$II% -e
*6
present
2ellow92ellowish3
brown9brown solution
Ion Iron $III% -e
56
present
;reen solid Bydrated -e
*6
, !u!7
5

)?
(rown solid Bydrated -e
56
salt
White solid
Salts of a
6
, <
6
,B
8
6
, 'g
*6
, !a
*6
Al
56
, :n
*6
, Pb
*6
$If the
anions are colourless
!olourless solution a
6
, <
6
,B
8
6
, 'g
*6
, !a
*6
, Al
56
, :n
*6
, Pb
*6
The table shows the solubility of different types of salts in water
Co+po,nds Sol,bility in wate(
Sodium salts
Potassium salts
Ammonium salts
All are soluble
itrate salts
All are soluble
!hloride salts All are soluble e1cept Ag!l, Bg!l and Pb!l
*
$soluble in hot
water%
Sulphate salts
All are soluble e1cept (aS7
8
, PbS7
8
and !aS7
8
!arbonate salts All are insoluble e1cept sodium carbonate, potassium carbonate
and ammonium carbonate
2/ Tests )o( gases
;ases are often produced from reactions carried out during laboratory tests on salts. (y identifying the
gases e&ol&ed,it is possible to infer the types of cations and anions that are present in a salt.
The table shows the test and the result of different gases
>as Test Res,lt
71ygen gas, 7
*
Test with a glowing
wooden splinter
Wooden splinter is re.indled 9lighted
Bydrogen gas , B
*
Test with a lighted wooden
splinter
;as e1plodes with a pop sound
)@
!arbon dio1ide gas , !7
*
(ubble the gas produced
into lime water
#ime water turns mil.y
Ammonia gas, B
5
Test with moist red litmus
paper
'oist red litmus paper turns blue
!hlorine gas, !l
*
Test with moist blue litmus
paper
'oist blue litmus paper turns red and
then turns white
Bydrogen chlorine gas ,
B!l
Test with a drop of
concentrated ammonia B
5
solution
Aense white fumes
Sulphur dio1ide gas , S7
*
(ubble the gas produced
into purple acidified
potassium manganate $FII%,
<'n7
8
solution
Purple acidified potassium manganate
$FII%,<'n7
8
solution decolourises
itrogen dio1ide gas ,
7
*
Test with moist blue litmus
paper
moist blue litmus paper turns red
$/ Action o) heat on salts
E))ect o) heat on ca(bonate salts
Ca(bonate salts
Colo,( o) salt
be)o(e heating
Colo,( o) (esid,e
E))ect on li+e wate(
Hot cold
!opper $II%
carbonate, !u!7
5
;reen powder (lac. powder
(lac.
powder
The gas liberated turns
lime water
mil.y9chal.y
:inc carbonate ,
:n!7
5
White solid 2ellow solid White solid
The gas liberated turns
lime water
mil.y9chal.y
#ead$II%
carbonate, Pb!7
5
White solid (rown sold 2ellow solid
The gas liberated turns
lime water
mil.y9chal.y
Sodium carbonate,
a
*
!7
5
White solid White solid White solid o change
!alcium
carbonate, !a!7
5
White solid White solid White solid
The gas liberated turns
lime water
mil.y9chal.y
Potassium
carbonate, <
*
!7
5
White solid White solid White solid o change
)D
'agnesium
carbonate, 'g!7
5
White solid White solid White solid
The gas liberated turns
lime water
mil.y9chal.y
E))ect o) heat on nit(ate salts
#it(ate Salt
Colo,( o) salt
be)o(e
heating
Colo,( o) (esid,e
Test on gases libe(ated
Hot cold
!opper $II% nitrate,
!u$7
5
%
*
(lue solid
(lac.
powder
(lac.
powder
A brown gas that turns blue litmus
paper red is liberated.
The gas liberated also ignites a
glowing splinter
:inc nitrate,
:n$7
5
%
*
White solid
2ellow
solid
White
solid
A brown gas that turns blue litmus
paper red is liberated.
The gas liberated also ignites a
glowing splinter
#ead$II% nitrate,
Pb$7
5
%
*
White solid
(rown
solid
2ellow
solid
A brown gas that turns blue litmus
paper red is liberated.
The gas liberated also ignites a
glowing splinter
Sodium nitrate,
a7
5
White solid White solid
White
solid
A colourless gas that re.indles a
glowing splinter is liberated
!alcium nitrate,
!a$7
5
%
*
White solid White solid
White
solid
A brown gas that turns blue litmus
paper red is liberated.
The gas liberated also ignites a
glowing splinter
Potassium nitrate,
<7
5
White solid White solid
White
solid
A colourless gas that re.indles a
glowing splinter is liberated
'agnesium
nitrate, 'g$7
5
%
*
White solid White solid
White
solid
A brown gas that turns blue litmus
paper red is liberated.
The gas liberated also ignites a
glowing splinter
Iron$II% nitrate,
-e$7
5
%
*
Pale ;reen
solid
Pale ;reen
solid
Pale
;reen
solid
A brown gas that turns blue litmus
paper red is liberated.
The gas liberated also ignites a
glowing splinter
Iron$III% nitrate,
-e$7
5
%
5
(rown solid
0eddish3
(rown
solid
0eddish3
(rown
solid
A brown gas that turns blue litmus
paper red is liberated.
The gas liberated also ignites a
glowing splinter
The table shows the comparison of the effect of heat on carbonate and nitrate salts
)G
4etal
E))ect o) heat on ca(bonate
salt
E))ect o) heat on nit(ate salt
Potassium
Sodium
Are not decomposed by heat
Aecompose to nitrite salt and o1ygen
gas.
!alcium
'agnesium
Aluminium
:inc
Iron
Tin
#ead
!opper
Aecompose to metal o1ide and
carbon dio1ide gas.
Aecompose to metal o1ide, nitrogen
dio1ide gas and o1ygen gas.
'ercury
Sil&er
;old
Aecompose to metal, carbon
dio1ide gas and o1ygen gas.
Aecompose to metal , nitrogen dio1ide
gas and o1ygen gas.

'ost sulphate salts are not decomposed by heat. 7nly a few sulphate such as iron$II% sulphate, /inc
sulphate and copper sulphate decompose to sulphur dio1ide or sulphur trio1ide gas when heated.
All chloride salts are stable when heated e1cept ammonium chloride. Ammonium chloride sublimes
and decomposes to produce ammonia gas and hydrogen chloride gas.
The table shows the deduction of the types of ion present based on the gas produced
Type o) gas p(od,ced Type o) ion p(esent&anion'
!7
*
!arbonate ion $!7
5
*3
% present e1cept #a
2
C
$
and %
2
C
$
7
*
itrate ion $7
5
3
% present
7
*
itrate ion $7
5
3
% present e1cept #a#
$
and %#
$
S7
*
Sulphate ion $S7
8
*3
% present
B
5
Ammonium ion $B
8
6
% present
Tests )o( anions
Reagent 1 Condition bse(vation Anion *onic E0,ation &i) any'
* cm
5
the un.nown solution
6 dilute hydrochloric acid 9
nitric acid 9 sulphuric acid
pour into a test tube
gas liberated is immediately
bubbled through lime water.
Effervescence.
Colourless gas
turns lime water
milky.
CO
3
!
ion
CO
3
!
" #
"
CO

" #

O
)H
* cm
5
of nitric acid 6 * cm
5
of the un.nown solution
pour into a test tube . *
cm
5
sil&er nitrate solution
$hite
precipitate is
formed.
Cl
!
ion
%g
"
" Cl
!
%gCl
* cm
5
of dilute hydrochloric
acid 9 nitric acid . * cm
5
of
the un.nown solution
pour into a test tube . *
cm
5
of barium chloride 9
barium nitrate solution
sha.e well
$hite
precipitate is
formed.
SO
&
!
ion
'a
"
" SO
&
!

'aSO
&


* cm
5
of the un.nown
solution pour into a test
tube
* cm
5
of dilute sulphuric
acid . * cm
5
of iron$II%
sulphate solution sha.e
well.
Then drop carefully and
slowly a few drops of
concentrated sulphuric acid
along the side of a slanting
test tube into the mi1ture
without sha.ing it.

'rown ring is
formed at the
boundary
between the
concentrated
#

SO
&
(top
layer) and
a)ueous
solution of the
mixture (bottom
layer)
*O
3
!
ion !

*>
Tests )o( cations
Con)i(+ato(y Test )o( ;e
2.
- ;e
$.
- Pb
2.
- #H
!
.
*ons
Con)i(+ato(y Test )o( ;e
2.

Reagent bse(vation Concl,sion
Potassium
he1acyanoferrate$II%
solution
Pale blue precipitate +e
"
ion is present
Aar. blue precipitate +e
3"
ion is present
Potassium
he1acyanoferrate$III%
solution
Aar. blue precipitate +e
"
ion is present
;reenish3brown solution +e
3"
ion is present
Potassium thiocyanate
solution
Pale red colouration +e
"
ion is present
(lood red colouration +e
3"
ion is present
Con)i(+ato(y Test )o( Pb
2.
4ethod bse(vation *onic E0,ation
+sing a4ueous solution of chloride
3 * cm
5
of any solution of !l
3
.
* cm
5
of any solution of Pb
*6

dilute with ? cm
5
of distilled water

heat until no further change occurs

allow the content to cool to room
temperature using running water
from
the tap

! % white precipitate is
formed
When heated dissolve
in water to form
colourless solution
When cooled white
precipitate reappear
,b
"
" Cl
!

,bCl

+sing a4ueous solution of iodide

3 * cm
5
of any solution of I
3
6
* cm
5
of any solution of Pb
*6

dilute with ? cm
5
of distilled water

heat until no further change occurs

allow the content to cool to room
temperature using running water
from
the tap
! % yellow precipitate is
formed
When heated dissolve
in water to form
colourless solution
When cooled yellow
precipitate reappear
,b
"
" -
!
,b-

*)
Con)i(+ato(y Test )o( #H
!
.
4ethod bse(vation
* cm
5
of any solution of B
8
6
. * cm
5
of a7B 9 <7B 9 !a$7B%
*
heat
put a piece of moist red litmus paper at
the mouth of the test tube
3 'oist red litmus paper turns blue
0eaction with esslerKs 0eagent
* cm
5
of any solution of B
8
6
. * cm
5
of
esslerKs 0eagent sha.e well
3 A brown precipitate is formed
**
Reaction o) Cations with #aH
Pb
*6
:n
*6
Al
56
" White precipitate dissol&es9larut in e1cess a7B
!a
*6
'g
*6
" White precipitate insoluble9tida. larut in e1cess a7B
*5
Cations
+ NaOH (aq)
Precipitate produced No precipitate
White precipitate Coloured precipitate
Green Blue Brown
Fe
2+
Cu
2+
Fe
2+
NH
4
+
K
+
Na
+
Dissolve in excess
NaOH (aq) to form
colourless solution
Sodium hydroxide solution is poured
slowly into 2 cm
3
of the solution to be
tested in a test tube until in excess
Insoluble in
excess
NaOH (aq)
NH
!
"a# produced
war$
%n
2+
&l
!+
P'
2+
Ca
2+
("
2+
Reaction o) Cations :ith #H
$
:n
*6
" White precipitate dissol&es9larut in e1cess B
5
Pb
*6
Al
56
'g
*6
" White precipitate insoluble9tida. larut in e1cess B
5
*8
Cations
Precipitate produced No precipitate
White precipitate Coloured precipitate
Green Blue Brown
Fe
2+
Cu
2+
Fe
2+
NH
4
+
K
+
Na
+
!"ueous ammonia solution is poured
slowly into 2 cm
3
of the solution to be
tested in a test tube until in excess#
NH
!
"a# produced
war$
%n
2+
&l
!+
P'
2+
Ca
2+
("
2+
+ NH
!
(aq)
+ excess
NH
3
(aq)
Dark blue
solution
Dissolve in excess
NH
3
(aq) to form
colourless solution
Insoluble in
excess NH
3
(aq)
!onclusion"
?n
2.
ion is the only cation that forms white precipitate and dissolves in both e1cess a7B and B
5
solutions.
4g
2.
ion is the only cation that forms white precipitate and insol,ble in both e1cess a7B and B
5
solutions.
Ca
2.
ion is the only cation that forms a white precipitate in a7B solution, but no precipitate in B
5
solution.
;e
2.
- ;e
$.
and C,
2.
ions is easy to spot because the ions shows coloured precipitate.
Pb
2.
ion and Al
$.
ion form white precipitate and dissolves in e1cess a7B solution, but insol,ble in
e1cess B
5
solutions.
E1ample" lead&**' nitrate solution and al,+ini,+ nitrate solution
Sodium sulphate solution is added slowly into cm
3
of the solution to be tested in a test tube.
-f a white precipitate is formed. then then the solution tested is lead(II) nitrate.
-f no change occurs. then the solution tested is aluminium nitrate.
J+ESTI7S" $ESSA2%
E1ample )"
Aescribe chemical tests that can be carried out in the laboratory to differentiate between
$a% lead$II% nitrate solution and aluminium nitrate solution
Sodium sulphate solution is added slowly into 2 cm
1
of the solution to be tested in a test tube)
If a white precipitate is formed" then the solution tested is lead(II) nitrate) If no change
occurs" then the solution tested is aluminium nitrate)
$b% aluminium nitrate solution and /inc nitrate solution
*?
Bow to differentiate between Pb
*6
and Al
56
?
%'ueous ammonia solution is poured slowly into 2 cm
1
of the solution to be tested in a test
tube until in excess) If a white precipitate that dissol3es in excess a'ueous ammonia solution
is formed" than the solution tested is !inc nitrate) If a white precipitate that is insoluble in
excess a'ueous ammonia solution is formed" than the solution tested is aluminium nitrate)

$c% ammonium chloride solution and potassium chloride solution
(essler4s 5eagent is added to 2 cm
1
of the solution to be tested in a test tube) If a brown
precipitate is formed" then the solution tested is ammonium chloride) If no change occurs"
then the solution tested is potassium chloride)

$d% iron$II% sulphate solution and iron$III% sulphate solution
#otassium hexacyanoferrate(II) solution is poured into 2 cm
1
of the solution to be tested in a
test tube) If a dar& blue precipitate is formed" then the solution tested is iron(III) chloride)
If no change occurs" then the solution tested is iron(II) chloride)
Or
#otassium hexacyanoferrate(III) solution is poured into 2 cm
1
of the solution to be tested in
a test tube) If a greenishbrown solution is formed" then the solution tested is iron(III)
chloride) If no change occurs" then the solution tested is iron(II) chloride)
Or
#otassium thiocyanate solution is poured into 2 cm
1
of the solution to be tested in a test tube)
If a blood red colouration is formed" then the solution tested is iron(III) chloride) If no
change occurs" then the solution tested is iron(II) chloride)
$e% sodium chloride and sodium sulphate
Sil3er nitrate solution is poured into 2 cm
1
of the solution to be tested in a test tube) If a
white precipitate is formed" then the solution tested is sodium chloride) If no change occurs"
then the solution tested is sodium sulphate)
Or
+arium chloride solution is poured into 2 cm
1
of the solution to be tested in a test tube) If a
white precipitate is formed" then the solution tested is sodium sulphate) If no change occurs"
then the solution tested is sodium chloride)
E1ample *"
*@
). State three e1amples of
a% soluble salts b% insoluble salts
#otassium carbonate Magnesium carbonate
6ead(II) nitrate 6ead(II) sulphate
%mmonium chloride %rgentum chloride
*. Which of the following salts is soluble
5. Identify the gas that turns moist red litmus paper blue
%mmonia gas
8. ;as L has the following properties
Gas 7 is carbon dioxide gas
?. Beat 6
!olour of metal o1ide L is yellow when hot and white when cold. ;as 2 turns lime water
mil.y.
a% ame gas 2 " carbon dioxide gas
b% ame metal o1ide L " !inc oxide
*D
#ead$II% chloride Sodi,+ ca(bonate
!alcium sulphate (arium sulphate
!olourless
Acidic gas
Turns lime water mil.y
Salt P 'etal o1ide L ;as 2
c% ame salt P " !inc carbonate
d% Write an e4uation to represent the action of heat on salt P
8n$0
1
(s) 8n0 (s) , $0
2
(g)
@. A sample of copper$II% nitrate, !u$7
5
%
*
was heated strongly. Write down the e1pected
obser&ation.
$opper(II) nitrate decompose to produce blac& colour of residue when hot and cold) %
brown gas that changed moist blue litmus paper to red and colourless gas that lighted up a
glowing wooden splinter is produced)
*G
@/ #,+e(ical p(oble+ involving stoichio+et(ic (eaction in the p(epa(ation o) salt

Example 9:
Ammonium phosphate, $B
8
%
5
P7
8
is use as a fertili/er. *H.Gg of this salt is prepared by neutrali/ing
phosphoric acid, B
5
P7
8
with ammonium gas, B
5
. !alculate the &olume of ammonium gas, B
5
reacted at room conditions.
$0elati&e atomic mass, B, )" , )8" P, 5), 7, )@, 'olar &olume, *8 dm5 mol
3)
at room conditions%
Sol,tions,
a. !alculate the number of moles
*.GG g
M5$)8% 6 )*$)% 6 5) 6 8$)@%
N >.* mol
b. Write a balanced chemical e4uation

!ompare the mole ratio of B
5
and
$B
8
%
5
P7
8
B
5
P7
8
$a4% 6 5B
5
$a4% $B
8
%
5
P7
8
$a4%
c. !alculate the number of moles of B
5
base
on
the mole ratio
N 5 L >.* mol
N >.@ mol
d. !alculate the &olume of B
5
Folume N number of mole L &olume
N >.@ mol L *8 dm
5
mol
3)
N )8.8 dm
5
Example 2*
*H
% balanced chemical e)uation for a reaction in preparation of a salt
can be used to calculate the stoichiometric )uantities of the following
'ass of reactants
Folume and concentration of reactants
'ass of products
Folume of products
)
! $ol * $ol
5.H g of potassium is burnt completely in the air as shown in the following e4uation,
8<$s% 6 7
*
$g% = *<
*
7$s%
What is the mass of potassium o1ide produced?
M0elati&e atomic mass" <, 5H, 7, )@O
Sol,tions
Tip: Solve the 0,estion step by step
Step 8: :(ite Che+ical E0,ation
8<$s% 6 7
*
$g% = *<
*
7$s%
8 mol of < react with ) mol of 7
*
produce * mol <
*
7
Step 2: Calc,late the n,+be( o) +ole
/0et the information from the )uestion1
Step $: ;ind the coe))icient ;(o+ "alance Che+ical E0,ation
;"CEA
8 mol of < produce * mol <
*
7
Thus,
>.) mol of < produce *98 mol <
*
7 N >.* mol <
*
7
;"CEA
BSebelah kiri1 /Sebelah kanan1
'il. mol yang telah dikira 'il. 2ol yang hendak ditentukan
8 mol < N * mol <
*
7
>.)mol < N *98 1 >.)mol <
*
7 N >.>? mol <
*
7
o. of mol of <
*
7 N >.>? mol
Step !: Solve the 0,estions
Thus,
'ass of <
*
7 N >.>? mol C 'olar mass
N >.>? molC ?? g mol
3)
N *.D? g
Example 1*
5>
o. of mol % N
mass
'olar mass
N
5.H g
5H gmol
3)
>.) mol N
Acids reacts with calcium carbonate, CaC
$
in limestone to form a salt and carbon dio1ide, C
2
.
A piece of limestone reacted completely with )>> cm
5
of 5).? g dm
35
nitric acid, H#
$
.
M0elati&e atomic mass" B, ), !, )*, , )8, 7, )@, !a, 8>. 'olar &olume" *8 dm
5
mol
3)
at room
conditionsO
a. !alculate the mass of salt produced.
b. What is the &olume of carbon dio1ide, !7
*
liberated at room conditions?
Step 8: :(ite Che+ical E0,ation
$hemical E'uation* *H#
$
. CaC
$
7 Ca&#
$
'
2
. C
2
. H
2

Step 2: Calc,late the n,+be( o) +ole
0et the information from the )uestion3
;"CEA *B7
5
6 !a!7
5
= !a$7
5
%
*
6 !7
*
6 B
*
7


* mol B7
5
N ) mol !a$7
5
%
*
>.>? mol B7
5
N P 1 >.>? mol !a$7
5
%
*
N >.>*? mol !a$7
5
%
*
o. of mol of !a$7
5
%
*
N >.>*? mol
'ass of !a$7
5
%
*
N >.>*? mol C 8> 6 *M)8 6 5$)@%O g mol
3)

N 8.) g
5)
o. of mole of H#
$

N
'olarity C Folume
)>>>
N
>.? mol dm
35
C )>> cm
5
)>>>
N C/CD +ol
!oncentration of B#
$

N
5).? g dm
5
N
'olar mass of H#
$
5).? g dm
5
N
C/D +ol d+
2$
N
5).? g dm
5
) 6 )8 6 8G g mol
3)
Change the
concentration
given in g dm
!3

to mol dm
!3
first
;"CEA *B7
5
6 !a!7
5
= !a$7
5
%
*
6 !7
*
6 B
*
7


* mol B7
5
N ) mol !7
*
>.>? mol B7
5
N P 1 >.>? mol !7
*
N >.>*? mol !7
*
o. of mol of !7
*
N >.>*? mol
Folume of !7
*
N >.>*? mol C )* 6 *$)@% dm
5
mol
3)

N ).) dm
5

Example /*
Pb$7
5
%
*
compound decomposes when heated as shown in the following e4uation.
If @.@* g of Pb$7
5
%
*
compound is heated, calculate,
M0elati&e atomic mass" , )8, 7, )@, Pb, *>D, ) mol of gas occupies **.8 dm
5
at s.t.p.O
$i% mass of Pb7 that is produced
$ii% &olume of nitrogen dio1ide produced at s.t.p
$ii% &olume of o1ygen produced at s.t.p
Solution"
;"CEA 2Pb&#
$
'
2
= 2Pb 6 87
*
6 7
*

* mol Pb$7
5
%
*
N * mol Pb7
>.>* mol Pb$7
5
%
*
N >.>* mol Pb7

o of mol Pb7 N >.>* mol
'ass of Pb7 N >.>* 1 **5 N 8.8@ g
-(!E, 2Pb&#
$
'
2
= *Pb7 6 !#
2
6 7
*

5*
o of mol Pb$7
5
%
*
N
mass
'olar mass
N
@.@* g
55) gmol
3)
>.>* mol N
*Pb$7
5
%
*
= *Pb7 6 87
*
6 7
*

* mol Pb$7
5
%
*
N 8 mol 7
*
>.>* mol Pb$7
5
%
*
N 89* 1 >.>* mol 7
*
N >.>8 mol 7
*

o of mol 7
*
N >.>8 mol
Folume of 7
*
N >.>8 1 **.8 dm
5

N >.GH@ dm
5
99 GH@ cm
5

2Pb&#
$
'
2
= *Pb7 6 87
*
6
2

* mol Pb$7
5
%
*
N ) mol 7
*
>.>* mol Pb$7
5
%
*
N P 1 >.>* mol 7
*
N >.>) mol 7
*

o of mol 7
*
N >.>) mol
Folume of 7
*
N >.>) 1 **.8 dm
5

N >.**8 dm
5
99 **8 cm
5

55