Chapter 3

HEREDITY AND VARIATION.

3.1 Cell Division.
Chromosomes.
are the nucleus of a cell contains many small thread-like structures.
made of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and protein.
contain hereditary material called genes.
the nucleus of each organisms cell contain chromosomes which always
exist in pairs (except in gametes).
example a human has !" pairs of chromosomes.
in each pair of chromosomes# one chromosome inherited from the father
and one from the mother.
all somatic cells of the same type of organisms ha$e the same number of
chromosomes.
by determining the number of chromosomes in the nucleus of a cell# the
type of organism can be known.
Genes.
are hereditary material or heritable characteristics located on
chromosomes.
is a DNA unit which functions to code the heritable characteristics.
example passes on hereditary information from one generation to
another.
exist in pairs.
one gene is inherited from the father and one from the mother.
genes determine characteristics like body height# hair colour# fingerprint#
and appearance.
Relationship between gene, chromosome, and DNA.
Type of Cell Division.
the processes of reproduction and growth of any organism in$ol$e cell
di$ision
there are two types# which is
mitosis
meiosis
Mitosis
is a cell di$ision process which takes place only in somatic cells.
for plants# it occurs at the tip of the root and shoot.
through mitosis# each daughter cell contains the same number of
chromosomes# and thus the same genes# as the parent cell.
the importance of mitosis
a) forms new cells for growth
b) forms new cells to replace cells or tissues which are damaged
or ha$e died.
c) enables hereditary material in parent cell to be passed on to
daughter cells.
d) enables asexual reproduction in some organisms.
%uman &ells &hromosomes
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) 'enes &haracteristics in human
built
of
containing containing
of
forming determining
Meiosis
the process of cell di$ision to produce gametes with half of the number of
chromosomes of the parent cell.
occurs only in the reproducti$e organs.
occurs in the testis of a male and the o$ary of female who ha$e attained
sexual maturity.
meiosis also occurs in the anther and o$ary of plants.
meiosis causes $ariation among species of the same organism.
this is because the chromatids o$erlaps with one another and the
exchange of genetic material (chromosomes and genes) takes place.
this occurrence is called crossing o$er.
exchange of genetic material among chromatids during crossing o$er
produces a combination of new genes in gametes.
this process causes genetic $ariation.
this also explains why children that are born to the same parents show
different characteristics.
the importance of meiosis
a) ensures that the number of chromosomes is diploid in the
(ygote when the nucleus of sperm fuses with the nucleus of an
o$um during fertilisation.
b) combination of different chromosomes and crossing o$er which
occur causing $ariation to take place in the next generation.
Comparison between meiosis and mitosis
)imilarities
chromosome replication takes place
call di$ision occurs
new cells are produced
Differences
*hen this process happens
eiosis i!osis
During the
formation of
somatic cells
During the
formation of
gametes
*here this process happens
in animals
*here this process happens
in plants
Number of cell di$ision
+eplication ,rocess
Number of daughter cells
produced
Number of chromosomes in
daughter cells compared
to those in parent cell
'enetic make-up in daughter
cells compared to those of
parent cell
&rossing -$er
3." #rinciples $n% ech$nism of Inheri!$nce.
Domin$n! &enes $n% recessive &enes.
gametes in$ol$ed in fertilisation contain chromosomes# chromosomes are
made up of DNA molecules# certain segments in the DNA are made up of
genes# these genes are responsible for traits.
examples of traits passed on from parents are skin color# hair color# blood
group and height.
genes that exist in pairs in chromosomes control the characteristics
inherited from the parents.
there are two types of genes
)omatic
cells
.estes and
o$aries
.ip of the root
and shoot
Anther and
o$ary
-nce .wice
-ccurs -ccurs during
the first cell
di$ision only
.wo /our
)ame %alf
)ame Different
Doesnt
happen
%appens
Dominant genes +ecessi$e genes
are genes which
show the
characteristics
that they control
when paired with
a dominant gene
or a recessi$e
gene.
are genes which
only show the
characteristics
that they control
when these
genes are paired
with another
recessi$e gene.
dominant genes are represented by the letter 0..
recessi$e genes are represented by the letter 0t.
ech$nism of !r$i! inheri!$nce.
the studies of 'regor 1endel on the pea plant can explain trait inheritance
in organisms.
1endel cross-bred tall pea plats which were pure breed with short pea
plants which were also pure breed.
the
characteristics
determined by
this genes are
called dominant
traits.
the
characteristics
determined by
this genes are
called recessi$e
traits.
dominant traits
are shown if one
or both dominant
genes which
control the
particular
characteristics
are present.
recessi$e traits
are only shown if
the recessi$e
genes are not
paired with
dominant genes.
human traits
controlled by this
genes
tall# curly hair#
free ear lobe#
black hair# able
to roll the tongue#
dimples# long
eye lashes# right-
handed#
pigments in skin#
black or brown
iris# normal
eyesight
human traits
controlled by this
genes
short# straight
hair# attached
ear lobe# blond
hair# unable to
roll the tongue#
no dimples# short
eye lashes# left-
handed# albino#
blue iris# colour-
blindness
he found that all pea plants in the first generation were tall.
the tall pea plants in the first generation were then cross-bred among
themsel$es.
1endel found that three 2uarters of the pea plants in the second
generation were tall and one 2uarter of them short.
in this experiment# only one trait inheritance is studied# hence# that
inheritance is called monohybrid inheritance.
genotype refers to the genetic make-up of an organism.
phenotype refers to the physical appearance which can be seen in an
organism.
example# if a tall person has a .. gene# he is said to ha$e .. genotype
and shows tall phenotype.
organisms in the first filial generation# /3# are called hybrids.
a hybrid contains a dominant gene and recessi$e gene. ex impure breed
(.t)
combination of gametes at the first filial generation# /3# can be shown in
the ,unnett )2uare.

Gen T !
.tttT .. .t
t
Punnet square
.. tt
t t . .
tall plant
(pure breed)
dwarf plant
(pure breed)
x ,arents
1eiosis
'ametes
/ertilisation
/irst filial
generation
all plants in the
first filial
generation# /3#
are tall (3445)
this situation
shows that tall
trait is controlled
by the dominant
gene while short
trait is controlled
by the recessi$e
gene.
.t .t .t .t
. t t .
.t .t .t tt
tall plant
(hybrid)
tall plant
(hybrid)
.t .t
tall tall tall tall
x
/irst filial
generation
'ametes
/ertilisation
1eiosis
ratio of plants
that are tall to
dwarf plants are
" 3.
probability of
obtaining tall
plants in the
second
generation is
675 while the
short plants is
!75.
3.3 'e( De!ermin$!ion $n% The Occ)rrence of T*ins in H)m$n +ein&s.
'e( Chromosomes
a human somatic cell has !" pairs of chromosomes (89 chromosomes).
from the !" pairs of chromosomes# !! pairs are autosomes and one pair
is sex chromosomes.
sex chromosome determine the sex of a person.
male sex chromosomes are :;.
male somatic cell contains !! pairs of autosomes with one : chromosome
and one ; chromosome. 88 < :;
in meiosis# a male produces two types of gamete which
o carries !! autosomes and one : chromosome. !!<:
o carries !! autosomes and one ; chromosome. !!<;
female sex chromosome is ::
female somatic cell contains !! pairs of autosomes and two :
chromosomes. 88 < ::
in meiosis# a female gamete only carries !! autosomes and one :
chromosome. !!<:
'e( De!ermin$!ion.
the sex of child is determined by the father according to the type of sperm
that fertilises the o$um.
if a sperm that carries
o the x chromosomes fertilises an o$um# a baby girl is born.
o the y chromosomes fertilises an o$um# a baby boy is born.
the probability of ha$ing a male child or female child is the same= 74 74

tall tall tall dwarf
)econd filial
generation
!! <
:
!! <
:
!! <
;
!!<
:
88 <
::
88 <
::
88 <
:;
88 <
:;
88 <
:;
88 <
::
female female male male
74 74
,arents
'ametes
/ertilisation
-ffspring
1eiosis
x
Occ)rrence of !*ins.
in humans# normally one o$um fertilised by one sperm to form one (ygote
which will de$elop to form an embryo.
sometimes more than one embryo is produced in a pregnancy.
twins - two babies born to a mother in a pregnancy and generally at the
same time.
- there are two types of twins identical twins
non-identical twins
Comparison between identical and non-identical twins.
)imilarities
two babies born in a pregnancy
Differences
Differences I%en!ic$l T*ins Non,i%en!ic$l !*ins
/ormation
/ormed when an o$um
fertilised by a sperm di$ides
into two to form two similar
embryos.
/ormed when two o$a are
released by the o$ary at the
same time and fertilised
separately by two sperms to
form two different embryos.
,lacenta
.he two embryos formed will
grow in one shared placenta
in the mothers uterus.
.he two embryos formed
when grow in separate
placentas in the mothers
uterus
'enetic make-up
)ame genetic make-up.
.herefore# identical twins
ha$e the same appearance
and the same sex.
Different genetic make-up
since they originate from two
different o$a and sperms.
.herefore# non-identical
twins ha$e different
appearances.
)ex
.he sex of identical twins are
the same.
.he sex of non-identical
twins may be the same or
different.
sometimes the di$ision of the embryo is not complete# therefore )iamese
twins are formed.
)iamese twins may share certain organs like brain# stomach# or heart and
maybe >oined to one another at the head# abdomen# breast# or buttocks.
they can be separated by surgery if they do not share important organs
like brain# heart# kidneys# or lungs.
3.- )!$!ion
is the spontaneous change to the structure of genes or chromosomes of
an organism.
causes change of characteristics in a child.
occurs in somatic cells or in gametes.
the effect of mutation will be inherited by one generation to another.
there are two types of mutation gene mutations
chromosome mutations
Gene )!$!ions
in$ol$e changes in the structure of gene.
gene mutations change or produce the new genes to replace normal
genes.
genes that ha$e undergone mutation are called mutants.
Here%i!y %ise$se
c$)se% .y &ene
m)!$!ion
+rief e(pl$n$!ion
Albinism albinisms is caused by the change in the gene that
controls skin colour.
the newly produced genes are unable to produce
skin pigment.
the skin and hair of albinos are white and their eyes
are pink.
)ickle cell anaemia sickle cell anaemia is a type of disease caused by the
change in the genes that produce haemoglobin.
haemoglobin that has undergone mutation is not
efficient in transporting oxygen.
&olour-blindness is a sex-linked disease determined by a recessi$e gene
on the : chromosome.
a colour-blind person cannot see or differentiate the
colours red and green.
%aemophilia caused by the deficiency if a type of protein in the blood
re2uired for blood clotting.
haemophilia is caused by the deficiency of a type of
protein in the blood re2uired for blood clotting.
haemophilia is a sex-linked disease determined by a
recessi$e gene on the : chromosome.
a patient who has wound will experience continuous
bleeding or will take a long time for the blood to clot
thus this condition way lead to death.
Chromosome )!$!ions
in$ol$e changes in the number of chromosomes or arrangement of genes
in chromosomes.
sometimes# a portion of a chromosome may break away and go missing#
or become attached itself to other chromosomes.
this causes the arrangement of a chromosome to change and differ from
normal.
the number of chromosomes can be increased or decreased
chromosome mutations can cause hereditary diseases like Downs
syndrome# ?linefelters syndrome# and .urners syndrome.
Downs syndrome
o this heredity disease is caused by the presence of one extra
chromosome at chromosomes !3 in the somatic cells.
o incomplete separation of chromosomes during meiosis causes the
(ygote to ha$e an extra chromosome 86 in total.
o characteristics of a downs syndrome patient
i. slanting eyes
ii. metal retardation
iii. short fingers
i$. wide distance between eyes
$. small mouth but big tongue
$i. protruding tongue causing the mouth to remain partially open
?linefelters syndrome
o a person who suffers from this hereditary diseases has one extra :
chromosome ::;
.urners syndrome
o a person who suffers from this hereditary lacks one : chromosome.
o people with .urner@s syndrome ha$e only one sex chromosome
which is :-.
/$c!ors !h$! c$)se m)!$!ion.
i. mutation can occur naturally# caused by substances found in food or
en$ironment.
ii. agents causes mutations are called mutagens.
iii. chemical substances like pesticides# nicotine in cigarettes# drugs# nitrous
acid and some preser$ati$es# colouring and artificial sweetener can cause
mutation.
i$. radiation A radioacti$e radiation can cause mutation
A gamma ray can affect growth and cell di$ision
A ultra$iolet rays and :-ray rays can cause skin cells to mutate
and this may cause cancer
$. temperatures which are too high or too low can also cause mutation.
A%v$n!$&es $n% %is$%v$n!$&es of m)!$!ion.
not all occurrences of mutation bring ad$erse effects to organisms.
ad$antages of mutation
mutation causes $ariations in organisms which allow them to
adapt to the en$ironment.
species that are more resistant to disease# weather# and
polluted en$ironment can be produced.
disad$antages of mutation
some mutations cause diseases like colour-blindness and
haemophilia cannot be cured.
sometimes# disease like haemophilia and sickle cell anaemia
can cause death.
?linefelters syndrome causes infertility.
mutation causes physical# mental# or foestus retardation.
3.0 Effec!s of Gene!ic Rese$rch on H)m$n 1ife.
3. +esearch in genetics has contributed greatly to medicine and agriculture.
!. Bn medicine# genetic research has helped to identify $arious hereditary
diseases and ways to pre$ent those diseases.
". Bn agriculture# genetic research aims at
impro$ing the 2uality of breeds through selecti$e breeding
bringing in new species with higher resistance to diseases or pests
obtaining the production of large 2uantities of crops and li$estock in the
shortest time.
e%icine.
most of the hereditary diseases like colour-blindness# haemophilia and
albinism are caused by recessi$e genes.
genetic research can tell us how albinism caused by recessi$e genes an
autosomes is inherited.
se$eral types of recessi$e genes that cause hereditary diseases are only
found in the : chromosome. (such genes are called sex-linked genes)
such genes are normally passed down by females who are the carrier to
their children.
colour-blindness and haemophilia are example of hereditary diseases
caused by sex-linked genes in humans.
a female can only suffer from colour-blindness if she has both recessi$e
genes of this characteristics.
a male will suffer from this diseases if he has one recessi$e gene.
these are genes which are present in the : chromosomes but not in the ;
chromosomes.
inheritance of albinism in humans
inheritance of colour-blindness in humans
A a a A
AA Aa Aa aa
Aa Aa
,arents
'ametes
/ertilisation
'enotype of
-ffspring
1eiosis
&haracteristics of
-ffspring
normal normal but normal but albino
is a carrier is a carrier
: :b ; :
:: ::b :; :b;
:; ::b
normal normal girl normal boy colour
girl but is a carrier but is a carrier -blind boy
,arents
/ertilisation
'enotype of
-ffspring
1eiosis
&haracteristics of
-ffspring
'ametes
x
x
hereditary diseases like Downs syndrome can be identified on the foetus
in the mothers womb.
foetal cells in the mothers amniotic fluid are examined under a
microscope.
if 86 chromosomes are obser$ed in the foetal nucleus# the foetus is
pro$ed ha$ing Downs syndrome.
today# genetic engineering enables the transfer of DNA or genes from one
organism to another.
A&ric)l!)re.
selecti$e breeding is done on crops and li$estock.
plants or li$estock are cross-bred from different $arieties to produce new
$arieties which ha$e the desired characteristics.
Type of crop #$ren! pl$n! Hy.ri% Ch$r$c!eris!ics of hy.ri%
,addy ,C.A from Bndonesia
and D'*' from
&hina
B+-D Eear more fruits# ripen
faster and are more
resistant to dry season
-il palm Pisifera with dura .enera Eear more fruits and ha$e
thinner shell with more
content
1ai(e )weetcorn from
.aiwan and 1exico
1asmadu /ruits are sweeter# bigger#
and more resistant to
disease and dry season
,apaya )ubang 9 and
)unrise )olo from
%awaii
Cxotica /ruits are sweeter and
ha$e more content
examples of selectie breeding in crops
Type of lives!oc2 #$ren!s Ch$r$c!eris!ics of ne* .ree%
&ow /resian and local New breed produces more
milk and are more adaptable to
the change in the en$ironment
&ow /emale cow and male wild
ox
New breed (selembu) that
grows faster and produces
better 2uality
'oat Fumnapari goat from Bndia
and local goat
New breed that can produce
more meat and milk
)heep )heep from Australia and
local 1alin
New breed (1alin-:) is bigger
in si(e# matures faster#
supplies better 2uality meat
and wool
&hicken Bmported and local New breed that grows and
!ampung chicken matures faster
examples of breeding in liestoc!
techni2ues of artificial insemination and embryo transfer are used in cross-
breeding
artificial insemination A good 2uality semen from the male animal is placed
into the body of the female animal for fertilisation
embryo transfer A an embryo of a good breed is placed into the uterus of a
female animal
Gene!ic en&ineerin&.
3.3 V$ri$!ion Amon& 1ivin& Thin&s.
$ariation is the differences in the characteristics which exists among
indi$iduals of the same species
there are two types of $ariation continuous $ariation
discontinuous $ariation
Con!in)o)s V$ri$!ion.
refers to characteristics which do not show ob$ious $ariation in a trait
among indi$iduals of the same species.
has continuous intermediate range between two extremes.
examples of continuous $ariation are
'enetic 1odification
Ad$antages Disad$antages
Eody health
food containing certain nutrients re2uired
by the body can be produced.
Eetter 2uality crops and li$estock
better 2uality of crops and li$estock can
be produced.
2uantity can be increased.
crops and li$estock that grow faster can
be produced.
&onser$ation of en$ironment
the use of pesticide can be reduced with
the production of crops which ha$e high
resistance to diseases or pests.
Nutritional $alue of food
generically modified food may not ha$e
the same nutritional $alue.
Cffect of new genes
new genes in food may be transferred to
the human body.
such genes may affect the functions of
human cells.
Gong-term effect
new species of crops and li$estock which
adapt better to the change in the
en$ironment might cause authentic
species to become extinct.
i. height
ii. body weight
iii. intelligence
i$. skin colour
$. width of shoulder
$i. length of sole
continuous $ariation can be shown by a histogram
Discon!in)o)s V$ri$!ion.
discontinuous $ariation refers to characteristics which shows ob$ious and
definite $ariation in a trait among indi$iduals if the same species
examples of discontinuous $ariations are
i. blood group
ii. fingerprint
iii. ability to roll the tongues
i$. ear lobe
$. left-handedness
$i. presence of dimples
discontinuous $ariation can be shown by a bar chart
number of
students
body weight
number of
students
blood groups A E AE -
/$c!ors !h$! c$)se v$ri$!ion.
there are ! factors which cause $ariation
genetic factor
en$ironmental factor
Impor!$nce of v$ri$!ion.
3. Hariations which exist among the same species are important for the
formation of new species. Eesides this# $ariations enable us to distinguish
indi$iduals in the same species.
!. Hariations enable newly produced species to adapt themsel$es better to
any changes in the en$ironment.
". Bn plants# features of $ariation like resistance to pathogens# enable the
plants to grow rapidly and reproduce 2uickly.