1 Lean Manufacturing 1.1: Lean, Is A Production Practice That Considers

TECHNICAL ENGLISH 3 2011 USAC
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1 LEAN MANUFACTURING

1.1 Introduction

Lean manufacturing or lean
production, which is often known simply as
Lean, is a production practice that considers
the expenditure of resources for any goal other
than the creation of value for the end customer
to be wasteful, and thus a target for
elimination. Working from the perspective of
the customer who consumes a product or
service, value is defined as any action or
process that a customer would be willing to
pay for.

Basically, lean is centered around
creating more value with less work. Lean
manufacturing is a generic process
management philosophy derived mostly
from the Toyota Production System (TPS)
(hence the term Toyotism is also prevalent)
and identified as Lean only in the 1990s.

It is
renowned for its focus on reduction of the
original Toyota seven wastes in order to
improve overall customer value, but there
are varying perspectives on how this is best
achieved.

Lean manufacturing is a variation on the theme of efficiency based on optimizing flow; it is a
present-day instance of the recurring theme in human history toward increasing efficiency,
decreasing waste, and using empirical methods to decide what matters, rather than uncritically
accepting pre-existing ideas.


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The elimination of waste is the goal of Lean, and Toyota defined three broad types of waste:
Muda
Mura
Muri

Muda: is a traditional general Japanese term for an activity that is wasteful and doesn't add value or is
unproductive and it is also a key concept in the Toyota Production System (TPS).

The original seven muda are:
Transportation (moving products that is not actually required to perform the processing)
Inventory (all components, work in process and finished product not being processed)
Motion (people or equipment moving or walking more than is required to perform the
processing)
Waiting (waiting for the next production step)
Overproduction (production ahead of demand)
Over Processing (due to poor tool or product design creating activity)
Defects (the effort involved in inspecting for and fixing defects)

Mura: is traditional general Japanese term for unevenness, inconsistency in physical matter or human
spiritual condition.

Muri: is a Japanese term for overburden, unreasonableness or absurdity, which has become
popularized in the West by its use as a key concept in the Toyota Production System.

1.2 Lean Manufacturing Goals

The four goals of Lean manufacturing systems are to:
Improve quality: In order to stay
competitive in todays marketplace, a
company must understand its customers'
wants and needs and design processes to
meet their expectations and
requirements.
Eliminate waste: Waste is any activity that
consumes time, resources, or space but

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does not add any value to the product or service. There are seven types of waste.
Reduce time: Reducing the time it takes to finish an activity from start to finish is one of
the most effective ways to eliminate waste and lower costs.
Reduce total costs: To minimize cost, a company must produce only to customer demand.
Overproduction increases a companys inventory costs due to storage needs.

1.3 Steps to achieve lean systems

The following steps should be implemented in order to create the ideal lean
manufacturing system:
1. Design a simple manufacturing system
2. Recognize that there is always room for improvement
3. Continuously improve the lean manufacturing system design
4. Measure

1.3.1 Design a simple manufacturing system

A fundamental principle of lean manufacturing
is demand-based flow manufacturing. In this type
of production setting, inventory is only pulled
through each production center when it is needed
to meet a customers order. The benefits of this
goal include:
Decreased cycle time
Less inventory
Increased productivity
Increased capital equipment utilization

1.3.2 There is always room for improvement

The core of lean is founded on the concept of continuous product and process improvement and
the elimination of non-value added activities. The Value adding activities are simply only those things
the customer is willing to pay for, everything else is waste, and should be eliminated, simplified,
reduced, or integrated(Rizzardo, 2003). Improving the flow of material through new ideal system
layouts at the customer's required rate would reduce waste in material movement and inventory.


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1.3.3 Continuously improve

A continuous improvement mindset is essential to reach a company's goals. The term "continuous
improvement" means incremental improvement of products, processes, or services over time, with
the goal of reducing waste to improve workplace functionality, customer service, or product
performance (Suzaki, 1987).

1.3.4 Measure

A set of performance metrics which is considered to fit well in a Lean environment is overall
equipment effectiveness, or OEE, which is a hierarchy of metrics which focus on how effectively a
manufacturing operation is utilized.

To keep things really simple, lean manufacturing has a base premise and overall goal to get more
done with less and this is effectively done, by:

Minimizing inventory at and through all stages of production
Eliminating waste
Reducing wait times, queues
Shortening product cycle times from raw materials to finished goods

Lean manufacturing involves some real positive, productive changes in businesses that will have a
measurable impact in the bottom line. Benefits of lean production could include:

Reduced lead time, wait time and cycle time
Liberated capital
Increased profit margins
Increased productivity
Improved product quality
Just in time, affordable, streamlined, cost-efficient processes, products and services
Improved on-time shipments
Customer satisfaction and loyalty
Employee retention


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1.2 Homework:

Investigate the following terms related to lean manufacturing and give their definition:
Just in time - Kanban - Andon
Kaizen - Jidoka - Six Sigma
Poka Yoke - Heijunka - 5 S

Suggested videos:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c0Q-xaYior0&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SU01D-jTZcE&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q89qAbAAR3Q&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZdHGTCXcJQU&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mKb84GafalI

Activities
Complete the next chart with the next definitions:

Lean manufacturing

Reduce Time

Continuously Improve

TPS

Improve quality


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2. PROCESS DIAGRAMS

2.1 Introduction

The process diagrams are very important in the manufacturing industry because they give us a
clear perspective of the processes with every step, including materials, time, distance and others. This
helps the engineers to interpret and analyze the manufacturing process and make decisions that will
improve the process without being there to watch how everything works.

The diagrams are composed by three parts:
- Header
- Body
- Summary

In the header you will include all the relevant information such as: company name, analyst,
date, process, area, page number, type of diagram, etc.

In the body, you will draw the diagram that is required according the specifications of each
type and of the process.

And in the summary you will write all the steps that the process has, including time. Time is
the most important factor because we use it to calculate the process efficiency and productivity.

Example:
HEADER

BODY

SUMMARY


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2.2 Operations Diagram

This diagram is a graphic representation of the operations and inspections in a production process. In
this diagram well include the following symbols:

Description Symbol

Operation: is when the process has materials transformation,
or involves any action or activity for the creation of products.

Inspection: is when we check how the process is going and also
the quality of the product during the manufacturing process.

Combined: this is an operation-inspection step and is used
when in the process you have to check the products during
An operation.

Company name: Johns house Analyst: John Hamilton Date: Nov. 20
th
, 2010
Process: making of hot chocolate Area: kitchen Type of diagram: operations
Page 1 of 1

0.7 min
In a pot put 1 liter of water, in a stove
With high fire, let it boil

1 min
Take the 0.30 pounds of chocolate
out of the bag and put it into the pot

0.5 min 7 min
Get some marshmallows Stir frequently and let the
chocolate melt and get the
desired consistency

0.5 min

Check if the chocolate is ready

0.8 min
Get a cup and serve

0.5 min
Add the marshmallows

0.4 min

Check if its not too hot, Enjoy!

1
2
4
3
1
5
1
6

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Summary

Description Symbol # of steps Time

Operation 6 10.5

Inspection 1 0.4

Combined 1 0.5

Totals 8 11.4

2.2.1 Important considerations

Note that the time is given in minutes; this is a standard for all the diagrams.
The diagram always is going to be drawn from right to left, even if it has simultaneous processes or not.
The time is placed in the upper-left corner of the symbol.
A brief description of every step of the process is written at the right side of the symbol.
When numbering the process remember that you have to do it according to its function in the diagram,
and when you have a simultaneous process you have to write the number on the left first and then in
the right, as shown in the example.

2.3 Process Flow Diagram

The process flow diagram is a graphic representation of the steps that follows a chronologic sequence
of activities in a process or procedure, identifying them with symbols according to its nature, and also includes
all the considered important information that is needed for analysis. This information could be distance, time,
quantity, etc. This helps us discover and eliminate waste and delays, making the process more efficient and
increase the productivity in the manufacturing industry.

In this diagram we include the storage, operation, inspection, combined, delays and transportation
symbols.

Description Symbol

Operation: is when the process has materials transformation,
or involves any action or activity for the creation of products.

Inspection: is when we check how the process is going and also
the quality of the product during the manufacturing process.

Combined: this is an operation-inspection step and is used
when in the process you have to check the products during
An operation.
Delay: this is used when nothing is being done in the process,
It could be the wait for other paralell process to finish before
Adding the product to the asembly line.


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Transportation: is when the product is moved more than
1.5 meters to the next step. This is because the human body
Can move something from one side to other between 0 and
1.5 m and its irrelevant according to standars.

Storage: this is used at the beginning of the process when the
Materials are taken from the raw materials storage and at the end
Of it in the finished product storage.

As the operations diagram, it has the same parts: header, body and summary, and its
important to include in the summary the time and distance that you have in the diagram.


Time is given in minutes; this is a standard for all the diagrams.
The diagram always is going to be drawn from right to left, even if it has simultaneous
processes or not.
The distance is written meters and in the lower-left corner of the symbol.
When numbering the process remember that you have to do it according to its function in the
diagram, and when you have a simultaneous process you have to write the number on the left
first and then in the right, as shown in the example.

2.4 Process Travel Diagram

This diagram uses the same symbolism as the process flow and also the same structure, the only
difference is that we draw the diagram in a plan view of the manufacturing plant.

Remember to always draw the symbols in a 1 cm
2
area. This is a standard for all the diagrams that
youre going to draw.


Time is given in minutes; this is a standard for all the diagrams.
The diagram is drawn in a plan view of the manufacturing plant.
The distance is written in meters and the lower-left corner of the symbol.
When numbering the process remember that you have to do it according to its function in the diagram
and the sequence in the process.

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Example: (For space reasons, this diagram doesnt include the time and distance)

Company name: Industry S.A. Analyst: John Hamilton Date: Nov 20
th
, 2010
Process: production of ketchup Area: manufacturing plant Type of diagram: process travel
Page 1 of 1

Summary

Description Symbol # of steps Time Distance

Operation 9

Inspection 2

Combined 2

Transportation 4

Delay 3

Storage 1

Totals 21


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2.5 Homework

With the given videos, draw the operations diagram, the process flow diagram and the operations
travel diagram.
To make the operations diagram, use the following link
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gneZc_hafDE
To make the process flow diagram and the process travel diagram, use the following link
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DkHFNnOK3Bg

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TI-dSckvw0Q
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a5sNItVp9cA&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9Y5Auwf0nXE
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3K3-stVK0lM

Activities:
According to the picture below, determine what symbol each operation needs:


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Complete the summary table for the diagram below:

Description Symbol No. of steps Time Description 2 Symbol No. of steps2 Time2

Tables storage
Sawing and Comprobation
Sawdust 6%
Waiting to be processed
Transfer to the pendulum
(forklift)
Transfer to the pendulum
(forklift)
Cut and Comprobation
Sawdust 0.32%
Waiting to be transported
Transfer to the assembly area
(forklift)
Transfer to the assembly area
(forklift)
Cross storage
Sawdust 0.38%
Sawdust
Cut and Comprobation
Devastation and Comprobation
Assembly and Comprobation
Sawdust and Tables.
Transfer to the Store (forklift)
Storage

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3. QUALITY CONTROL

3.1 Introduction
Quality control is a critical concept in every industry and profession.
As globalization continues and the world become smaller, making it possible
for consumers to pick and choose from the best products worldwide, the
survival of your job and of your company depends on your ability to produce
a quality product or service. In this chapter, we define the term quality,
and we introduce some important quality control concepts and methods.

For most people, quality is associated with the idea of a product or
service that is well done, looks good and does its job well. We think of a quality product as one that
lasts, holds up well under use, and doesnt require constant repair. A quality product or service should
meet a high standard in many areas, such as form, features, fit and finish, reliability and usability.

3.2 Quality control concepts

Costumer based: Quality is meet customer expectations.
Statistical based: The less variation you have, the higher the
quality of your product or service.

After an organization decides on a definition of quality, you need
standards against which to measure your quality. The reason is because
many standards are driven by the desire to safeguard and well-being of
the people who use the products or services companies provide. Quality
standards are also critical in support of international trade.

3.3 Quality Assurance

Quality assurance focuses on the ability of a process to produce or deliver a quality product or
service. This method differs from quality control in that it looks at the entire process, not just the final
product. Quality control is designed to detect problems with a product or service; quality assurance
attempts to head off problems at the pass by tweaking a production process until it can produce a
quality product.

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3.4 Measuring the quality

The old manager saying: You cant manage what
you can measure rings especially true in quality control.
A good measurement system helps you to know where
youve been and where you are going. Costumers
typically require that you measure certain attributes of
your product or service against their specifications. So,
working in quality control means that you have to
determine what to measure, how to measure it and when
to measure it.

Employee training is critical to ensure that everyone involved in your process measures the
same specifications in the same way. You also need to collect data in a usable format so that you can
analyze it to determine the effectiveness of your quality process. The effectiveness of your quality
process is directly related to the quality of your data collection and analysis process. If you dont have
a good data, you cant make good decisions.

3.5 Evaluating the quality

The most common way to analyze the data you collect is to use
statistics. Statistics serve many purposes within quality control:

Statistics helps you to determine which processes or parts of
processes are causing your company the most problems (by using
the 80/20 rule 80 percent of your problems are caused by 20
percent of what you do).
You can use statistics for sampling so that you dont have to test
100 percent of the items you make.
Statistics can help you spot relationships between the values you
measure even if the relationships arent obvious. They also allow
you to identify small variations in your process that can lead to big
problems if you dont correct them.
Although, much of statistics allows you to look back only at was happened in the past. Statistical Process
Control (SPC) allows you to identify problems before they can negatively impact the quality of your product or
service. The basic idea behind SPC is that if you can spot a change in a process before it gets to the point of
making bad products, you can fix the process before bad products hits the shelves.

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3.6 Introducing Lean Processes

Lean processes are the latest diet craze in the world of quality control. Lean is a quality control
technique you can use to identify and eliminate the flab in your companys processes. The flab is all
the dead weight carried by a process without adding any value.

Most company processes are wasteful in terms of time and materials, which often results in
poorer quality to the costumer a concern of all businesses. Lean focuses in customer satisfaction
and cost reduction. Proponents of the technique believe that every step in a process is an opportunity
to make a mistake to create a quality problem, in other words. The fewer steps you have in a
process, the fewer chances for error you create and the better the quality in your final product or
service.

You can apply the lean techniques in the following sections to all types of processes and
environments ranging from offices, to hospitals, to factories. In most cases applying lean concepts
doesnt require an increase in capital costs it simply reassigns people to more productive purposes
and of course, lean processes are cheaper to operate.

3.7 Lean Techniques

3.7.1 Value Stream Mapping

People think in images, not in words, so
giving them a picture of how something is done
is often better than telling them about a
process. After all, the quote is Show me the
money! not Tell me about the money!

Value Stream Mapping visually describes a
production process in order to help workers
locate waste within it. Waste is any activity that
doesnt add value for the customer. Typically,
eliminating waste involves reducing the amount of inventory sitting around and shortening the time it
takes to deliver a product or service to the customer upon its order.


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3.7.2 The 5S method

Work areas evolve along with the processes they support. As an organization implements new
actions and tools, you must find a place for them somewhere. Over time, clutter can slowly build as
piles of excess materials or tools grow and gradually gum up the smooth flow of work.

The 5S method is an essential tool for any quality initiative that seeks to clear up the flow of
work. The 5S describe five Japanese attributes required for a clean work place:

Seiri (organization)
Seiton (neatness)
Seiso (cleaning)
Seiketsu (standardization)
Shitsuke (discipline)

Removing the clutter from a process eliminates
hidden inventories, frees floor space for productive
use, improves the flow of materials through the
workplace, reduces walk time, and shakes out
unnecessary items for reuse elsewhere or landfill
designation.

3.7.3 Rapid improvement events

No one knows a process like the workers who touch it every day. They know how the work
should flow, they can identify obstacles that slow everyone down, and they deal with problems that
never seem to go away.
A Rapid Improvement Event (RIE) is an intensive process-activity improvement, where over a
few days a companys workers bone up on lean techniques and rebuild their processes to incorporate
its principles. The workers take apart their work areas, rearrange items and reassemble spaces for
more efficient work. The improvements are immediate, and the workers have ownership of the
process and fine motivated to further refine it.


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3.7.4 Lean materials and Kanban

A companys materials are essential for the organization to work well, but they also tied up a
large part of a companys capital. And while the company does its business year in and year out, its
materials are, stolen, damaged, rotting, corroding, and losing value in many other ways.
A key part of the lean approach is to minimize the amount of materials (both incoming and
finished goods) you have sitting around in your facility. Excess materials hide problems with
purchasing, work scheduling, scrap rates, and so on. Eliminating this excess materials provides an
immediate financial benefit to your company if you eliminate correctly.

You dont want to eliminate so thoroughly that you cause shortages. One method you can use
to fix the problem of excess materials without causing shortages is Kanban. Kanban is a materials
system controlled by the customer. When the customer buys an item, action cascades back up the
production line to make one more of that item.

3.8 Homework

Investigate and make a summary of the following topics:
Total Quality Management (TQM)
Six Sigma
Toyota Production System (TPS)

Suggested videos

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U7Z33tljMTQ
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LdhC4ziAhgY


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Activities:

Write in each screw a different description about Quality Control:

Complete with the description of each lean technique:

Value stream Mapping
Rapid improvement events
Lean material and Kanban

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Complete the chart with the 5s technique:


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4. ALTERNATIVE ENERGY

4.1 Introduction

You need energy to start your day. Your breakfast is the fuel your body needs to work. What would you
do if you ran out of your favorite cereal? You could buy another box. But what if the store was all out, too?
What if it wasnt getting any more deliveries? What would you do then? The answer seems simple; youd have
to find another food for breakfast. The world faces a similar problem; our fuel resources are running low and
could run out in your lifetime.

Most everything in the world needs energy to work. Think about the energy you use each day: the
lights you turn on, the bus or car you take to school, the computer you use for homework, the television you
watch before bed. Even while you sleep, energy runs your furnace heating your house and the refrigerator
keeping food from spoiling. It even runs the alarm clock that wakes you up in the morning. Now think about
how many people live on the Earth. With a population of more than 6 billion, the world uses a lot of energy.

4.2 Todays energy sources = fossil fuels

4.2.1 Coal
People mine for coal, a hard, black, rock, throughout the
world. Power plants use coal to generate electricity by grinding it
into a powder that is burned. The burned powder heats water to
create steam. The power of the steam turns turbines. The spinning
motion of the turbines generates electricity. A network of wires
called power grid, bring this electricity to houses and other
buildings.

4.2.2 Oil
Companies drill for oil on land or in the ocean and store it
in large barrels or underground tanks. People turn oil into many
products, including plastics. Your ballpoint pen, your nylon
backpack, and even your fleece jacket are all made from oil. Some
homes burn oil for heat and some power plants burn oil too. In
many countries, however, oils main use is for transportation. Oil is

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made into gasoline for cars, diesel fuel for trucks, and jet fuel for airplanes.

4.2.3 Natural gas

Companies drill for natural gas the same way they do for oil. Natural gas is highly flammable. Gas
stoves cook food with a lower flame. In the United States, and probably other countries, the houses heating
system and water heater may use natural gas. Natural gas is also used in power plants to create electricity.

4.3 The problems of the use of the fossil fuels

Fossil fuels have been a useful source of energy, but we need to rethink how much we depend on
them. We need to consider three main facts. First, fossil fuel supplies are low. We use so much energy that
someday well use up all of Earths fossil fuels. At the rate we use now fossil fuels, scientists estimate that the
worlds reserve will last 40 to 70 more years. What will happen after all of the oil, coal, and natural gas have
run out? How will we travel from place to place? How will
we light our homes? How will we communicate with each
other?

The second fact is that the fossil fuels cost a lot of
money. Countries buy fossil fuels from each other.
Because the supply is low, they can raise their prices. If
countries go to war or have a disagreement, they may not
want to buy fuel from each other. No one will get what
they need.

Finally, burning fossil fuels harms Earth. Coal, oil, and natural gas create a lot of air pollution. The
burning of fossil fuels releases harmful emissions that cause asthma and other health problems. This pollution
also leads to acid rain and snow. Many scientist and citizens are concerned about the carbon dioxide released
by burning fossil fuels. Carbon dioxide belongs to a group of gases known as greenhouse gases. As these gases
collect in the atmosphere, they act like the glass walls of a greenhouse, trapping warm air close to Earths
surface. This warming is natural, and long ago it made the planets environment mild enough to support life.
However, when human activities pump larger-than-normal amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere,
more heat is trapped, and temperatures can grow unnaturally high. As a result, there can be major effects on
weather that may be devastating to the environment and all the people on Earth.


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4.4 The solutions
What can we do about our energy problems? Instead of relying on fossil fuels, we need to examine our
green alternatives. Green energy is renewable it is constantly being replaced and wont run out. Natural
forces, such as wind, water, and sunlight are green energy sources. Its not easy to switch to green energy;
however, we rely on fossil fuels every day. People would need to spend huge amounts of money to change
from one kind of fuel to another. We need to take action, but first, we need to understand our energy
alternatives, then we can make the best energy choices to preserve our planet.

4.5 Solar energy

Put on sunglasses, rub in sunscreen, and hit the beach. Its time to
soak up some rays! The sun can give you a great tan or make you sweat
playing Frisbee. The suns light and heat can also help us solve our energy
problems. You have probably noticed wires running from your home to
poles on the street. These wires connect you to the power grid of your
community. Homes that use solar power, dont need as much energy from
the grid. There are two types of solar power: solar cell energy and solar
thermal energy.

4.5.1 How solar cell energy works

Years ago scientists developed solar cells, also called photovoltaic cells or PV cells, which can turn suns
light directly into electricity. These small, flat devices made of silicon come in a variety of sizes. You may have
seen PV cells in a calculator. Some billboards and streetlights use PV cells to operate. Most cells are 4 inches by
4 inches (10 centimeters by 10 centimeters) and grouped together in panels on the roofs buildings. The solar
panel absorbs the suns light and transforms it into electric current. The electricity can then run lights,
machines, and appliances in the buildings. The more PV cells, the more electricity panels can create.

The cells generate electrical power when the sun is shining. But
what happens at night or when the sun is covered by clouds? Batteries
store the electricity; because solar panels absorb light, not heat, they still
create electricity during a cold winter. As long as the sun is shining, PV cells
are at work.

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Your family can install solar panels on your home, even though you are connected to the power grid. At
times, the panels may even generate more power than your home needs. The power company then buys any
extra power you create and puts it back into the grid for someone else to use. So by using solar panels you
could help your whole community rely more on a green energy source.

4.5.2 How solar thermal energy works

Solar thermal energy uses heat instead of light. People can place
thermal panels on their roofs to absorb the suns heat. Tubing filled with
water runs under the panels. The sun warms the water. This water can
then be used to make a cup of cocoa, fill a swimming pool, or run through
a homes heating system.

Thermal energy can also create electricity. In a solar power plant, the sun heats a liquid until it boils.
Then the steam created from this boiling liquid runs a turbine to generate electricity. In order for the liquids to
boil, these power plants use mirror to focus the suns heat and increase its strength. Some mirrors are curved
and shaped like a saucer. Others are shaped like a trough or placed in a line. Some new solar energy plants
have a power tower. Thousands of mirrors surround the tower and focus the suns heat to the top.

4.6 Wind Energy

Wind is moving air. The motion is caused by changes in air temperature. Warm air is light, and cold air
is heavy. When the land beats up during the day, it warms the air above it. This warm air rises higher in the sky;
while cold air moves down to fill the space left by the warm air. This movement of air creates wind.

Wind can be powerful, as with a destructive hurricane, but its power can
also be used for good. Sailors use the wind to keep their sailboats moving.
Throughout history people have used windmills to harness the winds energy for
grinding grain or pumping well water. Today people use wind turbines to
generate electricity.


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4.6.1 How wind power works

A wind turbine has what looks like an airplane propeller mounted very
high in a tower. The blades of the turbine catch the wind and spin. The blades
spin a shaft that is connected to an electrical generator. Wires connect the
generator to the power grid to bring electricity to buildings in the area.

To increase the amount of power, turbines are often grouped in wind
farms. Most wind farms arent owned by electric power companies. They are
owned by wind farmers who sell the electricity to power companies. Wind
turbines work best where wind blows strongest. Wind is usually stronger
the higher you go. Thats why turbines are often mounted on tall towers or
placed on the top of hills. Some towers stand between 100 and 250 feet (30
and 76 meters) high. Shorelines and wide-open prairies are also good places
for towers. Turbines dont work well in location of too many mountains,
forests, or buildings, which block the winds flow. Some people place small
turbines on their roofs and position them in a way to catch the most wind.

4.7 Geothermal energy

Old faithful, Yellowstone National Parks most famous geyser,
erupts with thousands of gallons of water and steam every hour to hour
and a half. This popular Wyoming tourist spot is the home to more than
60 percent of the worlds geysers. In just one square mile (2.6 square
kilometers), you can see more than a 150 of them.
Some people think of Earth as a solid ball of rock, but it has many
layers. At the center, Earth has a solid core. Around this core is an area of hot, liquid rock called magma. Above
the magma is a layer of solid rock and magma called the mantle. The temperature of the mantle can be very
high from 2,520 to 5,400 degrees Fahrenheit (1,382 to 2,982 degrees
Celsius) depending on how deep you go. The surface of Earth, the crust,
sits on the mantle.

Water sometimes collects in the rocks underground and heats up.
If there is a vent leading from this deep rock to the surface, superheated
water shoots upward. Earths crust is thicker in some areas than others.


25

4.8 Homework

Investigate at least 15 technical words from this chapter that you previously did not know and
write the translation and definition of each
Investigate about the following topics: magma, and mantle
Watch the suggested videos. Then, answer this question: What could you do help to introduce
people to living a "green" life? What are some ways to change their way of thinking and living?

Suggested videos:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oIU5fFmDeSc
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q_fvbO2VXjc&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T1HmY_ImHAg&feature=channel
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KlG0xk93J-E&feature=channel
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oJAbATJCugs&feature=fvw

Activities
Write in each square and explain some energy sources:


26


27

5. HEAT TRANSFER

5.1 Introduction

Heat transfer is the science that deals with the study of rates of exchange of heat between hot and cold
bodies. The hot and cold bodies are called the source and the receiver respectively. Process heat transfer deals
with the rates of exchange of heat as they occur in the heat transfer equipment of engineering and chemical
processes. In all such cases, the temperature difference between a source and a receiver acts as a driving force
for heat transfer.

The major difference between thermodynamics and heat transfer is that the former is concerned with
the relation between heat and other forms of energy, whereas the later deals with the analysis of the rate of
heat transfer. Thermodynamics deals with systems in equilibrium, so it cant be used to predict how fast a
change will take place since the system is not in equilibrium in a process but it may be used to predict the
amount of energy required to change the system from one equilibrium state to another. Consider the cooling
of a hot steel bar that is placed in a jar of water. Thermodynamics may be used to predict the final equilibrium
temperature of the steel bar-water system but will not tell us how long it will take to reach the equilibrium
condition or what the temperature of the bar will be after a certain time period before the attainment of
equilibrium condition whereas heat transfer may be used to predict the temperature of both bar and water as
a function of time.

5.2 Modes of heat transfer

There are three distinct modes of heat transfer from a source to a receiver: conduction, convection and
radiation.
Conduction: it is the flow of heat that occurs, either due to the exchange energy from one
molecule to another without appreciable motion of the molecules or due to the motion of free
electrons if they are present. Conduction occurs on the molecular scale, molecules with a
relative higher energy imparting energy to adjacent molecules at lower energy levels. For
example, the heat flow through the brick wall of a furnace or the metal wall of a heat
exchanger tube occurs by conduction.
Convection: it is the transfer of heat between relatively hot and cold portions of a fluid by
mixing (convection occurs through actual physical movement of warmer portions of fluid
towards cooler portions of the same material). Convection is thus restricted to the flow of heat
in fluids. If the fluid motion is caused by differences in density resulting from temperature
difference in a fluid, the heat transfer is said to be free or natural convection. If the fluid motion
is artificially created by means of an external agency like pump, blower or agitator, the heat
transfer is termed as forced convection. The heating of water in a cooking pan is an example of
heat transfer mainly by convection.

28

Radiation: it refers to the transport of energy through space by electromagnetic waves. The
transfer of heat from the sun to the earth is the most important example of heat transfer by
radiation.

In many of the applications of heat transfer in chemical engineering, heat will be transferred
by combination of two or three of the basic mechanisms/modes of heat transfer. Consider a double
pipe heat exchanger in which a hot fluid flows through the inside pipe and a cold fluid flows through
the annular space. In this case, heat will flow by combination of convection and conduction from the
hot fluid to the cold fluid. Here heat flows by conduction through the metal wall of the inner pipe and
deposits on both sides of the inner pipe, and by convection through the fluid films.

In the case of an insulated steam pipe, heat flows by convection through the steam film on the
inside of the pipe, by conduction through the layer of scale and the metal wall of the pipe, and the
layer of the insulation, and finally by convection and radiation from the outside insulation to the
ambient/surrounding air. Hence, in this case, heat transfer involves all the three modes of transfer.
This is also true with almost all heat transfer applications in the process industries. In a large of
practical cases, one of the modes could be dominant, whereas in several cases it is required to deal
with more than one mode of heat transfer, owing to significant impact of these modes on the overall
heat transfer rates.

5.3 The laws of heat transfer

The foundation of heat transfer rest on a number of the fundamental and subsidiary laws. A
fundamental law is the one which validity rests on the fact that it has not been proved to be wrong or
false in the broad area of application of the subject under consideration. Therefore, these laws must
be satisfied in solving any problem. On the other hand, a subsidiary law may be empirical in nature.

The fundamental laws used in heat transfer are:
1. Law of conservation of mass
2. Newtons law of motion
3. Laws of thermodynamics

The subsidiary laws generally used are:

1. Fouriers law of heat conduction
2. Newtons law of cooling/Newtons law of heat flow between a solid surface and a fluid.
3. Laws of thermal radiation.
4. Equation of state

29

5.4 Fundamental laws

5.4.1 Law of conservation of mass

It states that the total mass of various components involving during a unit operation or unit process
remains constant or simply the total mass of the materials taking part in any process is constant. Conservation
of mass requires that the materials entering any process must either accumulate and/or leave the process.
There can be neither loss nor gain.

Thus for any unit operation or unit process:

Input = output + accumulation or disappearance

Examples:

Consider a water tank containing some water initially as shown in Fig. 1.1 Water enters the tank at a
rate of m
1
kg/h and leaves the tank at a rate of m
2
kg/h and accumulates at a rate of dm/dt. Then according to
the law of conservation of mass,

Rate at which water enters the tank = rate at which water leaves the tank + rate of accumulation of water in
the tank

m
1
= m
2
+ dm/dt
m
2
= m
2
+ A + dh/dt

If m
1
> m
2
water gets accumulated in the tank and if m
1
< m
2
water gets depleted. For steady state operation
when accumulation is constant or nil, the equation reduces to:

Input = Output or m
1
= m
2,
or

Consider a stream tube (control volume) as shown in the figure 1.2. Assume that a fluid enters at a
point where the area of cross-section of the tube is A
1
and leaves where the area of cross-section is A
2
.

30

Let u1 and u2 be the velocities of the fluid at entrance and exit. Let 1 and 2 be the densities of the
fluid at entrance and exit. Assume density in a single cross-section is constant and u1 is constant across area A1
and u2 is constant across area A2. For steady-state conditions, the rate of mass entering the control volume
equals that leaving.

1
u
1
A
1
=
2
u
2
A
2

uA = constant
This is the equation of continuity.

5.4.2 Newtons second law of motion

It states that the resultant of all forces acting on a body of mass m is proportional to the time rate of
momentum change of the body in the direction of resultant force.

F = k d/dt (mu)

Where F is the resultant of all forces acting on the body, m is mass and u is velocity.

For the volume control show in Fig. 1.2 assuming flow to be steady and unidirectional in the X-direction,
according to Newtons second law of motion, the sum of all forces acting on the fluid in the x-direction is equal
to the increase in the time rate of change of momentum of the flowing fluid. For example, sum of all forces
acting in the x-direction equals the difference between the momentums leaving with the fluid per unit time
and that brought in per unit time by the fluid.

F = 1/g
c
(M2 M1)

Where M = mu; m is the mass flow rate of fluid and u is the linear velocity of the fluid.

For a one-dimensional flow in the x-direction, we have:

F = P
1
A
1
P
2
A
2
F
w
- F
g

Where P
1
and P
2
are pressures at entrance and exit; A
1
and A
2
are cross-section area at entrance and exit, F
w
is
the net force of wall channel on fluid and Fg is the component of force of gravity (for flow in upward direction).

31

5.4.3 First law of thermodynamics

It states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed during a process, although the conversion of
energy from one form into another is possible. The law can also be stated in the alternative way as the total
energy of an isolated system remains constant. When system gains or loses energy, it must be exactly equal to
the loss or gain of energy by the surroundings. Hence, the first law of thermodynamics is concerned with the
conservation of energy.

Let the initial state of a system be A. Let the quantity of heat Q be absorbed by the system. The result of
absorption of heat is both to increase the internal energy and also to produce some mechanical work.

Heat absorbed by system = increase in internal energy + work done by the system

Q = U + W
U = Q W

This is the mathematical expression/statement of the first law of thermodynamics. In words, the
equation states that the total energy change of a system is equal to the heat added to the systems minus the
work done by the system.

The equation applies to the processes involving finite changes in the system. For differential changes,
this equation is written as:

dU = dQ dW
Taking derivatives from respect to time,

From the last equation we can say that the rate of increase of energy of the system is equal to the
difference between the rate at which heat enters the system and the rate at which the system does work on the
surroundings.


32

5.5 Homework

Investigate about the subsidiary laws of heat transfer.
Watch the following videos

Suggested videos:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=77R4arwD8G8&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5pG-tkbQgMo&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S0TurHQp_AE&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8jeHd3ZbsFg
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wz6wzOtv6rs
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=05S1xXFGpKk&feature=related

Activities

Answer the following questions:

1.- What is radiation?

2.- Explain Newtons second law of motion:

3.- Explain First Law of Thermodynamics:


33

6. SOLAR POWER

6.1 Introduction

93 million miles from Earth, our Sun is 333,000 times the size of our planet. It has a diameter of 865,000
miles, a surface temperature of 5,600C and, a core temperature of 15,000,000C. It is a huge mass of constant
nuclear activity.

Directly or indirectly, our sun provides all the power we need to exist and support all life forms. The sun
drives our climate and our weather. Without it, our world would be a frozen wasteland of ice-covered rock.

Solar electricity is a wonderful concept taking power from the sun and using it to power electrical
equipment is a terrific idea. No ongoing electricity bills, no reliance on an electrical socket free energy that
doesnt harm the planet!

6.2 The principles of solar electricity

A solar panel generates electricity using the photovoltaic effect, a phenomenon discovered in the early 19
th

Century, when it was observed that certain materials produced an electric current when exposed to light.

To create this effect, two layers of a semi-conducting material have to be combined. One layer has to have
a depleted number of electrons. When exposed to sunlight, some of the photons are absorbed by the material
which excites, causing some of them to jump from one layer to the other. As the electrons move from one
layer to another, a small electrical current is generated. The semi-conducting material used to build a solar cell
is silicon. Very thin wafers of silicon are cut and polished. Some of these wafers are doped to contaminate
them, thereby creating an electron imbalance in these wafers. The wafers are then aligned together to make a
solar cell. Conductive metal strips are attached to the cells to take the electrical current.

When a photon hit the solar cell, it can do one of three things: it can be absorbed by the cell, be reflected
of the cell, or pass straight through the cell. If a photon is absorbed by the silicon, this causes some of the
electrons to jump from one layer to another. An electrical circuit is made as the electrons move from one layer
to another, creating an electrical current. The more photons (the more intensity of light) that are absorbed by
the solar cell, the greater the current generated.

Solar cells generate most of their electricity from direct sunlight. They can also generate electricity on
cloudy days and some systems can even generate very small amount of electricity on bright moonlight nights.


34

Individual solar cells typically only generate tiny amounts of electrical energy. To make useful amounts of
electricity, these cells are connected together to make a solar module, otherwise known as a solar panel or, to
be more precise, a photovoltaic module.

Solar Cells

(really called "photovoltaic", "PV" or "photoelectric" cells)that convert light directly into electricity.
In a sunny climate, you can get enough power to run a
100W light bulb from just one square metre of solar panel.
This was originally developed in order to provide electricity
for satellites, but these days many of us own calculators
powered by solar cells. People are increasingly installing PV
panels on their roofs. This costs thousands of pounds, but if
you have a south-facing roof it can help with your electricity
bills quite a bit,and the government pays you for any extra
energy you produce and feed back into the National Grid
(called the "feed-in tariff").

Solar Water Heating:
Where heat from the Sun is used to heat water in glass panels on your roof. This means you don't need to use so
much gas or electricity to heat your water at home. Water is pumped through pipes in the panel. The pipes are
painted black, so they get hotter when the Sun shines on them. The water is pumped in at the bottom so that
convection helps the flow of hot water out of the top.
This helps out your central heating system, and
cuts your fuel bills. However, with the basic type of
panel shown in the diagram you must drain the water
out to stop the panels freezing in the winter. Some
manufacturers have systems that do this
automatically. Solar water heating is easily
worthwhile in places like California and Australia,
where you get lots of sunshine. Mind you, as
technology improves it's becoming worthwhile in the
UK.
Solar Boilers:
The main way that a conventional gas "combination boiler" continually wastes energy is by replenishing stored
water as soon as the volume or temperature decreases.
With solar powered boilers, this is instead fuelled by the solar power collected through panels on the roof of your
home.

35

The power collected through the solar tiles is used to fuel and therefore
heat a separate water cylinder, thus saving energy throughout the course
of every day. Another smaller tank, still powered by gas, is provided with
most solar boiler installations as a backup.

Solar Furnaces:
Use a huge array of mirrors to concentrate the Sun's energy into
a small space and produce very high temperatures. There's one
at Odeillo, in France, used for scientific experiments. It can
achieve temperatures up to 3,000 degrees Celsius.
Solar furnaces are basically huge "solar cookers". A solar cooker
can be used in hot countries to cook food. This one is in the UK,
making tea and coffee, although it does take a long time!


36

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Lean Manufacturing:
References

Lean Manufacturing: tools, techniques, and how to use them; William M. Feld, St. Lucie Press,
2000.
Lean Manufacturing: Implementation strategies that work; John Davis, Industrial Press, 2009.

Suggested readings:

Manufacturing systems: theory and practice; George Chryssolouris; Birkhuser, 2006.
Lean Manufacturing implementation: a complete execution manual for any size manufacturer,
Dennis P. Hobbs, J. Ross Publishing, 2004

Process Diagrams

References
Ingeniera Industrial: mtodos, estndares y diseo del trabajo; Benjamn Niebel, McGraw-Hill
Interamericana, 2009-

Suggested readings:

Handbook of industrial engineering: technology and operations management; Gavriel
Salvendy, Wiley-IEEE, 2001
Industrial Engineering; Khan, New Age International, 2007
English for Industrial Engineering; Marisa Carri, Ed. Universidad Politc. Valencia, 2005

Quality control
References

Quality control for dummies; Larry Webber, Michael Wallace; For Dummies, 2006.
Process Quality Control: troubleshooting and interpretation of data; Ellis Raymond Ott, Edward
Schilling, Dean Neubauer; ASQ Quality Press, 2005.

37

Suggested readings

Fundamentals of industrial quality control; Lawrence Aft; St. Lucie Press, 1998
Statistical quality control using excel; Steven Zimmerman, Marjorie Icenogle; ASQ Quality
Press, 2003.
In-process quality control for manufacturing; W.E. Barkman; M Dekker; 1989.

Alternative Energy
References

Alternative energy: Beyond fossil fuels, Dana Meachan Rau, Capstone press 2010.
Alternative energy: political, economic, and social feasibility, Christopher A. Simon, Rowman &
Littlefield, 2007.

Suggested readings:

Alternative energy: a beginners guide to the future of energy technology, Marek Walisiewicz,
DK Pub. 2002
Alternative energy, S. Vandana, APH Publishing, 2002
Alternative energy: facts, statistics, and issues, Paula Berinstein, Oryx Press, 2001.

Heat transfer
References

Heat Transfer; A.S. Sukomel, Varvara A. Osipova

Suggested readings:

Heat transfer handbook; Adrian Bejan; Willey-IEEE, 2003
Heat transfer: a problem solving approach Vol. 1; Tariq Muneer, Jorge Kubie, Thomas Grassie; Taylor &
Francis, 2003
Shaums outline of the theory and problems of heat transfer; Donald R. Pitts; McGraw-Hill Professional,
1998.

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