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eu)
Radartutorial
Book 2 Radar Sets
Preamble:
Radar systems come in a variety of sizes and have different performance specifications.
Some radar systems are used for air-traffic control at airports and others are used for long-
range surveillance and early-warning systems. radar system is the heart of a missile
guidance system. Small porta!le radar systems that can !e maintained and operated !y one
person are availa!le as well as systems that occupy several large rooms.
Table of Contents:
Radartutorial ......................................................................................................................................... 1
"ream!le# ....................................................................................................................................... $
%a!le of &ontents# .......................................................................................................................... $
'earning (!)ectives# ....................................................................................................................... $
Classification of Radar Systems (1) .................................................................................................... 2
*maging Radar + ,on-*maging Radar ........................................................................ 2
"rimary Radar ................................................................................................................................ 2
"ulse Radar .................................................................................................................................... 2
"ulse Radar using "ulse &ompression ..................................................................... -
.onostatic + Bistatic Radars ...................................................................................... -
Secondary Radar ............................................................................................................................ -
"rinciple of operation ................................................................................................ -
&omparison "rimary Radar vs. Secondary Radar ..................................................... /
&ontinuous 0ave Radar ................................................................................................................. /
Block 1iagram of an &0-Radar ................................................................................ 2
Speed gauges ........................................................................................................... 2
3re4uency .odulated &0 radar ................................................................................................ 2
Classification of Radar Sets (2) ........................................................................................................... 6
ir-defense Radars .................................................................................................................... 5
................................................................................................................................. 6
78amples of Battlefield Radars ....................................................................................................... 6
0eapon &ontrol Radar ........................................................................................ 6
.ulti 3unction Radars ............................................................................................... 6
.ulti- %arget %racking Radar .................................................................................... 6
.ortar 'ocating Radar ........................................................................................ 9
ir %raffic &ontrol :%&; Radars ............................................................................................... 9
7n Route Radars ...................................................................................................... 9
ir Surveillance Radar :SR; .................................................................................... 9
"recision pproach Radar :"R; .............................................................................. 9
Surface .ovement Radar :S.R; .............................................................................. 9
Special 0eather-Radar pplications ......................................................................... 9
Radar Frequency ands ...................................................................................................................... !
"earnin# $b%ecti&es:
%his !ook gives an overview a!out the wide range of radar systems. %he student should
know the differences !etween primary and secondary radars and can e8plain !oth the
advantages and disadvantages of these two different radar systems.
uthor# &hristian 0olff< graduated Radar engineer< S.Sgt. =..3. :Rtd.; $
3igure 2# monopulse secondary surveillance radar
antenna :looks like a lattice fence; mounted on top of an
antenna of a primary radar :para!olic reflector;
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Classification of Radar Systems (1)
1epending on the desired information< radar sets must have different 4ualities and
technologies. (ne reason for these different 4ualities and techni4ues radar sets are
classified in#
3igure $# Radar systems classified according to specific function
'ma#in# Radar ( )on*'ma#in# Radar
*maging radar sensors measure two dimensions of co-ordinates at least for a calculating of a
map-like picture of the area covered !y the radar !eam. n imaging radar forms a picture of
the o!served o!)ect or area. *maging radars have !een used to map the 7arth< other planets<
asteroids< other celestial o!)ects and to categorize targets for military systems.
,on-imaging sensors take measurements in one linear dimension< as opposed to the two
dimensional representation of imaging sensors. %ypically implementations of a non-imaging
radar system are speed gauges and radar altimeters. %hese are also called scatterometers
since they measure the scattering properties of the o!)ect or region !eing o!served. ,on-
imaging secondary radar applications are immo!ilizer systems in some recent private cars.
Primary Radar
"rimary Radar transmits high-fre4uency signals which are reflected at targets. %he arisen
echoes are received and evaluated. %his means< unlike secondary radar sets a primary radar
unit receive its own emitted signals as an echo again. "rimary radar sets are fitted with an
additional interrogator as secondary radar mostly< to com!ine the advantages of !oth
systems.
Pulse Radar
"ulse radar sets transmit a high-fre4uency
impulse signal of high power. fter this impulse
signal< a longer !reak follows in which the echoes
can !e received< !efore a new transmitted signal
is sent out. 1irection< distance and sometimes if
necessary the height or altitude of the target can
!e determined from the measured antenna
position and propagation time of the pulse-signal.
%hese classically radar sets transmit a very short
pulse :to get a good range resolution; with an
e8tremely high pulse-power :to get a good
ma8imum range;.
uthor# &hristian 0olff< graduated Radar engineer< S.Sgt. =..3. :Rtd.; 2
3igure -# simple !lock diagram of secondary surveillance radar
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Pulse Radar usin# Pulse Com+ression
%hese radar sets transmit a relatively weak pulse with a longer pulse-width. *t modulates the
transmitting signal to o!tain a distance resolution also within the transmitting pulse with help
of the pulse-compression.
,onostatic ( istatic Radars
.onostatic radars are deployed in a single site. %ransmitter and receiver are collocated and
the radar uses the same antenna mostly.
Bistatic radar consists of a separated :!y a considera!le distance; transmitting and receiving
sites.
Secondary Radar
t secondary radar sets the airplane must have a transponder :transmitting res+onder; on
!oard and this transponder responds to interrogation !y transmitting a coded reply signal.
%his response can contain much more information< than a primary radar unit is a!le to
ac4uire :7.g. an altitude< an identification code or also any technical pro!lems on !oard such
as a radio contact loss ...;.
Princi+le of o+eration
%he interrogator on the ground transmits coded pulses with different modes. 7very mode
represents a different 4uestion. 3or conventional SSR :i.e. not mode-S; the choice of
4uestions is very simple. %he controller wants to know the identity of the aircraft :0ho are
you>?;. %he Radar gives a 2 dimensional
position fi8 of the aircraft< !ut air traffic
control is very much a - dimensional
process< so 0hat height are you>?
completes the positional fi8. %hese
different 4uestions determine the .(17
of operation. %he aircrafts transponder
reply with a &(17.
%he chosen mode is encoded in the
&oder. :By the different modes different
4uestions can !e defined to the
airplane.; %he transmitter modulates
these coded impulses with the R3
fre4uency. Because another fre4uency
than on the replay path is used on the
interrogation path< an e8pensive
duple8er can !e renounced. %he
antenna is usually mounted on the
antenna of the primary radar unit :as shown in 3igure 2; and turns synchronously to the
deflection on the monitor therefore.
receiving antenna and a transponder are in the airplane. %he receiver amplifies and
demodulates the interrogation impulses. %he decoder decodes the 4uestion according to the
desired information and induces the coder to prepare the suita!le answer. %he coder
encodes the answer. %he transmitter amplifies the replays impulses and modulates these
with the R3 reply-fre4uency.
gain in the interrogator on the ground# %he receiver amplifies and demodulates the replay
impulses. @amming or interfering signals are filtered out as well as possi!le at this.
3rom the information .ode? and &ode? the decoder decodes the answer. %he display of the
primary radar represents the additional interrogator information. "erhaps additional num!ers
must !e shown on an e8tra display.
uthor# &hristian 0olff< graduated Radar engineer< S.Sgt. =..3. :Rtd.; -
4 2
1 1
;
PSR SSR
tx tx
P P
R R
: :
74n. $# two-way free-space path loss !y "SR
versus one-way free-space path loss !y SSR
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Com+arison Primary Radar &s. Secondary Radar
Primary Sur&eillance Radar (PSR)
%he primary radar unit has a ma)or
4uality# *t works with passive echoes.
%he transmitted high-fre4uency
impulses are reflected !y the target
and then received !y the same radar
unit. 0ell< direct cause of the
reflected echo is the transmitting
impulse sent out !y the radar unit.
Secondary Sur&eillance Radar (SSR)
Secondary radar units work according to another
principle# %hese work with active answer signals.
%he secondary radar unit transmits and also
receives high-fre4uency impulses< the so called
interrogation. %his isnAt simply reflected< !ut received
!y the target !y means of a transponder which
receives and processes. fter this the target
answers with another fre4uency< the response
telegram which is produced and transmitted.
Both systems have advantages and disadvantages due to the different principles. *f one wins
safe information a!out direction< height and distance of the targets with the primary radar<
then the secondary surveillance radar still provides additional information< like signal
identification and also the altitude of the targets.
%he cooperation of the target :transponder; is
necessary to reach a drastic reduction of the
transmit power in case of the same ma8imum
range. Because the transmit power influences
the radar e4uation at the primary radar with
the two way travel< at the secondary
surveillance radar only one way.
factor B $CCC as a guide value can !e assumed. 3rom this a su!stantially simpler< smaller
and cheaper transmitter follows. %he receiver can !e more insensitive< since the power of the
active answers is higher than the power of the passive echoes. %his circumstance adversely
affects< however< the influence of the side lo!es. %his must !e compensated !y using
suita!le measures of the side lo!e suppression.
Since the transmitting fre4uency and receiving fre4uency are different< no clutter
distur!ances arise. ,o .%*-system therefore is needed to the compensation of ground
clutter. (n the other hand a fre4uency change is impossi!le !y )amming. Special
distur!ances at secondary radar e4uipments make additional wiring measures necessary.
Continuous -a&e Radar
&0 radar sets transmit a high-fre4uency signal continuously. %he echo signal is received
and processed permanently too. %he transmitted signal of these e4uipments is constant in
amplitude and fre4uency. %hese e4uipments are specialized in speed measuring. 7.g. these
e4uipments are used as speed gauges of the police. (ne has to resolve two pro!lems with
this principle#
prevent a direct connection of the transmitted energy into the receiver :feed!ack
connection;<
assign the received echoes to a time system to !e a!le to do run time measurements.
direct connection of the transmitted energy into the receiver can !e prevented !y#
spatial separation of the transmitting antenna and the receiving antenna< e.g. the aim
is illuminated !y a strong transmitter and the receiver is located in the missile flying
direction towards the aimD
fre4uency dependent separation !y the 1oppler-fre4uency during the measurement
of speeds.
run time measurement isnAt necessary for speed gauges< the actual range of the delin4uent
car doesnAt have a conse4uence. *f you need range information< then the time measurement
can !e realized !y a fre4uency modulation or phase keying of the transmitted power. &0-
radar transmitting a unmodulated power can measure the speed only !y using the 1oppler-
effect. *t cannot measure a range and it cannot differ !etween two reflecting o!)ects.
uthor# &hristian 0olff< graduated Radar engineer< S.Sgt. =..3. :Rtd.; /
3igure 5# Ranging with a 3.&0 system
3igure /# Schematic diagram of a &0 1oppler- Radar
3igure 2# Speed gaughe
%raffipa8 Speedo"hot
:R(B(% Eisual Systems
=m!F;
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loc. /ia#ram of an C-*Radar
Simple &0 1oppler- Radar sets have a
design shown in 3igure 2.
%he generator generates very sta!le R3-
3re4uency fs. second generator
generates the *3-fre4uency fZF. mi8er
stage with a following narrow!and filter
generates the sta!le local-oscillator-
fre4uency fs+fZF as sum of the
transmitterGs fre4uency and a generated
*3-fre4uency. s a part of the
superheterodyne receiver the ne8t mi8er
stage converts the !ackscattered R3-
signals fs+fD to the *3- fre4uency. %he *3-
amplifier makes the receiver very sensitive for the weak echo signals. %he output of the last
mi8er stage is the 1oppler-fre4uency fD only. %he fre4uency counter counts the 1oppler-
fre4uency and !y means of this counted value calculates the speed. *n order to o!tain a
precise result< this calculation procedure must !e cali!rated in accordance !y an e8actly
specified radiation angle to the carriageway.
S+eed #au#es
Speed gauge is a very specialized &0-radar. %ransmitting
unmodulated power it can measure the speed only !y using the
1oppler- effect. *t cannot measure a range and it cannot differ
!etween two reflecting o!)ects. run time measurement isnAt
necessary for speed gauges< the actual range of the delin4uent car
doesnAt have a conse4uence. *f you need range information< then
the time measurement can !e realized !y a fre4uency modulation
or phase keying of the transmitted power.
Since the value of the 1oppler- fre4uency depends on the
wavelength< these radar sets use a very high fre4uency !and.
3igure 2 shows the speed gauge %raffipa8 Speedophot?. %his radar
operates at fre4uency of 2/.$22 gigahertzGs.
*t can measure the speed of the incoming and the outgoing traffic< from the right or left !order
of the street. %he radar can !e mounted in a car or on a tripod. %he traffic offence can !e
circumstantiated !y a photo camera with high resolution.
Frequency ,odulated C- radar
&0 radars have the disadvantage that they cannot
measure distance< !ecause there are no pulses to time.
*n order to correct for this pro!lem< fre4uency shifting
methods can !e used. *n the fre4uency shifting method<
a signal that constantly changes in fre4uency around a
fi8ed reference is used to detect stationary o!)ects.
0hen a reflection is received the fre4uencies can !e
e8amined< and !y knowing when in the past that
particular fre4uency was sent out< you can do a range calculation similar to using a pulse. *t
is generally not easy to make a !roadcaster that can send out random fre4uencies cleanly<
so instead these 3re4uency-.odulated &ontinuous 0ave radars :3.&0;< use a smoothly
varying ramp? of fre4uencies up and down. Similar to pulse radars the measured delay time
can !e used for calculating the range !y the following e4uation#
uthor# &hristian 0olff< graduated Radar engineer< S.Sgt. =..3. :Rtd.; 2
3igure 9# 1iagram of a typical 21-Radar< the
rotating cosecant s4uared antenna pattern
3igure H# 1iagram of a typical -1-Radar< a
mi8 of vertical electronic !eam steering and
mechanically horizontal movement of a
pencil-!eam
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0
2
c t
R

=
0here# c
0
I speed of light I -J$C
9
m+s
t I measured time-difference KsL
R I distance altimeter to terrain KmL :2;
%his kind of radar is used as 0radar altimeter? often. %he radar altimeter is used to measure
the e8act height during the landing procedure of aircraft. Radar altimeters are also a
component of terrain avoidance warning systems< telling the pilot that the aircraft is flying too
low or that terrain is rising to meet the aircraft.
Classification of Radar Sets (2)
Radar systems may !e divided into types !ased on the designed use. %his section presents
the general characteristics of several commonly used radar systems#
3igure 6# &lassification of radar sets according its use
lthough any and every radar can !e a!used as military radar< the necessary distinction as
military or civil radar has legal causes often.
1ir*defense Radars
ir-1efense Radars can detect air targets and determine
their position< course< and speed in a relatively large
area. %he ma8imum range of ir-1efense Radar can
e8ceed -CC miles< and the !earing coverage is a
complete -5C-degree circle. ir-1efense Radars are
usually divided into two categories< !ased on the amount
of position information supplied. Radar sets that provide
only range and !earing information are referred to as
two-dimensional< or 21< radars. Radar sets that supply
range< !earing< and height are called three-dimensional<
or -1< radars.
ir-1efense Radars are used as early-warning devices
!ecause they can detect approaching enemy aircraft or
missiles at great distances. *n case of an attack< early
detection of the enemy is vital for a successful defense
against attack. ntiaircraft defenses in the form of anti-
aircraft artillery :a!!reviated to ?;< missiles< or fighter
planes must !e !rought to a high degree of readiness in
time to repel an attack. Range and !earing information< provided !y ir-1efense Radars<
used to initially position a fire-control tracking radar on a target.
nother function of the ir-1efense Radar is guiding com!at air patrol :&"; aircraft to a
position suita!le to intercept an enemy aircraft. *n the case of aircraft control< the guidance
information is o!tained !y the radar operator and passed to the aircraft !y either voice radio
or a computer link to the aircraft.
uthor# &hristian 0olff< graduated Radar engineer< S.Sgt. =..3. :Rtd.; 5
3igure $$# Felicopter and ircraft Radio
1etection :FR1; in the =erman
7ngagement &ontrol- Search- and
c4uisition system
3igure $C# ntenna of a mo!ile -1-ir-
1efense Radar<
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.a)or ir-1efense Radar pplications are#
'ong-range early warning :including air!orne early
warning< 70;
Ballistic missile warning and ac4uisition
Feight-finding
=round-controlled interception :=&*;
23am+les of attlefield Radars
-ea+on Control Radar
Radar that provides continuously position data on a single
target is called tracking radar. .ost tracking radar systems
used !y the military are also fire-control radarD the two
names are often used interchangea!ly.
%ypical fire-control radar characteristics include a very high
pulse repetition fre4uency :"R3;< a very narrow pulse
width< and a very narrow !eam width. %hese
characteristics< while providing e8treme accuracy< limit the
range and make initial target detection difficult.
3ire-control radar must !e directed to the general location
of the desired target !ecause of the narrow-!eam pattern.
%his is called the designation phase of e4uipment
operation. (nce in the general vicinity of the target< the
radar system switches to the ac4uisition phase of
operation. 1uring ac4uisition< the radar system searches a
small volume of space in a prearranged pattern until the
target is located. (nce the target is located< the radar system enters the track phase of
operation. Msing one of several possi!le scanning techni4ues< the radar system
automatically follows all target motions. %he radar system is said to !e locked on to the target
during the track phase. %he three se4uential phases of operation are often referred to as
modes and are common to the target-processing se4uence of most fire-control radars.
,ulti Function Radars
ctive array .ulti-3unction Radars :.3Rs; ena!le modern weapon systems to cope with
saturation attacks of very small radar cross-section missiles in a concentrated )amming
environment. Such .3Rs have to provide a large num!er of fire-control channels<
simultaneous tracking of !oth hostile and defending missiles and mid-course guidance
commands.
%he active phased-array antenna comprises flat sensor panels consisting of arrays of =as
modules transmitting varia!le pulse patterns and !uilding up a detailed picture of the
surveillance area. typical fi8ed array configuration system could consist of a!out 2<CCC
elements per panel< with four fi8ed panels. 7ach array panel can cover HCN in !oth elevation
and azimuth to provide complete hemispherical coverage.
,ulti* Tar#et Trac.in# Radar
(perational functions of a .ulti- %arget %racking Radar :.%%R; include#
long-range searchD
search information with high data rate for low-flying aircraftD
search information with high resolution of close in air targetsD
automatic position and height informationD
simultaneous tracking of a lot of aircraft targetsD
target designation facilities for other systems.
uthor# &hristian 0olff< graduated Radar engineer< S.Sgt. =..3. :Rtd.; 6
3igure $2# "rinciple of mortar
locating radar
3igure $-# SR7-.6<
a typically en-route
radar
3igure $/# SR-$2< a
typically ir Surveillance
Radar
3igure $2# "R-9C< a
typically "recision
pproach Radar
3igure $5# S.R
Scanter 2CC$
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,ortar "ocatin# Radar
.ortar 'ocating Radar provides 4uick identification to pinpoint
enemy mortar positions in map co-ordinates< ena!ling artillery
units to launch counter attacks. %he system electronically< scans
the horizon over a given sector several times a second<
intercepting and automatically tracking hostile pro)ectiles< then
computing !ack along the tra)ectory to the origin. %he co-
ordinates and altitude of the weapon are then presented to the
operator.
1ir Traffic Control (1TC) Radars
%he following ir %raffic &ontrol :%&; surveillance< approach and landing
radars are commonly used in ir %raffic .anagement :%.;#
en-route radar systems<
ir Surveillance Radar :SR; systems<
"recision pproach Radar :"R; systems<
surface movement radars< and
special weather radars.
2n Route Radars
7n-route radar systems operate in '-Band usually. %hese radar sets initially
detect and determine the position< course< and speed of air targets in a
relatively large area up to 22C nautical miles :,.;.
1ir Sur&eillance Radar (1SR)
irport Surveillance Radar :SR; is approach control radar used to detect
and display an aircraftAs position in the terminal area. %hese radar sets
operate usually in 7-Band< and are capa!le of relia!ly detecting and
tracking aircraft at altitudes !elow 22<CCC feet :6<52C meters; and within /C
to 5C nautical miles :62 to $$C km; of their airport.
Precision 1++roac4 Radar (P1R)
%he ground-controlled approach is a control mode in which an aircraft is
a!le to land in !ad weather. %he pilot is guided !y ground control using
precision approach radar. %he guidance information is o!tained !y the
radar operator and passed to the aircraft !y either voice radio or a
computer link to the aircraft.
Surface ,o&ement Radar (S,R)
%he Surface .ovement Radar :S.R; scans the airport surface to locate the
positions of aircraft and ground vehicles and displays them for air traffic
controllers in !ad weather. Surface movement radars operate in @- to O-
!and and uses an e8tremely short pulse-width to provide an accepta!le
range-resolution. S.R are part of the irport Surface 1etection 74uipment
:S17;.
S+ecial -eat4er*Radar 1++lications
0eather radar is very important for the air traffic management. %here are weather-radars
specially designed for the air traffic safety.
uthor# &hristian 0olff< graduated Radar engineer< S.Sgt. =..3. :Rtd.; 9
3igure $9# Some radars and its fre4uency !and
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Radar Frequency ands
%he spectrum of the electric magnetic waves shows fre4uencies up to $C
2/
Fz. %his very
large complete range is su!divided !ecause of different physical 4ualities in different
su!ranges.
%he division of the fre4uencies to the different ranges was competed on criteria formerly<
which arose historically and a new division of the wave!ands which is used internationally is
out-dated and arose so in the meantime. %he traditional wave!and name is partly still used in
the literature< however. n overview shows the following figure#
3igure $6# 0aves and fre4uency ranges used !y radar.
%here are two different significant radar fre4uency letter-!and nomenclatures in use. (ne
system uses a more historically originated system of letters and is defined even as an *777-
Standard. %hese letter designations were originally selected to descri!e the secret radar
!ands used in 0orld 0ar **. .ilitary Radar-applications in ,%( uses another nomenclature
with easier a!ecedarian letters. %his system allows an easy e8tension with higher
fre4uencies and is originally devised for conducting electronic support measures<
countermeasures and electronic warfare< and :at least military; radars are an important part
of it. %he !oundaries of the fre4uency !ands are distri!uted nearly logarithmical.
Since without that the correct
fre4uency is known< a
transformation isnAt always
possi!le into the newer
wave!ands with ,%(-
nomenclature. (ften in the
manufacturers documents are
pu!lished the traditional
wave!ands. %he different
designations for Radar-
3re4uency Bands are very
confusing. %his is no pro!lem
for a radar engineer or
technician. %hey can handle
with these different !ands<
fre4uencies and wave
lengths. %he pro!lem is now
to assert< that a fre4uency
generator for * and @-Band
serves the O- and Pu-Band
Radars and the 1-Band
@ammer interferes an '-Band
Radar.
uthor# &hristian 0olff< graduated Radar engineer< S.Sgt. =..3. :Rtd.; H
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Radar systems work in a wide !and of transmitted fre4uencies. %he higher the fre4uency of a
radar system< the more it is affected !y weather conditions such as rain or clouds. But the
higher the transmitted fre4uency< the !etter is the accuracy of the radar system.
1* and * and (5F* and 65F* Radar)
%hese radar !ands !elow -CC .Fz have a long historically tradition !ecause these
fre4uencies represented the frontier of radio technology at the time during the 0orld 0ar **.
%oday these fre4uencies are used for early warning radars and so called (ver %he Forizon
:(%F; Radars. Msing these lower fre4uencies it is easier to o!tain high-power transmitters.
%he attenuation of the electro-magnetic waves is lower than using higher fre4uencies. (n the
other hand the accuracy is limited< !ecause a lower fre4uency re4uires antennas with very
large physical size which determines angle accuracy and angle resolution. %hese fre4uency-
!ands are used !y other communications and !roadcasting services too< therefore the
!andwidth of the radar is limited :at the e8pense of accuracy and resolution again;.
%hese 3re4uency !ands are currently e8periencing a come!ack< while the actually used
Stealth technologies donAt have the desired effect at e8tremely low fre4uencies.
C* and (75F* Radar)
%here are some specialized Radar sets developed for this fre4uency !and :-CC to$ =Fz;. *t
is a good fre4uency for the operation of radars for the detection and tracking of satellites and
!allistic missiles over a long range. %hese radars operate for early warning and target
ac4uisition like the surveillance radar for the .edium 78tended ir 1efense System
:.71S;. Some weather radar-applications e.g. wind profilers work with these fre4uencies
!ecause the electromagnetic waves are very low affected !y clouds and rain.
%he new technology of Mltrawide!and :M0B; Radars uses all fre4uencies from - to &-
Band. M0B- radars transmit very low pulses in all fre4uencies simultaneously. %hey are
used for technically material e8amination and as =round "enetrating Radar :="R; for
archaeological e8plorations.
/* and ("*and Radar)
%his fre4uency !and :$ to 2 =Fz; is preferred for the operation of long-range air-surveillance
radars out to 22C ,. :Q/CC km;. %hey transmit pulses with high power< !road !andwidth and
an intrapulse modulation often. 1ue to the curvature of the earth the achieva!le ma8imum
range is limited for targets flying with low altitude. %hese o!)ects disappear very fast !ehind
the horizon.
*n ir %raffic .anagement :%.; long-range surveillance radars like the ir Route
Surveillance Radar :RSR; works in this fre4uency !and. &oupled with a .onopulse
Secondary Surveillance Radar :.SSR; they use a relatively large< !ut slower rotating
antenna. %he designator '-Band is good as mnemonic rhyme as large antenna or long
range.
2(F*and (S*and Radar)
%he atmospheric attenuation is higher than in 1-Band. Radar sets need a considera!ly
higher transmitting power than in lower fre4uency ranges to achieve a good ma8imum range.
s e8ample given the .edium "ower Radar :."R; with a pulse power of up to 2C .0. *n
this fre4uency range the influence of weather conditions is higher than in 1-!and. %herefore
a couple of weather radars work in 7+3-Band< !ut more in su!tropic and tropic climatic
conditions< !ecause here the radar can see !eyond a severe storm.
Special irport Surveillance Radars :SR; are used at airports to detect and display the
position of aircraft in the terminal area with a medium range up to 2CR5C ,. :Q$CC km;. n
SR detects aircraft position and weather conditions in the vicinity of civilian and military
airfields. %he designator S-Band :contrary to '-Band; is good as mnemonic rhyme as smaller
antenna or shorter range.
8* and (C*and Radar)
*n =- Band there are many mo!ile military !attlefield surveillance< missile-control and ground
surveillance radar sets with short or medium range. %he size of the antennas provides an
uthor# &hristian 0olff< graduated Radar engineer< S.Sgt. =..3. :Rtd.; $C
Radartutorial (www.radartutorial.eu)
e8cellent accuracy and resolution< !ut the relatively small-sized antennas donAt !other a fast
relocation. %he influence of !ad weather conditions is very high. %herefore air-surveillance
radars use an antenna feed with circular polarization often. %his fre4uency !and is
predetermined for most types of weather radar used to locate precipitation in temperate zone
like 7urope.
'(9* and (:* and ;u* and Radars)
*n this fre4uency-!and :9 and $2 =Fz; the relationship !etween used wave length and size
of the antenna is considera!ly !etter than in lower fre4uency-!ands. %he *+@- Band is a
relatively popular radar !and for military applications like air!orne radars for performing the
roles of interceptor< fighter< and attack of enemy fighters and of ground targets. very small
antenna size provides a good performance. .issile guidance systems at *+@- !and are of a
convenient size and are< therefore< of interest for applications where mo!ility and light weight
are important and very long range is not a ma)or re4uirement.
%his fre4uency !and is wide used for maritime civil and military navigation radars. Eery small
and cheap antennas with a high rotation speed are ade4uate for a fair ma8imum range and a
good accuracy. Slotted waveguide and small patch antennas are used as radar antenna<
under a protective radome mostly.
%his fre4uency !and is also popular for space !orne or air!orne imaging radars !ased on
Synthetic perture Radar :SR; !oth for military electronic intelligence and civil geographic
mapping. special *nverse Synthetic perture Radar :*SR; is in use as a maritime air!orne
instrument of pollution control.
;* and (;* and ;a* and Radars)
%he higher the fre4uency< the higher is the atmospheric attenuation. (therwise the
achieva!le accuracy and the range resolution rise too. Radar applications in this fre4uency
!and provide short range< very high resolution and high data renewing rate. *n %. these
radar sets are called Surface .ovement Radar :S.R; or irport Surface 1etection
74uipment :S17;. Msing of very short transmitting pulses of a few nanoseconds affords a
range resolution< that outline of the aircraft can !e seen on the radars display.
6*and
By the molecular dispersion :here this is the influence of the air humidity;< this fre4uency
!and stay for a high attenuation. Radar applications are limited for a short range of a couple
of meters here.
-*and
Fere are two phenomena visi!le# a ma8imum of attenuation at a!out 62 =Fz and a relative
minimum at a!out H5 =Fz. Both fre4uency ranges are in use practically. *n automotive
engineering small !uilt in radar sets operate at 62R65 =Fz for parking assistants< !lind spot
and !rake assists. %he high attenuation :here the influence of the o8ygen molecules (2;
enhances the immunity to interference of these radar sets.
%here are radar sets operating at H5 to H9 =Fz as la!oratory e4uipments yet. %hese
applications give a preview for a use of radar in e8tremely higher fre4uencies as $CC =Fz.
uthor# &hristian 0olff< graduated Radar engineer< S.Sgt. =..3. :Rtd.; $$