Chapter 1, Paul

CHAPTER 1
FUNCTIONS, LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

1.1 FUNCTIONS: a quick review

Definition.

A function f is a rule that associates a unique output with each input. If the input is
denoted by x, then the output is denoted by f(x) [ read f of x]

Consider 2 x 4 x 3 ) x ( f
2
! , the output of f are obtained by substituting numerical values
for x.

For example,

6 2 ) 2 ( 4 ) 2 ( 3 ) 2 ( f
1 2 ) 1 ( 4 ) 1 ( 3 ) 1 ( f
2 ) 0 ( f
2
2
! !
! !
!

If we use t or x+h as input, the output will be,

! !
! !
!
) 2 x 4 x 3 ( _____ __________ ) x ( f ) h x ( f
___ __________ 2 ) h x ( 4 ) h x ( 3 ) h x ( f
2 t 4 t 3 ) t ( f
2
2
2

Example 1

If f(x) = 8x 1, find:

a. f(2)
b. the value of k if f(k) = 3
c. f(x
2
)
d. f(1-x)

Solution

a. f(2) =
=
= 15

b. f(k) = 3
8k 1 = 3
=
Chapter 1 Function, Limits and Continuity
2
k =
2
1

c. f(x
2
) =

d. f(1-x) =

=
= 7 8x

1.1.1 Graph of functions

Graph of some basic functions

y
x
x=y y=x
2
y

x

y=1/x

y

x

y=x
3
y

x

3

1.1.2 Domain and range

If y=f(x), then the set of all possible inputs (x-values) is called the domain of f, and the set
of outputs (y-values) that result when x varies over the domain is called the range of f.
X Y

f Range

Domain Codomain

The domain and range of a function can be obtained by sketching the graph or using
algebraic approach.

If f and g are two fuctions with D
f
and D
g
respectively, then

g f g f
g f g f
D D D . b
D D D . a
!
!

} 0 ) x ( g : x { D D D . d
D D D . c
g f
g
f
g f fg
! !
!

1.1.2.1 Domain and range of polynomial function

Example 2

Find the domain and range of the following functions

1 x 2 x ) x ( f . c
2 x ) x ( f . b
5 x 2 ) x ( f . a
2
2
!
!
!

y

x y !
2
x

3
x y !
y

x

4
Solution

a. f(x)= 2x + 5

Graphical approach

Sketch the graph of y = 2x + 5

It is clear that ) , ( R ) , ( D
f f
g g ! g g !

Algebraic approach

y = 2x+5. y is defined for all values of x, thus ) , ( D
f
g g !

2
5 y
x
5 y x 2
5 x 2 y
!
!
!

x is defined for all values of y. Thus ) , ( R
f
g g !

) , 2 ( R ) , ( D
method graphical use to easier is it question this For . b
f f
g ! g g !
c. By completing the square

2
2
2
) 1 x (
] 1 1 ) 1 x [(
] 1 x 2 x [ ) x ( f
!
!
!

and sketch the graph

y
0 1
x
5
-5/2
x
y
5
Thus ) 0 , ( R ) , ( D
f f
g ! g g !

1.1.2.2 Domain and range of radical function

Example 3


2
x 9 ) x ( f . d
1 x 2 ) x ( f . c
x 2 ) x ( f . b
2 x ) x ( f . a
!
!
!
!

Solution

2 x ) x ( f . a !

Graphical method

) , 0 ( R ) , 2 ( D
f f
g ! g !

Algebraic approach

2 x y !

y is only defined if x-2 > 0, that is x > 2. Thus ) , 2 ( D
f
g !
2 y x
2 x y
2 x y
2
2
!
!
!

x is defined for all values of y. Since ) , 0 [ R thus , 0 2 x y
f
g ! u !

b. Graphical method or algebraic approach can be use

Ans: ) , 0 ( R ) 2 , ( D
f f
g ! g !

x
y
0 2
6
c. Graphical method or algebraic approach can be use

Ans: ) , 2 ( R ) , 1 ( D
f f
g ! g !

d. Graphical method or algebraic approach can be use

Ans: ] 3 , 0 [ R ] 3 , 3 [ D
f f
! !

1.1.2.3 Domain and range of exponent and log function

The domain of f(x) = a
x
is ) , ( g g
The range of f(x) = a
x
is ) , 0 ( g

The domain of f(x) = x log
a
is ) , 0 ( g
The range of f(x) = x log
a
is ) , ( g g

1.1.2.4 Domain and range of absolute value and rational function

Example 4


1 x
3
) x ( f . b
1 x ) x ( f . a
!
!

x
y=a
x
y=x
y=log
a
x
y
7
Solution

a. It is easier to use graphical method

) , 0 ( R ) , ( D
f f
g ! g g !
b.
1 x
3
) x ( f
!

Graphical Method

) , 0 ( ) 0 , ( R ) , 1 ( ) 1 , ( D
f f
g g ! g g !

Algebraic Method

1 x
3
y
!
y is defined for all values of x except x = 1

Thus, ) , 1 ( ) 1 , ( D
f
g g !
1 x
3
y
!
y
y 3
x
y 3 yx
3 y yx
3 ) 1 x ( y
!
!
!
!

x is defined for all values of y except y = 0
Thus, ) , 0 ( ) 0 , ( R
f
g g !
y
-1
x
y
x
0 1
8
1.1.3 Composite functions

Definition

Given functions f and g, the composition of f with g, denoted by g f Q, is the function
defined by
( g f Q)(x) = f(g(x))

The domain of fog is defined to consist of all x in the domain of g for which g(x) is in the
domain of f.

Example 5

Let 3 x ) x ( f
2
! and x ) x ( g ! , Find

f g . b
g f . a
Q
Q

Solution

3 x
3 ) x (
) x ( f
)) x ( g ( f g f . a
2
!
!
!
! Q

3 x
) 3 x ( g
)) x ( f ( g f g . b
2
2
!
!
! Q

Example 6

Find
3
x ) x ( h , x / 1 ) x ( g , x ) x ( f if ) x )( h g f ( ! ! ! Q Q

Solution

2 / 3
3
x
1

)) x ( g ( f
))) x ( h ( g ( f ) x )( h g f (
!
!
!
! Q Q

9
Piecewise functions

The absolute value function f(x) = |x| is an example of a function that is defined piecewise
in the sense that the formula of f changes depending on the value of x.

Example 7

Sketch the graph

u
!
0 x if x
0 x if x
x

Solution

Example 8

Sketch the graph
u

e
!
1 x x
1 x 1 x 1
1 x 0
) x ( f
2

Solution

f(x)=0
2
x 1 ) x ( f !
f(x)=x
x
y
1
1
0
y
y=|x|

x
10

Example 9

A function f is defined by

"
e
!
1 x if x
1 x if x 1
) x ( f
2

Evaluate f(0), f(1), f(2) and sketch the graph

Solution

f(0) = 1 f(1) = 0 f(2) = 4

x

Exercise 1.1

1. If f(x) = 3- 5x, find

a) f(-2)
b) f(x
3
)
c) f(2x + 1)
d) the value of p so as f(p) = 1

2. Find the domain and ranges of the following functions

x 7 ) x ( f ) l x 7 ) x ( f ) f
x 16 f(x) k)
x 5
1 x
f(x) e)
x x f(x) j)
2 x
6
f(x) d)
3 x f(x) i) 3 4x x f(x) c)
2 x 1 f(x) h) 5 x f(x) ) b
x 7 ) x ( f ) g 3 x 8 ) x ( f ) a
2
2
2
! !
!
!
!
!
! !
! !
! !

y
1
1
y =1-x
y = x
2
11

Answer:

5
2
) d
2 x 10 ) c
x 5 3 ) b
13 ) a . 1
3

1.2 LIMITS

If the values of f(x) can be made as close as we like to L by taking values of x sufficiently
close to a (but not equal to a), then we write L ) x ( f lim
a x
!
p
which is read the limit of f(x) as x
approaches a is L

1.2.1 Finding limits from given graph

Example 10

Make a conjecture(guess) about the value of the limit
1 1 x
x
lim ) a
0 x

p

x
x sin
lim ) b
0 xp

Solution

a)

x -0.01 -0.001 -0.0001 -0.00001 0 0.00001 0.0001 0.001
f(x) 1.994987 1.999500 1.999950 1.999995 2.000005 2.00005 2.000500

o

y
2
x
12
Hence we conjecture that 2
1 1 x
x
lim
0 x
!

p

b)
x(radians)
x
x sin

1.0 0.84147
0.9 0.87036
0.8 0.89670
0.7 0.92031
0.6 0.94107
0.5 0.95885
0.4 0.97355
0.3 0.98507
0.2 0.99335
0.1 0.99833
0.01 0.99998

The data in the table suggest that 1
x
x sin
lim
0 x
!
p

And it is consistent with the graph of f(x)

o

1.2.2 Computing Limits

Basic properties of limits

Properties

Examples

c c lim . a
a x
!
p
2 2 lim
a x
!
p

n n
a x
a x lim . b !
p
8 2 x lim
3 3
2 x
! !
p

y
x
13
) x ( g lim ) x ( f lim )] x ( g ) x ( f [ lim . c
a x a x a x p p p
s ! s
12
3 3
x lim x lim ] x x [ lim
2
3 x
2
3 x
2
3 x
!
!
s !
p p p

) x ( g lim ). x ( f lim )] x ( g ). x ( f [ lim . d
a x a x a x p p p
!
4
) 1 3 ( 1
) x 3 ( lim . x lim ) x 3 ( x lim
2
1 x
2
1 x
2
1 x
!
!
!
p p p

0 ) x ( g lim ,
) x ( g lim
) x ( f lim
) x ( g
) x ( f
lim . e
a x
a x
a x
a x
{ !
p
p
p
p

7
4

3 x lim
x 2 lim
3 x
x 2
lim
2
2 x
2 x
2
2 x
!
p
p
p

) x ( f lim c )] x ( cf [ lim . f
a x a x p p
!
14
) 7 ( 2
) 4 x ( lim 2 ) 4 x ( 2 lim
3 x 3 x
!
!
!
p p

0 ) x ( f lim
eger int positive n , ) x ( f lim ) x ( f lim . g
a x
n
a x
n
a x
u
! !
p
p p

3
81
) 51 x 7 x 2 ( lim 51 x 7 x 2 lim
4
4
3
2 x
4 3
2 x
!
!
!
p p

If
0
0
) x ( g
) x ( f
lim
a x
!
p
, then the function f(x) and g(x)need to be simplified by factorization or by
multiplying with their conjugates.

Example 11

Determine
3 x 3
2 x x
lim
2
1 x

p

Solution

Simplify and factorize, we obtain

1
3
2 1

3
) 2 x (
lim
) 1 x ( 3
) 1 x )( 2 x (
lim
3 x 3
2 x x
lim
1 x
1 x
2
1 x
!

p
p p

14

Example 12

Determine
9 x
3 x
lim
9 x
p

Solution
Simplify by multiplying the numerator and denominator by the conjugate of 3 x

6
1

9 x
3 x
lim
9 x
!
!
!
!
p

1.2.3 The relationship between one-sided limits and two sided limits

The two sided limits of a function f(x) exists at a if and only if both of the one-sided limits
exist at a and have the same value; that is,
L ) x ( f lim
a x
!
p
if and only if ) x ( f lim L ) x ( f lim
a x a x

p p
! !

Example 13

5 ) 3 x 2 ( lim
1 x
!
p
exist because 5 ) 3 x 2 ( lim ) 3 x 2 ( lim
1 x 1 x
! !

p p

1.2.4 Infinite limits

1. If the function f increases without limit when x approaches a, then g !
p
) x ( f lim
a x

0 a
y
x
15
2. If the function f decreases without limit when x approaches a, then g !
p
) x ( f lim
a x

3. If g !
p
) x ( f lim
a x
and g !
p
) x ( f lim
a x
or g !
p
) x ( f lim
a x
and g !
p
) x ( f lim
a x
then
g !
p
) x ( f lim
a x

4. If a>0,
g !
p a x
1
lim . a
a x

g !
p a x
1
lim . b
a x

5. If the function f approaches L when x increases without limit, then L ) x ( f lim
x
!
g p

6. If the function f approaches M when x decreases without limit, then M ) x ( f lim
x
!
g p

7. For n>0
0
x
1
lim . a
n
x
!
g p
0
x
1
lim . b
n
x
!
g p

8. If
g
g
!
g p
) x ( g
) x ( f
lim
x
, then we need to simplify the function by dividing the numerator
and the denominator by the highest power of x

Example 13

1
x
4
1
x
3
1
lim
x
4
x
x
x
3
x
x
lim
4 x
3 x
lim . a
x
x x
!
g p
g p g p

x
y
0 a
16
1

0
1

x
4
x
1
x
3
1
lim
x
4
x
x
x
3
x
x
lim
4 x
3 x
lim . b
2
2
x
2 2
2 2
2
x
2
x
!
g !
!
g p
g p g p

9. The line x = a is a vertical asymptote of the graph if sg !
p
) x ( f lim
a x
or sg !
p
) x ( f lim
a x

10. The line y = b is a horizontal asymptote of the graph if b ) x ( f lim
x
!
g p
or b ) x ( f lim
x
!
g p

Example 14

1 x
3
) x ( f
!

g !
p 1 x
2
) x ( f lim
1 x

g !
p 1 x
2
) x ( f lim
1 x

hence, x = 1 is the vertical asymptote

and y = 0 is the horizontal asymptote.

y
x
0 1
17
Exercise 1.2

1. Given 10 x x 8 ) x ( f
2 3
! and 4 x 2 x ) x ( g
3
! , determine
) x ( g lim
) x ( g
) x ( f
lim
2 x x p g p

(MAT 183, March 2004)
Ans: 16

2. a. Let ,
x 3 x
x 9 x
) x ( h
2 3
3
! find ) x ( h lim ) x ( h lim

x 3 x g p p

(MAT 183,Oct 2004)
b. Find
7 x
2 x 3
lim
2
x
g p

Ans: a. 1 b. 3

3. Evaluate the following limits

12 x 4 x
4 x
lim . a
2
2
2 x

p

7 4
5 7
x
x 3 x 2
x 4 x 5
lim . b
g p

(MAT 149, March 2002)
Ans:
3
5 -
b.
2
1
. a

4. Find the equations of the horizontal and vertical asymptotes of the curve

1 x
x 3 x 2
y
2
2
!
(MAT 149, March 2002)
Ans: 2 y , 1 x ! s !

5. Given
"

e
!
3 x , x 8
3 x 0 , x 2
0 x , x
) x ( g
2

a. Give the domain of g(x) in the interval form.
b. Find the following limits;
) x ( g lim ) i
0 xp

) x ( g lim ) ii
2 xp

) x ( g lim ) iii
3 xp

) x ( g lim ) iv
x g p

(MAT 149, March 2002)
18

Ans: ) , 3 ( ) 3 , ( . a g g
b. 0,4, does not exist, g

1.3 CONTINUITY

Definition

A function f is said to be continuous at x = c if the following conditions are satisfied:
1. f(c) is defined
2. ) x ( f lim
c xp
exists.
3. ) c ( f ) x ( f lim
c x
!
p

Example 15

Determine whether the following functions are continuous at x = 2.

!
{
!
!
{
!
2 x 4
2 x ,
2 x
4 x
) x ( h
2 x 3
2 x ,
2 x
4 x
) x ( g
2 x
4 x
) x ( f
2 2
2

Solution

The function f is undefined at x = 2 so f(x) is not continuous
The function g is defined at x = 2 , that is g(2) = 3
4
2 x lim
) 2 x (
) 2 x )( 2 x (
lim
2 x
4 x
lim ) x ( g lim
2 x
2 x
2
2 x 2 x
!
!
!
p
p
p p

) x ( g lim
2 xp
{ g(2), therefore g(x) is not continuous at x = 2

The function h is defined at x = 2 , that is h(2) = 4
4
2 x lim
) 2 x (
) 2 x )( 2 x (
lim
2 x
4 x
lim ) x ( h lim
2 x
2 x
2
2 x 2 x
!
!
!
p
p
p p

4 ) 2 ( h ) x ( h lim
2 x
! !
p
, therefore h(x) is continuous at x = 2.
19

Intermediate-Value theorem

If f is continuous on a closed interval [a,b] and k is any number between f(a) and f(b),
inclusive, then there is at least one number x in the interval [a,b] such that f(x)=k.

The following consequences of Intermediate-Value theorem can be use in approximating
roots

Theorem

If f is continuous on [a,b], and if f(a) and f(b) are nonzero and have opposite signs, then
there is at least one solution of the equation f(x)=0 in the interval (a,b).

Exercise 1.3
1. Given
"
e
!
4 x 10
4 x 3 3 kx
3 x x
) x ( g
2

Find the value of k if g(x) is continuous at x=3, hence, determine whether the function is
continuous at x=4
(MAT 183, Marc 2004)
Ans: k = 2, g(x) is not continuous at x = 3

2. Let
u
e

!
2 x c x 2
2 x 0 x
0 x 1
2
x
) x ( f
2

i) Determine whether f(x) is continuous at x=0
ii) Find the value of c such that f(x) is continuous at x=2
(MAT 183, Oct 2004)
Ans: not continous, c = 8
3. Consider the function
"
e e
e
e
!
6 x 3
6 x 1 3 x
1 x 2 1 x
2 x x
) x ( f
Test the continuity at x = -2 and x = 6
(MAT 149, Sept 2001)
Ans: not continuous at x = -2 , continuous at x = 6
20
4. Find the value of m so that the function g is continuous

!
{

!
-3 x m
-3 x
3 x
6 x x
) x ( g
2

(MAT 121, Oct 2000)
Ans: -5

1.4 LIMITS and CONTINUITY for TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Theorem

If c is any number in the natural domain of the stated trigonometric function, then

c cot x cot lim c sec x sec lim c csc x csc lim
c tan x tan lim c cos x cos lim c sin x sin lim
c x c x c x
c x c x c x
! ! !
! ! !
p p p
p p p

Theorem (The squeezing theorem).

Let f, g and h be functions satisfying ) x ( h ) x ( f ) x ( g e e for all x in some open
interval containing the number c, with the possible exception that the inequalities
need not hold at c. If g and h have the same limit as x approaches c, say
L ) x ( h lim ) x ( g lim
c x c x
! !
p p
then f also has this limit as x approaches c, that is,
L ) x ( f lim
c x
!
p

Note: In the method of squeezing, the function f has a limit L at a number c by trapping
the function between two other functions g and h

The squeezing theorem is useful to proof the following theorem

h(x)

f(x)

g(x)
L
y
x
21
Theorem

0
x
x cos 1
lim ) b 1
x
x sin
lim ) a
0 x 0 x
!
!
p p

Example 16

x 5 sin
x 3 sin
lim ) c
x
x 2 sin
lim ) b
x
x tan
lim ) a
0 x 0 x 0 x p p p

Solution

1
) 1 )( 1 (
)
x cos
1
.
x
x sin
( lim
x
x tan
lim ) a
0 x 0 x
!
!
!
p p

2
) 1 )( 2 (
)
x 2
x 2 sin
( lim 2
x
x 2 sin
lim ) b
0 x 0 x
!
!
!
p p

1
5

) 1 ( 5
) 1 ( 3

)
x 5
x 5 sin
5
x 3
x 3 sin
3
( lim
x 5 sin
x 3 sin
lim ) c
0 x 0 x
!
!
!
p p

Example 17

Find the limit
p
1 x
1 x
cos lim
2
1 x

Solution

Since cosine function is continuous everywhere

:
2 cos
1 x lim cos
1 x
) 1 x )( 1 x (
cos lim
1 x
1 x
cos lim
1 x
1 x
2
1 x
!
!
p
p p

22
Exercise 1.4

Find the limits of the following functions

)
x
2
sin( lim 2. )
x
1
cos( lim . 1
x x g p g p

h 2
sinh
lim 4.
x 3 2
x
sin lim . 3
0 h x p g p
T

2
0 x 0 x
sin
lim 6.
sin3
lim . 5
U
U
U
U
p p

2
2
0 x 0 x
x 3
x sin
lim 8.
x
sinx
lim . 7
p p

x 8 sin
x 6 sin
lim 10.
x 5
sinx
lim . 9
0 x 0 x p p

tanh
h
lim 12.
sin3x
tan7x
lim . 11
0 h 0 x p p

Answer:

0 2. 1 . 1
2
1
4.
2
3
. 3
g 6. 3 . 5
3
1
8. 1 . 7
4
3
10. 0 . 9
1 12.
3
7
. 11

Chapter 1, Paul

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Chapter 1, Paul

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CHAPTER 1

FUNCTIONS, LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

! find ) x ( h lim ) x ( h lim

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