ROOM LIGHT CONTROLLER

After getting 220 v ac supply transforer step !o"n it #2v ac$ using %ri!ge
Rectifier "e convert ac to !c using four !io!e &#N'00($ an! #000uf electrolytic
Capacitor ) t*is #2 !c supply goes to relay coil$ (+0, regulator ic convert it #2v to
,v %ecause our icro controller AT+-.,2$ LC/ #0 1 2 an! sensor circuit "or2s
,v$ after getting ,v supply c start !isplay t*e "elcoe essage to lc!$ an! "ait
for input$ if soe coe fro in out roo$ 3in4 sensor ta2e a input$ if input is
greater t*en 0 say #$2 t*en c give signal to transistor$ it on t*e relay$ relay on
t*e *ouse lig*t$ an! lc! !isplay t*e total nu%er of person$ if start increent$ if
soe goes out fro our roo 3out4 sensor get input an! provi!e to c$ c
!ecreent it$ if total 5 0 t*en "ait for #0 secon!$ if no one is coe in t*is perio!
c off t*e relay "it* *elp of transistor$ it off t*e relay$ relay off t*e roo lig*t6
7asic Electronics
8*en a %eginner to electronics first loo2s at a circuit %oar! full of
coponents *e9s*e is often over"*ele! %y t*e !iversity of !o:!a!s6 In
t*ese ne;t fe" sections "e "ill *elp you to i!entify soe of t*e siple
coponents an! t*eir sc*eatical sy%ol6 T*en you s*oul! %e a%le to call
t*e resistors an! transistors instea! of 38*atc*aacallits46
Electronic coponent are classe! into eit*er %eing <assive !evices
or Active !evices6
A <assive /evice is one t*at contri%utes no po"er gain &aplification)
to a circuit or syste6 It *as not control action an! !oes not re=uire any
input ot*er t*an a signal to perfor its function6 In ot*er "or!s$ 3A
coponents "it* no %rains>4 E;aples are Resistors$ Capactitors an!
In!uctors
Active /evices are coponents t*at are capa%le of controlling voltages
or currents an! can create a s"itc*ing action in t*e circuit6 In ot*er
"or!s$ 3/evices "it* sarts>4 E;aples are /io!es$ Transistors an!
Integrate! circuits6 Most active coponents are seicon!uctors6
Resistors:
T*is is t*e ost coon coponent in electronics6 It is use! ainly to
control current an! voltage "it*in t*e circuit6 ?ou can i!entify a siple
resistor %y its siple cigar s*ape "it* a "ire lea! coing out of eac* en!6 It
uses a syste of color co!e! %an!s to i!entify t*e value of t*e coponent
&easure! in O*s) @A surface ount resistor is in fact ere illieters in
siAe %ut perfors t*e sae function as its %igger %rot*er$ t*e siple
esistor6 A potentioeter is a varia%le resistor6 It lets you vary t*e resistance
"it* a !ial or sli!ing control in or!er to alter current or voltage on t*e fly6
T*is is oppose! to t*e 3fi;e!4 siple resistors6
Resistor values : t*e resistor colour co!e
Resistance is easure! in o*s$ t*e sy%ol for o* is an oega 6
# is =uite sall so resistor values are often given in 2 an! M 6
# 2 5 #000 # M 5 #000000 6
Resistor values are norally s*o"n using coloure! %an!s6
Eac* colour represents a nu%er as s*o"n in t*e ta%le6
Most resistors *ave ' %an!sB
T*e first %an! gives t*e first !igit6
T*e secon! %an! gives t*e secon! !igit6
T*e t*ir! %an! in!icates t*e nu%er of Aeros6
The fourth band is used to shows the tolerance (precision) of the resistor,
this may be ignored for almost all circuits but further details are
given below.
T*is resistor *as re! &2)$ violet &()$ yello" &' Aeros) an! gol! %an!s6
.o its value is 2(0000 5 2(0 2 6
On circuit !iagras t*e is usually oitte! an! t*e value is "ritten
2(0C6
.all value resistors &less t*an #0 o*)
T*e stan!ar! colour co!e cannot s*o" values of less t*an #0 6 To s*o"
t*ese sall values t"o special colours are use! for t*e t*ir!
%an!Bgol! "*ic* eans D 06# an! silver "*ic* eans D 060#6 T*e first
an! secon! %an!s represent t*e !igits as noral6
Eor e;apleB
re!$ violet$ gol! %an!s represent 2( D 06# 5 26(
%lue$ green$ silver %an!s represent ,0 D 060# 5 06,0
Tolerance of resistors &fourt* %an! of colour co!e)
T*e tolerance of a resistor is s*o"n %y t*e fourt* %an! of t*e colour
co!e6 Tolerance is t*e precision of t*e resistor an! it is given as a
percentage6 Eor e;aple a F-0 resistor "it* a tolerance of G#0H "ill
*ave a value "it*in #0H of F-0 $ %et"een F-0 : F- 5 F,# an! F-0 I
F- 5 '2- &F- is #0H of F-0)6
A special colour co!e is use! for t*e fourt* %an! toleranceB
silver G#0H$ gol! G,H$ re! G2H$ %ro"n G#H6
If no fourt* %an! is s*o"n t*e tolerance is G20H6
Tolerance ay %e ignore! for alost all circuits %ecause precise resistor
values are rarely re=uire!6
Resistor values : t*e resistor colour co!e
T*e Resistor
Colour Co!e
Colour Nu%er
7lac2 0
7ro"n #
Re! 2
Orange F
?ello" '
Green ,
7lue 0
Jiolet (
Grey +
8*ite -
Condensors/Capacitors:
Capacitors$ or KcapsK$ vary in siAe an! s*ape : fro a sall surface ount o!el
up to a *uge electric otor cap t*e siAe of a paint can6 It storages electrical
energy in t*e for of electrostatic c*arge6 T*e siAe of a capacitor generally
!eterines *o" uc* c*arge it can store6 A sall surface ount or ceraic cap
"ill only *ol! a inuscule c*arge6 A cylin!rical electrolytic cap "ill store a uc*
larger c*arge6 .oe of t*e large electrolytic caps can store enoug* c*arge to 2ill
a person6 Anot*er type$ calle! Tantalu Capacitors$ store a larger c*arge in a
saller pac2age6
T*is is a easure of a capacitorLs a%ility to store c*arge6 A large
capacitance eans t*at ore c*arge can %e store!6 Capacitance is
easure! in fara!s$ sy%ol E6 Ho"ever #E is very large$ so prefi;es are
use! to s*o" t*e saller values6
T*ree prefi;es &ultipliers) are use!$ M &icro)$ n &nano) an! p &pico)B
M eans #0
:0
&illiont*)$ so #000000ME 5 #E
n eans #0
:-
&t*ousan!:illiont*)$ so #000nE 5 #ME
p eans #0
:#2
&illion:illiont*)$ so #000pE 5 #nE
Capacitor values can %e very !ifficult to fin! %ecause t*ere are any
types of capacitor "it* !ifferent la%elling systes>
T*ere are any types of capacitor %ut t*ey can %e split into t"o
groups$ polarise! an! unpolarise!6 Eac* group *as its o"n circuit sy%ol6
<olarise! capacitors &large values$ #ME I)
E;aplesB Circuit sy%olB
Electrolytic Capacitors
Electrolytic capacitors are polarise! an! t*ey ust %e connecte! t*e
correct "ay roun!$ at least one of t*eir lea!s "ill %e ar2e! I or :6
T*ey are not !aage! %y *eat "*en sol!ering6
T*ere are t"o !esigns of electrolytic capacitorsN a;ial "*ere t*e lea!s
are attac*e! to eac* en! &220ME in picture) an! ra!ial "*ere %ot* lea!s
are at t*e sae en! &#0ME in picture)6 Ra!ial capacitors ten! to %e a
little saller an! t*ey stan! uprig*t on t*e circuit %oar!6
It is easy to fin! t*e value of electrolytic capacitors %ecause t*ey are
clearly printe! "it* t*eir capacitance an! voltage rating6 T*e voltage
rating can %e =uite lo" &0J for e;aple) an! it s*oul! al"ays %e
c*ec2e! "*en selecting an electrolytic capacitor6 It t*e proOect parts list
!oes not specify a voltage$ c*oose a capacitor "it* a rating "*ic* is
greater t*an t*e proOectLs po"er supply voltage6 2,J is a sensi%le
iniu for ost %attery circuits6
Tantalu 7ea! Capacitors
Tantalu %ea! capacitors are polarise! an! *ave lo" voltage ratings
li2e electrolytic capacitors6 T*ey are e;pensive %ut very sall$ so t*ey
are use! "*ere a large capacitance is nee!e! in a sall siAe6
Mo!ern tantalu %ea! capacitors are printe! "it* t*eir capacitance an!
voltage in full6 Ho"ever ol!er ones use a colour:co!e syste "*ic* *as
t"o stripes &for t*e t"o !igits) an! a spot of colour for t*e nu%er of
Aeros to give t*e value in ME6 T*e stan!ar! colour co!e is use!$ %ut for
t*e spot$ grey is use! to ean D 060# an! "*ite eans D 06# so t*at
values of less t*an #0ME can %e s*o"n6 A t*ir! colour stripe near t*e
lea!s s*o"s t*e voltage &yello" 06FJ$ %lac2 #0J$ green #0J$ %lue 20J$
grey 2,J$ "*ite F0J$ pin2 F,J)6
Eor e;apleB %lue$ grey$ %lac2 spot eans 0+ME
Eor e;apleB %lue$ grey$ "*ite spot eans 06+ME
Eor e;apleB %lue$ grey$ grey spot eans 060+ME
Pnpolarise! capacitors &sall values$ up to #ME)
E;aplesB Circuit sy%olB

.all value capacitors are unpolarise! an! ay %e connecte! eit*er
"ay roun!6 T*ey are not !aage! %y *eat "*en sol!ering$ e;cept for
one unusual type &polystyrene)6 T*ey *ave *ig* voltage ratings of at
least ,0J$ usually 2,0J or so6 It can %e !ifficult to fin! t*e values of
t*ese sall capacitors %ecause t*ere are any types of t*e an!
several !ifferent la%elling systes>
Many sall value capacitors *ave t*eir value printe! %ut "it*out a
ultiplier$ so you nee! to use e;perience to "or2 out "*at t*e ultiplier
s*oul! %e>
Eor e;aple 06# eans 06#ME 5 #00nE6
.oeties t*e ultiplier is use! in place of t*e !ecial pointB
Eor e;apleB 'n( eans '6(nE6
Capacitor Nu%er Co!e
A nu%er co!e is often use! on sall capacitors "*ere printing is
!ifficultB
t*e #st nu%er is t*e #st !igit$
t*e 2n! nu%er is t*e 2n! !igit$
t*e Fr! nu%er is t*e nu%er of Aeros to give t*e capacitance in pE6
Ignore any letters : t*ey Oust in!icate tolerance an! voltage rating6
Eor e;apleB #02 eans #000pE 5 #nE (not 102pF)
Eor e;apleB '(2Q eans '(00pE 5 '6(nE &Q eans ,H tolerance)6
/io!esB
/io!es are %asically a one:"ay valve for electrical current6 T*ey let it flo" in one
!irection &fro positive to negative) an! not in t*e ot*er !irection6 T*is is use! to
perfor rectification or conversion of AC current to /C %y clipping off t*e negative
portion of a AC "avefor6 T*e !io!e terinals are cat*o!e an! ano!e an! t*e
arro" insi!e t*e !io!e sy%ol points to"ar!s t*e cat*o!e$ in!icating current flo"
in t*at !irection "*en t*e !io!e is for"ar! %iase! an! con!ucting current6 Most
!io!es are siilar in appearance to a resistor an! "ill *ave a painte! line on one
en! s*o"ing t*e !irection or flo" &"*ite si!e is negative)6 If t*e negative si!e is
on t*e negative en! of t*e circuit$ current "ill flo"6 If t*e negative is on t*e ositive
si!e of t*e circuit no current "ill flo"6
Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
E;apleB Circuit sy%olB
Eunction
LEDs emit light when an electric current passes through them.
Connecting an! sol!ering
LE/s ust %e connecte! t*e correct "ay roun!$ t*e !iagra ay %e
la%elle! a or I for ano!e an! 2 or : for cat*o!e &yes$ it really is 2$ not c$
for cat*o!e>)6 T*e cat*o!e is t*e s*ort lea! an! t*ere ay %e a slig*t flat
on t*e %o!y of roun! LE/s6 If you can see insi!e t*e LE/ t*e cat*o!e is
t*e larger electro!e &%ut t*is is not an official i!entification et*o!)6
LE/s can %e !aage! %y *eat "*en sol!ering$ %ut t*e ris2 is sall
unless you are very slo"6 No special precautions are nee!e! for
sol!ering ost LE/s6
Testing an LED
Never connect an LE/ !irectly to a %attery or po"er supply>
It "ill %e !estroye! alost instantly %ecause too uc* current "ill pass
t*roug* an! %urn it out6
LE/s ust *ave a resistor in series to liit t*e current to a safe value$
for =uic2 testing purposes a #2 resistor is suita%le for ost LE/s if your
supply voltage is #2J or less6 Ree%er to connect t*e LE/ t*e
correct "ay roun!>
Colours of LE/s
LE/s are availa%le in re!$ orange$ a%er$ yello"$ green$ %lue an! "*ite6 7lue an!
"*ite LE/s are uc* ore e;pensive t*an t*e ot*er colours6
T*e colour of an LE/ is !eterine! %y t*e seicon!uctor aterial$ not %y t*e
colouring of t*e Lpac2ageL &t*e plastic %o!y)6 LE/s of all colours are availa%le in
uncoloure! pac2ages "*ic* ay %e !iffuse! &il2y) or clear &often !escri%e! as
L"ater clearL)6 T*e coloure! pac2ages are also availa%le as !iffuse! &t*e stan!ar!
type) or transparent6
Switch :
T*is is a ec*anical part "*ic* "*en presse! a2es t*e current to flo" t*roug*
it6 If t*e s"itc* is release! t*e current stops flo"ing t*roug* it6 T*is *elps to
control a circuit6
TransistorsB
T*e transistor perfors t"o %asic functions6 #) It acts as a s"itc* turning current
on an! off6 2) It acts as a aplifier6 T*is a2es an output signal t*at is a
agnifie! version of t*e input signal6 Transistors coe in several siAes !epen!ing
on t*eir application6 It can %e a %ig po"er transistor suc* as is use! in
po"er applifiers in your stereo$ !o"n to a surface ount &.MT) an! even !o"n
to 6, icrons "i!e &I6E6B Muc*o .all>) suc* as in a icroprocessor or Integrate!
Circuit6
NN Transistor: 7ipolar Ounction perfor t*e function of aplifications
"*ere
a sall varying voltage or current applie! to t*e %ase &t*e lea! on t*e left
si!e of t*e sy%ol) is proportionately replicate! %y a uc* larger voltage or
current %et"een t*e collector an! eitter lea!s6 7ipolar Ounction refers to
san!"ic* construction of t*e seicon!uctor$ "*ere a "e!ge of K<K aterial is
place! %et"een t"o "e!ges of KNK aterial6 In t*is N<N construction a sall
%ase current controls t*e larger current flo"ing fro collector to eitter &t*e lea!
"it* t*e arro")6
N Transistor:
.iilar to N<N transistors$ <N<Ls *ave a "e!ge of KNK aterial
%et"een t"o "e!ges of K<K aterial6 In t*is !esign$ a %ase current regulates t*e
larger current flo"ing fro eitter to collector$ as in!icate! %y t*e !irection of t*e
arro" on t*e eitter lea!6 In CE/ players$ <N< transistors are use! less
fre=uently t*at t*e N<N type for aplification functions6
!atteries:
.y%ol of %atteries s*o"s Ive terinal %y a longer line t*an t*e Rve terinal6
Eor lo" po"er circuit !ry %atteries are use!6
Spea"ers:
T*ese convert electrical signals to accoustic vi%erations6 It coprises a
peranent
agnet an! a oving coil &t*roug* "*ic* electrical signal is passe!)6 T*is oving
coil is
fi;e! to t*e !iap*ra "*ic* vi%rates to pro!uce soun!
#Cs (#ntegrated Circuits):
Integrate! Circuits$ or ICs$ are cople; circuits insi!e one siple pac2age6 .ilicon
an! etals are use! to siulate resistors$ capacitors$ transistors$ etc6 It is a space
saving iracle6 T*ese coponents coe in a "i!e variety of pac2ages an! siAes6
?ou can tell t*e %y t*eir Konolit*ic s*apeK t*at *as a ton of KpinsK coing out
of t*e6 T*eir applications are as varie! as t*eir pac2ages6 It can %e a siple
tier$ to a cople; logic circuit$ or even a icrocontroller &icroprocessor "it* a
fe" a!!e! functions) "it* erasa%le eory %uilt insi!e6
S$LDER#N% #NSTR&CT#$NS
#6# Cleaning for sol!eringB
#6 Ensure t*at parts to %e sol!ere! an! t*e <C7 are clean an! free fro !irt or
grease6
26 Pse isopropyl alco*ol "it* t*e *elp of non:static %ristol %rus* for
cleaning6
F6 Pse lint:free uslin clot* for "iping or alternatively use il! soap
solution follo"e! %y t*oroug* rinsing "it* "ater an! !rying6
#62 Tips for goo! .ol!eringB
#6 Pse #, to 2, "att sol!ering iron for general "or2 involving sall
Ooints an! for CMO. ICSs$ EET. an! A.ICS. use teprature controlle!
sol!ering station ensuring t*at t*e tip teperature is aintaine!
"it*in FF0:F,0 !eg6 centigra!e6
26 Eor %igger Ooints use elevate! teperature as per Oo%6
F6 7efore using a ne" tip$ ensure t*at it is tinne! an! %efore applying
t*e tip to t*e Oo%$ "ipe it using a "et sponge6
'6 Pse 00 B '0 &tin B lea!) resin core &#+:20 .8G) sol!er6
,6 Ensure t*at "*ile applying t*e tip to t*e Oo%$ t*e tip of t*e sol!ering
iron is *el! at an angle suc* t*at t*e tip graAes t*e surface to
%e *eate! an! ensure t*at it !oes not transfer *eat to ot*er Ooints9
coponents in its vicinity at t*e sae tie *eating all parts of
Ooint e=ually6
06 Heat t*e Ooint for Oust t*e6rig*t aount of tie$ !uring "*ic* a
very s*ort lengt* of sol!er flo"s over t*e Ooint an! t*en soot*ly
"it*!ra" t*e tip6
(6 /o not carry olten sol!er to t*e Ooint6
+6 /o not *eat t*e electronic parts for ore t*an 2:' secon!s since
ost of t*e are sensitive to *eat6
-6 Apply one to t*ree sol!er "*ic* is neit*er too less nor too
uc* an! a!e=uate for a noral Ooint6
#06 /o not ove t*e coponents until t*e olten sol!er$ at t*e Ooint
*as coole!6
T
'.( Tips )or de*soldering:
#6 Reove an! re:a2e if a sol!er Ooint is %a! or !ry6
26 Pse a !e:sol!ering pup "*ic* is first coc2e! an! t*en t*e Ooint
is *eate! in t*e sae "ay as !uring sol!ering$ an! "*en t*e
sol!er elts$ pus* t*e release %utton to !isengage t*e pup6
F6 Repeat t*e a%ove operation 2:F ties until t*e sol!ere! coponent
can %e coforta%ly reove! using t"eeAers or long nose
pliers6
'6 /eposit a!!itional sol!er %efore using t*e !e:sol!ering pup for
suc2ing it in case of !ifficulty in suc2ing t*e sol!er if it is too
sparse as t*is "ill *asten t*e !e:sol!ering operation6
,6 Alternatively$ use t*e "et !e:sol!ering "ic2 using sol!ering flu;
"*ic* is not*ing %ut a fine copper %rai! use! as a s*iel! in coa;ial
ca%les etc6 an! t*en press a s*ort lengt* of t*e "ic2 using
t*e tip of t*e *ot iron against t*e Ooint to %e !esol!ere! so t*at
t*e iron elts t*e sol!er "*ic* is !ra"n into t*e %rai!6
06 /o not allo" t*e sol!er to cool "*ile t*e %rai! is still a!*ering to
t*e Ooint6
(6 .ol!er t*e coponent again after cleaning %y repeating t*e steps
un!er su% para A an! 7 a%ove6
+6 Allo" it to cool an! c*ec2 for continuity6
#6' <recautionsB
#6 Mount t*e coponents at t*e appropriate places %efore sol!ering6
Eollo" t*e circuit !iscription an! coponents !etails$ lea!s
i!entification etc6 /o not start sol!ering %efore a2ing it confir
t*at all t*e coponents are ounte! at t*e rig*t place6
26 /o not use a sprea! sol!er on t*e %oar!$ it ay cause s*ort
circuit6
F6 /o not sit un!er t*e fan "*ile sol!ering
'6 <osition t*e %oar! so t*at gravity ten!s to 2eep t*e sol!er "*ere
you "ant it6
,6 /o not over *eat t*e coponents at t*e %oar!6 E;cess *eat ay
!aage t*e coponents or %oar!6
06 T*e %oar! s*oul! not vi%rate "*ile sol!ering ot*er"ise you *ave
a !ry or a col! Ooint6
(6 /o not put t*e 2it un!er or over voltage source6 7e sure a%out t*e
voltage eit*er !c or ac "*ile operating t*e ga!get6
+6 /o spare t*e %are en!s of t*e coponents lea!s ot*er"ise it ay
s*ort circuit "it* t*e ot*er coponents6 To prevent t*is use sleeves
at t*e coponent lea!s or use sleeve! "ire for connections6
-6 /o not use ol! !ar2 colour sol!er6 It ay give !ry Ooint6 7e sure
t*at all t*e Ooints are clean an! "ell s*iny6
#6, Illustrations s*o"ing correct9"rong insertion of coponents
an! t*eir sol!eringB
Correcte! asse%ling an! sol!ering process can provi!e t*e pro!uct
in t*e %est perforance6
HOW TO MAKE GOOD
HOMEMADE PCBs?
Do not use sodium hydroxide for developing photoresist laminates. It is completely a
dreadful stuff for developing PCBs. Apart from its causticity, it is very sensitive to
both temperature and concentration, and made-up solution doesnt last long
POWER SUPPLY:
Power supply is a reference to a source of electrical power. A device or system that
supplies
electrical or other types of energy to an output load or group of loads is called a power
supply unit
or PSU. The term is most commonly applied to electrical energy supplies, less often to
mechanical
ones, and rarely to others.
Here in our application we need a 5v DC power supply for all electronics involved in the
project.
This requires step down transformer, rectifier, voltage regulator, and filter circuit for
generation of
5v DC power. Here a rief description of all the components is given as follows!
TRANSFORMER:
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another
through inductively
coupled conductors " the transformer#s coils or $windings$. %&cept for air'core
transformers, the
conductors are commonly wound around a single iron'rich core, or around separate ut
magneticallycoupled
cores. A varying current in the first or $primary$ winding creates a varying magnetic field
in the
core (or cores) of the transformer. This varying magnetic field induces a varying
electromotive force
(%*+) or $voltage$ in the $secondary$ winding. This effect is called mutual induction.
TRANSFORMER:
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another
through inductively coupled conductors " the transformer#s coils or $windings$. %&cept
for air'core transformers, the conductors are commonly wound around a single iron'rich
core, or around separate ut magneticallycoupled cores. A varying current in the first or
$primary$ winding creates a varying magnetic field in the core (or cores) of the
transformer. This varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force
(%*+) or $voltage$ in the $secondary$ winding. This effect is called mutual induction.
If a load is connected to the secondary circuit, electric charge will flow in the secondary
winding of the transformer and transfer energy from the primary circuit to the load
connected in the secondary circuit. The secondary induced voltage VS, of an ideal
transformer, is scaled from the primary VP by a
factor equal to the ratio of the number of turns of wire in their respective windings:
By appropriate selection of the numbers of turns, a transformer thus allows an alternating
voltageto be stepped up by making NS more than NP or stepped down, by making It
BASIC PARTS OF A TRANSFORMER
In its most basic form a transformer consists of: U A primary coil or winding.
U A secondary coil or winding. U A core that supports the coils or windings.
efer to the transformer circuit in figure as you read the following e!planation: The
primary winding is connected to a "#$hert% ac voltage source. The magnetic field &flu!'
builds up &e!pands' and collapses &contracts' about the primary winding. The e!panding
and contracting magnetic field around the primary winding cuts the secondary winding
and induces an alternating voltage into the winding. This voltage causes alternating
current to flow through the
load. The voltage may be stepped up or down depending on the design of the primary and
secondary windings.
THE
COMPONENTS OF A TRANSFORMER
,-
Two coils of wire &called windings' are wound on some type of core material. In some
cases the
coils of wire are wound on a cylindrical or rectangular cardboard form. In effect, the core
material is air and the transformer is called an (I$)*+ T(,-.*/+.
Transformers used
at low frequencies, such as "# hert% and 0## hert%, require a core of low$reluctance
magnetic
material, usually iron. This type of transformer is called an I*,$)*+
T(,-.*/+.
/ost power transformers are of the iron$core type. The principle parts of a transformer
and their
functions are:
U The C./%, which provides a path for the magnetic lines of flu&.
U The 0/1*A/2 314D145, which receives energy from the ac source.
U The 6%C.4DA/2 314D145, which receives energy from the primary winding and
delivers it to
the load.
U The %4C7.68/%, which protects the aove components from dirt, moisture, and
mechanical
damage.
BRIDGE RECTIFIER
A ridge rectifier ma9es use of four diodes in a ridge arrangement to achieve full'wave
rectification. This is a widely used configuration, oth with individual diodes wired as
shown and with single component ridges where the diode ridge is wired internally.
BASIC OPERATION
(ccording to the conventional model of current flow originally established by Ben1amin
.ranklin and still followed by most engineers today, current is assumed to flow through
electrical conductors from the positive to the negative pole. In actuality, free electrons
in a conductor nearly always flow from the negative to the positive pole. In the vast
ma1ority of applications, however, the actua direction of current flow is irrelevant.
Therefore, in the discussion below the
conventional model is retained. In the diagrams below, when the input connected to the
left corner of the diamond is positive, and the input connected to the right corner is
negative, current flows from the upper supply terminal to the right along the red
&positive' path to the output, and returns to the lower supply
terminal via the blue &negative' path.
2hen the input connected to the left corner is negative, and the input connected to the
right corner is positive, current flows from the lower supply terminal to the right along
the red path to the output, and returns to the upper supply terminal via the blue path.
In each case, the upper right output remains positive and lower right output negative.
-ince this is true whether the input is () or 3), this circuit not only produces a 3)
output from an () input, it can also provide what is sometimes called 4reverse polarity
protection4. That is, it permits normal functioning of 3)$powered equipment when
batteries have been installed backwards, or when the leads &wires' from a 3) power
source have been reversed, and protects
the equipment from potential damage caused by reverse polarity. 5rior to availability of
integrated electronics, such a bridge rectifier was always constructed from discrete
components. -ince about 678#, a single four$terminal component containing the four
diodes connected in the bridge configuration became a standard commercial component
and is now available with various voltage and current ratings.
OUTPUT SMOOTHING
.or many applications, especially with single phase () where the full$wave bridge serves
to convert an () input into a 3) output, the addition of a capacitor may be desired
because the bridge alone supplies an output of fi!ed polarity but continuously varying or
4pulsating4 magnitude &see diagram above'.
The function of this capacitor, known as a reservoir capacitor &or smoothing capacitor' is
to lessen the variation in &or 9smooth9' the rectified () output voltage waveform from the
bridge. *ne e!planation of 9smoothing9 is that the capacitor provides a low impedance path
to the () component of the output, reducing the () voltage across, and () current
through, the resistive load. In less technical terms, any drop in the output voltage and
current of the bridge tends to be
canceled by loss of charge in the capacitor. This charge flows out as additional current
through the load. Thus the change of load current and voltage is reduced relative to what
would occur without the capacitor. Increases of voltage correspondingly store e!cess
charge in the capacitor, thus moderating the change in output voltage : current. The
simplified circuit shown has a well$deserved reputation for being dangerous, because, in
some applications, the capacitor can retain a et!a charge after the () power source is
removed.
If supplying a dangerous voltage, a practical circuit should include a reliable way to safely
discharge the capacitor. If the normal load cannot be guaranteed to perform this function,
perhaps because it can be disconnected, the circuit should include a bleeder resistor
connected as close as practical across the capacitor. This resistor should consume a
current large enough to discharge the capacitor in a reasonable time, but small enough to
minimi%e unnecessary power
waste. Because a bleeder sets a minimum current drain, the regulation of the circuit,
defined as percentage voltage change from minimum to ma!imum load, is improved.
;owever in many cases the improvement is of insignificant magnitude.
The capacitor and the load resistance have a typical time constant < = RC where C and R
are the capacitance and load resistance respectively. (s long as the load resistor is large
enough so that this time constant is much longer than the time of one ripple cycle, the
above configuration will produce a smoothed 3) voltage across the load. In some
designs, a series resistor at the load side of the capacitor is added. The smoothing can then
be improved by adding additional stages of capacitor>resistor pairs, often done only for
subsupplies to critical high$gain circuits that tend to be sensitive to supply voltage noise.
The ideali%ed waveforms shown above are seen for both voltage and current when the
load on
the bridge is resistive. 2hen the load includes a smoothing capacitor, both the voltage and
the current waveforms will be greatly changed. 2hile the voltage is smoothed, as
described above, current will flow through the bridge only during the time when the input
voltage is greater than the capacitor voltage. .or e!ample, if the load draws an average
current of n (mps, and the diodes conduct for 6#? of the time, the average diode current
during conduction must be 6#n
(mps. This non$sinusoidal current leads to harmonic distortion and a poor power factor in
the () supply. In a practical circuit, when a capacitor is directly connected to the output
of a bridge, the bridge diodes must be si%ed to withstand the current surge that occurs
when the power is turned on at the peak of the () voltage and the capacitor is fully
discharged. -ometimes a small series
resistor is included before the capacitor to limit this current, though in most applications
the power supply transformer9s resistance is already sufficient.
*utput can also be smoothed using a choke and second capacitor. The choke tends to keep
the current &rather than the voltage' more constant. 3ue to the relatively high cost of an
effective choke compared to a resistor and capacitor this is not employed in modern
equipment. -ome early console radios created the speaker9s constant field with the current
from the high voltage &4B @4' power supply, which was then routed to the consuming
circuits, &permanent
magnets were then too weak for good performance' to create the speaker9s constant
magnetic field. The speaker field coil thus performed A 1obs in one: it acted as a choke,
filtering the power supply, and it produced the magnetic field to operate the speaker.
REGULATOR IC "#$%%&
1t is a three pin 1C used as a voltage regulator. 1t converts unregulated DC current into
regulated DC current
,ormally we get fi!ed output by connecting the voltage regulator at the output of the
filtered 3) &see in above diagram'. It can also be used in circuits to get a low 3) voltage
from a high 3) voltage &for e!ample we use BC#8 to get 8D from 6AD'. There are two
types of voltage regulators 6. fi!ed voltage regulators &BC!!, B7!!' A. variable voltage
regulators &E/F6B' In fi!ed voltage regulators there is another classification 6. @ve
voltage regulators A. $ve voltage regulators 5*-ITID+ D*ET(G+ +GHE(T*- This
include BC!! voltage regulators. The
most commonly used ones are BC#8 and BC6A. BC#8 gives fi!ed 8D 3) voltage if input
voltage is in &B.8D, A#D'.
T!e CAPACITOR FILTER
The simple capacitor filter is the most basic type of power supply filter. The application of
the simple capacitor filter is very limited. It is sometimes used on e!tremely high$voltage,
low current power supplies for cathode ray and similar electron tubes, which require very
little load current from the supply. The capacitor filter is also used where the power$
supply ripple
frequency is not criticalI this frequency can be relatively high. The capacitor &)6' shown
in figure 0$68 is a simple filter connected across the output of the rectifier in parallel with
the load.
.ull$wave rectifier with a capacitor filter. 2hen this filter is used, the ) charge time of
the filter capacitor &)6' must be short and the ) discharge time must be long to
eliminate ripple action. In other words, the capacitor must charge
up fast, preferably with no discharge at all. Better filtering also results when the input
frequency is highI therefore, the full$wave rectifier output is easier to filter than that of the
half$wave rectifier because of its higher frequency.
.or you to have a better understanding of the effect that filtering has on +avg, a comparison
of a rectifier circuit with a filter and one without a filter is illustrated in views ( and B of
figure 0$6". The output waveforms in figure 0$6" represent the unfiltered and filtered
outputs of the halfwave rectifier circuit. )urrent pulses flow through the load resistance
&E' each time a diode conducts. The dashed line indicates the average value of output
voltage. .or the half$wave rectifier, +avg is less than half &or appro!imately #.F6C' of the
peak output voltage. This value is
still much less than that of the applied voltage. 2ith no capacitor connected across the
output of the rectifier circuit, the waveform in view ( has a large pulsating component
&ripple' compared with the average or dc component. 2hen a capacitor is connected
across the output &view B', the average value of output voltage &+avg' is increased due to
the filtering action of capacitor )6.
The value of the capacitor is fairly large &several microfarads', thus it presents a relatively
low reactance to the pulsating current and it stores a substantial charge. The rate of charge
for the capacitor is limited only by the resistance of the conducting diode, which is
relatively low. Therefore, the ) charge time of the circuit is relatively short. (s a result,
when the pulsating voltage is first applied to the circuit, the capacitor charges rapidly and
almost reaches the peak value of the rectified voltage within the first few cycles. The
capacitor attempts to
charge to the peak value of the rectified voltage anytime a diode is conducting, and tends
to retain its charge when the rectifier output falls to %ero. &The capacitor cannot discharge
immediately.' The capacitor slowly discharges through the load resistance &E' during the
time the rectifier is non$conducting.
The rate of discharge of the capacitor is determined by the value of capacitance and the
value of the load resistance. If the capacitance and load$resistance values are large, the )
discharge time for the circuit is relatively long.
( comparison of the waveforms shown in figure 0$6" &view ( and view B' illustrates that
the addition of )6 to the circuit results in an increase in the average of the output voltage
&+avg' and a reduction in the amplitude of the ripple component &+r' which is normally
present across the load resistance.
,ow, let9s consider a complete cycle of operation using a half$wave rectifier, a capacitive
filter &)6', and a load resistor &E'. (s shown in view ( of figure 0$6B, the capacitive
filter &)6' is assumed to be large enough to ensure a small reactance to the pulsating
rectified current. The resistance of E is assumed to be much greater than the reactance of
)6 at the input frequency. 2hen the circuit is energi%ed, the diode conducts on the
positive half cycle and current flows
through the circuit, allowing )6 to charge. )6 will charge to appro!imately the peak value
of the input voltage. &The charge is less than the peak value because of the voltage drop
across the diode &36''. In view ( of the figure, the heavy solid line on the waveform
indicates the charge on )6. (s illustrated in view B, the diode cannot conduct on the
negative half cycle because the anode of 36 is negative with respect to the cathode.
3uring this interval, )6 discharges through
the load resistor &E'. The discharge of )6 produces the downward slope as indicated by
the solid line on the waveform in view B. In contrast to the abrupt fall of the applied ac
voltage from peak value to %ero, the voltage across )6 &and thus across E' during the
discharge period gradually decreases until the time of the ne!t half cycle of rectifier
operation. Jeep in mind that for good filtering, the filter capacitor should charge up as fast
as possible and discharge as little
as possible. .igure 0$6B(. $ )apacitor filter circuit &positive and negative half cycles'.
5*-ITID+ ;(E.)K)E+
.igure 0$6BB. $ )apacitor filter circuit &positive and negative half cycles'. ,+G(TID+
;(E.)K)E+
-ince practical values of )6 and E ensure a more or less gradual decrease of the
discharge voltage, a substantial charge remains on the capacitor at the time of the ne!t half
cycle of operation. (s a result, no current can flow through the diode until the rising ac
input voltage at the anode of the diode e!ceeds the voltage on the charge remaining on )6.
The charge on )6 is the cathode potential of the diode. 2hen the potential on the anode
e!ceeds the potential on the cathode &the charge on )6', the diode again conducts, and )6
begins to charge to appro!imately the peak value of the applied voltage. (fter the
capacitor has charged to its peak value, the diode will cut off and the capacitor will
start to discharge. -ince the fall of the ac input voltage on the anode is
considerably more rapid than the decrease on the capacitor voltage, the cathode quickly
become more positive than the anode, and the diode ceases to conduct.
*peration of the simple capacitor filter using a full$wave rectifier is basically the same as
that discussed for the half$wave rectifier. eferring to figure 0$6C, you should notice that
because one of the diodes is always conducting on. either alternation, the filter capacitor
charges and discharges during each half cycle. &,ote that each diode conducts only for
that portion of time when the peak secondary voltage is greater than the charge across the
capacitor.'
.igure 0$6C. $ .ull$wave rectifier &with capacitor filter'.
(nother thing to keep in mind is that the ripple component &+ r' of the output voltage is an
ac voltage and the average output voltage &+avg' is the dc component of the output. -ince
the filter capacitor offers relatively low impedance to ac, the ma1ority of the ac component
flows through the filter capacitor. The ac component is therefore bypassed &shunted'
around the load resistance, and the entire dc component &or +avg' flows through the load
resistance. This statement can be clarified by using the formula for L) in a half$wave and
full$wave rectifier. .irst, you must establish some values for the circuit.
(s you can see from the calculations, by doubling the frequency of the rectifier, you
reduce the impedance of the capacitor by one$half. This allows the ac component to pass
through the capacitor more easily. (s a result, a full$wave rectifier output is much easier
to filter than that of a half$wave rectifier. emember, the smaller the L) of the filter
capacitor with respect to the
load resistance, the better the filtering action. -ince
the largest possible capacitor will provide the best filtering.
emember, also, that the load resistance is an important consideration. If load resistance is
made small, the load current increases, and the average value of output voltage &+avg'
decreases. The ) discharge time constant is a direct function of the value of the load
resistanceI therefore, the rate of capacitor
voltage discharge is a direct function of the current through the load. The
greater the load current, the more rapid the discharge of the
capacitor, and the lower the average value of output voltage. .or this reason, the simple
capacitive filter is seldom used with rectifier circuits that must supply a relatively large
load current. Hsing the simple capacitive filter in con1unction with a full$wave or bridge
rectifier provides improved filtering because the increased ripple frequency decreases the
capacitive reactance of the filter capacitor.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF POWER SUPPLY