LANGUAGE AS COMMUNICATION: ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE. FACTORS
DEFINING A COMMUNICATIVE SITUATION: LISTENER, CODE, FUNCTIONALITY AND CONTEXT In this unit we are going to study language and its major functions: * We will show how Comm!"#a$"o! is one of these F!#$"o!%. * We will show how learning a language is not only a grammatical process but also a So#"a& '(o#e%%. * We will also analyse the differences between W("$"!) a!* S+ee#,. * We will discuss some important Comm!"#a$"-e T,eo(. defining their key factors. * Finally, we will show how important it is to create Rea& Comm!"#a$"o! S"$a$"o!% in our C&a%%(oom% in order to improve language teaching. A conclusion summing up what has been said throught the unit will follow, ending up with the bibliography used for the elaboration of this discussion. I!"#$%&!I# We must point out that language is not just a 'subject( in the sense of a package of knowledge. It is not just a set of information and insights. It is a fundamental part of being human. !raditional approaches used to treat a language as if it were a free)standing package of knowledge by analysing and observing it. *any of us learnt a language that way. +ut this process is a very abstract one and e,perience has shown that it does not appeal to everyone. !o learn to use a language at all well for ourselves rather than for te,tbook purposes, most of us have to become involved in it as an e,perience. We have to make it a human event not just a set of information. We do this by using it for real communication, for genuine giving and receiving of messages. * ow that we have introduced this particular topic we are going to deal with the study of language as Comm!"#a$"o!, its functions and the concept of communicative competence. !he word language has prompted many definitions. For e,ample- .apir said that ' language is a purely human and non instinctive method of commicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols '. /all defined language as ' the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral)auditory symbols ' As we can see with these two definitions it is difficult to make a precise and comprehensive statement about formal and functional universal properties of language, so some linguists have tried to identify the various properties that are thought to be its essential defining characteristics. !he most widely acknowledged comparative approach has been that proposed by &harles /ockett. !his set of 01 design features of communication using spoken language are as follows: 0. Auditory)vocal channel: sound is used between mouth and ear. 2. +roadcast transmission and directional reception: a signal can be heard by any auditory system within earshot and the source can be located using the ear3s direction finding. 1. "apid fading: auditory signals are transitory. 4. Interchangeability: speakers of a language can reproduce any linguistic message they can understand. 5. !otal feedback: speakers hear and can reflect upon everything they say. 6. .peciali7ation: the sound waves of speech have no other functions than to signal meaning. 8. .emanticity: the elements of the signal convey meaning through their stable association with real world situations. 9. Arbitrariness: there is no depency between the element of the signal and the nature of the reality to which it refers. :. $iscreetness: speech uses a small set of found elements that clearly contrast with each other. 0;. $isplacement: it is possible to talk about events remote in space or time from the situation of the speaker. 00. <roductivity: there is an infinitive capacity to e,press and understand meaning, by using old sentence elements to produce new elements. 02. !raditional transmission: language is transmitted from a generation to the ne,t by a process of teaching and learning. 01. $uality of patterning: the sounds of language have no intrinsic meaning, but combine in different ways to form elements, such as words, that do convey meaning. * After having studied the main properties of language, and communication, we will now see how the learning of a language involves a So#"a& '(o#e%%. !he most usual answer to the =uestion of 'why we use language( is to communicate our ideas, and this ability to communicate or communicative competence will be studied in the ne,t part. +ut it would be wrong to think of communicating our ideas as the only aim for which language is used. .everal other functions may be identified where the communications of ideas has a marginal or irrelevant consideration. #ne of the most common uses of language, the e,pressive or emotional one, is a means of getting rid of our nervous energy when we are under stress, when we are angry, afraid, etc. We do not try to communicate because we can use language in this way whether we are alone or not. *alinowski termed the third use of language we are studying <hatic &ommunication. /e used it to refer to the social function of language, that is, to signal friendship or lack of enemity. Also, to maintain a comfortable relationship between people. !he fourth function we may find is based on <honetic <roperties. !he persuasive cadences of political speechmaking, or the chants used by prisoners or soldiers have only one apparent reason: people take delight in them. !hey can only be e,plained by a universal desire to e,ploit the sonic potential of language. !he fifth function is the <erformative one. A performative is an utterance that performs an act. !his use occurs in the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, or when a priest baptises a child. We can also find other functions such as: ) recording facts ) instrument of thought ) e,pression of regional, social, educational, se,ual or occupational identity. !he +ritish linguist /alliday grouped all these functions into three *etafunctions, which are the manifestations in the linguistic system of the two uni=ue manifestation purposes which underline all uses of language, combined with the third component >te,tual? which breathes relevance into the other two. 0? !he Idealistic Funtion: is to organise the speaker3s or writer3s e,perience of the real or imaginary world. 2? !he Interpersonal Function: is to indicate, establish or maintain social relationships between people. 1? !he !e,tual Function: which serves to create written or spoken te,ts which cohere within themselves and which fit the particular situation in which they are used. ow we shall study the function of communication or what is named Comm!"#a$"-e Com+e$e!#e. &homsky defined language as a set of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements. An able speaker has a subconcious knowledge of the grammer rules of his language which allows him to make sentences in that language. /owever, $ell /ymes thought that &homsky had missed out some very important information: !he "ules #f %se. When a native speaks, he does not only utter grammatically correct forms, he also knows where and when to use the sentences and to whom. For /ymes the Comm!"#a$"-e Com+e$e!#e had four aspects: 0? .ystematic <otential: !his means that a native speaker possesses a system that has a potential for creating a lot of language. !his is similar to &homsky3s competence. 2? Appropriacy: !his means that the native speaker knows what language is appropriate in a given situation, according to: setting, participants, purposes, channel and topic. 1? #ccurence: !his means that the native speaker knows how often something is said in the language and acts accordingly. 4? Feasibility: !his means that a native speaker knows whether something is possible in the language. !hese four categories have been adapted for teaching purposes. !hus, Rea& De#(e$o 1//011221 of 04th @une, which establishes the teaching re=uirements for <rimary Aducation nation)wide, sees #omm!"#a$"-e #om+e$e!#e as comprising five subcompetences: 13 G(amma( Com+e$e!#e. !he ability to put into practice the system of grammar rules by which a language operates. 43 So#"o&"!)"%$"# Com+e$e!#e. !he ability to produce appropriate utterances in different sociolinguistic conte,ts depending on conte,tual factors such as status of participants, purpose of the interaction.... 53 So#"o#&$(a& Com+e$e!#e. !his is understood to be the knowledge of the social and cultural conte,t in which the language is used. 63 D"%#o(%e Com+e$e!#e. !he ability to produce unified written or spoken discourse that shows coherence and cohesion in different types of te,ts. 73 S$(a$e)"# Com+e$e!#e. !he ability to use verbal and non)verbal strategies to compensate for breakdowns in communication, or to improve the effectiveness of communication, as for e,ample, the use of paraphrase, tone of voices or gestures. #n the other hand, &anale defined D"%#o(%e Com+e$e!#e as the aspect of communicative competence which describes the ability to produce unified written or spoken discourse that shows coherence and cohesion and which conforms to the norms of different genres. * %p to this point we have studied the concept of language as means of communication, amongst other functions. ow, let us move onto another important aspect of this unit, which deals with the main differences between 8("$"!) a!* %+ee#,. +efore summarising the main differences between spoken and written language we will outline their main features independantly. #n the one hand we have spoken language, which is the most obvious aspect of language. .peech is not essential to the definition of an infinitely productive communication system, such as is constituted by language. +ut, in fact, speech is the universal material of language. *an has almost certainly been a speaking animal. !he earliest known systems of writing go back perhaps some 5;;; years. !his means that for many hundreds of thousands of years human languages have been transmitted and developed entirely as a spoken means of communication. !he description and classification of speech sounds is the main aim of phonetics. .ounds may be identified with reference to their production, their transmission and their reception. !hese three activities occur at the physiological level, which implies the action of muscles and nerves. !he motor nerves that link the speaker3s brain with his speech mechanism activate the corresponding muscles. !he movements of the tongue, lips, vocal chords, etc, constitute the articulatory stage of the speech chain, and the area of phonetics that deals with it is articulatory phonetics. !he movement of the articulation produces disturbances in the air pressure called sound waves which are physical manifestations. !his is the acoustic stage of the chain, during which the sound waves travel towards the listener3s ear. !hese sound waves activate the listener3s ear drum. #n the other hand we have written language which evolved independently at different times in several parts of the world. We can classify writing systems into two types: 0? on)<honological .ystems. !hese do not show a clear relationship between the symbols and the sounds of the language. !hey include the pictographic, ideagraphic, uniform and Agyptian hieroglyphics and logographics. 2? <honological .ystems. !hese do show a clear relationship between the symbols and the sounds of language. We can distinguish between syllabic and alphabetic systems. In a syllabic system each grapheme corresponds to a spoken syllable. Alphabetic writing establishes a direct correspondance between graphemes and phonemes. In a perfect regular system there is one grapheme for each morpheme. /owever, most alphabets in present day use fail to meet this criteria. At one e,treme we find such languages as .panish, which has a very regular system- at the other we find such cases as Anglish and Baelic where there is a marked tendency to irregularity. ow let3s study the main differences between writing and speech. !he most obvious is the contrast in physical form. .peech uses phonic substance typically in the form of air)pressure movements, whereas writing uses graphic substance, typically in the form of marks on a surface. As writing can only occasionally be thought of as an interaction, we can establish the following points of contrast: 0? !he permanence of writing allows repeated reading and close analysis. !he spontaneity and rapidity of speech minimises the chance of comple, pre)planning, and promotes features that assisst speakers to think standing up. 2? !he participants in written interaction cannot usually see each other, so they cannot make clear what they mean. /owever, in speech interactions feedback is possible. 1? !he majority of graphic features presents a system of contrasts that has no speech e=uivalent. *any genres of written language, such as tables, graphs and comple, formulae, cannot be conveyed by reading aloud. 4? .ome contructions may only be found in writing, others only occur in speech, such as in slang and swear words. 5? Finally we can say that writing tends to be more formal and so it is more likely to provide the standard that society values. Its performance provides it with a special status. $espite these differences, the written and spoken language have mutually interacted in many respects. We normally use the written language in order to improve our command of vocabulary, active or passive, spoken or written. Coan words may come into a country in a written form, and sometimes everything we know about a language is from its written form eg: Catin. It is true that writing has derived from speech in an historical sense, but nowadays their independance is mutual. * ow we have e,amined the differences between speech and written language we shall concentrate on the $,eo(. of communication, and those factors defining a communicative act. According to Ivor Armstrong "ichards, 'communication takes place when one mind so acts upon its environment that another mind is influenced, and in that other mind an e,perience occurs which is like the e,perience in the first mind, and is caused in part by that e,perience.( From this definition we can conclude that any communicative act necessarily happens among persons or between a person who acts as a speaker and a listener or between various people who act as receivers. +esides these people there are other elements in a communicative act: D !he *essage !he content of information that the speaker sends to the listener. D !he &hannel !he place through which the message flows. D !he &ode A limited and moderately wide group of signs which combine according to certain rules known by the speaker and by the listener. D !he &onte,t !he situation in which the speaker and the listener are in, which sometimes helps to interpret the message. * As we have seen communication is the e,change of meanings through a common system of symbols. ow it is time to ask ourselves: 'What does communication in the #&a%%(oom imply E( *any studies of classroom language have shown that in most native speaker E is used for function rather than for direct teaching. !hese e,tra functions include: greetings, discussion, health, attendance,the weather and so on. +arnes >0:6:?, in his description of classroom language, labelled these functions 'social(. .ocial interaction also takes placein foreign language and 2nd language classrooms, but in many such classrooms native language is used for this purpose. Fanselow >0:88? attempted to set up a system for observing and recording different types of communication in the language classroom. /e established five headings in the form of =uestions: 0? Who communicates E 2? What is the pedagological purpose of the communication E 1? What mediums are used to communicate content E 4? /ow are the mediums used E 5? What areas of content are communicated E All of these =uestions are useful in thinking how language is used in the classroom. !he first of these areas, Canguage, concerns those times when a teacher is e,plaining or illustrating the language, or when the pupils are asking =uestions about the language, or practising pronunciation or structures. In most Anglish language classes, this part of the lesson is conducted in Anglish. !he second, <rocedure, concerns those times when the teacher is managing the classroom, e,plaining what to do ne,t, how to do it and so on. .ome teachers use Anglish for classroom management, and others use the children3s mother tongue, at least during the early stages. !he third of Fanselow3s categories, .ubject *atter, concerns those times when the language is being used to convey some specific topic as a part of a lesson. For e,ample, if the teacher tells the story '!he Frog Bot Cost(, the subject matter is the frog and its adventures. In this case the teacher3s aim might be to illustrate the use of the past simple tense, but the content area of language used in that part of the lesson is not tense but the tale of the frog. In the language classroom, this part of the lesson would be conducted in Anglish. !he final content category identified by Fanselow, Cife, concerns communication between teacher and pupils about "eal Cife *atters, not directly about the lesson. !his category embraces the type of =uestioning that +arnes called 'social( as well as any other type of communication about the real world. !hus, for e,ample, if the teacher directs a particular student to 'open the window( or asks another who has nothing to write on 'Where is your notebookE(, or genuinely asks another 'Is your brother in the football match on .aturdayE(, then heFshe is using language about the real world that is part of the learner3s direct e,perience. !his is a great opportunity for real communication in the Anglish classroom through Anglish. When speaking to children in Anglish, it is important, as it is when they are learning their first language, to support communication through the use of gesture, facial e,pression and action because this gives children clues to the meaning of what they hear and so draws their attention to and helps them to become familiar with the sounds, rhythm and stress of the second language. .trategies that parents use intuitively to draw children into the use of the first language must be used deliberately by the teachers to draw children into using the second language. "esearch has shown that parents generally speak more slowly, articulate more carefully, and use gesture, facial e,pression and tone when talking to young children to aid their understanding and to encourage them to produce. &#&C%.I# !o conclude, we could bear in mind that an important aspect of interaction in the Anglish classroom is that it must be managed by the learners as well as by the teacher. !hat is to say that learners must be confident enough to initiate communication in Anglish, and not merely respond when they are addressed by the teacher. A pupil that has something to say, an apology or a re=uest to make, a =uestion to ask, a greeting to give, should be encouraged to e,press himFherself in Anglish. If resources are not to be wanted and opportunities to be missed, children must learn Anglish in the same way they learnt their mother tongue, as a living language that can be used for active communication as much as for establishing personal relationships. +I+CI#B"A</G !he bibliography used for the elaboration of this topic is as follows: D '!eaching the .poken Canguage( by Billian +rown and Beorge Gule &.%.<. 0::8. D '!eaching Anglish to &hildren( by &hristopher +rumfit, @ayne *oon and "ay !ongue. Congman 0::2. D '!eaching Anglish in the <rimary &lassroom( by .usan /alliwell. Congman 0::2. TEMA 1 LA LENGUA COMO COMUNICACIN: LENGUAJE ORAL Y LENGUAJE ESCRITO. FACTORES QUE DEFINEN UNA SITUACIN COMUNICATIVA: EMISOR, RECEPTOR FUNCIONALIDAD Y CONTEXTO. 0. INTRODUCTION. 1. LANGUAGE AS COMMUNICATION. 1.1. Langag! "!#$n$%$&n'. 1.(. Langag! #n)%$&n'. 1.*. C&++n$)a%$,! )&+-!%!n)!. (. SPO.EN AND /RITTEN LANGUAGE. (.1. S-&0!n 1angag!. (.(. /2$%%!n 1angag!. (.*. 3$'%&2$)a1 A%%$%"!'. (.4. D$##!2!n)!' 5!%6!!n 62$%$ng an" '-!!)7. *. COMMUNICATION T3EORY. *.1. C&++n$)a%$&n "!#$n$%$&n. *.(. Ma$n M&"!1'. *.*. .!8 #a)%&2'. 4. 9I9LIOGRAP3Y. 0. INTRODUCTION. Traditional foreign language teaching concentrated on getting students consciously to learn items of language in insolation. These bits of information would be mainly used to read texts and only occasionally for oral communication. The focus was not on communication but on a piece of language. Following Krashens distinction between acquisition and learning we can say that people got to know about the language (learning) but could not use it in a real context (acquisition). The ritish applied linguist !llwright tried to bridge this dichotomy when he theorised that if de language teachers management acti"ities were directed exclusi"ely at in"ol"ing the learners in sol"ing communication problems in the target language# then language learning wil take care of itlself. $e may or may not agree with this extreme rendering of the %ommunicati"e approach# but we all agree nowadays on the importance of letting ous pupils use &nglish for real communication during at least# the production stage. 'n this unit we are going to study language and its functions to see that communication is one of thes functions. $e wil then posit that learning a language is not only a grammatical and lexical process but also a social process. $e also analy(e the differences between writing and speech) and finally we will discuss the most important communication theory models# defining their key factors. 1. LANGUAGE AS COMMUNICATION. 1.1. Langag! D!#$n$%$&n'. The word language has prompted innumerable definitions. *ome focus on the general concept of language (what we call lengua or lenguaje) and some focus on the more specific notion of a language (what we call lengua or idioma). *!+', (-./-) said that 0language is a purely human non1instincti"e method of communicating ideas# emotions and desires by means of "oluntarily produced symbols2. 3!44 (-.56) defined language as 0the institution whereby humans communicate and interact whith each other by means of habitually used oral1auditory arbitrary symbols2. !s we can see in these two definitions it is diffi cult to make a precise and comprehensi"e statement about formal adn functional uni"ersal properties of language so some linguists ha"e trien to indentify the "arious properties that are thought to be its essential defining characteristics. The most widely acknowledged comparati"e approach has been the one proposed by %harles 37%K&TT. 3is set of -8 design features of communication using spoken language were as follows9 - A"$%&28:,&)a1 )7ann!19 sound is used between mouth and ear. - 92&a")a'% %2an'+$''$&n an" "$2!)%$&na1 2!)!-%$&n9 a signal can be heard by any auditory system within earshot# and the source can be located using the ears direction1finding ability. - Ra-$" #a"$ng9 auditory signals are transitory. - In%!2)7ang!a5$1$%89 speakers of a language can reproduce any linguistic message they can understand. - T&%a1 #!!"5a)09 speakers hear and can reflect upon e"erything that they say. - S-!)$%a1$;a%$&n9 the sound wa"es of speech ha"e no other function than to signal meaning. - S!+an%$)$%89 the elemens of the signal con"ey meaning through their stable association with real1 world situations. - A25$%2a2$n!''9 there is no dependence of the element of the signal on the nature of the reality to which it refers. - D$')2!%!n!''9 speech uses a small set of sound elements tha clearly contrast whith each other. - D$'-1a)!+!n%9 it is possible to talk about e"ents remote in space or time from the situation of the speaker. - P2&")%$,$%89 ther is an infinite capacity to express and understand meaning# by using old setence elements to produce new sentences. - T2a"$%$&na1 %2an'+$''$<n9 language is transmitted from one generation to the next primarily by a process of teaching and learning. - Da1$%8 &# -&%%!2$ng9 the sound of language ha"e no intrinsic meaning# but combine in diferents ways to form elements# such as words# than do con"ey meaning. !fter ha"ing studied th:e main properties of language (what is language?) we will now see its function (whats language for?). 1.(. Langag! Fn)%$&n'. The most usual answer to the question 0why do we use language;2 is 0to communicate our ideas2 and this ability to communicate or communicati"e competence is studied in the next part. ut it would be wrong to think of communicating our ideas as the only way in which we use language (2!#!2!n%$a1, $"!a%$&na1 &2 -2&-&'$%$&na1 #n)%$&n). *e"eral other functions may be indentified where the communication of ideas is a marginal or irrele"ant consideration. 7ne of the commonest uses of languages# the !=-2!''$,! &2 !+&%$&na1 one# is a means of getting rid of our ner"ous energy when we are under stress. $e do not try to communicate ideas because we can use language in this way whether we are alone or not. *wear words and obscenities are problably the most usual signals to be used in this way# especially when we are angry. ut there are also many emoti"e utterances of positi"e kind# such as expressions of fear# affection# astonishment... <!4'=7$*K> (-?661-.6/) termed the third use of language we are studying >-7a%$) )&++n$)a%$&n?. 3e used it to refere to the social function of language# which arises out of the basic human need to signal friendship# or# at least# lack of enmity. 'f someone does not say hello to you when hi is supposed to# you may think hi is hostile. 'n these cases the sole function of language is to maintain a comfortable relationship between people# to pro"ide a means of a"oiding an embarrassing situation. +hatic communication# howe"er# is far from uni"ersal# some cultures prefer silence# eg# the !ritama of %olombia. The fourth function we may find is based on -7&n!%$) -2&-!2%$!'. The rhythmical litanies of religious groups# the presuasi"e cadences of political speechmaking# the dialogue chants used by prisoner or soldiers ha"e only one apparent reason9 people take delight in them. They can only be explained by a uni"ersal desire to exploit the sonic potential of language. The fith function is the -!2#&2+a%$,! &n!. ! performati"e sentence ins an utterance that performs an act. This use occurs in the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony# or when a priest bapti(es a child. $e may also finde other functions such as9 - recording facts. - 'nstrument of thought - &xpression of regional# social# educational# sexual or occupational identity. The ritish linguist 3!44'@!> grouped all these functions into three metafunctions# shich are the manifestation in the linguistic system of the two "eryu general purposes shich underlie all uses of language combine whith the rhird component (textual) shich brethes rele"ance into the other two. -.1 The $"!a%$&na1 #n)%$&n is to organi(e the speakers or writers experience of the real or imaginary world# i.e. language refers to real or imagined persons# things# actions# e"ents# states#etc. /.1 The $n%!2-!2'&na1 #n)%$&n is to indicate# establish or mantain social relationships between people. 't includes forms of address# speech function# modality ... 8.1 The third component is the %!=%a1 #n)%$&n which ser"es to create written or spoken texts which cohere within themsel"es and which fit the particular situation in which they are used. 1.*. C&++n$)a%$,! )&+-!%!n)! %37<*K> (-.AB) defined language as Ca set of sentences# each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements. ! capable speaker has a subconscious knowledge of the grammar rules of his language which allows him to make sentences in that language. 3owe"er# @ell 3><&* thought that %homsky had missed out some "ery important information9 the rules of the use. $hen a nati"e speaker speaks# he does not onlu utter grammatically correct forms# he also knows where and when to use these sentences and to whom. 3ymes# then# said that competence by itself is not enough to explain a nati"e speakers knowledge# and he replaced it with his own concept of communicative competence. 3><&* distinguishes 6 aspects of this competence9 1 systematic potential 1 appropriacy 1 occurrence - feasibility S8'%!+a%$) -&%!n%$a1 means that the nati"e speaker possesses a system that has a potential for creating a lot of language. This is similar to %omskys competence. A--2&-2$a)8 means that the nati"e speaker knows what language is appropriate in a gi"en situation. 3is choice is based on the following "ariables# among others9 *etting +articipants +urpose %hannel Topic O))22!n)! means that the nati"e speaker knows how often something is said in the language and acts accordingly. F!a'$5$1$%8 means that the nati"e speaker knows whether something is possible in the language. &"en if there is no grammatical rule to ban /D1ad:ecti"e prehead construction# we know that these constructions are not possible in the language. These 6 categories ha"e been adapted for teaching purposes. Thus# the ,oyal @ecree -DD5E-..- of -6 Fune (7& /A Fune)# which establishes the teaching requirements for +rimary &ducation nationwide# sees communicati"e competence as comprising fi"e subcompetences9 - G2a++a2 )&+-!%!n)! (competencia gramatical# o capacidad de poner en prGctica las unidades y reglas de funcionamiento del sistema de la lengua). - D$')&2'! )&+-!%!n)! (competencia discursi"a o capacidad de utili(ar diferentes tipos de discurso y organi(arlos en funciHn de la situaciHn comunicati"a y de los inetrlocutores). - S&)$&1$ng$'%$) )&+-!%!n)! ( competencia sociolingIJstica o capacidad de adecuar los enunciados a un contexto concreto# atendiendo a los usos aceptados en una comunidad lingIJstica determinada). - - S%2a%!g$) )&+-!%!n)! ( competencia estratKgica o capacidad para definir# corregir# mati(ar o en general# reali(ar a:ustes en el curso de la situaciHn comunicati"a). - - S&)$&)1%2a1 )&+-!%!n)! ( competencia sociocultural# entendida como un cierto grado de familiaridad con el contexto social y cultural en el que se utili(a una determinada lengua). The terms grammar# sociolinguistic and sociocultural competence are quite self explanatory so we will only analy(e discourse and strategic competence. CANALE (-.?D) defined discourse competence as an aspect of communicati"e competence which describes the ability to produce unified written or spoken discourse that shows coherence and cohesion and which conforms to the norms of different genres. 7ur pupils must be able to produce discourse in which successi"e utterances are linked through ruoles of discourse competence. *trategic competence may be defined as an aspect of communicati"e competence which describes the ability of speakers to use "erbal and non1"erbal communication strategies to compensate for breakdowns in communication or to impro"e the effecti"eness of communication. (. SPO.EN AND /RITTEN LANGUAGE 't is traditionl in language study to distinguish between spoken and written language. efore summari(ing their main differences we will outline their main features independently. (.1. S-&0!n Langag! The most ob"ious aspect of language is speech. *peech is not essential to the definition of an infinitely producti"e communication system# such as it is constituted by language. ut# in fact# speech is the uni"ersal material of human language. <an has been a speaking animal from early in the emergence of 3omo *apiens as a recogni(able distinct species. The earliest known systems of writing go back perhaps A.DDD years. This means that for many hundreds of thousands of years human language were transmitted and de"eloped entirely as spoken means of communication. The description and clasification of sounds is the main aim of phonetics. *ounds may be identified with reference to their production# transmission and reception. These three acti"ities occur at a physiological le"el# which implies the action of ner"es and muscles. The motor ner"es that link the speakers brain with his speech mechanism acti"ate the corresponding muscle. The mo"ements of the tongue# lips# "ocal folds# etc. %onstitute the articulatory stage of the speech chain# and the area of phonetics that deals with it is a2%$)1a%&28 -7&n!%$)'.The mo"ement of the articulators produces disturbances in the air pressure called sound wa"es# which are physical manifestations. This is the acoustic stage of the chain# during which the sound wa"es tra"el towards the listeners ear1drum. The study of speech sound wa"es correspons to a)&'%$) -7&n!%$)'. The hearing process is the domain of a"$%&28 -7&n!%$)'. This can be seen in the following table9 SPEEC3 9RAIN SPEEC3 SOUND EAR 9RAIN C3AIN MEC3ANISM /AVES !cti"ity psychological physiological physical physiological psychologicals stage linguistic production transmission perception linguistic +honetics articulatory acoustic auditory phonetics phonetics phonetics 'n this table we can see how phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds. This is not the most important task for linguist# howe"er. ! linguist must study the way in which a languages speakers systematically use a selection of theses sounds in order to express meaning. 'n this acti"ity he is helped by phonology. +honology is continually loking beneath th surface of speech to determine its underlying regularities. 't is not interested in sounds but in phonemes# ie. *mallest contrasti"e phonological units which can produce a difference in meaning. The study of speech is therefore# the field of both +honetics and +honology. (.(. /2$%%!n 1angag!. <yths and legends of the supernatural shroud the early history of writing. 7ne point# at least# is fairly clear. 't now seems most likely that writing systems e"ol"ed independently of each other at different times in se"eral parts of the world Lin <esopotamia# %hina... There is nothing to support a theory of common origin. $e can classify writting systems into two types9 - =on1phonological. - +honological. =on1phonological systems do not show a clear relationship between the symbols and the sounds of the language. They include the pictographic# ideographic# cuneiform and egyptian hieroglyphic and logographic. 'n the pictographic system# the graphemes or pictographs or pictograms pro"ide a recogni(able picture of entities as they exist in the world. 'deograms or ideographs ha"e an abstract or con"entional meaning# no longer displaying a clear pictorial link whith external reality. The cuneiform method of writing dates from the 6 th . <illennium %# and was used to express both non1phonological and phonological writing systems. The name deri"es from the 4atin# meaning Mwedge1 shaped and refers to the technique used to make the symbols. &gyptian hieroglyphic de"eloped about 8DDD %. 't is a mixture of ideograms# phonograms and determinati"e symbols. 't was called hieroglyphic because of its prominent use in temples ad tombs (Nreek# Msacred car"ing2). 4ogographic writing systems are those where the graphemes represent words. The best known case is %hinese and Fapanese kan:i. The symbols are "ariously referred to as logographs# logograms or characters. +honological systems do show a clear relationship between the symbols and the sounds of language. $e can distinguish syllabic and alphabetic systems. 'n a system of syllabic writing# each grapheme corresponds to a spoken syllable# usually a consonant1"owel pair. This system can be seen in Fapanese Kataka. !lphabetic writing establishes a direct correspondence between graphemes and morphemes. This makes it the most economic and adaptable of all the writing systems. 'n a perfectly regular sustem there is one grapheme for each morpheme. 3owe"er# most alphabets in present day use fail to meet this criterion. !t one extreme we find such languages as *panish# which has a "ery regular system) at the other# we find such cases as &nglish and Naelic# where there is a marked tendency to irregularity. (.*. 3$'%&2$)a1 a%%$%"!'. 3istorically speaking# written language was considered tobe superior to spoken language for many centuries. 't was the medium of literature# and literature was considered a source of standards of linguistic excellence. $itten records pro"ide language with permanence and authority and so the rules of grammar were illustrated exclusi"ely from written texts. 7n the other hand# spoken language was ignored as an ob:ect unworthy of study. *poken language demostrates such a lack of care and organi(ation that cannot be studied scientifically) it was said to ha"e no rules# and speakers ha"e thought that# in order to speak properly# it was necessary to follow the correct norm. !s this norm was based on written standards# it is clear that the prescripti"e tradition rested supremacy of writing o"er speech. This "iewpiont became widely critici(ed at the turn of our century. 4eonard loomfield insisted that Owriting is not language but merely a way of recording language by means of "isible marksO. This approach pointed out se"eral factors# some of which we ha"e already mentioned9 - *peech is many centuries older than writing - 't de"elopes naturally in children - $riting systems are mostly deri"ati"e# ie# they are based on the sounds of speech. 'f speech is the primary medium of communication# it was also argued that it should be the main ob:ect of linguistic study. !ctually# the ma:ority of the worldPs culturesP languages ha"e ne"er been written down and this has nothing to do with their e"olutionary degree. 't is a fallacy to suppose that the languages of illiterate or so1called primiti"e peoples are less structured# less rich in "ocabulary# and less efficient than the languages of literate ci"ili(ation. &. *apir was one of the first linguistics to attack the myth that primiti"e peoples spoke primiti"e languages. 'n one study he compared the grammatical equi"alents of the sentence Ohe will gi"e it to youO in six !merindian languages. !mong many fascinating features of these complex grammatical forms# note the le"el of abstraction introduced by the following example9 *outhern +aiute <aya1"aania1aka1anga1PmiQ gu"e will "isible1thing "isible1creature thee <any linguistics and ethnographerstherefore stressed the urgency of pro"iding techniques for the analysis of spoken language and because of this emphasis on the spoken language# it was now the turn of writing to fall into disrepute. <any linguistics came to think of written language as a tool of secundary inportance. $riting came to be excluded from the primary sub:ect matter of linguistic science. <any grammarians presented an account of speech alone. =owadays# there is no sense in the "iew that one medium of communication is untrinsically better. $riting cannot substitute for speech# nor speech for writing. The functions of speech and writing are usually said to complement each other. 7n the other hand# there are many functional para llels which seem to be increase in modern society. $e cannot use recording de"ices to keep facts and communicate ideas. 7n the other hand writing is also taken the social of phatic function typically associated with the immediacy of speech. @espite these parallels we can ob"iously find striking differences. (.4. D$##!2!n)!' 5!%6!!n 62$%$ng an" '-!!)7 ,esearch has begun to in"estigate the nature and extent of the differences between them. <ost ob"iously# they contrast in physical form9 - *pecch uses phonic substance typically in the form of air1pressure mo"ements - $riting uses graphic substance typically in the form of marks on a surface. @ifferences of structure and use are the product of radically different communicati"e situations. %rystal (-.?B) pointed that Cspeech is tme1bound# dynamic# transient# part of an interaction in which# typically# both participants are present# and the speaker has a specific addressee in mindR. $riting is space1bound# static# permanent# the result of a situation in which# typically# the producer is distant from the recipient and# often# may not e"en know who the recipient is. !s writing can only occasionally be thought of as an interaction it is :ust normal that we can establish the following points of contrast9 -.1 The permanence of writing allows repeated reading and close analysis. The spontaneity and rapidity of speech minimi(es the chance of complex preplanning# and promotes features that assist to think standing up. /.1 The participants in written interaction cannot usually see each other# and they thus cannot rely on the context to help make clear what they mean as they would when speaking. !s a consequence# deictic expressions are normally a"oided. 7n the other hand# feedback is a"ailable in most speech interactions. 8.1 The ma:ority of graphic features present a system of contrast that has no speech equi"alent. <any genres of written language# such as tables# graphs# and complex formulae# cannot be con"eyed by reading aloud. 6.1 *ome constructions may be found onluSy in writing# such as the French simple past# and others only occur in speech# such as CwhatchamacallitR# or slang expressions. A.1 Finally we can say that written language tends to be more formal and so it is more likely to pro"ide the standard that society "alues. @espite these differences# there are many respects in which the written and the spoken language ha"e mutually interacted. $e normally use the written language in order to impro"e our command of "ocabulary# acti"e or passi"e# spoken or written. 4oan words may come into a country in a written form# and sometimes# e"erything we know about language is its writing. *. COMMUNICATION T3EORY. *.1. D!#$n$%$&n %ommunication# the exchange of meanings between indi"iduals through a common system of symbols# concerned scholars since the time of ancient Nreece. 'n -./? the &nglish literary critic and author '"or !rmtrong ,ichards offered one of the first definitions of communication. *ince about -./D the growth and apparent influence of communication technology ha"e attracted the attention of many specialists who ha"e attempted to isolate communication as a specific facet of their particular interest. 'n the-.5Ds# <arshall <c4uhan# drew the threads of interest in the field of communication into a "iew that associated many contemporary psychological and sociological phenomena with the media employed in modern culture. <c4uhanPs idea# Cthe medium is the messageR# stimulated numerous filmmakers# photographers# and others# who adopted <c4uhanRs "iew that contemporary society had mo"ed from a print culture to a "isual one. y the late /D th century the main focus of interest in communication seemed to be drifting away from <c4uhanism and to be centring upon9 -.1 The mass communication industries /.1 +ersuasi"e communication and the use of technology to influence dispositions 8.1 +rocesses of interpersonal communication as mediators of information 6.1 @ynamics of "erbal and non1"erbal (and perhaps extrasensory) communication A.1 +erception of different kinds of communication 5.1 Tses of communication technology for social and artistic purposes# including education B.1 @e"elopment of rele"ant critism for artistic endea"ours employing modern communication technology. 'n short# a communication expert may be oriented to any number of disciplines in a field of inquiry that has# as yet# neither drawn for itself a conclusi"e roster of sub:ect matter nor agreed upon specific methodologies of analysis. 8./. <odels Fragmentation and problems of interdisciplinarity outlook ha"e generated a wide range of discussion concerning the ways in which communication occurs and the processes it entails. <ost communication theorists admit that their main task is to answer the query originally posed by the T.* political scientist 3. @. 4asswell# C$ho says what to whom with what effect;R. 7b"iously all of the factors in this question may be interpreted differently by scholars and writers in different disciplines. *cientists may make use of dynamic or linear models. 8./.-. @ynamic models. @ynamic models are used in describe cogniti"e# emotional# and artistic aspects of communication as they occur in sociocultural contexts. These models do not try to be quantitati"e as linear ones. They often centre attention upon different modes of communication and theori(e that the messages they contain including messages of emotional quality and artistic content# are communicated in "arious manners to and from different sorts of people. <any analysts of communication such as <c4uhan assert that the channel actually dictates# or se"erely influences# the message# both as sent and recei"ed. For them# the stability and function of channel or medium are more "ariable and less mechanistically related to the process than they are for followers of *hannon and $ea"er. 8././. 4inear models9 *hannon and $ea"erPs. %laude *hannon and $arren $ea"erPs <athematical <odel of %ommunication is one of the most producti"e schematic models of a communication systems that has e"er been proposed. The simplicity# clarity# and surface generally of their model pro"ed attracti"e to many students of communication in a number of disciplines. !s originally concei"ed# the model contained fi"e elements arranged in linear order9 - !n information source - ! transmiter - ! channel of transmission - ! recei"er - ! destination This model was originally intended for electronic messages so# in time# the fi"e elements of the model were renamed so as to specify components for other types of communication transmitted in "arious manners. The information source was split into its components to pro"ide a wider range of applicability9 - a source - an encoder - a message - a channel - a decoder - a recei"er !nother concept# first called a Cnoise sourceR but later associated with the notion of entropy was imposed upon the communication model. &ntropy diminishes the integrity of the message and distorts the message for the recei"er. =egati"e entropy may also occur in instances where incomplete or blurred messages are ne"ertheless recei"ed intact# either because of the ability of the recei"er to fill in missing details or to recogni(e# despite distortion or paucity of information# both the intent and the content of the communication. ut not only negati"e entropy counteracts entropy. ,edundancy# the repetition of elements within a message that pre"ents the failure of communication of information# is the greatest antidote to entropy. ,edundancy is apparently in"ol"ed in most human acti"ities# and# because it helps to o"ercome the "arious forms of entropy that tends to turn intelligible messages into unintelligible ones# it is an indispensable element for effecti"e communication. $e can see that the model# despite the introduction of entropy and redundancy# is conceptually static. To correct this flaw# =orbert $iener# the father of cybernetics# added the principle of feedback# ie# sources tend to be responsi"e to their own beha"iour and to the context of communication. 'nteraction between human beings in con"ersation cannot function without the ability of the message sender to weigh and calculate the apparent effect of this words on his listener. $e will now analy(e each of these key factors. *.*. .!8 #a)%&2' This unit title mentions some of the key factors affecting any communicati"e interaction such as the sender and the recei"er. !fter putting them in the broader framework of the <athematical <odel of %ommunication we will analy(e the intended effects of our communicati"e interactions (speech acts) and the en"ironment in which they are exchanged (social context). The information source selects a desired message out of a possible set of messages. The transmitter changes the message into a signal which is sent o"er the communication channel where it is recei"ed by the recei"er and changed back into a message which is sent to the destination. 'n the process of transmission certain unwanted additions to the signal may occur which are not part of the message and these are referred to as noise or entropy) negati"e entropy and redundancy counteract entropy. For somo communication systems the components are simple to specify as# for instance9 - information source9 a man on the telephone - transmitter9 the mouthpiece - message and signal9 the words the man speaks - channel9 the electrical wires - recei"er9 the earpiece - destination9 the listener 'n face1to1face communication# the speaker can be both information source and transmitter# while the listener can be both recei"er and destination. 8.8.-. *peech acts. F.4. !ustin (-.--1-.5D) was the first to draw attention to the many functions performed by utterances as part of interpersonal communication. 3e distinguishes two main types of functional potential9 - performati"e - contati"e ! performati"e is an utterance that perform an act9 to say is to act# as we ha"e already seen when studying language functions. +erformati"es may be explicit and implicit performati"es# which do not contain a performati"e "erb. %onstati"es are utterances which assert something that is either true or false. 'n speech act analysis the effect of utterances on the beha"iour of speaker and hearer is studies using a threefold distinction9 ! locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningful and can be understood. For example# saying the sentence Cshoot the snakeR is a locutionary act if hearers understand the words Cshoot R# CtheRand CsnakeR and can identify the particular snake referred to. !n illocutionary act is using a sentence to perform a function. For example Cshoot the snakeRmay be intended as an order or a piece of ad"ice. ! perlocutionary act is the result or effect that is produced by means of saying something. For example# shooting the snake would be a perlocutionary act. !ustinRs three1part distinction is less frequently used than a two part distinction between the propositional content of a sentence and the illocutionary force or intended effects of speech acts. There are thousands of possible illocutionary acts# and se"eral attempts ha"e been made to classify them into a small number of types9 - representati"es - directi"es - commisi"es - expressi"es - declarations 'n declarati"es the speaker is committed in "arying degrees# to the truth of a proposition. 'n directi"es the speaker tries to get the hearer to do something. 'n commissi"es the speaker is committed# in "arying degrees# to a certain course of action. 'n expressi"es the speaker expresses an attitude about a state of affairs. 'n declarations the speaker alters the external status or conditions of an ob:ect or situation solely by making the utterance. !s we can infer from the examples there are some fu((y areas and o"erlappings between different types of illocutionary force. ut an utterance may lose its illocutionary force if does not satisfy se"eral criteria# known as felicity conditions. For example the preparatory conditions ha"e to be right9 the person performing the speech act has to ha"e the authority to do so. 7rdinary people automatically accept these conditions when they communicate. 'f any of these conditions does not obtain# then a special interpretation of the speech act has to apply. oth normal and special interpretations of utterances ha"e much to do with the context in which they are made. 8.8./. %ontext. %ontext is defined by the %ollins &nglish @ictionary as9 -. The parts of a piece of writing# speech# etc# that precede and follow a word or passage and contribute to its full meaning. /. The conditions and circumstances that are rele"ant to an e"ent# fact# etc. The first definition co"ers what we may call linguistic context# but as we can infer from the second definition# linguistic context may not be enough to fully understand an utterance understood as a speech act. 'n fact# linguistic elements in a text may refer not only to other parts of the text but also to the outside world# to the context of situation. The concept of context of situation was formulated by <alinowski in -./8. 't has been worked o"er and extended by a number of linguistics# specially 3ymes and 3alliday. 3ymes categori(es the communicati"e situation in terms of eight components while 3alliday offers three headings for the analysis9 3><&* 3!44'@!> -. Form and content of text /. *etting -. field /. mode %7=T&UT 7F *'TT!T'7= 8. +articipants 6. &nds A. Key 5. <edium B. Nenre ?. 'nteractional norms 8. tenor $e will now analy(e 3allidayRs more abstract interpretation as it practically subsumes 3ymesRs one. The field is the total e"ent# in which the text is functioning# together with the purpose acti"ity of the speaker or writer) it thus includes the su:ect matter as one element in it. The mode is the function of the text in the e"ent# including therefore both the channel taken by the language# and its genre or rethorical mode# as narrati"e# didactic# persuasi"e and so on. The tenor refers to to the participants who are taking part in this communicati"e exchange# who they are and what kind of relationship thay ha"e to one another. 't is clear that role relationships# ie# the relationship which people ha"e to each other in a act of communication# influences the way they speak to each other. 7ne of the speakers may ha"e# for instance# a role which has a higher status than that of the other speaker or speakers. 6. 9I9LIOGRAP3Y. - %ollins &nglish @ictionary . %ollins. Nlasgow# -../. - %rystal# @. The %ambridge &ncyclopedia of 4anguage. %T+. %ambridge# -.?B. - &ncyclopaedia ritannica . &nc. rit. 'nc. %hicago# -..D. - 3alliday# <. !. K. *poken and written 4anguage. Neelong# Vic. @eakin Tni"ersity +ress# -.B5. - 3alliday# <. !. K. 4anguage as social semiotics. !rnold. 4ondon# -.B?. - 3alliday# <. !. K. Functional grammar. !rnold. 4ondon# -.?/. - 3alliday# <. !. K and 3asan# ,. %ohesion in &nglish. 4ongman. 4ondon# -.B5. - ,ichards# F. %# +latt# F.# and +latt# 3. 4ongman @ictionary of 4anguage Teaching and !pplied 4inguistics. 4ongman. 4ondon# -../. - <ateriales para la ,eforma . +rimaria. <&%. <adrid# -../. - *teinberg# @. @. +sycholinguistics. 4ongman. 4ondon.-.?/ T!+a 1 4! 4&=NT! %7<7 %7<T='%!%'W=9 4&=NT!F& 7,!4 > 4&=NT!F& &*%,'T7. F!%T7,&* XT& @&F'=&= T=! *'TT!%'W= %7<T='%!T'V!9 &<'*7,# ,&%&+T7,# FT=%'7=!4'@!@ > %7=T&UT7. 1. INTRODUCTION Traditionally# theories of language ha"e concentrated on the study of its different components in isolation# such as grammar# semantics# phonology# seeing language as a system that included all of them. 3owe"er# when language is first acquired in childhood# is merely by means of communicating with the people around. 'n this sense# new approaches in the last third of the /D th %# paid attention to language as communication. $e# as human beings# need to communicate# and as most of us li"e in a literary society# we normally use oral and written language to transmit or recei"e information. !s far as oral communication is concerned# most human beings speak using oral language in order to exchange information and interact with other people# but the use of oral language entails the knowledge of certain particular elements# norms# routines# formulae and strategies that are put into work when we are in con"ersations. 7n the other hand# writing and reading require formal instruction# and children face a series of difficulties when learning these skills# because they ha"e to comfort oral to written discourse# adapting rules# learning spelling# di"iding speech chains into chunks called words# etc. 3owe"er# learning to write and read is probably the most fundamental step in education# because is the basis for future instruction and access to many fields of knowledge. 'n this unit# we are going to re"iew the main characteristics of oral and written language# and then we will analyse the factors that define a communicati"e situation# namely the sender and the recei"er of the message# the functionality and the context. (. ORAL LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION !mong all the communication codes which are used by human beings (music# kinesics# sign language)# written and oral language is the most efficient for the transmission and reception of information# thoughts# feelings and opinions. 'n addition# these linguistic codes are exclusi"ely human and make us distinct from animals. ut written and oral language are different processes9 whereas we learn to write through a formal instruction# speaking and listening come naturally along different stages of the childRs e"olution. Therefore we can say that oral language comes first in our history as indi"iduals. Therefore# speech and writing are not alternati"e processes# but rather we must consider them counterparts9 all oral language should ha"e a good representati"e system in a written form. From a psychological point of "iew# oral communication is a two1way process in which both speaker (encoder) and hearer (decoder) must be present in the same situational context at a particular time and place (unless we talk about special cases of oral communication such as phone con"ersations). The functions of oral communication are# as we said before# to communicate or exchange our ideas or to interact with other people. Tnlike written communication# in oral interaction we can monitor the reactions of the hearer through the feedback so that we can our speech in the course of the communication# as well as use different linguistic and non1linguistic features (gesturing# intonation...) to make our messages clearer. 3owe"er# as it takes place in a particular place and time# the interlocutors ha"e to make their contributions at a high speed# without much time to think# unlike writing. !long history# the study of spoken language has not much tradition# unlike written language# due to se"eral reasons9 - it was considered a secondary type of language as it was not reser"ed only to culti"ate people. - - unlike written language# there was a lack of permanent records of oral language during our past history. - - it presents more mutability in the understanding and interpretation of what it is said than in written lg. - 3alliday was among the first linguists to study oral language# saying that it was not a formless and featureless "ariety of written language. *ince then# there has been an increasing interest to which it has contributed the in"entions of audio# "ideo and computer de"ices. 'n oral communication# we distinguish two different types9 +repared speech The formal setting is organised as writing (syntax# lexis Y discourse organisation) 't is memorised or written down before (lectures# speech# oral poetry) *pontaneous speech *peaker has not thought or memorised the message beforehand. 't may present inaccuracies# hesitations# silences and mistakes !s spontaneous speech is the main form of oral communication# and directly reflects real communication processes with different demands and situations# and prepared speech does not allow for feedback and monitoring# the analysis and study of oral communication should concentrate on spontaneous speech# where the negotiation of meaning plays an important role for the communication purpose to be correctly achie"ed. ut because of its per"asi"e and e"eryday nature# its scientific study has pro"ed particularly complex. 't has been difficult to obtain acoustically clear# natural samples of spontaneous con"ersation# especially of its more informal "arieties. $hen samples ha"e been obtained# the "ariety of topics# participants# and social situations which characterise con"ersation ha"e made it difficult to determine which aspects of the beha"iour are systematic and rule1go"erned. (.1. ELEMENTS AND NORMS T3AT RULE ORAL DISCOURSE L$ng$'%$) !1!+!n%' *T,&** $hen we talk we ha"e to bare in mind there is a regular distribution of accents along words and sentences. 3owe"er# if we want to gi"e special emphasis to a particular word or phrase# we change that regular pattern of stress and accent in order to make more prominent what we want. ,3>T3< 't is the relationship we make between accents (chunks of words) and silences. ,hythm can range from "ery monotonous one (in quick or prepared speech) to rhythm with contrasts in order to gi"e expressi"eness and sense to our speech. +auses are also important# because sometimes are made to di"ide grammatical units and other times are unpredictable and caused by hesitations. '=T7=!T'7= is the falling and rising of "oice during speech. !ny departure from what it is considered 0normal2 intonation shows special effects and expresses emotions and attitudes. =ormally# falling tones show conclusion and certainty# whereas rising tones may show inconclusion or doubt ('Rll do it E 'Rll do it... ) Pa2a1$ng$'%$) !1!+!n%' $e cannot consider oral "erbal communication without remembering that the whole body takes part. 'n fact# many times# a person can express sympathy# hostility or incredulity by means of body and facial gestures. This 0body language2 is normally culturally related Y is learnt the same way as "erbal beha"iour is learnt# although it allows for spontaneity and creati"ity9 we use head# face# hands# arms# shoulders# fingers... 7ther linguistic features that characterise con"ersational language are9 *peed of speech is relati"ely rapid) there are many assimilations Y elisions of letters) compressions of auxiliary sequences (gonna)) it can be difficult to identify sentence boundaries in long loose passages) informal discourse markers are common ( you know, I mean)) great creati"ity in the "ocabulary choice# ranging from unexpected coinage (Be unsad) to use of "ague words (thingummy). (.(. RULES $hen we use language# we do not only utter grammatically correct sentences# but we know where# when and to whom we are addressing our utterances. This is the reason why a speaker needs to know not only the linguistic and grammatical rules of a language (%homskyRs linguistic competence) or rules of usage# but also how to put into effect these rules in order to achie"e effecti"e communication# so that we also need to be familiar with rules of use. ,ules of usage 'n order to produce and understand messages in a particular language we need to be familiar with9 +37=747N> $e need to know the organisation# characteristics and patterns of sounds to communicate. <7,+3747N> $e need to know the word formation rules and types of combinations of bases Y affixes. *>=T!U $e need to know how words are put together to form sentences and which are their relationships. *&<!=T'%* $e need to know how words can be combined to produce the meaning we want or to understand the meaning expressed by others# e"en if it is nonliteral# methaporical or anomalous. ,ules of use To be communicati"ely efficient# we need to show our linguistic competence in real speech through9 !++,7+,'!T&=&** or knowledge of what type of language suits best in a gi"en situation# taking into account the context with its participants and their social relationships# the setting# the topic# the purpose.. %73&,&=%& or ability to organise our messages in a logical and comprehensible way to transmit meaning. %73&*'7= or capacity to organise and structure utterances to facilitate interpretation by means of endophoras and exophoras ( references to linguistic Y situational contexts)# repetitions# ellipsis... (.*. ROUTINES AND 3A9ITUAL FORMULAE <anRs ability to be creati"e with language is something ob"ious# but there are times when we choose how# when and why not to be creati"e# to repeat what has been said or heard many times# often in exactly the same form. 4inguistic routines are fixed utterances which must be considered as single units to understand their meaning# and they are of a learned character (Hi! familiar or empty How do you do?)# the process through which we acquire ritual competence being perhaps the most important socialisation we make of language. Tnderstanding routines Y formulae require shared cultural knowledge because they are generally metaphorical in nature and must be interpreted at a non1literal le"el. +eople are often quite opposed to routines# formulae and rituals because they are meaningless and depersonalise our ideas# because literal semantic "alue is largely irrele"ant. *ome typical routines and habitual formulae are used in funeral condolences# religious ceremonies# weddings# graduation ceremonies... (.4. STRATEGIES SPECIFIC OF ORAL COMMUNICATION +articular attention has been paid to the markers of con"ersational turns9 how people know their turn to speak. 'n formal dialogue# there are often explicit markers# showing that a speaker is about to talk) in debate# the person in the chair more or less controls speakersR turns. 'n con"ersation# howe"er# the cues are more subtle# in"ol"ing "ariations in the melody# rhythm# and speed of speech# and in patterns of eye mo"ement. $hen people talk in a group# they look at and away from their listeners in about equal proportions# but when approaching the end of what they ha"e to say# they look at the listeners more steadily# and in particular maintain closer eye contact with those they expect to continue the con"ersation. ! listener who wishes to be the next speaker may indicate a desire to do so by showing an increase in bodily tension# such as by leaning forward or audibly drawing in breath. 'n addition# there are many explicit indications# "erbal and non1"erbal# that a speaker is coming to an end (ast !ut not least...)# wishes to pass the con"ersational ball ("hat do you think?# staring to someone)# wishes to :oin in (#ould I just say that...$, lea"e ("ell, that is all...)# change the topic (%peaking of &ary...)# or check on listenersR attention or attitude ('re you with me?). The sub:ect1matter is an important "ariable# with some topics being 0safe2 in certain social groups (in ritain# the weather# pets# children# and the locality)# others more or less 0unsafe2 (religious and political beliefs# questions of personal income such as How much do you earn(). There are usually some arbitrary di"isions9 for example# in ritain# it is polite to comment o the taste and presentation of a meal# but usually impolite to enquire after how much it cost. 'n G2$)!Rs "iew# we cooperate in a con"ersation in order to produce a rational and efficient exchange of information# so that to reach a good final result in a communicati"e process# we apply 6 cooperati"e principles or maxims9 1 <axim of quality9 7ur contributions ha"e to be sincere# belie"ing what we say Y a"oiding things we lack e"idence of 1 <axim of quantity9 $e should make our contributions as briefly# orderly Y informati"e as required for the exchange. 1 <axim of rele"ance9 !n utterance has to be rele"ant with respect to the stage the con"ersation has reached. 1 <axim of manner9 $hich concerns the manner of expression (a"oiding obscurity# ambiguity...). *./RITTEN LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION $ritten communication is a type of communication# and as such# its main purpose is to express ideas and experiences or exchange meanings between indi"iduals with a particular system of codes# which is different to that used in oral communication. 'n written communication# the encoder of the message is the writer and the decoder and interpreter of the message is the reader# and many times# this interpretation does not coincide with the writerRs intended meaning. $hen we write# we use g2a-7$) '8+5&1'# which relate to the sounds we make when we speak. ut writing is much more than the production of graphic symbols# :ust as speech is more than the production of sounds9 these symbols ha"e to be a22ang!", a))&2"$ng %& )!2%a$n )&n,!n%$&n', %& #&2+ 6&2"', an" 6&2"' %& #&2+ '!n%!n)!'. T7!'! '!n%!n)!' %7!n 7a,! %& 5! &2"!2!" an" 1$n0!" %&g!%7!2 $n )!2%a$n 6a8', #&2+$ng a )&7!2!n% 67&1! )a11!" %!=%. *ince classical times# there ha"e been two contradictory approaches to speech and writing9 firstly# the "iew that writing is the primary and speech the secondary medium# because writing is more culturally significant and lastingly "aluable than speech) and secondly# the "iew that speech is primary and writing secondary because speech is prior to writing both historically and in terms of a childRs acquisition of language. ut lea"ing aside this dichotomy# the first thing we must notice is that speech and writing are not alternati"e processes9 speech comes first# but writing demands more skill and practice# and they ha"e different formal patterns. <ost important of all# howe"er# is that written and spoken language are counterparts9 a writing system should be capable of representing all the possible wordings of a personRs thoughts. This implies that both systems could be regarded as the two sides of the same coin. From a psychological point of "iew# writing is a '&1$%a28 acti"ity# the $n%!21&)%&2 $' n&% -2!'!n%# so we are required to write on our own# 6$%7&% %7! $n%!2a)%$&n &2 %7! 7!1- &# %7! #!!"5a)0 usually pro"ided in oral communication. That is why we ha"e to compensate for the absence of some linguistic features which help to keep communication going on in speech# such as prosody and paralinguisic de"ices such as gesturing# intonation# etc. 7ur texts are interpreted by the reader alone# and 6! )ann&% +&n$%&2 7$' &2 7!2 2!a)%$&n'# unlike the speaker9 we ha"e to sustain the whole process of communication and to stay in contact with our reader through words alone# and this is why we must be "ery clear and explicit about our intentions when we write. 3owe"er# not all the ac"antages are on the side of the oral communication9 in writing# we normally ha"e time to think about what we are trying to express# so that we can re"ise it and re1write it# if need be# and the reader# to understand a text# can also read and re1read it as many times as wanted. *.1. STRUCTURE AND FORMAL ELEMENTS OF /RITTEN COMMUNICATION There are some features characteristic of written language# but this should not be taken to imply that there Rs a well1delimited di"iding line between writing and speech. 3owe"er# the extend to which each of them makes use of different resources is directly related to the nature of the two channels9 speech is the language of immediate communication# and writing is a type of communication with a distance in between. This is the reason why written texts present the following formal elements9 L$ng$'%$) #!a%2!' &# 62$%%!n 1angag! ! good writing system must be fixed# flexible# and adaptable at a time# so that9 - it must pro"ide a codified expression for the elements expressed by oral language9 each idea Q a written form - - it must pro"ide means for creating expressions for elements not codified yet9 neologisms# borrowings... - S8n%a)%$) #!a%2!' &# 62$%%!n 1angag! The syntactic elements which make writing different from speech are9 - markers and rhetorical organisers for clauses relationships and clarity (written texts are more permanent) - - use of hea"ily pre1modified =+s # *V7 ordering and use of passi"e constructions and subordinate phrases - L!=$)a1 #!a%2!' &# 62$%%!n 1angag! 'n order to compensate the absence of paralinguistic de"ices and feedback9 - more accuracy in the use of "ocabulary# a"oiding redundancy and ambiguity (due to its permanent nature) - - use of anaphoras and cataphoras# repetitions# synonyms... to signal relationships between sentences - - there is more lexical density in writing than in speech (more lexical items than grammatical ones) - G2a-7&1&g$)a1 $+-1$)a%$&n' Texts can be presented in different ways# as our culture "alue many times more the form than the content. To compensate for the absence of feedback and paralinguistic de"ices# written texts need to be accurate in spelling# punctuation# capital letters to mark sentence boundaries# indentation of paragraphs# different fonts to call attention (italics# bold...) and in poetry or texts to draw attention# exploitation of resources such as order and choice of words# "ariations in spelling (iba la kurtura). 'n any case# what is most characteristic of written communication is that 6! '!! $% (the organisation# length...). *.(. TYPES OF /RITTEN TEXTS: NORMS GOVERNING T3EM, ROUTINES AND FORMULAE 'n writing# communication also takes place following system and ritual constraints9 this is the reason why when we look at a text we can distinguish and obtain information regarding different types of organisation# different purposes and different lengths. Traditionally# written texts were di"ided following the classification of genres. Then# linguists linked their rhetorical mode to the syntactic structures# routines and formulae that characterised them# and established the following classification9 P&'%)a2"' +ieces of writing normally directed to friends or family when tra"elling #and sometimes used for congratulations and greetings. $e :ust write on one side and the language used is colloquial. L!%%!2' They can be formal (to enterprises or someone we are not closed to) and informal (to friends or family) There are some routines to write letters9 apart from the writerRs address on the top right1hand corner# the date# the first line (dear Z nameEsirEmadamE<rE<rs...)# the closing (>ours...) and the signature# present in both types of letters# each type of letter follows this structural organisation into paragraphs9 )ormal* - st Q reason why writing# / nd Q what you want from addressee# 8 rd Q conclusion. Informal9 - st Q introduction# / nd Q reason# 8 rd Q additional info# 6 th Q conclusion. There are also directive letters# to pro"oke some reaction on the reader# using imperati"es Y remarks. F$11$ng:$n #&2+' %onsist of answering what you are asked# as briefly as possible# so no writing style is needed to do so. C22$)1+ ,$%a! %onsists of a clear summary to gi"e the academic knowledge and experience someone has on a certain matter# so it includes personal details# current occupation# academic qualification and professional experience. S++a2$!' rief rKsumKs of articles# booklets and books that due to their special form of composition and writing they allow the reader to gather the main information about the original work without reading it. R!-&2%' They are used to present clearly and with details the summary of present and past facts or acti"ities# and sometimes of predictable future facts from checked data# sometimes containing the interpretation of the writer but normally with the intention of stating the reality of an enterprise or institution without deformati"e personal "isions# and can be e+positive, interpretative Y demonstrative Na22a%$,! %!=%' The most uni"ersal of all the types of written texts# refer back to the story1telling traditions of most cultures. 'n fact there seem to be some basic uni"ersal structure that go"erns this type of texts9 1 ,rientation (time# place and character identification to inform reader of the story world)# -oal. .ro!lem. /esolution. #oda and sometimes a morale at the end. For this characteristic structure# some of the routines and formulae used are presentati"es (there is...)# relati"es# ad:uncts of place and time# flash1backs# different narrati"e p.o.".# narrati"e dialogues# etc... D!')2$-%$,! %!=%' They are concerned with the location and characterisation of people and things in the space# as well as pro"iding background information which sets the stage for narration. This type of texts is "ery popular in 4/ teaching# and all types ha"e the same pre1 established organisation. $ithin descripti"e texts we might find9 1 0+ternal descriptions# presenting a holistic "iew of the ob:ect by an account of all its parts 1 )unctional descriptions, which deal with instruments and the tasks they may perform 1 .sychological descriptions, which express the feelings that something produces in someone *ome of the most characteristic structures are presentati"es (there...)# ad:uncts of location# stati"e "erbs (look# seem# be...)# use of metaphors# comparisons# qualifying ad:ecti"es and relati"e sentences. E=-&'$%&28 %!=%' They identify and characterise phenomena# including text forms such as definitions# explanations# instructions# guidelines# summaries# etc...They may be sub:ecti"e (an essay) and ob:ecti"e (definitions# instructions)# or e"en ad"ice gi"ing. They may be analytical# starting from a concept and then characterising its parts# and ending with a conclusion. Typical structures are stati"e "erbs# 0in order to2# 0so as to2# imperati"es# modals and "erbs of quality. A2g+!n%a%$,! %!=%' They are those whose purpose is to support or weaken another statement whose "alidity is questionable. The structures we find are "ery flexible# being this the reason for the existence of se"eral types9 #lassical1.ros 2 cons 3ig3ag1,ne4sided arg10cclectic appro1,pposition5s arg first1,ther side questioned There are sometimes when we choose how# when and why not to be creati"e with language to repeat what is normally used in a gi"en situation9 we use linguistic routines and formulae. These are "!#$n!" a' #$=!" %%!2an)!' &2 '!@!n)!' &# %%!2an)!' 67$)7 +'% 5! )&n'$"!2!" a' '$ng1! n$%', 5!)a'! %7!$2 +!an$ng )ann&% 5! "!2$,!" &# %7!+ n1!'' )&n'$"!2!" a' a 67&1!. 'n written texts we find different types of routines and formulaic expressions# which "ary depending on the type of text# as we ha"e been pre"iously seeing. Tnderstanding them usually requires sharing cultural knowledge# because they are genarally metaphorical in nature and must be interpreted at a non1linguistic le"el (for instance# 6ear in a letter does not always carry affecti"e meaning). !ll those phrases and sentences that# to some extend# ha"e a prescripti"e character# can be considered as routines and formulaic expressions9 to consider all the different existing routines would take too long# but some examples are# in letters Y postcards (7ours sincerely) in %.VRs# the organisation of info in different blocks# in narration (,nce upon a time) in descriptions (on the left, high a!ove$,etc... A11 $n a11, 6! )an 'a8 %7a% %7!8 a2! '&+!%$+!' ,!28 '!#1 5% &#%!n +!an$ng1!'' A "!-!2'&na1$'! &2 !=-2!''$&n' A $"!a'. 4. T3E COMMUNICATION PROCESS D!#$n$%$&n Nenerally speaking# communication is the !=)7ang! &# +!an$ng' 5!%6!!n $n"$,$"a1' %72&g7 a )&++&n '8'%!+ &# '8+5&1'# and this has been the concern of scholars since the Nreeks. %ommunication refers to the %2an'+$''$&n &# $n#&2+a%$&n Ba +!''ag!C 5!%6!!n a '&2)! an" a 2!)!$,!2, '$ng a '$gna11$ng '8'%!+. !t the turn of the century# the &nglish literary critic '"or !rmstrong ,ichards offered one of the first definitions# saying that communication takes place when one mind so acts upon its environment that another mind is influenced, and in that other mind an experience occurs which is like the experience in the first mind, and is caused in part by that experience. The study of human communication in all its modes is known as semiotics. There are se"eral types of communication# and although in principle any of the fi"e senses can be used as a medium of communication# in practice only three (%a)%$1!, ,$'a1 and a2a1) are implemented in both active4 e+pressive and passive4receptive ways. Tactile communication in"ol"es touch (e.g. shaking hands# grasping the arm) and the manipulation of physical distance and body orientation in order to communicate indifference or disagreement# and is studied by proxemics. Visual communication in"ol"es the use of facial expressions (smiling# winking...# which communicate a wide range of emotions) and gestures and body postures of "arying le"els of formality (kneeling# bowing...). Visual non1"erbal communication is studied by kinesics. 7ften# "isual and tactile effects interact closely with "erbal communication# sometimes e"en con"eying particular nuances of meaning not easy to communicate in speech (such as the drawing of in"erted commas in the air to signal a special meaning)# and most of the times culturally related. The chief branch of communication studies in"ol"es the &2a1:a2a1 +&"!# in the form of speech# and its systematic "isual reflex in the form of writing. These are the ,!25a1 a'-!)%' of communication# distinguished from the non1"erbal (kinesics and proxemics) aspects# often popularly referred to as !ody language. The term 1angag!, a' 6! n"!2'%an" $%# $' 'a118 2!'%2$)%!" %& '-!!)7 an" 62$%$ng# because these mediums of transmission display a highly sophisticated internal structure and creati"ity. =on1"erbal communication# by contrast# in"ol"es relati"ely little creati"ity. 'n language# it is commonplace to find new words being created# and sentences "arying in practically infinite complexity. 'n this respect# languages differ markedly from the "ery limited set of facial expressions# gestures# and body mo"ements. !ccording to 3armer# the characteristics apply to e"ery communicati"e situation is that a speakerEwriter wants to communicate# has a communicati"e purpose# and selects language# and a listenerEreader wants to listen to something# is interested in a communicati"e purpose# and process a "ariety of language. <odels 'n order to study the process of communication se"eral models ha"e been offered) fragmentation and problems of interdisciplinary outlook ha"e generated a wide range of discussion concerning the ways in which communication occurs. <ost communication theorists admit that their main task is to answer the question Who says what to whom with what effect? The most important models are9 D8na+$) Tsed to describe cogniti"e# emotional and artistic aspects of the different modes (narrati"e# pictorial# dramatic...) of communication as they occur in sociocultural contexts in their "arious manners and to and from different sorts of people. For those using this model# the stability and function of the channel are more "ariable and less mechanically related to the process than the linear models. L$n!a2 +roposed by *hannon and $ea"er# though "ery mathematical# its simplicity# clarity and surface generality pro"ed "ery attracti"e. 7riginally intended for electronic messages# it was then applied to all sorts of communication. 'n its conception it contained fi"e elements arranged in linear order9 information source, transmitter, channel, receiver, destination. Then# the fi"e elements were renamed so as to specify components for other types of communication# and the information source was split into its components to pro"ide a wider range of applicability9 source, encoder, message, channel, decoder, receiver. .!8 #a)%&2' 'n theory# communication is said to ha"e taken place if the information recei"ed is the same as that sent. 'n practice# we ha"e to allow for all kinds of interfering factors# such as !n%2&-8 (noise distorsion) which can be counteracted by n!ga%$,! !n%2&-8 (recei"erRs ability to clear blurred messages)# by 2!"n"an)8 (used by the encoder)# or by #!!"5a)0 (the sender calculates and weights the effects on the recei"er and acts accordingly)) and then we ha"e the )&n%!=%, which co"ers the references to the linguistic aspects of the message or !n"&-7&2a (anaphora and cataphora) and the external aspects of situation or !=&-7&2a (such as the field, or total e"ent and purpose of the communication# the mode, or function of the text in the e"ent# including channel and genre# and the tenor# which refers to the participants and their relationships). A. F!%T7,* !=@ FT=%T'7=* 7F ! %7<<T='%!T'V& *'TT!T'7= The most usual answer to the question 8why do we use language?9 is 0to communicate our ideas2. ut it would be wrong to think that communicating our ideas is the only purpose for which we use language. *e"eral other functions may be identified where the communication of ideas is marginal or irrele"ant. $e hardly find "erbal messages that would fulfil only one function # although %7! ,!25a1 '%2)%2! &# a +!''ag! "!-!n"' -2$+a2$18 &n %7! -2!"&+$nan% #n)%$&nD Following Ja0&5'&n# we agree that language must be in"estigated in all the "ariety of its functions# but an outline of these functions demands a concise sur"ey of the constituti"e factors in any act of "erbal communication9 the !@@,&**&, sends a <&**!N& to the !@@,&**&& that to be operati"e requires a %7=T&UT referred to and to be grasped by the addressee (either "erbal and situational# a %7@&# fully or partially common to the addresser and addressee# and a %7=T!%T# a physical channel and psychological connection enabling them to enter and stay in communication 'f the main purpose of our use of language is to communicate our ideas# concentrating on the context to which these ideas refer to# then we are dealing with the 2!#!2!n%$a1 &2 $"!a%$&na1 #n)%$&n. 'f there is a direct expression of the addresserRs attitude toward what is being communicated# tending to produce an impression of a certain emotion# that is the !+&%$,! &2 !=-2!''$,! #n)%$&n (also "ery common)# which differs from the referential one in the sound pattern# and it fla"ours to some extend all our utterances. 'f we orientate our message towards the addressee because we want a certain reaction# we are dealing with the )&na%$,! #n)%$&n# syntactically and often phonetically de"iate from other functions ("ocati"es and imperati"es). $e talk about the -7a%$) #n)%$&n when the language we use is for the purpose of establishing or maintaining social relationships# to check if the channel or contact works# to attract or confirm the attention of the interlocutor or to discontinue communication# rather than to communicate ideas# and is normally displayed by ritualised formulas ($ell...# 3ow do you do;). 'f we use the language to talk about the language# such as when checking if addressee is using the same code as the addresser (@o you follow me; @o you know what ' mean;)# we talk of the +!%a1$nga1 #n)%$&n. 'f# on the contrary# the focus is on the phonetic properties of the message# althogh not being the sole function of the message# we say that we are using the -&!%$) #n)%$&n of language. To end up# we will say that 3alliday grouped all the functions into %72!! $n%!22!1a%!" +!%a#n)%$&n': $"!a%$&na1# to express ideas or experiences# the $n%!2-!2'&na1 to indicate# establish or maintain social relationships# and the %!=%a1# to create written or spoken texts that fit in the particular situation in which they are used. 5. FT=%T'7=!4'T> !=@ %7=T&UT9 T3& =&N7T'!T'7= 7F <&!='=N 3owe"er# if communication were simply a matter of applying the adequate schema# we wouldnRt ha"e to worry about the addresseeRs response to the communication process. Therefore# we need procedures to integrate these abstract schemata into the concrete process of discourse itself. A11 )&++n$)a%$&n "!-!n"' &n %7! a1$gn+!n% an" a"E'%+!n% &# !a)7 $n%!21&)%&2F' ')7!+a%a, an" %7! -2&)!"2!' 6! '! a2! %7! $n%!2a)%$,! n!g&%$a%$ng a)%$,$%$!' %7a% $n%!2-2!% %7! "$2!)%$&n' -2&,$"!" an" !na51! ' %& a1%!2 &2 !=-!)%a%$&n' $n %7! 1$g7% &# n!6 !,$"!n)! a' %7! "$')&2'! -2&)!!"'# and this procedural ability which traduces the schematic knowledge into communicati"e beha"iour is called )a-a)$%8 (inference, practical reasoning, negotiation of meaning, pro!lem solving...). This capacity apply to two different dimensions9 one referred to the kind of schema that is being realised# and the other to the kind of communicati"e situation that has to be negotiated# that is# to the way in which the relationship between the schemata of the interlocutors is to be managed. $e find that there are occasions in which we use procedures to clear up and make more explicit and e"ident the #2a+! &# 2!#!2!n)!# or use 27!%&2$)a1 2&%$n!' to specify more accurately our $11&)%$&na28 a)%' (the intended effects of our utterances) or that felicity conditions are not satisfactory so that we must use those procedures. 7ther procedures# this time on the part of the addressee# are $n%!2-2!%a%$,! (as in '48I have two tickets for the theatre9 B4 8I5ve got an e+am tomorrow9). 'n some occasions# howe"er# negotiation is too long# too difficult or e"en fails (as in interethnic interaction) because the schemata are "ery different# so that interlocutors may use other signalling system (e.g. pictorial)# or use B2!C:#&2+1a%$&n procedures (%o what you say is... :ow let5s put it straight..$ G. CONCLUSION %ommunication is # therefore# the main purpose of a language# and the use and function that fulfils depends greatly on the characteristics of the information or the form of the message. 'n any case# for a communication process to be complete# it is necessary that both addresser and addressee negotiate the meaning of what is being transmitted# o"ercoming any possible obstacles difficulting that process. H. 9I9LIOGRAP3Y 3a11$"a8, M. A. .. 'n Introduction to )unctional -rammar %hapter . -.?A Tann!n, D. #onversational %tyle %hapter ? -.?6 Ma)A2%72, T. ;he ,+ford #ompanion to the 0nglish anguage 7T+ 7xford -../ 3!"g!, T. "riting. 7T+. 7xford. -..8 UNIT (: COMMUNICATION IN T3E LANGUAGE LESSON. LINGUISTIC AND NON: LINGUISTIC COMMUNICATION 1. COMMUNICATION %ommunication abilities at a "ery early stage are one of the primary aims of foreign language teaching. <odern approaches to communication do not include only linguistic production but gesture# beha"iour# mime and other aspects occurring in first language communication. The communicati"e use of the "isual and tactile modes in their non1linguistic aspects is referred as 0non1 "erbal2 communication or 0body language2. %ommunication means to say something to someone with a communicati"e purpose and in an appropriate way. (. COMMUNICATION IN T3E CLASSROOM T7! +a$n a$+' $n 1angag! %!a)7$ng a2!: Tsing oral and writing language in classroom actions. Tsing idioms and sentences (congratulations# greetings#[) Tsing extralinguistic strategies (gesture# body language#[) An" %7!'! a2! %7! )&n%!n%': %onceptual (linguistic)9 identifying# greeting# describing# asking# expressing needs and emotions# quantify# ob:ect location# requesting# denying# offering#[ +rocedures (non1linguistic)9 acting# doing what they are commanded (total +hysical ,esponse) *ocio1cultural9 knowing games# sports and traditional songs in that language. C&++n$)a%$&n g&a1': The learner gets a social and linguistic de"elopment9 Nets an internal linguistic consciousness Takes part in a social interaction Nets a cultural knowledge of that society and their habits# and also a way to science# technology and international relations Nets practice in e"eryday acti"ities 4earners can understand much more that they can speak# so current language ca be used in the classroom. *. COMMUNICATIVE LEARNING AND TEAC3ING ACTIVITIES There is almost an unlimited range of acti"ities within the communicati"e approach (information sharing# negotiation of meaning and interaction) <ost communicati"e techniques operate by pro"iding information and holding it from the others# creating an information gap. &"ery communicati"e acti"ity has these characteristics9 ! desire to communicate ! communicati"e form ! "ariety of contents and language The teachers role must be to facilitate the communication process and be in"ol"ed as a participant within the group# analysing needs# counselling# managing the process and organising resources. 4earners must interact within the group. *uccessful communication can only be achie"ed through group interaction. 4. NON:VER9AL COMMUNICATION The communicati"e e"ent is not based on the "erbal component only. 't also implies paralinguistic de"ices such as gesture# facial expression# body language# sight. They are information and emotional sources. These non1"erbal acts are culturally related. @ifferent cultures may use different gestures (hand using# head mo"ement# [e.g.9 nodding in 3ungary is opposite to e"erywhere else) There is also the silent language like the physical distance maintained between indi"iduals# the sense of time appropriate for communication under different conditions[ The sight directs "ery well communication. 'f we do not like someone we put our eyes away# insecurity makes eyes go down or if we are "ery interested our eyes are widely open to make the speaker go on. I. EXTRALINGUISTIC STRATEGIES The most common strategies of language learning are9 4earning grammar rules and using them 'mitating linguistic habits 4earning "ocabulary and structures by heart Finding out strategies# making hypotheses# contrasting them and getting the knowledge =on "erbal reactions to messages in different contexts9 Names9 guessing games# drawing games#[ @rama9 acting# miming# [ ,ole play9 using sentences as a nati"e speaker# which is funny and "i"idly remembered. Total +hysical ,esponse9 is a teaching method built around the co1ordination of speech and action. 't attempts to teach language through physical acti"ity. The more intensi"ely a memory connection is traced the stronger the memory association will be and the more likely it will be recalled. 't makes second language learning a process like first language acquisition. %omprehension abilities precede producti"e skills but they transfer from one to others. The speech directed to children consists mainly of commands. <ost of the grammatical structures of the target language and hundreds of lexical items can be learned from the skilful use of the imperati"e. The lower the stress is the greater the learning is. *uccessful learning normally occurs in stress controlled classrooms# in pleasurable experiences and low anxiety situations. Nrammatical features and lexical items are selected according to the classroom situations and the ease they can be learnt. Total +hysical ,esponse is uses after language presentation and practice in order to consolidate structures and "ocabulary. The teacher is the director of the stage play and pupils are the actors. The teacher decides what to teach# how to present the new material# how to select materials. %orrection should be used only when our pupils will really benefit from it. in the beginning the learner cannot attempt efficiently to the corrections because all attention is directed to producing utterances. 4earners listen attenti"ely and respond physically to our commands. Teachers monitor and encourage to speak when learners fell ready to speak. P2&)!"2!: $arming up or introductory re"iew 'ntroduction of new language# new commands and new items *imple questions which can be answered with a gesture such as pointing +upils utter commands. <anipulating teacher and pupils beha"iour. ,eading and writing acti"ities (blackboard# notebooks# [). $riting# reading and acting out the sentence. 't is "ery suitable for our primary lessons. 't is only "alid for beginners. $hen our pupils knowledge is "ery limited we do not expect them to talk9 they ha"e to watch# listen and act. 7ur main ob:ecti"e is to pro"ide children as much understable listening as we can while they are doing an en:oyable acti"ity. The use of gesture allows them to talk when they cannot speak. %ommands can be responded by physical actions (e.g.9 point) >COMMUNICATION IN T3E FOREIGN LANGUAGE CLASSROOM: VER9AL AND NON:VER9AL COMMUNICATION. EXTRALINGUISTIC STRATEGIES: NON VER9AL REACTIONS TO MESSAGES IN DIFERENT CONTEXTS?.: INTRODUCTION.: %ommunication is a key word for us as &nglish teachers. =ot only is it the essence of human interaction# it is the centre of language learning. C7&+'08 was one of the first language in"estigators to try to explain why a child learns language) he says that the enfant begins to produce language by a process of deduction using the input recei"ed and with natural resources construct an internal grammar. ut later# linguists such as 38+!'# noted that a child doesnRt know :ust a set of rules. 3eEshe learns how and when to use them# and to whom.3e says that when a nati"e person speaks# he or she takes into account factors such as9 -. %ystemic potential. $hether something (word# structure...) works grammatically or not if it fits into the grammatical system. /. 'ppropriacy. $hether a word or structure is suitable in the context according factors such as the relati"e social class of the speakers# regional "ariations# age and status differences# the topic being discussed and so on. 8. )easa!ility. Knowing whether a construction is possible or not. 't may be possible grammatically but seem ridiculous in real use such as the use of si+ adver!s together. 6. ,ccurence. ! knowledge of how often something appears in the language (example9 foreign learners of 0nglish from latin countries often use more latin4 sounding words than a typical native speakers). 3a11$"a8 considers that language is# indeed# learned in a functional context of use. To summari(e all the abo"e# a communicati"e context go"erns language use# and language learning implies an acquisition of these rules of use. Nrammar is not enough# as we can be grammatically correct and socioculturally incorrect or with ill1designed strategies. !nd so communication breaks down. Cana1! an" S6a$n de"eloped the idea of communicati"e competence# a design taken on by the <.&.%. as the basis for ob:ecti"es in the curricular design and as a guide for teaching methodology. This communicati"e competence consists of A subcompetences9 grammatical# discourse# sociolinguistic# strategic and sociocultural. - N,!<<!T'%!4 or the ability to use the rules of the language system. (example9 the position of the adjective in 0nglish). systemic potential. - @'*%7T,*& or the ability to use different types of speech o writing based on the situation and to do it coherently and cohesi"ely. - *7%'74'=NT'*T'% or the ability to adapt utterances to a particular social context (socialclass# regional languages# registers). appropiacy. - *T,!T&N'% or the ability to influence the course of the communicati"e situation (body mo"ement# intonation). ,elated to redundancy. The aim is to mantein the channel of communication open or to impro"e the reception. - *7%'7%T4TT,!4 L being familiar with the social and cultural context# the background where the language is spoken.(example9when we say 0milkman2 we understand all the contexts such as9 "ho is the milkman?, "hen does the milkman deliver the milk? and so on). This communicati"e competence and its subcompetences seeks to help children to pro"ide opportunities for gaining real language in real use. %ommunication is the acti"ity or process of gi"ing information to other people or to other li"ing things# usign signals such as speech# body mo"ements or radio signals. %ommunication is then the basis of a foreign language class from the basic curricular design and aims to lesson plans and methodology. 'n the /D th %entury worl of international tra"el# commerce# culture# technology and newsEinformation# communication needs to be optimun and our pupils will want to# or need to ha"e the four skills in language on many occasions for communicati"e purposes. $e shall now look at what this means in terms of "erbal and non "erbal communication. This is part of their preparation for life in general# and for their de"elopment as people. V&,!4 %7<<T='%!T'7=9 This consists of two skills# namely listening and speaking. I%;0:I:- precedes speaking. 't consists of the decoding of sound according to acquired rules.'t can be defined as the process of discriminating the sounds of the &nglish language through a process of hearing and understanding them. 4istening is related to +37=747N> This science studies the phonemes# the relationship between units of sounds and differences in meaning. $e need to remember that there are differences between the *panish sounds and the &nglish sounds. $e must allow the children to be clear on these differences# using accent# rhythm and entonation. !ll material used in teaching sounds and meaning should be based on its usefulness in real communicati"e interaction. There are many ways of presenting material so that it can be a means of helping children in oral1comprehension. $e may use flash1cards# real ob:ects# pictures from maga(ines# gestures# mime# language laboratory# radio# t.".# fims# tape1recorder and so on. %.0'<I:- is the encoding of the acquired sounds# deduced by listening# into signals.The end of this is to communicate something to someone and is related to +37=&T'%* The study of sounds9 how they are produced and how they are recei"ed. +upils need a lot of practise in comprehension (listening) in order to hold a con"ersation in &nglish. oth skills (listening and speaking) are linked in the learning process# since the people need to absorb the elements of a message if they are going to contribute to a con"ersation. This encoding and decoding is not only on a grammatical le"el# as %homsky inferred at first# but as Nuiraud affirms a process which takes logic from phonology# semantics# etc# but also sub:ecti"e experience and social rules. *o# we will begin talking about oral1comprehension techniques. 'f we want to de"elop this ability in our children we shall need to obser"e the processes used by the learner in listening comprehension. !t first# the pupil hears a series of noises and heEshe canRt tell what the difference is between them. !fter some time# heEshe begins to note that the sounds are in some sort of order# with regularity in the pauses and "oice pattern. !s heEshe learns some simple expresions# he or she begins to see that there are recurring sounds# and heEshe associates them with meaning. *o# he or she is starting to recognise familiar elements# but doesnRt see all the relationship. 3eEshe does not really understand. !s he or she becomes more familiar with the language# heEshe recogni(es the different elements# but doesnRt remember what heEshe recogni(ed. This is because heEshe is recogni(ing single elements and not the whole message. The mind is eliminating information which it canRt take at first) only a certain amount can be taken into short1term memory. The recepti"e system in the brain then takes these selected elements into long1term storage. ut only a small part of the total message will be remembered# this is why pupils seem to be able to understand "ery little at first. They ha"e to concentrate "ery well to be able to take in not only the sounds# but their meaning# the brain is not able to do this too fast# and we must remember this. ThatRs why we help our pupils by gi"ing them short sequences of sounds so that they can get the meaning easily and store it automatically. *o# ,&+&T'T'7= is essential for acquiring this process The 47N*&# in its . ob:ecti"es of the curricular design# reflects the importance of proficiency in these skills. =o child can e"er really communicate in &nglish without some ability to listen and speak. 'n traditional 0Nrammar Translation2 these skills were often neglected. The reason for this neglect was that some people consider speaking and listening to be primiti"e skills. They saw that children acquired these abilities naturally and so it was felt that "erbal communication was less sofisticated than the written form of the language. *o# more importance was gi"en to a study of the written language and for many years "erbal communication was nor considered to be worthy of study. This is reflected in the approaches to teaching of languages wich followed a classical methodology imitating latin and greek approaches which by their "ery nature center on reading and writing. 'n this century howe"er# and thanks to the contributions on social anthropologists and linguistics we ha"e come to understand that the spoken form of a language is a "aluable communication tool full of sophisticated rules of use and which is a "ehicle for social interaction. $e can think of Vigotsky studies on ethnic groups where he demonstrates how complex the "erbal communication is within societies which some people consider to be primiti"e. *o# speaking and listening are complex skills and e"en though they are acquired in an apparently natural way there is a process in"ol"ed which is intricate. !s an example of this we can look at some of the features which are unique to "erbal communication. Noffman highlited some of these. $e could mention that in "erbal communication there are signals which the adresser and adressee recogni(e as open1close signals such as the word 0well2 or a cough to open and there are other non1"erbal signalssuch as hand mo"emet to open or close a con"ersation. $e could also think of the fact that in "erbal communication there is an inmediate and constant response from the adressee which we donRt ha"e in written communication. This leads to the possibility of the speaker using strategies to ensure the message is being recei"ed. These strategies include back signals such as the hearer nodding hisEher head or expressions such as 0really2 or 0umhm2. These demonstrate to the hearer that the message is being recei"ed. 'f he or she feels that the adressee is ha"ing difficulty in recei"ing the message because heEshe notes a lack of interests#comprehension# etc# heEshe may choose to use strategies such as raising the "oice# repetition or gestures to impro"e attention or understanding. $e can not do this in written communication because the adressee is not usually present and we canRt :udge the recei"erRs response and then react. Further to this in "erbal communication speakers and listeners pay attention to the norms of what is acceptable in a gi"en context as regards quantity# for example.$e could imagine that a ritish con"ersation consists of shorter exchanges than in an anaerobic context.There are also# of course# complex rules of what is socially and culturally acceptable in specific contexts depending on the relati"e age# social class and regional origin and so on of speaker and hearer. For example# the speaker is aware of taboo words or topics and of con"entions which are appropiate in a gi"en situation.'t would be inappropiate# for example# to use some swearwords in polite company. 'n written communication the writer does not always know who will read the message and cannot always select suitable exppressions# topics and "ocabulary. Taking the abo"e into account we can affirm that when a child begins to listen with understanding and to speak with intelligibility heEshe is acquiring "ery useful social skills for e"eryday use. These skills are not primiti"e instruments but elaborate competences which society demands and "alues. $ithin "erbal communication we recogni(e that there are non "erbal elements. $e will now look at these aspects of spoken communication. =7= V&,!4 %7<<T='%!T'7=. 'n all "erbal communication we are aware that the message is sent through a code that is made up of sounds tra"elling trough the air# ha"ing been emitted trough the articulation of the speakerRs speech organs. ut this message is communicated by non "erbal signals too real componets of normal communication. The following are typical contextual non "erbal elements. Knapp clasifies the non "erbal aspects as follows9 -. ody mo"ements9 includes gestures# mo"ements of the body# limbs# hands# head# feet# facial expressions (smiling)# eye beha"iour such as blinking# direction of sight and also posture. /. +hysical characteristics9 includes physical appearance# general attraction# body scents# height# hair# skin ton (these characteristics are constant). 8. +aralanguage9 refers to how something is said and not what is said. 't uses the non "erbal "ocal signs surronding speech (tone# qualities of the "oice# rythm). 6. +roxemics9 is the manner in which man uses space as specific cultural product# the study of use and perception of social and personal space. The indi"idual determines his own space base on social and personal rules (perception and use of personal and social space). A. Tactile conduct9 kissing# hitting# guiding ... 5. !rtifacts9 include the manipulation of ob:ects# which can act as non1"erbal stimuli# with interacting persons.These artifacts can be9 perfume# clothing# lipstick ... B. *urroundig factors9 this category includes those elements that inter"ine in human relations which are not a direct part of it9 furniture# interio decoration. The purpose of non "erbal communication is to be part of the functional aspect of communication9 a) to communicate emotions b) to regulate communicationEcon"entions. c) To interpret. d) To identify social status# etc. The cultural specificness of these elements should highlited (*panish and &nglish gestures are different). <eaningful language includes a knowledge of these aspects for true communication. The importance of drama# mime# action songs# role1plays# simulation of real life situations to include as many non1"erbal elements as possible cn not be underestimated. EXTRALINGUISTIC STRATEGIES: NON VER9AL REACTIONS TO MESSAGES IN DIFFERENT CONTEXTS.: 'n this part of the topic we will see how the use of extralinguistic elements is linked not only to achie"ing grammatical and sociocultural competence but to strategic competence. This is the ability to plan and adapt communication# so that the desired end is achie"ed. 'n different contexts different strategies are required. $e should make some points here9 -) *trategies de"elop and are sought when a need is seen. %hildren look for extralinguistic help when they are interested in# or enthusiastic about# or are seeing the ad"antage in communicating. /) $e shoul put children in different situations of "erbal communication and help them to de"elop non "erbal aids with games and acti"ities which link non1"erbal elements with the context and communication need. 8) This acquisition of language skills and non1"erbal strategies requires an atmosphere of relaxation# with no tension# ridicule# pressure. 6) %hildren should see how language "erbal and non "erbal changes in different context# ruled by situation#climate# social class# age# formality and informality and so on. 7ne method which focuses on the aid of non1"erbal communication is Total +hysical ,esponse. &"ery extralinguistic resource its use is de"eloping communication beginning with the listening skills# where imperati"es are inferred by mo"ements# actions# etc. Though we may not wish to use a T+, methodology with all its implications# the contributions it makes to the teaching1learning process as part of our methodological plan in an eclectic approach can be "aluable. !s teachers we will be aware that elements such as furniture# space# decorations and so on can help or hinder communication. There will be occassions when we will want to re1arange desks# chairs# decorations# posters or other ob:ects# so that they can help in a communicati"e process. For example# if we are perfoming a play we can set up "arious ob:ects as scenary so that the children fell contextuali(ed. For instance# in a play about Noldilock and the three bears we could put a table in the centre of the classroom with three different1si(e chairs beside it.This extralinguistic elements help children# who can use them as aids in communication. To gi"e an example of a Total +hysical ,esponse methodology which uses extralinguistic strategies we can consider for instance the game of 0*imon says2 where# in the context of a game# children learn to understand simple imperati"es along with associated parts of the body. They obey the orders of the teacher only when he or she speaks on behalf of *imon. To help the children the teacher performs the action# which the children initate. &"entually they do not need this extralinguistic back1up. From the "ery first days of learning a foreign language# children become accostumed to deducing meaning from the context# which is full of extralinguistic clues. $hen we say9 1 0 close the door# please2 pointing to the open door and miming a closing mo"ement. This is a "ery simple but effecti"e T.+.,. acti"ity. =ot only do children learn to understand spoken messages in this way. They begin to try to communicate using non1"erbal and stralinguistic strategies at their disposal# from gestures to mime and with the use of other artifacts. CONCLUSION.: 'n this topic we ha"e attempted to demonstrate the nature of "erbal communication. The spoken language in each producti"e and recepti"e forms depends not only on the understanding of sounds or the creation of these sounds. The context of this communication includes many elements which are aids in the process and we should be aware of how we can maximi(ed "erbal and non1"erbal items to encouraged children to infer meaning and to use all sorts of extralinguistic strategies to impro"e communication. y means of meaningful# moti"ating acti"ities which use aspects such as body1 mo"ement# gestures# artifacts# the fi"e senses# we can moti"ate our young learners of &nglish to belie"e that communicating in the &nglish language is within their reach. TOPC 3 $AHAC#<*A! #F !/A F#%" +A.I& CIB%I.!I& .IICC.: CI.!AIB, .<AAIIB, "AA$IB A$ W"I!IB. &#**%I&A!IHA &#*<A!A&A I ABCI./ I will start with a short introduction to let you know what this topic is about /. INTRODUCTION In the society where we live, the possibilities of cultural interchanges studying abroad, watching !H, so on, determines that, communication, at least one foreign language is a necessity. 1 With our educational reform, according the BAA"AC #"BAI& act 0F0::; of 1 of #ctober of Aducative .ystem, its are persuades !/"AA AI*.: A WI$A" A$%&A!I#: compulsory and free education are e,tended up to the change of si,teen, which also coincides with the labour ages. A +A!!A" A$%&A!I#: the number of teachers and school resources are increased- the teacher)in)service training courses are promoted, school resources and vocational guidance programmes are improved. *#"A %.AF%C A$%&A!I#: a new model of vocational training with greater practice knowledge and with a greater relation with the labour market are proposed, and the necessites of our present society. In the Beneral #rganic Act 0F:; of 1 rd of #ctober of Aducative .ystem, we can find in the 2 nd &hapter, article 01)b that, in <rimary Aducation, among the capacities to develop in our pupils is ' to understand and produce easy messages in a foreign language(. We also have in the "$ 0144F:0 of 6 th of .eptember about !eaching "e=uirements in the territory managed by the old *inistry of Aducation and &ulture, in the Art.4 that the objective a? is 'understand and produce oral and written messages in .panish, language of the community and in a foreign language ' and continuous '!he ability to communicate in a foreign language and the knowledge of this language give a good help for a better comprehension and learning the own language(. .o,for these reasons, compulsory education must attend to this social need and give pupils a communicative competence in a foreign language. Within this communicative competence, we as teachers have to develop the four main skills: listening, speaking, reading and writing. !hus, in this topic, I will talk about them in the following points: 0. $AHAC#<*A! #F !/A F#%" +A.I& CIB%I.!I& .IICC.: CI.!AIB, .<AAIIB, "AA$IB A$ W"I!IB 2. &#**%I&A!IHA &#*<A!A&A I ABCI./. 1. &#&C%.I# 4. +I+CI#B"A</G. 1. DEVELO'MENT OF T9E FOUR :ASIC LINGUISTIC S;ILLS: LISTENING, S'EA;ING, READING AND WRITING In the "$ 0144F :0 of 6 of .eptember about teaching "e=uirements in the territory managed by the old *inistry of Aducation and &ulture, we can read that( the development of the basic linguistic skills it has to be seen as a process of integration. In the real life, communicative acts use different skills, so, it3s not logic, to treat them in an aisle form.( ow I am going to talk about these skills, and I will start with listening. 1. L"%$e!"!) o( &ea(!"!) $o &"%$e! "! o(*e( $o ,ea( a!* !*e(%$a!* +(o+e(&.. )First of all, there are several general principles in teaching F learning listening comprehension, and these principles are: I. Cistening comprehension lessons, it must have definite goals, carefully stated. !hese goals should fit into the overall curriculum. II. Cistening comprehension lessons, it should be constructed, with a carefully step)by)step planning. !his implies that the listening tasks progress, from simple hearing based activities, to more comple, understanding based ones as our pupils gain in language competence. III. Cistening comprehension lessons should teach not test IH. Cistening comprehension lessons structure it should demand active pupil participation. And finally H. !hese lessons should stress conscious memory work. )We can use several .!"A!ABIA. in order to develop listening comprehension such as: .&AIB, .II**IB, "A&#.!"%&!I# #F #"AC $I.&#%".A, <"A$I&!I#, "A&#BIJIB I!A"AC .!"%&!%"A. A$ &#A&!#"., B%A..IB F#"* &#!AK!, and, AK!A.IHA and I!A.IHA .!"A!ABIA.. 0. .&AIB or looking for specific details. It3s better to say =uestions before the listening practice. 2. .II**IB or to identify the principal ideas. F. instance, we want that our pupils ask themselves, what is this te,t aboutE. And to guess the type te,t >poem, folk tale?, settings >place, street?, characters >formal, informal, neuter?, and key words. 1. "A&#.!"%&!I# #F #"AC $I.&#%".A: after we refer to the first listening, the teacher can make a conceptual map on the blackboard, considering a word or sentence as the listening key. 4. <"A$I&!I#, pupils can predict what will be the ne,t one that they are going to listen. 5. "A&#BIJIB I!A"AC .!"%&!%"A. A$ &#A&!#".: this strategy gives us clues about the content. F. e,ample: FACCF"I.A I!#A!I#, and the particle +%! indicate contrast e,pression .# L FACC I!#A!I# indicate '"A.%C!( FI".!, !/A, FIACCG, help us to identify and arrange se=uences in different parts. 6. B%A..IB F#"* &#!AK!: is to find out the meaning of unknown words. We can use gestures, picturesM and, the two last ones are 8. AK!A.IHA and I!A.IHA CI.!AIB AK!A.IHA CI.!AIB will be a focused or general feature of the styles of discourse. !he language level in this kind of listening is, inside the student3s capacity, and they listen for pleasure and interest. !his strategy, can be used for the representation of already known material in a new environment and it can also serve the function of introducing new language. I!A.IHA CI.!AIB is closer to ear training, and it3s the most widely used for listening practice in classroom. .tudents are asked to listen a passage, with the aim of collecting and organi7ing the information it contains. !his strategy, can be used for the focus of language items as part of language teaching programme, and for general comprehension and understanding. ) And, finally, in this point, I will talk about <CAIB &#.I$A"A!I#.. First of all, these are a number of steps that we have to bear in mind when planning the listening work for our class: 0. choose the listening te,t. 2. check that the activities are suitable 1. adjust the difficulty level of the activities, if we need to 4. consider, whether the listening work you are planning will fit the time available or not 5. think about visual aids 6. decide whether any special e=uipment will be needed 8. make up our mind about what procedure you will adopt for the listening session 9. if you are planning, to present the listening te,t 'live( practice reading it aloud )#nce we have taken these steps, we must teach our children to develop skills, and according to /armer, we can divide these skills into !W# !G<A.: BAA"AC %$A".!A$IB and .<A&IFI& %$A".!A$IB: a. BAA"AC %$A".!A$IB is concerned with the treatment of a te,t as a whole, and includes the following microskills: +,&@'%T'7=9 because it is useful to encourage children to predict what they think might come next in a spoken message. This means that they then listen to checks whether their expectation matches the reality of what they hear. AK!"A&!IB .<A&IFI& IF#"*A!I# and BA!!IB !/A BAA"AC <I&!%"A of an activity of listening and, b. .<A&IFI& %$A".!A$IB, which involve a detailed comprehension of the te,t. !hey also include the following microskills: ) IFA""IB #<II# and A!!I!%$A because an awareness of stress, intonation and body language, such as facial e,pressions or gestures, will help the children work out meaning, specially in dialogues or story) telling. ) $A$%&IB *AAIB F"#* &#!AK! because although the teacher might like to gloss new words before the children listen to something, she also needs to encourage them to use pictures and their general knowledge about a topic to work out the meaning of unfamiliar words. )And "A&#BIJIB $I.&#%".A <A!!A". and *A"IA".: words such as first, then, finally, or but, so, give important signals about what is coming ne,t in a spoken te,t. !his is especially important when listening to a se=uence of events, such as in a story or a set of instructions. )About CI.!AIB A&!IHI!IA.,, we make sure the children are clear about why they are listening. !his means spelling out which part of the message they need to focus on and what they are going to do before listening, while listening or after listening. .o, to develop these skills, are commonly divided into !/"AA &A!AB#"IA.: <"A)CI.!AIB, W/ICA and <#.!) CI.!AIB. o <"A)CI.!AIB A&!IHI!IA. have as a main aim to arouse our pupils3 interest and include *AIIB CI.! #F I$AA. or CA+ACCIB. o In W/ICA CI.!AIB A&!IHI!IA. we have !"%AFFAC.A or .<#!!IB *I.!AIA" and o <#.!) CI.!AIB A&!IHI!IA. include .%**A"IJIB or $I&!A!I#. An activity type could be for instance: )Cisten and perform actionsF follow instructions: this kind of activity is used with action songs, rhymes or games such as ' What3s the time *r. WolfE( )<urpose: listening for enjoyment and to improve memory and concentration span. )*aterials: instructions for games. According the book '!he <rimary Anglish !eacher3s Buide ' by +rewster, Allis and Birard, e,isting methods and materials for primary school Anglish contain recorded phrases for use in the initial classes. /owever, it is primarily the teacher who, by conducting the class in Anglish, will provide the opportunity for the pupils continually to improve their listening ability in as natural a manner as possible. !here are other simple ways of training pupils to listen effectively such as the teaching of numbers and letters with dictations, or visuals aids, such as pictures of plants, animals or people, can also be used by the pupils to respond to dictations involving the names of objects. 4. S+ea<"!), o( &ea(!"!) $o %+ea< "! o(*e( $o =e !*e(%$oo* )First, I will say several BAA"AC <"I&I<CA. in .<AAIIB .IICC: 0. !he beginning of oral e,pression will start when the pupil can understand the meaning of language3s first elements. 2. !hus, we will use short dialogues and its will attack attention of them, both the topic and the attractive form to present it. 1. In relation with the first syntactic structures >which we can present in first or second cycle?, they are principally BA.!AC!. or <"AFA+"I&A!A$ CAB%ABA, for instance a greeting like Nhow are you3. 4. +efore preparing our activities we have to consider several aspects as &#*<A!A&A level, if our pupils A"A B#IB !# %.A A +##I, ABA, &#!A!.. ) An oral lesson is often divided into .!ABA. commonly known as <"A.A!A!I# .!ABA, <"A&!I&A .!ABA and <"#$%&!I# .!ABA: <"A.A!A!I# .!ABA has as a main aim to give our pupils the opportunities to reali7e the usefulness and relevance of the new language and their need to learn it. In the initial stages, first lessons often focus on teaching simple greetings and introductions, f.e,: 'hello(, 'What3s your nameE(, '*y name is(. In the early stages of learning, not much spontaneous speech can be e,pected from pupils. .uch speech >language? consists of: ).imple greetings: hello, how are you ).ocial Anglish: have a nice weekendE )"outines: what3s the dateE )&lassroom language: listen, repeat, sit down, good )Asking permission: &an I go to the toiletE We have to bear in mind that once we have chosen a conte,t for the presentation, we must decide on a procedure, which includes points in this order: a? First, build up the situational conte,t by means of pictures and tapes b? Alicit the new language. c? Focus our pupils3 attention on the model sentence, and >to? get the repetition both chorally or individually. d? And, check students3 understanding. !he teacher3s main role during this stage is as IF#"*A! In <"A&!I&A .!ABA our pupils assimilate and memori7es the new language by means of activities such as repetitions. !he teacher3s role is mainly those as &#$%&!#" and &#""A&!#" and In <"#$%&!I# .!ABA, the main aims are to give learners the opportunities to integrate the new learnt language into previously learnt language in an unpredictable linguistic conte,t, and to provide both, teachers and pupils, with feedback about the learning and teaching process. !he teacher3s role is as FA&ICI!A!#". According to +rewster the main thing is to be understood without the listener being obliged to go through a series of mental gymnastics in order to discover what the pupil was most probably trying to say. From a psychological point of view, it3s a good idea not to force things and to let each pupil start to contribute when they feel ready. ).ome speaking activities that we can use are "A<A!I!I# activities like '&hinese whispers >the teacher whisper a word a sentence in the pupils3 ear and this message will be transmitted in the same form to whole class. !he last pupils has to repeat aloud what he has just listened or A.IIB A$ BIHIB IF#"*A!I# it can consists of the repetition of certain structures with minimums changes which have been practised previously in class to complete a =uestionnaire, posters, etc M For instance, an activity type could be: Cook, listen and repeat: the teacher shows a picture, says the word and pupils repeat: lookO An elephant. "epeat. When the teacher is satisfied with her pupil3s pronunciation she can move another word. #nce several new items have been introduced, the teacher can check by showing a picture and asking, what3s thisE And pupils reply. <urpose: to introduce new vocabulary or structures. *aterials: picture cards, for e,ample animals. Food, colours, actions 5. Lea(!"!) $o (ea* a!* 8("$e Cearning to read a foreign language is obviously not a primary aim of early learning of Anglish. evertheless, the two skills of reading and writing are learning tools, which it would be wrong to ignore, as they occupy a position of fundamental importance in the objectives of primary school education and in the activities of the pupils. Cearning to read in Anglish will gradually give young beginners an ability to read autonomously as they ac=uire both the necessary ability and the taste for reading. !here are publishers speciali7ing in Anglish as a foreign language that offers illustrated readers for children. !he adventures of the animal and human heroes in these books e,cite the interest of the children and encourage them to read on. We have !W# !G<A. #F .!"A!ABIA. to develop reading comprehension: A&&#"$IB !# !/A .A.A %.A$ and A&&#"$IB !/A A&!IHI!IA.. - A&&#"$IB !# !/A .A.A %.A$ we have "AA$IB +G AA" and "AA$IB +G AGA "AA$IB +G AA": we can3t read without the phonic element, that3s to say, reading is a lineal process and we advance identifying and reproducing the phonic elements of te,ts. !his strategy is very important in the first stage of learning a foreign language. "AA$IB +G AGA: the relation between written word and signification is direct. !hus, the words are read as units with meaning without the participation of an intermediate mechanism. !his strategy is used with pupils who have a certain reading fluency and. - A&&#"$IB !# !/A A&!IHI!IA. %.A$ we have .&AIB, .II**IB, F#CC#W A .AP%A&A, .%"HIHAC "AA$IB, <"A$I&!I#, IF#"*A!I# !"A.FA". 0. .&AIB or looking for specific details such as a friends address. It3s better to say =uestions before reading. 2. .II**IB or to identify the principal ideas. F. Instance, we want that our pupils ask themselves, what is this te,t aboutE. And they can identify type te,t >poem, folk tale?, settings >place, street?, characters >formal, informal, neuter?, and key words. 1. F#CC#W A .AP%A&A: it3s useful to understand instructions or identifying. F. Instance the life phases of famous people. 4. .%"HIHAC. "AA$IB: it3s referred to locali7ation of te,t, which help us to find something that we are looking for in an urban conte,t. F. instance: traffic signals with sort te,t >#A WAG?, or informative signals >AKI!, *I$ !/A BA<? 5. <"A$I&!I#, when we can use clues which show. What3s going to the ne,t f. instance, we say: Nthere was an Anglishman, a Frenchman, and an Irishman. 6. IF#"*A!I# !"A.FA": this strategy permits us to translate determined facts of a te,t to different ones. F. Instance: a travel, or adventure story can be transformed in a comic or map. About "AA$IB .IICC.: and according to /armer we can divide these skills into two types: BAA"AC %$A".!A$IB and .<A&IFI& %$A".!A$IB. )BAA"AC %$A".!A$IB are concerned with the treatment of a te,t as a whole. !hey include the following micro skills: <"A$I&!I#, AK!"A&!IB .<A&IFI& IF#"*A!I#, and BA!!IB !/A BAA"AC <I&!%"A. ).<A&IFI& %$A".!A$IB are subse=uently and involve a detailed comprehension of the te,t. !hey include: IFA""IB #<II# A$ A!!I!%$A, $A$%&IB *AAIB F"#* &#!AK!, and "A&#BIJIB $I.&#%".A <A!!A". A$ *A"IA".. We can also talk about "AA$IB A&!IHI!IA., and are commonly divided into !/"AA !G<A.: <"A) "AA$IB, W/ICA "AA$IB and <#.!) "AA$IB A&!IHI!IA.. o <"A) "AA$IB A&!IHI!IA. have as a main aim to arouse our pupils3 interest in what they are going to read. !hey may include: <"A) CI*IA"G $I.&%..I#, /AA$CIA.. A$ !I!CA., and .AP%A&IB <I&!%"A.. o W/ICA "AA$IB A&!IHI!IA. for general and specific understanding. !hey may include: .%BBA.!IB A !I!CA, %$A"CIA !/A IF#"*A!I# "AP%I"A$, and &/A"! &#*<CA!A!I#. o <#.!) "AA$IB A&!IHI!IA. can be thought as a follow up work. !hey may include <"A<A"A A .I*ICA" AK!, <A"!I&I<A!A I A "#CA)<CAG +A.A$ # !/A AK! *AIA A $"AWIB. Finally to say that reading in Anglish in the early stages will usually remain at the word level, where children play simple games as dominoes, snap or bingo. For instance, an activity type could be: <laying games such as odd) one out or spot the difference. <upils identify similarities and differences between letters or words. <urpose: to develop phonic skills and sight recognition of words. *aterial: flashcards or worksheets with words grouped in three or fours. And about the last skill, 8("$"!), we can say that in the early stages of learning Anglish, the pupils will generally write very little. It is a good idea to use copying in a way, which encourages pupils to think, this means using crosswords, and matching, se=uencing or classifying activities. We also have in this skill several stages: 0. First, FA*ICIA"IJA!I# A$ &#!"#CCA$ W"I!IB: at the beginning, words and e,pressions won3t be presented isolated, but with a lot of conte,tual aids, wallcharts, flashcards. We can use activities such as FICCIB &"#..W#"$., <%!!IB %$A" <I&!%"A. the right sentences >with routines e,pressions? 2. !he second stage is B%I$IB W"I!IB and we use pre) communicative activities to reach out the free composition of short te,ts. We have for instance, IF#"*A!I# !"A.FA" .!"A!ABG: with e,cursion photographies which give us material to produce te,ts >they have to write about what they see? and 1. !he third stage is F"AA &#*<#.I!I# that can be introduced when the previous ones have been filled and with activities such as FICCIB &/"I.!*A. or +I!/$AG &A"$. L According to *atthew, writing skills can be divided on: 0. B"A</I& .IICC. which include aspects such as <%&!%A!I# or .<ACCIB 2. .!GCI.!I& .IICC. refer to our pupils3 ability to e,press precise meaning in a variety of styles and registers> to say 'hello( sad or happy 1. #"BAIJA!I#AC .IICC. which involve the se=uencing of ideas >by using connectors such as 'first(, 'finally( 4. B"A*A!I&AC .IICC. refer to our pupils3 ability to use successfully a variety of sentence patterns and construction and >negatives or affirmative sentences? 5. "/A!#"I&AC .IICC. refer to pupils3 ability to use cohesion devices in order to link part of a te,t into logically related se=uences >more or less as organi7ational? An activity type could be: .nap: *aterials: 24 playing cards with common words written on them. !he words need to be grouped into families which have two or three letters in common, for e,ample: at, hat, mat, cat- the, other, mother, another. *ethod: the cards are divided e=ually between two players. Aach player places the card face down in the usual way. When a player says 'snap(, sheF he has to say why the two cards are linked. o single letter matching is allowed. !he winner is the first player to collect all the cards. And with that I finish the first main point in this topic. ow, I will talk about the other main point. 4. T9E COMMUNICATIVE COM'ETENCE IN ENGLIS9 &homsky defined language as a set of sentences each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements /e said that a native speaker has a subconscious knowledge of the grammatical rules of his language, which allows him to make sentences in that language. !his is what &homsky called &#**%I&A!IHA &#*<A!A&A. /owever, $ACC /G*A. thought that &homsky had forgotten some very important information about the rules of use, because when a native speaks, he doesn3t only utter grammatically corrects, he also knows W/A"A, W/A, and to W/#* to use these. /e said that competence by itself is not enough to e,plain a speaker3s knowledge, and, replace it with the concept of communicative competence. /e distinguished F#%" A.<A&!. of his &&: systematic potential, appropiacy, occurrence and feasibility .G.!A*A!I& <#!A!IAC means that the native speaker possesses a system that has a potential for creating a lot of language. !his is similar to &homsky competence. A<<"#<IA&G means the native speaker knows what language is appropriate in a given situation. /is choice is based on the following variables: .A!!IB, <A"!I&I<A!, <%"<#.A, &/AAC and !#<I& #&%""A&A means that the native speaker knows how often something is said in a language and acts accordingly FAA.I+ICI!G means the native speaker knows whether something is possible in a language or not L !hese four categories have been adapted for teaching purposes L !hus, the "oyal $ecree 0;;6F:0 of 04 th of @une which establishes the teaching re=uirements for <rimary Aducation nationwide sees &ommunicative &ompetence as comprising five subcompetences: B"A**A" &, $I.&#%".A, .#&I#CIB%I.!I&, .!"A!ABI& A$ .#&I#&%C!%"AC &#*<A!A&A. B"A**A" &.: the ability to put into practice the linguistic units according to the rules of use established in the linguistic system $I.&#%".A &: the ability to use different types of discourse and organi7e them according to the communicative situation and the speakers involved in it. .#&I#CIB%I.!I& &: the ability to ade=uate the utterances to the specific conte,t, in according with the accepted usage of the determined linguistic community. .!"A!ABI& &: the ability to define, correct or in general, make adjustments, in the communicative situation. .#&I#&%C!%"AC &: which has to be understood as a certain awareness of the social and cultural conte,t in which the foreign language is used. Finally and 5. CONCLUSION of this topic, to say that the integrated education of the four main skills, beside to permit us the use of material for practising different linguistics activities, it answer to natural phenomenon in our everyday life: sometimes we talk >orally way? not only what we see, listen, but we also talk about something that we have just read, or, we write about something that we have heard or read. Any practice, thus, about a determined linguistic skills, must be completed and rested on the other ones. 6. :I:LIOGRA'9Y !he royal decree 0;;6F:0 of 04 th of @une about teaching re=uirements for <rimary Aducation. '!he <rimary Anglish !eacher3s Buide( by +rewster. Ad. <enguin. Anglish 0::2 '!he &ambridge Ancyclopaedia of Canguage( by &rystal. Ad. &ambridge. %niversity <ress 0:98 '!he <ractice of Anglish Canguage !eaching( by /armer. Ad. Congman. Condon. 0:91 UNIT 4: FOREIGN LANGUAGE AS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENT. INTERNATIONAL AND MULTILINGUAL REALITIES. INTEREST FOR A NE/ LANGUAGE AND CULTURE. 1. FOREIGN LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION. 4anguage can be a barrier to communication. The most usual way to go round is to find someone to interpret or translate it. there are many problems because exact equi"alence is impossible and there is always a loss of information# e"en with an accurate translation. 7n the other hand some people ha"e created new artificial languages# neutral# standardised# easy to learn# with a lot of functions# etc# but people cannot identify with a language nobody speaks. There is another solution# using a natural language for communication between different groups of people. For centuries 4atin has been used but nowadays is &nglish the one that is getting that position. 't is due to the political# economic and military power of the TK first and the T*! later. Trading# industry# science and literature ha"e contributed to it. &nglish is a li"e language# changing and de"eloping quickly. There are many linguistic loans from all languages and the meaning of some words change quite easily. 'n addition to that# "erbs system is simple and &nglish has not got genre. *ome people# most of them from countries with important languages# are reluctant to learn a second language. ut foreign language learning becomes a necessity nowadays9 The &uropean %ommunity9 meeting people from other countries on equal linguistic terms. !nd also the possibility for workers to mo"e from country to country. +eople tra"el a lot and languages help to cope with different situations and gi"e the opportunity of interaction with nati"es. There are more and more cultural exchanges. *cience# technology and trading demand foreign languages. 4anguages promote understanding# tolerance and respect for the cultural identity# rights and "alues of others. They broaden our minds# because we find other ways of thinking about things. Foreign language learning prepare students to cope with an e"er1changing en"ironment. They face up to social and personal demands. 4inguistic awareness is getting more and more accurate with foreign language studying. <other tongue gets also better. *o# teaching a language means also showing the linguistic aspects and knowing about the culture. The language is a "ehicle for it. (. TEAC3ING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE =ew materials include increasingly information about different aspects of the target language community (geography# social "alues# sports#[) 't can help the contrast between foreign community habits and pupils own habits. They must be aware of the different ways of beha"iour and also reduce the risk of intolerance. <eaning is not an isolated property of the text# it does not only appear in discourse# it is relational. +upils must know about the context where the text is shown. eing &nglish is a part of a person. $e must also mind sex# age# social class# ethnic background#[ The teaching of &nglish culture is not only a matter of words. $e must not reduce culture to stereotypes. $e are educating people for a more tolerant world and the ci"ilised acceptance of difference. 7ur task is to encourage people to take an interest and de"elop a positi"e attitude towards the foreign country and its people. *. CONTENTS *ociocultural expressions are shown mostly in traditional material (e.g.9 songs9 0' lo"e sixpence2# 0Teapot2) Traditional games and sports also help. &stablishing differences and contrasts in9 *ome :obs (e.g.9 milkman) *ocial politeness (<r.# <rs.# <iss# &xcuse me# please[) &"eryday acti"ities (meals# time# school timetable) $eather (clothes# seasons) *ociocultural distinctions (dri"ing on the left) %elebrations (3alloween) T3EME 4 T3E SECOND LANGUAGE AS A MEANS OF COMMUNICATION AMONG PEOPLE AND NATIONS. GENERATING AN INTEREST IN LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY T3ROUG3 ANOT3ER LANGUAGE AND CULTURE OUTLINE +!,T 7=&9 T!4& 7F %7=T&=T* -. '=T,7@T%T'7= /. %7=T&=T* /.-. 4anguage and communication /./. 4anguage and different cultures /.8. 4anguage as an instrument of holistic learning /.6. The importance of ha"ing materials in the resource room to achie"e a good intercultural atmosphere /.A. M'mmersion approach to second language learning /.5. 3ow to experience the culture of the &nglish1speaking world in the classroom 8. '4'7N,!+3> +!,T T$79 +,!%T'%!4 @&V&47+<&=T -. 4&V&4 /. T'<& 7F *&**'7=* 8. 7F&%T'V&* 8.-. Neneral 8./. *pecific 6. <&T37@747N> A. T3& T&!%3'=N T='T9 *+&%'F'% %7=T&=T* 5. !%T'V'T'&* !=@ T!*K* B. <!T&,'!4* ?. F'=!4 T!*K .. &V!4T!T'7= PART ONE: TA9LE OF CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION <odern textbooks take into account the linguistic aspects of a second language. 'n )anfare# for example# arbara $ilkes cites the following as her aims and ob:ecti"es9 to create an initial interest and en:oyment in foreign1language learning) to de"elop a positi"e attitude towards foreign cultures and people) to de"elop and awareness of the link between language and culture) to de"elop an awareness of language as an instrument of communication ($ilkes -..69 ?1.). Thus# in addition to contributing 0to the process of the de"elopment of the childs intellectual# social# emotional# and physical skills#2 and fostering 0impro"ed learning skills2# teaching &nglish as a foreign language (T&F4) should also include aspects related to intercultural appreciation and communication. (. CONTENTS (.1. Langag! an" )&++n$)a%$&n 4ouis +orcher has obser"ed that one of the ob:ects of teaching a foreign language 0is to gi"e the learner some measure of communicati"e competence in that language. This competence may correspond to a future need of the learner (-.?D9 -?).2 'n effect# that the mastering a second language has become a need for most people today is no longer a debatable issue. *chools not only ha"e the responsibility of teaching a second language as a linguistic system# but also as a social system to be used by the learner. 3ence# communication should begin in the school where the learning of a second language is taking place. +orcher maintains that since all teaching is itself a message# 0't must therefore be suitable for those for whom it is in fact intended (-.).2 For the author# a language is a social practice# a part of a peoples history. Thus# it becomes necessary to educate pupils in the socio1cultural context which is characteristic of the countries in which the foreign language is the mother tongue. 't is e"ident that inter1culturism is fast becoming an essential dimension in all teaching. The <odern 4anguages +rogramme of the %ouncil for %ultural %o17peration of the %ouncil of &urope has specifically defined the political ob:ecti"e which guides the programme in the following manner9 0to facilitate communication and interaction among &uropeans of different mother tongues in the ser"ice of &uropean mobility# mutual understanding and cooperation# and in order to o"ercome pre:udice and discrimination (Trim -.?-9 ').2 The following members of the %@%% +ro:ect Nroup 6# @. %oste# %. &delhoff# ,. ergenthoft# F. 4 <. Trim# each other has something to say in this respect. @aniel %oste writes# 0!s far as we are concerned# Mlearning to communicate does not in"ol"e learning something totally new9 all language learners are communicators already) what foreign language learning in"ol"es is learning to communicate differently and to communicate with a different set of people.O %oste holds that different ways of communicating ha"e to be learned (and not :ust linguistic ones). Furthermore# it is his belief that in order to learn to communicate with a different set of people# one must also learn a!out them. 3ence# communication is inseparable from a cultural context. The learning process itself becomes one of learning to communicate9 0For adults# adolescents and children alike# learning is a process which# howe"er slightly# in"ol"es and changes the whole indi"idual as a person and social agent) when it comes to learning a different language to communicate differently with a different set of people# it is a fair assumption that the changes and the in"ol"ement will be all marked (86).2 (.(. Langag! an" "$##!2!n% )1%2!' %hristopher &delhoff feels the attitude of learners is as important as their linguistic knowledge and skills. 0Teachers teaching a communication curriculum must be ready to accept that communication is free interaction between people of all talents# "iews# races and socio1cultural backgrounds and that foreign language communication# especially# is there for international understanding# human rights# democratic de"elopment and indi"idual enrichment.2 'n order to achie"e this end the learner needs to ha"e an attitude which reflects open1mindedness and respect for others) attitude must also include respect for the history# en"ironment# and "iews of other people (B5).2 ,ume ergentoft reminds us# 0'n the final !ct of the %onference on *ecurity and %o1operation in &urope# signed in 3elsinki in -.BA by the heads of state of the participating nations# the latter expressed their con"iction regarding the role now played by a knowledge of languages in connection among other things with closer international cooperation. 't was decided that a wider knowledge of languages was needed to promote world peace and cooperation (88). Finally# F. 4. Trim warns of the 0classical paradigm2 of language teaching and 0elitism2 in traditional language teaching at school. 0The Mclassical paradigm continued to dominate grammar schools until recently# and is till strong in many member countries...2 The author explains that the Mclassical paradigm tends to extend certain "alues and attitudes# which reflect the classics to the languages and cultures of modern &urope. 3e points out that from this perspecti"e# the study of a foreign language is but an intellectual discipline# based on the translation of passages from the classics which ha"e little bearing on the real world in which learners actually li"e. Trim further declares# 0This Mclassical paradigm is a"owedly elitist.2 3e feels that it creates barriers to communication which tend to reinforce and perpetuate di"isions in society. 3owe"er# Trim concludes that# though the classical paradigm continues to be powerful# contemporary creati"e writing no longer employs the criteria of clarity and refined taste 0to which the classical paradigm attaches the greatest importance (p. UU1UU').2 7ther authors ha"e taken similar positions. &arl $. *te"ick refers to a language class as being 0one area in which a number of pri"ate uni"erses intersect one another (-.?D9 B).2 3e feels that each learner# though a total indi"idual# is in fact affected by what the others do. The teacher should be aware L and sympathi(e with the fact1 that there are times when a learner will resist learning something which "iolates certain peer norms. For example# learners may at first re:ect the language simply because of its foreignness. Teachers should therefore be aware that the fear of losing support from those closest to the learner (peers# parents# etc.) may be an inhibiting factor. *te"ick refers to a 0world of meaningful action2# which# he says# tends to draw peers# family members# and life1goals during the language learning process. 3e concludes# 0Foreignness# shallowness# irrele"ance# and the subordinate position of the student Lall may be obstacles to a learners feeling of Mprimacy in a world of meaningful action (-D).2 (.*. Langag! a' an $n'%2+!n% &# 7&1$'%$) 1!a2n$ng +aul N. 4a forge affirms# 04anguage learning is people9 this is the basic social process in learning ( -.?89 "iii).2 y this he means that the acquisition of second language is the result of an interpersonal relationship which includes the teacher and the group of students. For 4a Forge# the interactions are dynamic and contribute to a personal growth for all in"ol"ed. Their relationship becomes modified as a result of the learning of a new language. Furthermore# he recogni(es the significance of the social process in twentieth1century language de"elopment9 0! process "iew of language has opened the route to an understanding of mankind# social history# and the laws of how a society functions (-).2 This means that &F4 learning in"ol"es social# historical# cultural# and indi"idual interconnections. Nertrude <oskowit( defends a system of 03umanistic &ducation2# which she describes as 0combining the sub:ect matter to be learned with the feelings# emotions# experiences# and li"es of the learners (-.B?9 --).2 *he is concerned with educating the whole person# both intellectually and emotionally. 'n the authors opinion# second language learning not only stimulates better human understanding# but it also leads to greater independence and self1steem. y learning another language# learners care more both for themsel"es and others. %aleb Nattegno belie"ed in 0the spirit of language.2 3e felt hat by learning another language one absorbs the culture and history of the language users. 3uman beings incorporate into their languages conscious or unconscious collecti"e aims# passions# and "ision# which are taken on by the learner. 3e suggested that languages are reflections of the "arious modes of thought of a people9 0The spirit of each language seems to act as a container for the melody and the structure of the language and most users are unconscious of it (-.B?9 -.)2. (.4. T7! $+-&2%an)! &# 7a,$ng +a%!2$a1' $n %7! 2!'&2)! 2&&+ %& a)7$!,! a g&&" $n%!2)1%2a1 a%+&'-7!2! rumfit and Finocchiaro suggest that acquiring a language also implies acquiring 0enough knowledge about the culture of the target community to participate fully in a con"ersation at the beginning of a stay in a foreign country2. !dditionally# they hold that &F4 teaching should pro"ide 0the implicit and explicit learning of culture and language "arieties through a multi1media approach and an acti"e methodology based on creati"e use of language (-.?A9 /5)2. 'n order to achie"e this they suggest using the following resources9 radio broadcasts# tele"ision# tapes# cassettes# documentary# recreational films# pictures# and short dialogs dealing with e"eryday situations. Furthermore# paralinguistic features need to be considered as well as gestures and facial expressions. The authors insist that learners cultural insights are a must in &F4 learning. (.I. JI++!2'$&n a--2&a)7K %& '!)&n" 1angag! 1!a2n$ng 3. 3. *tern alludes to an area of in"estigation# language teaching for younger children# which came to the fore around -.5D when T=&*%7 organi(ed meetings in 3amburg in -.5/ and -.55 with the purpose of stimulating comparati"e research in different countries. 3owe"er# he sadly concludes that within ten years most of the resulting enquiries had 0not always produced the clear1cut finding that had perhaps been expected from them when they were initiated (-.?69 A5)2. The two T=&*%71sponsored international meetings were intended to promote research on early language teaching and on the effecti"eness of an early start. These meetings centred on the feasibility of an early start in school systems and re"ealed that young children responded to second language teaching in a positi"e way (856). 7n a similar note# *tern asserts that two of the most interesting research endea"ours in the se"enties were the %ouncil of &urope <odern 4anguages +ro:ect and the %anadian French immersion experiments# of which he was a participant. The %ouncil of &urope +ro:ect# which was initiated in -.B-# in"ol"es the co1operation of school1ars in se"eral countries. The French immersion research programme in %anada# which began in -.5A# 0illustrates the effecti"eness of an Mimmersion approach to second language learning (-.?69 55)2. 'n both studies# communication or communicati"e competence was one of the prime ob:ecti"es. *tern further points out that the term 0communicati"e competence2# is a term which is used a great deal. 3ymes was the first to employ the term# in contrast to %homskys 0linguistic competence2. 0%ommunicati"e competence2 reflects the social "iew of language. The concept of communicati"e competence is integral with communicati"e language teaching. 't has become a central focus for &F4 teaching# which in"ol"es the study and practice of functional# structural# lexical and sociocultural aspects. The learning experience itself should be personal and engage in a direct use of the language and contact with the target language community (*tern -.?69 /5). (.L. 3&6 %& !=-!2$!n)! %7! )1%2! &# %7! Eng1$'7:'-!a0$ng 6&21" $n %7! )1a''2&&+ Finally# to de"elop cultural insights# Finocchiaro suggests the classroom should 0reflect the culture of the &nglish1speaking world (-.B69 .6)2. *he submits that the following aspects be incorporated into &F4 teaching9 maps and posters# a bulletin board with newspaper and maga(ine clipping# including comic strips# pro"erbs and pictures) a table or shelf with ob:ects such as stamps# money# artifacts# and a library corner. *he also recommends the carrying out of 0pro:ects related to &nglish1speaking culture which will then ser"e for class reporting and discussion (.A)2. *uch pro:ects might include the following9 preparation of maps# tra"el itineraries# floor plans# menus# calendars indicating holidays# scrapbook# flimstrips or pictures# play readings# a book fair. !dditionally# culture may be experienced through songs# festi"als# poems# multimedia resource material. *he also suggests# 0! pen pal pro:ect should be initiated "ery soon after the students learn to write (.B)2. *. 9I9LIOGRAP3Y F'=7%%3'!,7# <.9 (-.B6). 0nglish as a second language* from theory to practice. ,eprint ed. =ew >ork9 ,egents. F'=7%%3'!,7 <. !nd ,T<F'T# %.9 (-.?A). ;he functional4notional approach* from theory to practice. ,eprint ed. 7xford9 7xford Tni". +ress. N!TT&N=7# %.9 (-.B?). ;eaching foreign languages in schools* the silent way. / nd ed. =ew >ork9 &ducational *olutions. 4! F7,N&# +. N.9 (-.?8). #ounseling and #ulture in %econd anguage 'cquisition. 7xford9 +ergamon +ress. <7*K7$'T\# N.9 (-.B?). #aring and sharing in the foreign language class* ' source!ook on humanistic techniques. ,owley# <assachusetts9 =ewbury 3ouse. +7,%3&,# 4.9 (-.?D). /eflections on language needs in the school. *trasbourg9 %ouncil for %ultural %ooperation of the %ouncil of &urope. *T&,=# 3. 3.9 (-.?6). )undamental concepts of languge teaching. 8 rd ed. 7xford9 7xford Tni". +ress. *T&V'%K# &.$.9(-.?D). ;eaching languages* a way and ways. ,owley# <assachusetts9 =ewbury 3ouse. T,'<# F. 4. <.# pro:ect ad"iser9 (-.?-). &odern languages programme =>?=4=>@=. *trasbourg9 %ouncil for %ultural %o17peration of the %ouncil of &urope. V'4K&*# .9 (-..6). )anfare. 7xford9 7xford Tni". +ress. PART T/O: PRACTICAL DEVELOPMENT 1. LEVEL Third cycle (5 th grade) (. TIME OF SESSION Four periods of class# one week before %hristmas. *. O9JECTIVES *.1. G!n!2a1 - To recogni(e the communicati"e "alue of learning a foreign language# showing a positi"e attitude of understanding and respect for other languages and cultures. *.(. S-!)$#$) - *tudents will be able to increase their understanding of and compare %hristmas customs in &nglish speaking countries. - 4earn the lyrics and music of popular %hristmas %arol and sing it. - &xperience and extract information from the song in the past tense. - 'nteract with other cultures. 4. MET3ODOLOGY The methodology used should be suitable to a communicati"e approach to teaching &nglish as a foreign language. That is# taking into consideration the age# ability and needs of the students# as well as the criteria specified in the o"erall ob:ecti"es of the course# the &F4 teacher should apply leaning strategies which are based on learning by doing# i.e.# task oriented strategies. The tasks required elicit a participati"e attitude on the part of the learners and a guiding role on the part of the teacher. !dditionally# the teacher should help the students to learn both to think and to do in the target language. I. T3E TEAC3ING UNIT: SPECIFIC CONTENTS #onceptual* - "ocabulary (*pecifics words from the song and %hristmas words) - phonological aspects (practise the pronunciation of the consonant Lr1). .rocedural* - %hristmas en"ironment. - warm1up acti"ities - listening tasks - +roducti"e acti"ities %ociological aspects* - %uriosity for different customs. - ,espect for different cultures.
L. ACTIVITIES AND TAS.S 5.-. rain1storming9 The students (**) say any &nglish words they know which are related to %hristmas. 5./. The teacher (T) shows them how to make a calendar of events. 5.8. ** work in groups (four to fi"e people) and make one calendar for each group. 5.6. Tsing a cassette recorder# T plays %hristmas carols while ** work with the calendars. 5.A. ** hang their calendars on the walls and T uses them to go o"er the meaning of words. 5.5. T plays the song /udolph the red4nose ,eindeer and while ** listen carefully. 5.B. ** read the lyrics of the song with missing words (listening task). 5.?. y listening and discussing ** find the missing words and start memori(ing the lyrics (day by day). 5... T gi"es ** a text from 0<arys @iary2 which tells what <ary did last %hristmas. 5.-D Tsing their own nati"e language (4-)# ** discuss in how the %hristmas customs narrated in <arys diary compare with customs in *pain. 5.-- !t the end of the short1term series# the classroom is decorated. ** gi"e each other presents and they sing together the song 0,udolph the red1nose reindeer2. G. MATERIALS - ! cassette tape of the song 0,udolph...2 and a cassette recorder. - $rapping paper# glue# scissors# coloured markers and optional material (tacks# staplers# etc.). - ! textof <arys diary talking about %hristmas customs in her country. H. FINAL TAS. ** write about what they did last %hristmas9 The pages will go into a class diary that e"eryone can read. M. EVALUATION (*ee thematic number -6) TEMA I: GEOGRAP3IC, 3ISTORIC AND CULTURAL FRAME/OR. OF T3E ENGLIS3:SPEA.ING CONUNTRIES. DIDACTIC APPLICATION OF T3E MOST MEANINGFUL GEOGRAP3IC, 3ISTORIC AND CULTURAL ASPECTS. 1.: INTRODUCTION: &nglish is spoken in all continents. &nglish is the most widespread language on earth. &nglish speaking is established in the ritish 'sles# =orth !merica# !ustralia and =orth !frica. The &nglish speaking is uncertain in !frica# 'ndian subcontinent and *outheast !sia. $e will draw a geographical# historical and cultural outline of the most important &nglish1speaking countries. $e will study the importance of sociocultural competence to the acquisition of communicati"e# and list acti"ities to reach it. (.: GEOGRAP3IC, 3ISTORIC AND CULTURAL FRAME/OR. OF T3E ENGLIS3:SPEA.ING COUNTRIES. (.1.: EXTENT AND SIGNIFICATION OF T3E ENGLIS3 LANGUAGE. &nglish has spread all o"er the world. %urrently &nglish is spoken and understood in the whole continent. 't is the international language of commerce# science and research. 't is easier to learn for !siatics and !fricans# but France wants to a"oid the use of &nglish words. 'n *pain there ha"e been campaigns against the !merican 0contamination2 in papers# radio# TV or cinema. $e can say that in *outh !merica# &nglish is widely spoken. Many Caribbean countries are bilingual, they speak English and Spanish. This demand of English, all over the world, has caused an economic phenomenon, a military expansion, the scientific advances and the power of media. 2.2.- ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. The Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes, imported English from the continent when they invaded "Great Britain, after the arrival of the Roman Empire in the 5 th century. The language of these three peoples was basically the same, and the know dialects of Old English developed after their setting in the isles. The Norman Conquest in 1066 caused tremendous linguistic changes from that moment on we will talk about Middle English. Characteristics of Middle English were: Reductions of inflections. Disappearance of the grammatical gender. Rigidity in sentence word order. Fight among dialects. French orthography. The influence of French and Latin terms modify the structure of the English Language. About 1250, when the Normans lost Normandy and French language took and important paper, it began to be questioned whether English should be used as a representative national language. Which dialled should become the standard language? Around 1350 the London dialect was about to become the "winner. The political predominance of London as a governing centre facilities the spreading of this dialect thought the country. From 1400 onwards French is reduced to the aristocracy and as a vehicle of commercial transactions with the continent. From 1650 to 1850 there is a change in the attitude of English people towards their own language. There have been some changes in the Standard English, they are a consequence of the diversification of the "social dialects. 2.3.- GEOGRAPHIC, HISTORIC AND CULTURAL FRAMEWORK OF THE ENGLISH-SPEAKING COUNTRIES. English is the most spoken language in the world after Chinese. We are going to talk about the general characteristics of the English-speaking countries. A.- THE UNTED KNGDOM. n full the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. s made up of England, Wales, Scotland and Northern reland. t's a member of the Commonwealth and European Community. The capital is London. The currency is sterling pound. t is a constitutional monarchy, with two houses: House of Lords and House of Commons. The chief of state is the sovereign, and the head of government is the prime minister. ts geographic situation has marked its history, characterized by its independence to the continent. Nowadays this distance has disappeared with the building of the channel tunnel. ndustry has always been the main economic source, here the industrial revolution took place. Commerce has also been the basic for their prosperity. The UK dominated the maritime routes. The British monarchy was founded in 1066 by William the Conqueror, it has been a system, with a small break of ten years corresponding to the republican government imposed by Oliver Cromwell. At the present moment, the monarch is Elisabeth ; she is also the head of the Anglican Church. There are two big political parties: the conservative party and the labour party. The principal river is the Thames. The highest point in UK is Ben Nevis (1343) in Scotland. The population grew in 1950 with the arrival of Commonwealth emigrants. They came from ndia, Pakistan and Bangladesh. B.- THE REPUBLC OF RELAND. This nation occupies the largest part of an island situated west of Great Britain. The national language is rish, but the official one is English. The major religion is Catholicism. ts capital is Dublin. reland is an unitary multiparty republic, with two houses: senate and the house of representative. The chief of state is the president and the head of government is the prime minister. Currency is rish pound. The highest point is carrantuchill; the major river is the Shannon. reland belongs to the European Community. reland obtains the independence from Great Britain in 1921. The rish economy is based on the agriculture. t has not got important mineral resources. The religious conflict: Catholics and Protestants, The majority of the population in England is Anglican, the main features of the Anglican Church are the subordination to the Queen and its positives rejection of the Pope authority. n Northern reland, most of the population is Catholic. n Belfast, the capital, Catholics and Protestants cause almost daily victims. The RA, rish Republican Army, commits terrorist attacks. The RA wants the Protestants to abandon Northern reland. They want to get the self-government for the Ulster. C.- THE UNTED STATES. English language is an universal language because it has been established in many countries. This export began in 17 th century with the birth of the colonies in North America. The main reason of the status of English is the great number or inhabitants in USA and the massive emigrations on the 19 th and 20 th century. The USA is a federal republic formed by 50 states. Two legislatives houses: senate and the house of representative. The head of state and government is the president. ts capital is Washington. The first river is Mississippi river. The currency is American dollar. Religion: there isn't a principal religion. Protestantism is, perhaps, the most practised. t is a nation of groups, where the minorities try to get equal rights and opportunities. The language is English, but there are minorities such as Spanish or Asians, trying to keep alive their language. t is a very rich country, with important metallic and energy sources. The USA obtains the independence from Great Britain in 1783. From more than half a century ago the USA is the 1 st world power. ts history is a long and constant territorial progress, with a great political and military development. D.- THE BRTSH EMPRE The Victorian Era (1837-1901) was a period of prestige for Great Britain. n the 16 th century Great Britain developed its commercial capacity, by conquering every strategic point along the mercantile routes. During the 18 th and 19 th centuries, they became a great empire. All these territories were controlled by generators who imposed their language, their culture and laws. Most of these territories were colonies for the exploitation, which originated the British richness and splendour. The population was formed by emigrant who wanted to start a new life. The different territories got their independence, but some of them were not prepared for self-governing and have became 3 rd world countries ruled by dictators. E.- THE COMMONWEALTH. t was founded in 1931 to carry out the dissolution of the British Empire. t is formed by 32 independent nations, they maintain the English crown as their Head of State. The reason for this institution is the economic interest of the countries that belong to it. States members: UK, Canada, Trinity and Tobago, Kenya, Nigeria, Zambia, Australia, New Zealand, etc. F.- PHLPPNES. The republic of Philippines is an independent state since 1946. Language: Tagalo; English as a commercial language. Religion: Catholic. Capital: Manila. Spain lost the colony in 1898, under the domain of USA in 1935, it was constituted as a sovereign state under the North American supervision. G.- THE COMMON LAW. An amazing fact about the English legal system. There is not a penal or civil code. They have the common law. The sentences are based on previous trials. The juries are formed by citizens coming from different social classes, they consider if the accused is guilty or innocent. n USA, there are federal jurisdictions, every state has its own laws, courts and police. 3.- DIDACTIC APPLICATION OF THE MOST MANINGFUL GEOGRAPHIC HISTORIC AND CULTURAL ASPECTS. The teacher of a modern language must teach not only the foreign language but also the civilization of the countries and people who speak that language. Apart from history and geography, our pupils must get familiar politics, mass media, etc. 3.1.- HOW CAN WE TEACH ENGLICH CIVILIZATION? There are 3 different procedures: 1. Int!"!t#t$% !#&$n'. First we must know the level of the group before planning any activity. There should be a correspondence between the level of the text and the level of the group. Different types of texts. The important result is that they get the signification about the society or social aspects reflected in the text- Example: journey around the world in 80 days. The typical gentleman. 2. P!#(t$() *+ *!#, -"!))$*n. We can offer our pupils photographs showing different aspects of British life, they must say whatever they suggest to them. We can use a dramatization of a dialogue, eg. "An English breakfast (foods, timetable, courtesy sentences), "a tourist visit (we can use postcards or photographs). We can mention Christmas, Thanksgiving Day, American ndependence). 3. D$&#(t$( .) *+ )*n'). They are a pedagogic support for the teaching of civilization. The songs must have certain characteristics: 1 correspondence with the level of the pupils. 1 nteresting for the pupils They can learn some structures with the songs. NTRODUCTON &"ery aspect of language is enormously complex. >et# children learn most of the intricate system of their mother tongue before the age of six. efore they can add /Z/# children are putting sentences together# asking questions# negating sentences# using the syntactic# phonological# morphological# and semantic rules of the language. %hildren are not taught language as they are taught arithmetic. They learn language in a different way. 4'=NT'*T %7<+&T&=%& !=@ %7<<T='%!T'V& %7<+&T&=%& $e are far from completely understanding the language acquisition process. $e are :ust beginning to grapple with those aspects of the human neurological and biological make up which explain the childs ability to acquire language. %ertainly it is clear that the child is equipped from birth with the necessary neural prerequisites for language and language use. 7ur knowledge of the nature of human language tell us something about what the child does and does when acquiring a language9 -) %hildren do not learn a language by storing all the words ant all the sentences in some giant mental dictionary. The list of words is finite# but no dictionary can hold all the sentences# which are infinite in number. /) %hildren learn to understand sentences they ha"e ne"er heard before# and to construct sentences# most of which they ha"e ne"er produced before. 8) %hildren must therefore learn 0rules2 which permit them to use language creati"ely. 6) =o one teaches them these rules. Their parents are no more aware of phonological# syntactic# morphological# and semantic rules than the children are. %hildren# then# seem to act like "ery efficient linguists equipped with a perfect theory of language# who use this theory to build up the grammar of the language they hear. 'n addition to acquiring the complex rules of the grammar (that is# linguistic competence)# children must also learn the complex rules of the appropriate social use for language# what certain scholars ha"e called communicati"e competence. These include# for example# the greetings which are to be used# the 0taboo2 words# the polite forms of address the "arious styles which are appropriate to different situations# and so forth. STAGES OF LANGUAGE ACQUISITION IN C3ILDREN 4inguists di"ide the childs acquisition of a language into prelinguistic and linguistic stages. There continues to be disagreement as to what should be included in these periods. ut most scholars agree that the earliest cries and whimpers of the newborn cannot be considered early language. *uch noises are completely stimulus1 controlled) they are the childs in"oluntary responses to hunger# discomfort# the feeling of well1being# etc. T9E :A::LING STAGE Tsually around the sixth month period# the infant begins to babble. The sounds produced in this period seem to include the sounds of human languages. The role of babbling is not clearly understood# but it is absolutely clear that in order that the language de"elop finally# the child must recei"e some auditory input. T9E 9OLO'9RASTIC STAGE *ometime after children are one year old# they begin to use same string of sounds repeatedly to 0mean2 the same thing. <ost children seem to go through the 0one wordQone sentence2 stage. The child uses :ust one word to express concepts or predications which will later be expressed by complex phrases and sentences. T9E TWO-WORD STAGE !round the time of their second birthday children begin to produce two1word utterances like9 0allgone sock2) 0bye1bye boat2) 0it ball2) 0hi mommy2) 0dirty sock2) mummy sock2. @uring this stage there are no syntactic or morphological markers) that is# no inflections for number# tense# or person. The two words a child utters can express a number of different grammatical relations which will later be expressed by other syntactic de"ices. TELEGRA'9 TO INFINITY There does not seem to be any 0three1word sentence2 stage. $hen a child starts stringing more than two words together# the utterances may be two# three# four# or fi"e words or longer. The words in a 0sentence2 are not strung together randomly) from a "ery early stage# childrens utterances re"eal their grasp of the principles of sentence formation. These first utterances of children which are longer than two words ha"e a special characteristic. Tsually# the small 0function2 words such as to# the# can# is# etc# are missing ) only the words which carry the main message Lthe 0content2 wordsL occur. %hildren often sound as if they were reading telegrams# which is why such utterances are called 0telegraphic speech2. For example9 0%athy build house2) 0=o sit here2) 0%ar stand up table2. !s children acquire more and more language# or more closely approximate the adult grammar# they not only begin to use function words but also acquire the inflectional and deri"ational morphemes of the language. There seems to be a natural order of acquisition of morphemes. 't seems that the suffix Ling is the earliest inflectional morpheme acquired. &"entually all the other inflections are added# along with the syntactic rules# and finally the childs utterances sound like those spoken by adults. T3EORIES OF C3ILD LANGUAGE ACQUISISTION IMITATION There are those who think that children merely imitate what they hear. 'mitation is in"ol"ed# of course# but the sentences produced by children show that they are not imitating adult speech. &"en when children are deliberately trying to imitate what they hear# there are unable to produce sentences which cannot be generated by their grammar. POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT !nother theory suggest that children learn to produce 0correct2 sentences because they are positi"ely reinforced when they say something right and negati"ely reinforced when they say something wrong. This "iew does not tell us how children construct the correct rules. $hate"er 0correction2 takes place is based more on the content of the message than on its form. That is# if a child says 2=obody dont like me2# the mother may say 0&"erybody likes you/. esides# all attempts to 0correct2 a childs language are doomed to failure. %hildren dont know what they are doing wrong and are e"en unable to make the corrections when they are pointed to them. CREATIVE CONSTRUCTION The reinforcement theory fails along with the imitation theory. =either of these "iews accounts for the fact that children are constructing their own rules. @ifferent rules go"ern the construction of sentences as the grammar is learned. The 0imperfect2 sentences children use are perfectly regular. They are not 0mistakes2 in the childs language) they reflect his or her grammar at a certain stage of de"elopment. The child seems to form the simplest and most general rule he can from the language input he recei"es# and is so 0pleased2 with his 0theory2 that he uses the rule whene"er he can. The most ob"ious example of this 0o"ergenerali(ation2 is shown when children treat irregular "erbs and nouns as if they were regular. $e ha"e probably all heard children say 0goed2# 0singed2# or 0foots2# 0childs2. These mistakes tell us more about how children learn language than the 0correct2 forms they use. The child couldnt be imitating) children use such forms in families where parents would ne"er utter such 0bad &nglish2. The childs ability to generali(e patterns and construct rules is also shown in the de"elopment of the semantic system. For example# the child learns the word 0daddy2 and later applies it to other men. Thus# a third theory suggests that language acquisition is a creati"e construction process# and that children ha"e to 0construct2 all the rules of the grammar. !ccording to the famous linguist =oam %homsky.# 0it seems plain that language acquisition is based on the childs disco"ery of what from a formal point of "iew is a deep and abstract theory L a generati"e grammar of his language2. %hildren seem to be equipped with special abilities or with a 0language acquisition de"ice2# residing principally in the left side of the brain# to know :ust what they can ignore# to find all the regularities in the language. The details of this 0innate2 de"ice are far from understood. !s we gain more information about brain functions and the preconditions for language acquisition# we will learn more about the nature of human language. LEARNING AND ACQUISITION OF A SECOND LANGUAGE !s we compare a childs acquisition of his mother tongue with the learning and acquisition of a second or foreign language# it becomes e"ident that the processes and theories in"ol"ed seem to be# at least to a certain extent# parallel. 7ther aspects# on the other hand# keep less similarity # as it the case with the stages that children go through. The learning progression does not take place in a linear way# by successi"e appropriation of the different subsystems implied# but rather by a global approximation which in the initial stages implies a considerable simplification and an exclusion of peculiarities that are not percei"ed as essential. +rogress consists then in a continuous process of completing# polishing and enriching this global apprehension of the new communication system. Thus# the teaching and learning of a foreign language should not be "iewed so much in terms of a series of elemental units of content which are perfectly apprehended before proceeding to the next# but in terms of a communication system which is globally elaborated and whose complexity and communicati"e potential increases in a progressi"e form. 't should be pointed out that the information processing mechanisms often work efficiently e"en when the student is not producing utterances. @uring the first moments in the learning of a foreign language# there are often silent periods during which the student does not produce at all. This silence# howe"er# cannot unmistakably be interpreted as a lack of learning) it often co"ers an intense acti"ity that cannot be directly obser"ed and which sometime in the future# will let him produce utterances which reflect the internal representation that he has built during those silent periods. 'f we accept that creati"e construction can take place without generating an immediate production# we will ha"e to admit that recepti"e acti"ities specific comprehension competencies can be de"eloped# but also# what is not so e"ident# the general communicati"e competence that is behind e"ery linguistic system. The abo"e explained makes clear that the process of language learning is complex and that this process takes place in a personal and distinct way for each indi"idual since the strategies which let the sub:ect recei"e and transform the input he recei"es are always used in a particular way. .A&#$ CAB%A@A A&P%I.!I# !/A#"G !ccording to Krashen there are fi"e hypotheses# which try to explain the process of acquisition of a second language9 T9E AC>UISTION-LEARNING 9Y'OT9ESIS !cquisition in a not conscious process in which the person is not aware of the grammar or the rules he uses. 'n many ways acquisition can be compared to the process by which a child becomes proficient in his mother tongue. 'n this way# fluency is progressi"ely gained as the proficiency in consolidated. &rrors are accepted as a normal part of the process. 4earning occurs consciously# we ha"e to study the rules which go"ern a gi"en language. $e are not responsible for our fluency since we depend on the acti"ities suggested by the teacher. 4earning has only one function9 as editor or as monitor# that is# to make corrections and change our output. T9E NATURAL ORDER 9Y'OT9ESIS This 3ypothesis states the grammatical structures are acquired in a fairly predictable order in 4- nati"e language and 4/ (second language). 'n other words# :ust as children learn their nati"e language in a natural order# so students of a foreign language learn structures in a predictable way. =e"ertheless two points can be made against this hypothesis9 a) $e do not ha"e information about the order of acquisition of e"ery structure in e"ery language. esides# there are indi"idual "ariations. b) The existence of a natural order of acquisition does not imply that we should teach second languages following this order. T9E MONITOR 9Y'OT9ESIS The monitor hypothesis states the relationship between acquisition and learning. !cquisition plays a far more important role than learning because learning is used as editor or monitor only. The function of monitor is to make self corrections and change the output before of after speaking or writing. ut in order to use the monitor# three conditions need be fulfilled9 a) Time9 in order to make a self1correction we need time. *elf correction can hardly be used without altering fluency. b) Focus on form9 we ha"e to be aware of the grammar forms we are using and know that there is a choice of forms. c) Finally# once we ha"e stopped and concentrated on the form# it is necessary to ha"e a correct knowledge of the rules so that the proper correction can be made. Thus# it can be easily deducted that monitor 0o"erusers2 may ha"e difficulty in acquiring fluency. <onitor# howe"er# can be a great help if used for grammar tests and writing. T9E IN'UT 9Y'OT9ESIS /! a)@$2! 1angag! 58 n"!2'%an"$ng $n-% %7a% )&n%a$n' $ N 1 0i Z -2 means a step by step progression. 'n order to progress the input (i) should be only a bit beyond (-) the acquirers current le"el of competence. $e understand language that we do not 0know2 by using context# extra1linguistic information# and our knowledge of the world. 'n the same fashion# language is made understandable to us through the use of de"ices such as simplified# "isual clues# key words and phrases# gestures or familiar topics. /! "& n&% %!a)7 '-!a0$ng "$2!)%18 *peaking fluency emerges on its own o"er time# thus# the best way to 0teach2 speaking is to pro"ide comprehensible input. For the same reason# early speech is typically not accurate. @irect error correction should be a"oided. T7! >5!'%? $n-% '7&1" n&% 5! >g2a++a%$)a118 '!@!n)!"? 't is enough by pro"iding genuinely interesting and comprehensible input. Teachers should organi(e content on the basis of themes or topics which are rele"ant to the students needs and interests (communication1based syllabus or curriculum). T9E AFFECTIVE FILTER 9Y'OT9ESIS 't deals with the effect of affecti"e "ariables on 4/ acquisition. They are "ariables like anxiety# moti"ation or self1confidence. The affecti"e filter produces a mental block which pre"ents inputs to enter the 0language acquisition de"ice2. Krashen summari(es his fi"e hypothesis with a single claim9 0%omprehensible input is the only causati"e "ariable in second language acquisition. +eople acquire second languages when they obtain comprehensible input and when their affecti"e filters are low enough to allow the input in2. !N& @'FF&,&=%&* '= *&%7=@ 4!=NT!N& !%XT'*'T'7= 7lder acquirers are faster in the early stages of second language acquisition because9 a) they are better at obtaining comprehensible input as they ha"e good con"ersational management) b) they ha"e superior knowledge of the world# which helps to make input comprehensible) c) they can participate in con"ersation earlier# "ia use of first language syntax. >ounger acquirers tend to attain higher le"els of proficiency in second languages than adults in the long run due to a lower affecti"e filter. IM'LICATIONS FOR SECOND LANGUAGE TEAC9ING The fi"e hypothesis about 4/ acquisition predict that any successful 4/ teaching program must ha"e the following characteristics) a) 't must supply input in the 4/ that is9 - %omprehensible. - 'nteresting and rele"ant to students. The goal is# thus# to transmit messages# not to practice grammar. b) 't must not force students to speak before they are ready and must be tolerant of errors in early speech. $e impro"e in grammatical accuracy by obtaining more input# not by error correction. c) 't must put grammar in its proper place. *ome adults# and "ery few children# are able to use conscious grammar rules to increase the grammatical accuracy of their output) and e"en for these people# "ery strict conditions (time# focus on form# and knowledge of the rule) need to be fulfilled before the conscious knowledge of grammar can be applied# gi"en the monitor hypothesis presented abo"e. ,74& 7F T3& F',*T 4!=NT!N& '= *&%7=@ 4!=NT!N& !%XT'*'T'7= CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS 9Y'OT9ESIS The first language has long been considered the ma:or cause of a learners problems with the new language. 't 0interferes2 with the learners acquisition of his of her 4/. 'f a structure in 4- differs from that of 4/# errors that reflect the structure on the 4- will be produced. This process has been labelled interference or negati"e transfer. *panish structure9 ad: Z noun9 4a casa grande 'nterference with &nglish9 ]The house big 'f a structure in both languages is the same# there will be positi"e transfer or (ero interference# and there will be no errors in 4/ performance. *panish plural marker 01s29 libros &nglish plural marker 01s29 books The contrasti"e !nalysis treatment of errors was popular up through the -.5Ds. ! large part of the rationale for the %ontrasti"e !nalysis hypothesis was drawn from principles of beha"iourist psychology. There are two central concepts in transfer9 a) the automatic and not conscious use of the old beha"iour (habits) in new learning situations (beha"iourist "iew)) b) the use of past knowledge and experience in new situations (other educational and psychological "iews). 'n recent years there ha"e been enough data accumulated to place the 4/ learners first language in a 0respectable2 role. +resent research results suggest that the ma:or impact the 4- has on 4/ acquisition may ha"e to do with accent# not with grammar. ERROR ANALYSIS MOVEMENT <any teachers and researchers noticed that a great number of the errors that students make could not possibly be traced to their nati"e languages. The theoretical climate of the late fifties and early sixties pro"ided the ultimate rationale for the error analysis approach9 =oam %homskys# ,e"iew of .F. *kinners Verbal eha"iour (-.A.) questioned the "ery core of the beha"iourist habit theory which accounts for language learning. %homskys "iews# along with +iagetian psychology# succeeded in highlighting the pre"iously neglected mental make1up of learners as a central force in the learning process# not a habit formation. In%!21$nga1 an" "!,!1&-+!n%a1 !22&2' The term error is used to refer to any de"iation from a selected norm of language performance# no mater what the characteristics or causes of the de"iation might be. 'n the &rror !nalysis "iew# errors that reflect the learners 4- structures are not called interference but interlingual errors. @e"elopment errors are errors similar to those made by children acquiring their nati"e tongue. For example# students of &nglish as a foreign often say things such as9 3e cans play football "ery well. This error is also found in the speech of children acquiring &nglish as their first language. ,esearchers ha"e consistently found that# contrary to widespread opinion# the great ma:ority of errors made by second language learners are not interlingual# but de"elopmental. !lthough adults tend to exhibit more 4- influence in their errors then children do# adult interlingual errors also occur in small proportions. I+-1$)a%$&n' &# !22&2 ana18'$' #&2 L( 1!a2n$ng &rror !nalysis has yielded insights into the 4/ acquisition process that ha"e stimulated ma:or changes in teaching practices. *tudying learners errors ser"es two ma:or purposes9 a) it pro"ides data from which interferences about the nature of the language acquisition process can be made) and b) it indicates to teachers and curriculum de"elopers# which part of the target language students ha"e most difficulty to produce correctly and which error types detract most from a learners ability to communicate effecti"ely. INTERLANGUAGE 'nterlanguage is the linguistic system that a learner constructs on his way to the mastery of a target language. <ethodologically# interlanguage may be said to incorporate the assumption of both %ontrasti"e !nalysis and &rror !nalysis. $hile %ontrasti"e !nalysis contrasts the learners nati"e language and the target language# and con"entional &rror !nalysis in"ol"es contrast between the learners performance and the target language# interlanguage take all three elements into account# explicitly incorporating the contrasti"e analysis of the learners interlanguage with both his nati"e and the target language.
Tema-6 The unit under consideration is entitled: "INFLUENCES OF LINGUISTICS ON THE TEACHING OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES. THE SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE ACQUISITION OF THE FIRST SCHOOL LANGUAGE AND THAT OF THE FOREIGN LANGUAGE" We will start our discussion with a sort of introduction and continue with the first point that deals with the influences of Linguistic Language Teaching, as well as the influences of other sciences. At this point from a definition of Linguistics, we then move onto Compared Linguistics. Two linguistic theories are also looked into: tructuralism and !enerative !rammar. ociolinguistic is also defined. We will finish this "lock with the contri"utions of other sciences such as #edagog$ and #s$colog$ to the process of foreign language teaching. econdl$, we will look into the language learning process and we shall tr$ to find the differences "etween the ac%uisition of the mother tongue and the learning of a foreign language. Within this "lock, we will also refer to the Curriculum, and the Constructivist &odel proposed "$ it' the difference "etween ac%uisition and learning is esta"lished and different suggestions to avoid pro"lems in the second language learning. A conclusion summing up what has "een discussed throughout the unit will "e fo- llowed "$ the "i"liograph$ used for the ela"oration of this topic. As a sort INTRODUCTION we shall point out that in the last twent$ $ears the need for change in language didactics has "een anal$sed along the following lines: (-Change of the concept of )ducation, where a stronger a stonger focus on communication is given' *- the need for the stud$ of foreign languages through a "etter education' +- how the technological progress and the development of audivisual aids have contri"uted to the modernisation of teaching' ,- the students demand of an active learning of foreign languages. Teachers have to take advantage of the large num"ers of pedagological theories and approaches and choose those that can "e "est applied in their students- specific situation. Therefore, the teacher has to develop an eminentel$ creative task and learn how to incorporate into his methodolog$ the latest findings in the field of Linguistics, and the contri"utions of man$ other sciences. .nce having "egun the unit we are going to deal with the first "lock of our discussion' which considers the influences of Linguistics on /LT. The teaching of an$ su"0ect must "e supported "$ a series of general disciplines that are common to the teaching of an$ su"0ect, such as #s$cholog$, ociolog$ and so on. 1n LT these disciplines assist in the teaching from an$ perspective. Linguistics are included here, or more accuratel$ &acrolinguistics, which includes ociolinguistics and &icrolinguistics. The findings from these disciplines used on the teaching of L, help us to make decisions to overcome the pro"lems involved in teaching. The so called, Linguistic cience or Linguistics, that is, the stud$ of language is a ver$ recent science. /or centuries, the interest was onl$ centred on the research of a universal grammar. 1n the (2th centur$ Compared Linguistics, appeared which esta"lished that the relationship among language can "e e3plained in a scientific wa$. 4owada$s, however Applied Linguistics deal with collecting data from those disciplines whose o"0ectives are the stud$ of language, its learning, its use, and to utilise those facts to clarif$ the factors related to LT. Let-s move on now to consider what Applied Linguisi!s is for. 1t collects data and interprets the results that ma$ achive its aim and uses its findings to carr$ out its own e3perimental research. Applied Linguistics has to do with all those theories that anal$se how the$ can "e useful LT and then proceed with their pedagological application. This knowledge is use to "uild grammars, to do comparative anal$sis "etween two or more languages, to carr$ out research on the illiterac$ rates of the population and to stud$ languages and their regional varieties. The most interesting field of stud$ deals with second L learning and ac%uisition. Applied Linguistics uses these findings from other sciences and applies them to LL. We are going to consider some sciences on which the concept of /LT is "ased. The most important theories are S"u!u"#lis$ #nd Gene"#i%e G"#$$#".These theories are e3ample of how research in Applied Linguistics can "e helpful in e3plaining the process of mother tongue ac%uisition and second LL.
S"u!u"#lis$ first appeared with S#ussu"e in the (2th centur$. This theor$ defends that language is a social phenomenon which is useful "ecause it works in a communit$. This approach implies a ps$chological perspective, its stud$ is centred on speech and not on grammatical structures. 5e made a distinction "etween l#ngu#ge 6 the s$stem 7 and spee!& 6 the individual of the s$stem 7. The$ "egin with an active stud$ of all speeches, arriving at the general rules. All these structuralistic principles have in commonthe assumption that grammar does not consist of a s$stem of rules that govern the isolated elements of language, "ut of a set of structures that have to "e taught, especiall$ those that are different in the learners- first language. The application of structuralism in LT was developed after the *nd World War. Linguistics e3amined and classified the structure of the first L and the second L "eing studied. The$ anal$sed which structures were similar to that language and which offered interference, the$ made drills. tructuralism is "ased on 8'e&#%i(u"is ps)!(l(g) si$ulus #ns*e" "esp(nse8, and its attitude towards teaching is "ased on the premise that *nd L ac%uisition is the result of ha"it and condidional refle3es, we learn "$ imitation and repetition.
Against this theor$ appeared C&($s+) with his 8Gene"#i%e G"#$$#"8 Theor$. Chomsk$ o"served that structuralism did not e3plain how the child was a"le to produce sentences that he had never produced "efore. Chomsk$-s generativist theor$ postulated the e3istence of a specific a"ilit$ in the child, an a"ilit$ that allowed him to generate an infinitive num"er of rules. A creative person who can create an unlimited num"er of sentences with 0ust a few linguistic elements. The child hears his first L and is a"le to develop a series of increasingl$ glo"al and correct h$pothesis a"out that language s$stem. 9efore Chomsk$ students were given correct grammatical e3amples, nowada$s students can compare sentences with and without errors, and the$ are allowed to make mistakes "ecause that is understood as an important step in an autonomous process of learning. This theor$ gives special importance to free e3pression and creativit$. Chomsk$ esta"lishes a distinction "etween !($peen!e 6the knowledge that the person has a"out his mother tongue7 and pe",("$#n!e, that is the effective use of this knowledge in his normal speech. We should point out here an essential aspect of the research of applied linguistics, that is, to what e3tent can the process of first L ac%uisition "e e%uivalent to the process of *nd L learning. Thus it can "e seen that the process is the same, *nd Language learners draw h$pothesis a"out the L s$stem, appl$ the rules and modif$ them according to the feed"ack the$ receive. A *nd L learner learns from his effort to communicate. 1f what the learner wants to communicate lies within the possi"ilities of his s$stem, he will have no pro"lems. The pro"lem arises when he wants to communicate something that is not in his s$stem. Therefore, he can choose to follow other paths, such as using gestures, or transfering the limits he knows, in other words, he will take a risk. We could conclude from the a"ove that errors that students make reveal the state of development of his s$stem. We must give him enough information on the success or failure of his communicative attempt. 5e re%uires input to contrast his production. The student then learns through the process of communicating' he who takes a risk will "e the one who learns most. :p to this point we have shown some of the linguistic theories which help us to e3plain the ac%uisition of a mother tongue and the learning of a /L. 4ow let us move on to mention the importance of another science: S(!i(linguisi!s. This science studies and states the relationship "etween the possession of a L and the control of realit$. The social level of the famil$ conditions the development of speech a"ilities and level of performance. The classroom can "e a useful su"stitute for a poor linguistic environment. We should also mention the studies of some linguists, like Fi"& and M#"in(*s+). The$ spoke a"out the concept of situational conte3t, that is the meaning of an utterance is a conse%uence of the cultural and situational conte3t where it takes place. 1n the )ighties man$ programs in )LT were developed. All of them were "ased on the consideration of a L as an instrument of communication. The threshold level, for instance, whose author is Wilkins, esta"lished a program model for a )uropean adult student of foreign L in terms of his communicative needs. 1t was intended to create a program "ased on the areas of his interests. 1n )urope L teaching was slowl$ changing. Linguistics were mainl$ concerned with oral language as a means of communication. Learners were taught to comprehend and then to speak. The interferance of the first L had to "e avoided. Conversation was the main focus of the class. The process of LT goes parallel to the learning process. 1n the ;<s special attention waspaid to this learning process. The concept of interferance, introduced "$ Corder, refers to the pro"lems of interferance caused "$ the mother tongue on the learning of a foreign language. 4ow, we shall stud$ the contri"utions of other sciences to the process of foreign LT. .n the one hand, we find -ed#g(g) whose contri"ution to the teaching of foreign L and to the concept of modern education is the following: that the educational principles are fle3i"le, and should "e adapted to ever$ social change. An individualised teaching is re%uired, as well as the formation of an integral person with special attention to his creative a"ilit$. !roup work, colla"oration and the participation of students in all the educational process should also "e considered. .n the other hand, we find he science of -s)!(l(g). ome important studies are the following: in the teaching of foreign L motivation is ver$ important. Apart from motivation a deep knowledge of the pupil-s ps$chological characteristics is re%uired' we need to know the student-s a"ilities and rh$thm of learning to "etter adopt the structure of the su"0ect to his structure of knowledge. o the teacher will "e a"le to allow pupils to learn more depending on their own needs and rh$thm. ummarising, we could sa$ that the most important contri"ution of #edagog$ and #edagog$ to foreign L teaching is that the teaching must "e centred on the pupils- needs and personalit$' creativit$ whilst imagination should "e developed through motivation.
After having dealt with some of the contri"utions of Linguistics and other sciences to /LT, we shall anal$se the process of L learning and the similarites and differences "etween the ac%uisition of the mother tongue and the learning of a foreign L. The starting point of the theoretical "asis of the conception of *nd L learning is found in the Curriculum: 8 The foreign L ac%uisition process can "e characterised as a creative construction process during which the student, rel$ing on a set of natural strategies, "ased on the input received, formulates h$potheses in order to make up the internal representation of the new L s$stem.8 =nowing a L implies knowing its sociolinguistic, discourse and strategic aspects. The sociolinguistic aspect implies the knowlwdge of the rules related to a given sociolnguistic conte3t' the discourse aspect organises cohesion and coherence in different spoken and written statements' the strategic aspect is responsi"le for completing the interaction when taking into account the o"0ective of communication. The Contructive &odel proposed "$ the Curriculum is "ased on the following aspects: (- The student is considered the centred of the teaching process' *- The student has a certain knowledge that adds to the new information and com"ines them to produce significant learning. Another important aspect of the contructive model is that of learning through discover$. L functions as regards rules are learned "$ a process of discover$. The students generates h$potheses himself and check that the$ match the esta"lished rules. 9efore moving on to stud$ some of the theories on the L learning process, let us focus on the differences "etween the ac%uisition and learning. ."#s&en in his "ook L#ngu#ge A!/uisii(n H)p(&esis makes a clear distinction "etween ac%uisition and learning. According to him, the ac%uisition is a natural process whereas learning is conscious formal process. Ac%uisition implies an implicit knowledge of rules in contrast with learning which implies the e3plicit knowledge of rules. Ac%uisition is the wa$ a child ac%uires his mother tongue, whereas learning is the wa$ students learn a foreign language. After having looked into the differences "etween ac%uisition and learnig, we are going to stud$ some of the theories on the ac%uisition and learning of a second language. >igotsk$ esta"lishes three main stages in language ac%uisition. The first one is when language is onl$ a means of e3ternal communication in a child, "oth in form and function. The third one is when language is interiorised and "ecomes ver"al thought and then guides cognitive development. Toda$ it is "elieved that the first statements of children are due to their individual s$stem, independent from that of adults' language is "uilt or re"uilt "$ the child who graduall$ makea a s$stem of rules, an implicit grammar and a set of communication rules with which he interprets what he receives.Thus, the child produces statements correctl$ "ut these are mere repetitive routine. The interesting aspect is that the child makes incorrect statements which shows that he is tr$ing to create a language using his own linguistic mechanism, according to certain opearating rules that he himself has generated, it is an internal implicit grammar. The second language ac%uisition process goes through three different phases: (.- C(gnii%e el#'("#i(n0 the learner centres his attention on t$pes of models presented to him in the *nd L. 5e has an attitude towards comprehending or remem"ering the different aspects of the models presented.
*.- Ass(!i#e p&#se0 the child "egins to form h$potheses a"out the input received, as well as its organisation and arrangement, contrasting them with his knowledge and e3emplif$ing them with the production of such models in similar conte3ts. +.- Au(n($) p&#se0 the child can use what he has learned spontaneousl$.1n order for this phase to take place, a great amount of previous practice is re%uired. Another important aspect of the constructive model is that the student has an active role in which he will have to implement certain strategies similar to those used in first L ac%uisition to adapt, generalise, correct rules and so on. Lastl$ an assumption in the previous model is that in an$ learning process there is a semantic motivation. There is a natural predisposition for producing meaning, which is motivating when learning a *nd L.
&oving on, another section of this topic concerns the "asic differences and similarities "etween the ac%uisition of a mother tongue and the learning of a foreign L. /irstl$, we will e3amine the si$il#"iies. The$ are three:
-the interlingual development, -the su"concious mental process and -the variation.
We are going to e3plain now what we undertand "$ the ine"lingu#l de%el(p$en p"(!ess. When a language is learned, the learner is not read$ to use it for some $ears. 1nterlingual development is the process a learner must go through "efore is a"le to speak fluentl$ or as well as a native speaker. The second similarit$ is the su'!(n!i(us $en#l p"(!ess' the "rain organises the input received to allow the mechanisms to speak. The third similarit$ is the %#"i#i(n. 4ot all language learners follow the same path. There are individual variations which make some students learn slower than others. #h$chological personalit$ and others also come into pla$ here. 4ow, let us consider the di,,e"en!es. There are three important differences "etween the ac%uisition of the mother tongue and the learning of a /L. These are: -the age, -the phenomenon of fossilitation and -the transference. According to man$ authors, #ge is a factor that determines the success or failure in *nd LL. Toda$ there is a"solute unanimit$ in the fact that is appro3imalit$ in pu"ert$ when the a"ilit$ to ac%uire L under natural conditions is lost. Another difference is the p&en($en(n (, ,(ssili#i(n. &an$ *nd L learners never %uite learn the L correctl$. Thie causes ma$ "e due to the t$pe of teaching is given, the pro"lems of motivation or the students personal characteristics. The third difference is the "#ns,e"en!e. When we speak a *nd L, it is almost impossi"le not to make mistakes influenced "$ our native L. As we have e3plained, a "asic difference "etween the ac%uisition of a mother tongue and the learning of a /L is that the first one is a natural process which does not need a methodolog$, whereas the *nd one does' the /LL happens in a classroom and not in social life. 1n mother tongue ac%uisition there is a continuos linguistic information, and a direct contact "etween the L and its cultural envirinment' the correction of errors appears after training and effort. .n the contrar$, we find that /LL involves planning with special o"0ectives and a specific didactic method. We should finall$ point out some suggestions to overcome pro"lems in the *nd LL process. /irstl$, we should not change the natural order of the interlingual process. econdl$, pupils must receive a high input. We must respect a silent period and allow children to e3press themselves in a spontaneous and natural wa$. /inall$, regarding how to overcome the fossilitation phenomenon, we find different opinions "$ different authors. ome of then think that pupils should "e push to produce, and grammar should "e taught. .thers state that grammar should "e taught in an inductive wa$, without forcing pupils to use it correctl$. ummarising, we can point out the following. 1n this unit we have presented some of the most important contri"utions to /LT' especiall$ the principles of Linguistics, tructuralism and !enerative !rammar. After that, we have looked into the most important differences and similarities "etween the ac%uisition of the mother tongue and the learning of a /L. BIBLIOGRA-H10 (- The Teaching of )nglish as an 1nternational Language "$ A""ot, ! and Wingard, #. Collins, (2?(. *- Approches and ðods in econd Language Learning "$ !arner, @.C. and Lam"ert. @owle$ #ress 4ew"ur$. +- Linguistics in Language Teaching "$ Wilking, A. )dward Arnold, (2;*. A:I; B %7=T,'TT'7=* 7F 4'=NT'*T'%* T7 T3& T&!%3'=N 7F F7,&'N= 4!=NT!N&*. T3& +,7%&** 7F 4'=NT'*T'% 4&!,='=N9 *'<'4!,'T'&* !=@ @'FF&,&=%&* &T$&&= T3& !%XT'*'T'7= 7F T3& F',*T 4!=NT!N& !T *%3774 !=@ T3& F7,&'N= 4!=NT!N&. CONTRI9UTIONS OF LINGUISTICS TO T3E TEAC3ING OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES. The teaching of foreign languages has always de"eloped along with 4inguistics#although it has been in this century when the traditional conceptions of science of language has been transformed by a widening and speciali(ing of its knowledge. 7n the other hand# in the current situation of 4inguistics# there is an intention to o"ercome the contradictions of pre"ious beliefs# in order to elaborate a new model# much more eclectic and useful for the process of language teaching and learning. ' HI%;,/I#' ,C0/CI0"* 6I))0/0:; '../,'#H0% ':6 &0;H,6%.
The theoretical aspects upon which the main methods and approaches are based and studied in the field of A--1$!" L$ng$'%$)'# and a first systemati(ation of these theoretical principles at the beginning of the -.th century. efore that# the methodology used in the language teaching processes in the -Bth and -?th was G2a++a21T2an'1a%$&n M!%7&" whose techniques were based on the model of atin teaching# when this was already a dead language. This model was# in fact#unsuitable to teach li"ing languages#as it was a mere adaptation of techniques belonging to a prestigious discipline. 3owe"er# :ust from the second half of the -.th century the first applied linguists appeared# looking for some theoretical basis on which they could support the language teaching processes. To do so# they obser"ed the childrenRs acquisition mechanisms of their first language# the importance of oral communication# and the first steps done in the studies of +honetics. !lthough these first principles had less impact at the moment# they ser"ed as an influence on later works. Thus# they are "ery related with the second researching line# the R!#&2+ M&,!+!n% which supported# on the one hand# the adoption of an inducti"e approach in which oral production was considered more important than written production# and on the other hand# a deep study of +honetics in order to introduce more efficient exercises to impro"e pronunciation. 'n the -.th century appeared the D$2!)% M!%7&"# based on the model of the first language acquisition. !ccording to this approach# the best way to learn the second language was the practice of oral production :ust since the beginning with the help of non1"erbal strategies to explain the meaning of some of the words or phrases which were likely to appear. 'n the /Dth century# the works of !pplied 4inguistics on the field of language teaching point out to their a--1$)a%$&n &n a)a"!+$) )&n%!=%'# and they require the adoption of teaching techniques which take into account the classroom reality. !t the end of the $orld $ar ''# the !merican !rmy had to organi(e intensi"e language courses in order to prepare the military staff to work as translators or interpreters in the occupied countries because the R!a"$ng M!%7&" which was most used# did not guarantee enough fluency in oral comprehension and production# they appealed to the structuralist linguistsR experiences such as loomfield. !fter the $orld $ar ''# the A"$&1$nga1 M!%7&" appeared# partially based on the !rmy courses. 'n this method there is a relationship between %tructuralism (loomfield) and .sychological Behaviourism (*kinner)# whose stimulus1response1reinforcement theories would ha"e a great influence on the layout of the mechanic exercises which are characteristical of the !udiolingual <ethod. For this method# oral production is more important than written and the order for practising the skill is9 aural comprehension (listening)# oral production (speaking)# written comprehension (reading)# and written production (writing). 'n Nreat ritain another linguistic school appeared# which worked independently from the !udiolingual. 't de"eloped a "ery similar method of teaching foreign languages9 T7! S$%a%$&na1 Langag! T!a)7$ng. 't is based on %tructuralism but much more formal in their linguistic references.'t gi"es more importance to the situational context and to a selection of "ocabulary. =e"ertheless# the exercises of both methods do not prepare the students for real situations of communication. 'n the *ixties# a new approach appeared in Nreat ritain9 T7! C&++n$)a%$,! Langag! T!a)7$ng in which the situational component of the *ituational 4anguage Teaching is the frame for communicati"e interactions and not only for the practice of structures. 'n this approach# the term communicati"e competence was coined by !merican linguist @.3ymes to refer to the ability of using the linguistic system in an efficient way to communicate in society. From the decade of the 5Ds#other approaches ha"e appeared which ha"e contributed to de"elopment of !pplied 4inguistics. These methods are interested in the cogniti"e processes and in the affecti"e and contextual conditions which must take place for the learning or acquisition of the foreign language. The first one is the T&%a1 P78'$)a1 R!'-&n'!# based on D.'sher5s methodological criteria. 7ne of the main principles of this new approach is that pupils remember more easily those utterances which they can relate with actions made by themsel"es. Thus the comprehension of meaning the orders that the teacher asks the pupils to do lead them to produce no1"erbal responses such as getting up#opening the door#drawing#etc. Following the same line# the Na%2a1 A--2&a)7# based on % <rashen and ;.;errell works# propose the possibility of acquiring a second language in an academic context if the conditions which are similar to those which can be found in the process of acquiring the first language by young children are fulfilled. 4anguage learning as a conscient process lead children to acquire some knowledge which will help them to correct their mistakes# what is called &onitor ;heory. Finally# it is important to quote some approaches# such as ;he %ilent "ay# which looks for the learnersR hard concentration on the utterances) %uggestopaedia# which uses relaxation and suggestion as helpers for language learning) and the #ommunity anguage earning# based on group therapy and which uses the target language as a means of expressing feeling. ;H0 &'I: I:-AI%;I# %#I0:#0%. P7&n!%$)' an" P7&n&1&g8. These two sciences deal with sounds and how they can combine to make meanings. +honetics works the whole sound body of a language# studing its phonic elements in a systemic way. 't gi"es the representation of sounds which helps to pronounce the language in a correct way. The main parts of +honetics are9 !rticulatory +honetics# which concentrates on how the sounds are emitted by speakers) !uditory +honetics# which studies those sounds in relation to the listeners) and !coustic +honetics# which deals with the physical part of sounds by using different instruments to register them. +honology deals with the function of those sounds in the communicati"e process and gi"es an exhausti"e analysis of the rules of the sound system within the language. +honetics is #together with 4inguistics# one of the main sciences concerned with language and arose in the -5th century as the science that studied the relationship between spelling and sound. 'n -??5 the 'nternational +honetic !ssociation ('+!) was founded. This association de"ised a phonetic alphabet# or set of symbols that would ser"e to represent the sound of any language. This alphabet is now widely used in textbooks and pronouncing dictionaries. !s our present ob:ecti"e is the teaching of a foreign language# the most useful "iew for this purpose is to regard +honetics and 4inguistics as the two 4inguistic *ciences. oth of them study language# but from different angle. +honetics is interested in sounds and how they are organi(ed and transmitted#whereas 4inguistics is concerned with how language is structured grammatically and semantically. G2a++a2. $ithin Nrammar we can find two sciences9 <orphology and *yntax. <orphology studies the form of the words of a language# and deals with the word flexions of genre# number and case# and with the problems which may arise in this area. 't also studies among others# the changes which are produced in meaning by the influence of affixes. *yntax established the rules for sentence combination and analyses the different of the words within the sentences. Nrammar has two main ob:ecti"es) it gi"es the rules necessary to generate the meaningful chains or strings which are characteristical of a language. 7n the other hand# it gi"es rules useful for the speaker to "erify that a chain of meaning belongs to the language sEhe speaks. The most important ideas in the field# nowadays# are gi"en by %homskyRs Nenerati"e Nrammar# which sets up that a language is built upon a finite "ocabulary corpus# this being a group of symbols which combine to make sentences. S!+an%$)'. *emantics studies the meaning and sense of words# and it applies its researches to three important fields9 *tructural *emantics# based on *aussureRs works. 3e claimed that the signification of a sign is not only limited to the relationship between the signifier and signified parts of it# but also between this sign and the others. @istributional *emantics# in which the meanings of the linguistic units are in relation with the contexts in which they appear. Nenerati"e *emantics# which does not take into account the different elements of the sentence but the sentence itself as a model. P2ag+a%$)'. 't is a modern science which considers speech an act by itself# because language is inserted in a producti"e context. This context is the communicati"e situation and knowledge shared by the speaker and the listener. The speech act is regarded as a cooperati"e process in which the participantsRintentions must be interpreted. 3.+. Nrice established in his book 4ogic and %on"ersation#that# in e"ery speech act# there is a con"entional meaning gi"en by speakersRknowledge of the language rules# and an implicati"e meaning# gi"en by the speakersRintention towards their message and towards the listeners# as well as by the context. 'n this sense# NriceRs %ooperati"e +rinciple established that speakers cooperate in their engagement in con"ersation# their engagement being on four maxims9 The maxim of Xuantity# which says9 <ake your contribution as informati"e as it is required. The maxim of Xuality# which says9 <ake your contribution true) be sincere. The maxim of ,elation# saying9 <ake your contribution rele"ant) do not be unconnected. The maxim of <anner9 !"oid obscurity# ambiguity) gi"e order to your speech. =ormally# speakers fulfill these four maxims in their speech acts. 3owe"er# when one or more of them are broken up intencionally# this fact gi"es place to what Nrice calls a con"ersational implicature# that is# an implication made by the speaker who intends to say something# in an indirect way# to the listener. T3E PROCESS OF LINGUISTIC LEARNING. The experiments carried out about the learning of the first language lead to the conclusion that only before puberty the childRs brain has a great plasticity that allows himEher perfectly the languages that sEhe hears around# but when puberty comes# that plasticity seems to decrease gradually. =e"ertheless# this conclusion says nothing about what happens in the personRs brain when learning a language# nor does it explain how some people after puberty ha"e achie"ed a mastering of one or se"eral languages# e"en with a great degree of perfection. <oreo"er# the methods and techniques of foreign language teaching are exclusi"ely based on the results of teaching experience# but ne"er on a precise knowledge of how the indi"idualRs internal mechanisms work# although# on the other hand# as the process of learning the mother tongue coincides with the first years of life# when the child experiments the most spectacular physical and mental de"elopment# it is natural to think that there exists a narrow relationship between these two processes9 the first and the second language learning. ;H0,/0;I#' '../,'#H0% ,: ':-A'-0 0'/:I:-. !lthough# up to now# the se"eral researches that ha"e been undertaken on this matter ha"e not been able to explain appropiately how second language learning process works# they ha"e shown that some methods and techniques are more efficient than others. 'n order to establish a solid scientific basis# these researches ha"e leaned on learning processes in general# and on the process of first language acquisition. There are essential differences between the learning of a second language and the acquisition of the first language. $hen children acquire their nati"e language# they are answering to their "ital necessity of dominating the en"ironment in which they are inserted. $hen they ha"e this tool# their purpose to learn another language is "ery different. 'ndeed# the circumstances in which we acquire our 4- are "ery different from those in which we learn a 4/. Three important theories can be applied both to the acquisition and the learning of languages9 *K'==&,R* eha"iourism # which is based on experiments made with animals. !ccording to beha"iourist researchers# the way how animals and human beings learn is similar. The theory on human speech says that e"ery speech act is produced as a response to a stimulus. This stimulus can ha"e different origins# such as the en"ironment# the speaker needs and another speech act made by an interlocutor. esides# if the appropiate answer is to be produced# it is necessary some sort of reinforcement. 'n our case# this reinforcement can be the speakerRs desire to be understood or simply to communicate. The beha"iourist researcher regards language learning as the acquisition of se"eral habits which can only be acquired by repeating the adequate answers in different situations. @uring this process of continuous repetition the student of a second language adopts a participati"e role. $hat is important for eha"iourism is not the meaning of the spoken chains# but the authomatic production of responses to the different stimula.
1 %37<*K>R* 'nnatism appeared in the 5Ds as a contraposition to eha"iourism. For him# all human beings ha"e innate uni"ersal grammatical rules :ust from before they are born. These rules are "alid for all languages. $hen the child starts speaking sEhe applied them to the language sEhe listens to around himEher. !t the same time# sEhe makes hisEher own grammatical rules of hisEher own language and during the whole process of acquisition # these rules are adapted to the general concept sEhe has.
!**7%'!T'7='*< # for its part# include these factors in its researches. This theory claim that communication factors transmit aditional information which children associate with a concrete situation. 'n this sense# they make relations between expressions that they may hear and the ob:ects or actions which accompany those expressions. Their need to fall back on these relationships decrease as they memori(e the associations. Thus# the end of this progression is in their use of the linguistic system without appealing to extralinguistic elements. !ssociationism coincides with eha"iorism in making relations between words and ob:ect. 3owe"er# in !ssociationis# the process is not mechanical# but it result as a consequence of the indi"idualRs intelligence. 'n this sense# sEhe is acti"e participant in the communication process and in the learning processes because sEhe is able to draw hisEher own conclusions. 't is important to say that# to speak a language# we ha"e to know both the "ocabulary and grammar of that language# and that children lean on their own intelligence to establish the rules which will help them to make suitable speech acts. @uring the whole learning process these rules are continuously re"ised. 7n the other hand# if we want to learn a second language# it is necessary to mention the importance of the teaching process# which is of less rele"ance in the process of acquisition. )'#;,/%. $hen learning a second language# people ha"e different purposes and the achie"e different result. This fact make us suppose that there exist different factors which make influence on this process. *e"eral studies ha"e gi"en place to some conclusions and they set up three main factors which are of great importance in the second language learning process. 1. M&%$,a%$&n.
<oti"ation seems to be the most interesting factors of all three# because it does not make any influence on the 4- learning processes. The 4- acquisition allows children to get into relation with their en"ironment and to satisfy their needs. !s they get to master the use of their first language# they disco"er the possibilities they ha"e to co"er up other necessities and functions which may appear. 'f the 4/ is learnt when older# the concepts belonging to the 4- language are already settled up and they are used by adults in their 4/ learning process. 'f there is an interest in learning the 4/# this teaching1 learning process will be followed in a "ery efficient way because knowing another language implies knowing another culture. !t a glance# it seems that if the learner stays in the host country of the language sEhe is studying. *Ehe will find it easier to learn that language. 3owe"er# this is only true if the learner is actually interested in participating in social contacts with nati"e speakers. 3isEher wishes to control the en"ironment are more important here than the teaching aspects. $hen speaking about moti"ation# it is not only important to appeal reward# in the beha"iouristic sense of the word# but we must also include human psychological needs. !mong them we can find essential ones# such as hanger o fear) and some others dealing with personal security# feeling of belonging to a community# self1confidence and relation with the other members of the community we belong to. !part from the moti"ation in satisfying these psychological needs# e"ery indi"idual is more encouraged as hisEher ob:ecti"es are more important for himEher# as for example# those referring to cultural interest# family well1being# etc. ,esearches ha"e shown that there are two types of moti"ation9 'ntegrati"e moti"ation# referring to the studentsRfeeling of belonging to the community of nati"e speakers of the language they are learning and of participating in their cultural en"ironment. 'nstrumental moti"ation# dealing with the learnersRneed to learn the second language to apply for a :ob or to study abroad. This second type of moti"ation is "ery common in +rimary &ducation# and as teachers# our role is to encourage in our students the integrati"e moti"ation. To do so# there are a series of techniques9 bringing to the classroom material (pictures#brochures#leaflets#...) about the country) organi(ing competitions on sports characteristical of the country) or accompanying the students to shows (films#plays#concerts#...) in the foreign language. 7n the other hand# teachers must ha"e in mind that children are better recei"ers of these kinds of acti"ities than adults# and that they are easily encouraged to participate in tasks where they can play an acti"e role (dramati(ations#games#mural making#..). Langag! a-%$%"!. 't has been shown that there are some people who can learn a language more easily than other people#who# in turn# find it rather difficult to get enough competence in that new language. ! lot of research has been made in this sense to find the relationship between our own aptitude or inner ability and the results achie"ed in our learning process. Thus# it has been shown that there is no direct connection between our intelligence and our aptitude for language learning. 7n the contrary# it seems to exist a dependence on series of factors# such as the brain ability to record and memori(e certain phonetical material) our own faculty to tackle grammatical information) our capacity to remember new words) and our ability to disco"er or infer# without help# linguistic forms and rules. The <odern 4anguage !ptitude Test (<4!T) is used to measure these abilities# although it is only based on linguistic elements. esides# it seems that this test only gi"es us AD per cent of certainly# and that is the reason why the 4anguage !ptitude attery (4!) was also used to measure language aptitude# but including other extralinguistic elements such as moti"ation. !ccording to the results gi"en by this test# the students who get satisfactory results in the other sub:ects usually get good qualifications in foreign language. 'ndeed# this is usually true# but there are other students as well who are "ery good at foreign language# but not at rest of the sub:ects. 'n conclusion# there does not exist definiti"e criteria for us to base on when dealing with this matter. 3owe"er# the fact that intelligence does not make great influence o"er foreign language acquisition does not mean that teacher lea"e it aside. 7n the contrary# it is important to take intelligence into consideration when choose the appropiate methodology in class. Thus# for less intelligent students# the most useful method seems to be that of repetition# whereas a methodology based on explanation of what they are learning seems to suit better to cle"erer pupils. Ag!. 3ere# the question is# 0which is the appropiate age to start learning a second language;2. !ccording to some studies the best age to foreign language learning is between four and eight years# because the child experiments an intensi"e process of e"olution characterised by hisEher ability to learn through mere exposition to data. =e"ertheless# there some teachers who think that children should not start learning a second language until they ha"e enough fluency on their first language. They e"en say that an early start in 4/ learning can pre"ent children from acquiring their 4- efficiently. !ll these opinions leads us to analyse the ad"antages and disad"antages of foreign language learning early start. 'n order to do that# we can ha"e a look at those cases of emigrantsRchildren who get competence in a 4/. !s opposed to them# those children who learn a foreign language at school do not usually achie"e that degree of perfection. For all this# one of the main reasons to introduce 4/ learning in +rimary &ducation is the better assimilation of phonetical elements that children ha"e at this age. esides# children usually are less reticent to participate acti"ely in class# :ust as they do not ha"e the adultsRsense of ridiculous# although adults normally ha"e less dificulty on getting concentrated. !ll these age factors# howe"er# should not interfere on the teaching1learning process# and we should think that# wether younger or older# the human being has mechanisms of e"ery type to acquire foreign languages if they are moti"ated to do so. $hat# in fact# should worry us is the fact that the little success which the student may ha"e in +rimary *chool is# unfortunately# due not to the factors of age# aptitude or moti"ation# but the teacherRs low le"el of preparation in relation with how to let the students into a foreign language. SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES 9ET/EEN T3E ACQUISITION OF T3E FIRST LANGUAGE AND T3E FOREIGN LANGUAGE AT SC3OOL. !ccording to %homsky# the difference between acquisition and learning is that acquisition can only take place up to a certain age because when we ha"e already got the mechanisms which allow us to register those cncept# procedures# and pieces of information in order to use them in our daily li"es for different purposes#all which we can get afterwards is not tackled through our mechanisms of acquisition# but through our learning processes. 't is :ust during acquisition when children make their own grammar# by "erifying which rules are correct and which are wrong. This checking process is made through their analysis of input data which are contrasted with their own innate rules. %homskyRs theories on this field are nowadays considered and followed when dealing with how children acquire their first language# and they are "ery useful to study those processes which gi"e place to foreign language learning and to put them into practice when teaching that foreign language at school. &,;H0/ ;,:-A0 '#EAI%I;I,:. $hen they begin speaking# children produce certan utterances which they ha"e not heard before. Thios fact leads us to think that there must be an inner mechanism which# basing itself on the outer linguistic data# allow the production of different grammatical structures. From this generati"e1transformational point of "iew (%homskyRs) these phenomena can be explained through the 4anguage !cquisition @e"ice# which make childen know the linguistic uni"ersals (word order#linguistic categories# etc)# as well as the procedures which are necessary to acquire a language. <other tongue acquisition begins in the "ery moment the child is gi"en birth# when sEhe hear the first sounds#"oices and e"en hisEher own cry. $hen sEhe is three or four years old# sEhe has already got hold of the way how hisEher language works# and is able to communicate more or less effecti"ely with the speakers of the same language. The innate ability to oral communication is characteristical of all human beings# except from those who suffer from some sort of serious congenital illness or disability. !s it has been said before# intelligence is not directly related to language acquisition because those people who are not relati"ely cle"er ha"e been succesful in acquire their nati"e language. $ithin the whole process of mother tongue acquisition# there exist some steps followed by children9 +relinguistic stage9 From birth to the age of eight months# children acquire spontaneously the use of auditory mechanisms. 't is the stage when they produce non1symbolic sounds. First word production9 $hen they are -- months old# children produce a "oice sound which is somehow symbolic for them. This is the stage in which they gi"e names to people or ob:ects placed around them. *econd year9 %hildrenRs messy "ocalic structures begin to get shape and they begin to participate into communicati"e exchanges. Their parentsRrole gets more and more important. 3owe"er# it is not a matter of repetition of what they say# but beyond that# children create by themsel"es sounds which they regard as correct or wrong depending on the adultsRreactions. These criteria of "alidation help the child to take or opt out the different strings of language they are gi"ing birth to. Those strings which sEhe considers to be correct are the same that the ones produced by adults and are reinforced by means of continuous repetition. etween 8 and 6 years old9 The process of acquisition keeps on de"eloping. This a period of great creati"ity and less difficulty for auditory discrimination# and for imitation. The essential aspects of the process of acquisition are de"eloped in full. The following grammatical system children build on are "ery similar to those which respond to the adultsRgrammatical rules. &ntering school9 The school substitutes their parents in the acquisition process and pro"ides them with written code. 't is :ust in this moment when the process of learning behings# and it will all their li"es. BII:-A'I%& ':6 &A;II:-A'I%&. The fact that children start acquiring their mother tongue when they are babies suggests that it would be quite a good idea to take ad"antage of this ability to make them acquire some others. 'ndeed# there are people in many places who are bilingual since they were born# this ocurring in families where two or more languages are spoken at the same time. esides# we must take into account that# from a phonetical and auditory point of "iew# children ha"e all the biological characteristics to be able to acquire naturally more than one language :ust from their childhood. 'n some cases children can acquire simultaneously their mother tongue and their father tongue. 3owe"er# 0bilingualism2 does not mean 0same lingualism2# that is# both languages being used with the same frequency of time. 7n the contrary# their use depends on the circumstances around# and normally# one language is more often used that another. 7n the other hand# se"eral researches ha"e shown that it would be of great help for children to be bilingual since the beginning# in terms of psychological de"elopment. 3owe"er# this is only possible whene"er the contact with their parentsRlanguages is as more natural as possible) if not# there may exist a possible slowing down in their acquiring process. ilingualism is essentially the result of family circumstances# or of other natural ways of contact with different languages# such as those cases in which children li"e long periods of time in a foreign country# or in which two languages coexist in the same country. =e"ertheless# those bilingual or multilingual countries# such as elgium# *wit(erland# %anada# or *pain# can not always offer their citi(ens the possibility to take ad"antage of this situation when they are acquiring their first languageEs. The main reason for this is that those languages often compete among them# that is# they are ri"als# and people belonging to one of the linguistic communities often ha"e a negati"e attitude towards the otherEs# as it is case of %anada. 't is in %anada where an inmersion program was put into practice in -.5A. The experiment began in a little "illage called *aint 4ambert# and it was completed and assesed by the psychological department of the Tni"ersity of <ontreal. The program consisted in the alternation of French and &nglish. %hildren spoke &nglish at home# but at school# they were taught French by using it in the different sub:ects they had to study. This pro:ect had great rele"ance and has gi"en place to a lot of research in that country. $ith regard to &urope# only in bilingual countries can this program be put into practice. 4uxemburg is a case apart# because it is a trilingual country9 4uxemburguese is spoken at home# Nerman is taught from the first year of +rimary &ducation# and French# from the third year. This early trilingualism is completed in *econdary &ducation with the teaching of &nglish. The citi(ens of 4uxemburg# where there are not uni"ersities# ha"e the possibility of choosing among those uni"ersities of Nermany# !ustria# *wit(erland# France# elgium# %anada and the Tnited *tates. This situation is "ery difficult to achie"e in many other &uropean countries. 3owe"er# something similar is what is called bilingual education# which implies the teaching in a foreign language of one or more topics well kown by the pupils. The methodology is being carried at school in =etherlands# Nermany# France and *candina"ian countries. TOPIC G: SPO.EN LANGUAGE. LISTENING COMPRE3ENSION: FROM 3EARING TO ACTIVE AND SELECTIVE LISTENING. SPEA.ING: FROM IMITATION TO FREE PRODUCTION. I.: INTRODUCTION II.: SPO.EN LANGUAGE 1.: C7a2a)%!2$'%$)' The need for accuracy !ddressee in mind *ame situational context *pontaneity and the speed 4inguistic features Nrammar and "ocabulary III.: LISTENING 1.: D!#$n$%$&n &# %7! -2&)!'' (.: S%ag!' &# %7! -2&)!'' 2 'dentify the phonic and syntactic patterning 'dentify and select them without retention 'dentification and guided selection with short term retention 'dentification and selection with long term retention *.: P1ann$ng a 1$'%!n$ng 1!''&n $hat to be learnt 3ow to teach $hat material to use $hat acti"ities will be done 4.: G$"!1$n!' %& "!,!1&- %7! 1$'%!n$ng '0$11 I.: L$'%!n$ng '5'0$11' 4istening to confirm expectations 4istening to extract specific information 4istening for general understanding 'nferring the speakers attitude L.: L$'%!n$ng +a%!2$a1' 3 *ongs Video recordings Tapes The teacher G.: L$'%!n$ng a)%$,$%$!' +re1listening acti"ities +rediction exercises Vocabulary exercises Nrammar exercises $hile1listening acti"ities &ar training acti"ities Nlobal1listening exercises 4 1 %ompleting diagrams 5 1 +roblem sol"ing *electi"e1listening acti"ities 6 1 !nswering display questions 7 1 Following instructions 8 1 %ompletion1type acti"ities 9 1 'dentifying mistakes or contradictions +ost1listening acti"ities IV.: SPEA.ING 1.: D!#$n$%$&n &# %7! -2&)!'' (.: P1ann$ng a '-!a0$ng 1!''&n *.: S-!a0$ng a)%$,$%$!' !cti"ities based on repetition and imitation ,epetition drills *ubstitution drills Transformation drills Nuessing drills %ontrolled acti"ities Xuestion and answer ,ight E wrong statements and corrections *tating consequences <odel dialogue and key words Napped dialogues %uewords +icture cards 4anguage games @ecision1making acti"ities Xuestionnaires !utonomous interaction Functional communication *ocial interaction V.: SUMMARY VI.: REFERENCES I.: INTRODUCTION 'n this topic# well start from the idea that the Foreign 4anguage !rea %urriculum mentions a sequence which must be followed when teaching the different skills9 the oral skills (listening and speaking) are stressed o"er written skills (reading and writing). ThatPs because learning to speak and to understand means learning the language# whereas reading and writing implies that the language is already known and that we are using its graphic representation. !lthough itPs better to teach a F4 following this sequence# teachers ha"e to take into account that e"ery skill should be reinforced by the rest and none of them can be taught in isolation. 'n this topic wePll concentrate on the oral language# analysing in the first part the main characteristics of it and the differences with the written language. 'n the second part of the topic# wePll go into detail about both types of oral language# listening and speaking skills# examining some of the acti"ities we can do in order to impro"e them. $ell take into account that listening is a recepti"e skill# while speaking is a producti"e skill. II.: SPO.EN LANGUAGE 4et us concentrate on the spoken language. $ePll explain its characteristics analysing# at the same time# its differences with the written language. 1.- C/#!#(t!$)t$() +erhaps# the most important difference between writing and speaking is related to %7! n!!" #&2 a))2a)8. =ati"e speakers constantly make mistakes when they are speaking9 they change the sub:ect in the middle of a sentence# hesitate an say the same thing in different ways#[ These mistakes# except in extremely formal situations# are considered as normal. 3owe"er# itPs expected that writing should be OcorrectO. !nother characteristic is that speech is time1bound# dynamic and transient. 'tPs a part of an interaction in which both participants are present# and the speaker has a specific a""2!''!! $n +$n". <eanwhile# in most of the cases# the writer doesnPt know who the addressee is# so that there is a little expectation of a reply. 'n this regard# participants are in a face1to1face interaction and share the 'a+! '$%a%$&na1 )&n%!=%) as a result# they can rely on non1"erbal de"ices# as body language# facial expression and gesture# as well as rely on the context# in order to help make clear what they mean. This does not happen in speech. !nother characteristic is that speakers do at least three things at once9 planning what to say next# saying what they ha"e planned# and monitoring what they are saying in order to check that it is what they meant to say. 7n the other hand# in the speech pre"ails the '-&n%an!$%8 an" %7! '-!!"# so itPs more difficult to engage in complex ad"anced planning. $hereas# writers can be more precise and organised about what they ha"e to say# and also because they ha"e more time for planning and re"ision. Talking about the 1$ng$'%$) #!a%2!'# a speaker has a great range of expressi"e possibilities# since he can "ary his intonation and stress. The writing system cannot directly represent the prosodic features of speech. 7nly a "ery few graphic con"entions relate to prosody# such as question marks. !s g2a++a2 an" ,&)a51a28 regards# the syntax of speech is much simpler than the syntax of writing. The lexicon of speech is also often "ague# using words which refer directly to the situation (deictic expressions# such as that one# in here# right now). 'n written language these expressions are "ery unusual. III.: LISTENING 1.- D+$n$t$*n *+ t/ "!*()) 4et us concentrate on the listening skill. 't is a recepti"e skill and it wasnPt until the de"elopment of the %ommunicati"e !pproach in the BDPs when the listening skill took importance in the language acquisition. *ome pre"ious methods# such as the @irect <ethod and the !udio1 4ingual <ethod# put emphasis in the oral comprehension# but listening was concentrated on the lower le"els. The %ommunicati"e !pproach postulated the use of realistic and authentic language and learners were trained to match what they heard into a context) the context helped them to understand the meaning. =owadays it is accepted that listening plays an important role in Foreign 4anguage Teaching because it pro"ides a great input for the learner# it allows introducing new language and it can pro"ide en:oyment. 2.- St#') *+ t/ "!*()) The process of writing goes on through different stages# which wePll analyse as follows. Firstly# the pupils ha"e to $"!n%$#8 %7! -7&n$) an" '8n%a)%$) -a%%!2n$ng# that is# to recognise the familiar elements in the mass of speech without being able to recognise the interrelationships within the whole system. Then# the pupils must $"!n%$#8 an" '!1!)% %7!+ 6$%7&% 2!%!n%$&n# that is# listening for pleasure with no questions to be answered. !fter that# ** must do an $"!n%$#$)a%$&n an" g$"!" '!1!)%$&n 6$%7 '7&2% %!2+ 2!%!n%$&n# that is# they are gi"er a prior indication of what they are going to listen. They demonstrate their comprehension immediately in some sort of exercise. !n the last stage is the $"!n%$#$)a%$&n an" '!1!)%$&n 6$%7 1&ng %!2+ 2!%!n%$&n# that is# ** demonstrate their comprehension de"eloping acti"ities which require the use of the material pre"iously learnt. 3.- P,#nn$n' # ,$)tn$n' ,))*n 'n order to achie"e a successful de"elopment of the listening skill# it is essential to plan it "ery carefully. ! listening lesson in"ol"es considering fi"e aspects9 /7a% %& 5! 1!a2n%D we ha"e to decide the listening skills to be de"eloped. 'n the early stages we should concentrate on listening at the le"el of recognition. 3&6 %& %!a)7D the procedure to follow. /7a% +a%!2$a1 %& '!D we ha"e to make a choice regarding materials# and it has to be made according to two criteria9 - The linguistic difficulty of the listening text) the text should be within the students language proficiency range. - The learners moti"ation) the materials used should be moti"ating for the students. $e should remember that the teacher can also be a source of spoken language# he E she can also pro"ide input. /7a% a)%$,$%$!' 6$11 5! "&n!D they should also be moti"ating and rele"ant to the students needs. 0.- G.$&,$n) t* &%,*" t/ ,$)tn$n' )1$,, There are some guidelines that may be useful when planning how to de"elop pupilsP listening skill# which well mention as follows9 Firstly# we must try to gi"e children the confidence) the ** should be told that they cannot always be expected to understand e"ery word. *econdly# we must help the ** to de"elop the strategies for listening) the most important strategy is the use of Ointelligent guessworkO# that is# they can use their background knowledge to work out the meaning of a word. They can also use other strategies such as predicting# working out the meaning from the context#[ The ** should be encouraged to notice the body language or the way the speaker use hisEher "oice. Finally# we must explain them why they ha"e to listen) this means spelling out which part of the message they need to focus on and what they are going to do before listening# while they listening or after listening. $e will now focus on two of the aspects when planning a lesson# the listening subskills and the listening materials. 2.- L$)tn$n' ).3)1$,,) The listening subskills are9 listening to confirm expectations# listening to extract specific information# listening for general understanding and inferring the speakers attitude. L$'%!n$ng %& )&n#$2+ !=-!)%a%$&n'. $e can ask students to predict what they are going to listen and then# listen to it to confirm their expectations. 'n this way# the students interest is aroused and they ha"e a definite purpose for listening. L$'%!n$ng %& !=%2a)% '-!)$#$) $n#&2+a%$&n. &xtracting specific information when listening is a ma:or subskill since a great deal of what is said in con"ersation in redundant and unnecessary. L$'%!n$ng #&2 g!n!2a1 n"!2'%an"$ng. *tudents listen to con"ersations in order to get a general idea of what the main points are. The students task is fairly simple but it is a "ital skill (because they listen to authentic spoken language) that they must de"elop. In#!22$ng %7! '-!a0!2K' a%%$%"!. !n awareness of stress# intonation or any body language# such as facial expression or gestures# will help the children to work out meaning. 4.- L$)tn$n' 5#t!$#,) Talking about the listening materials# the most useful ones are the songs# the "ideo recordings# the tapes and the teacher. S&ng' are an important source of moti"ation. They may be used to change the pace of the lesson or to introduce cultural aspects. They reinforce the learning process since they are "ery useful to re"iew and learn "ocabulary# pronunciation# grammatical structures and patterns. V$"!& 2!)&2"$ng': $hen using the "ideo it is essential to choose the right technique depending on the purpose9 recognition# production or a combination of both. There are se"eral reasons for using "ideo to de"elop listening skills9 - 't is a moti"ating type of material. - The pupils imagination is fostered. - This sort of communication has an image context. - +aralinguistic features help comprehension. Ta-!': $e can use tapes ad:usting the le"el to the pupils needs. T7! %!a)7!2: as a matter of fact# can also pro"ide input. The pupils listen to the teacher most of the time# so he E she must ha"e a good pronunciation. 6.- L$)tn$n' #(t$%$t$) The listening acti"ities can be di"ided into pre1listening# while1listening and post1listening acti"ities. 4et us see each one separately. P2!:1$'%!n$ng a)%$,$%$!' These acti"ities aim to warm ** up and prepare them to achie"e the most from the passage and to arouse their interest. $e can distinguish three types of pre1listening acti"ities9 prediction acti"ities# "ocabulary exercises and grammar exercises. Prediction exercises encourage the ** to draw inferences and increase the amount of language recognised at first hearing# for instance9 The ** are told the topic of the listening passage and are asked to guess some of the words or phrases they think they might hear. The teacher plays the first few sentences of the recording and challenges the ** to work out what is going on. The ** call out their ideas# which are discussed. Vocabulary exercises# for example9 The ** are gi"en a list of words that might occur in the listening text and are asked to listen for which ones occur and which do not. The pupils do a picture and word matching exercise. This has two ad"antages. Firstly you can bring certain words into the forefront of the ** minds# and secondly# you can ensure that they know the meaning of new words. 't is not necessary that all the words which appear in the exercise should appear on the tape. Grammar exercises# such as gap1filling exercises# in"ol"ing grammatical structures. The sentences will be taken from the listening passage. The ** will check the answers from the tape. /7$1!:1$'%!n$ng a)%$,$%$!' $hile1listening acti"ities aim to guide the pupils to handle the information in the passage. Three types of exercises are to be distinguished9 ar training activities help ** in distinguishing between key sounds# stress and intonation patterns. They are most suitable in the early stages. Global!listening exercises are aimed at helping ** to construct an o"erall sense of a text and they include9 %ompleting diagrams +roblem sol"ing acti"ities in which ** match or recognise information in a text# for example9 - The ** compare what they hear with the information gi"en to them in a picture. They listen to see how far the information the speaker pro"ides agrees with# or contradicts# the information they were originally gi"en. - !nother problem1sol"ing acti"ity is storyline pictures sets9 the ** listen to a story or set of instructions referring to a number of pictures and are asked to recognise the pictures described and to put them in the correct order according to the passage. "elective!listening activities are designed to help ** deri"e specific information from a text# for instance9 !nswering display questions D questions testing understanding of detail. The questions can be answered indi"idually or in groups and may take "arious forms9 open1ended questions# multiple choice questions# trueEfalse statements. The questions should be read and understood in the pre1listening stage. Following instructions # that is# listen1and1do exercises in which they must listen to what someone says# understand it and complete a task. They include picture dictation# where ** ha"e to draw a picture which the teacher or another * talks about without showing it) completing a map or picture) tracing a route on a map in order to arri"e at a particular place. These acti"ities in"ol"e careful listening without requiring a "erbal response. 'n completion1type acti"ities ** ha"e to complete a "ersion of a story# a description or a song while they listen. !nother kind of while1listening acti"ity is 'dentifying mistakes or contradictions9 ** hear two "ersions of a story or two accounts of an e"ent and ha"e to identify the points of difference. <any games depend for their success on ** listening carefully to each other# e.g. %imon says# in which a * in front of the class gi"es commands# some preceded by the words %imon says and others not. The class obeys the former only. P&'%:1$'%!n$ng a)%$,$%$!' 'n post1listening acti"ities ** take the information they ha"e gained from the listening passage and use it for another purpose (composition# discussion). *ome extension work can also be done based on the content of the passage. IV.: SPEA.ING 1.: D!#$n$%$&n &# %7! -2&)!'' !s follows# wePll concentrate on the speaking skill. @uring the first half of this century# this skill was neglected# since in the F4 teaching# the emphasis was on the written skills. <oreo"er# speaking has recei"ed more attention in the last twenty years. !lthough in the @irect and the !udio14ingual method the emphasis was on oral communication# students could not do free acti"ities until they ha"e mastered the new language in controlled exercises# in drills. =ow it is accepted that some sort of dynamic and meaningful exercises should be included in speaking lessons from the beginning. $hen ** are learning a F4# they want prompt results and speaking is the aim when they come to class. They want to speak and thatPs the most important thing to them. $hen listening# the input recei"ed can be in a higher le"er than expected) in contrast# when speaking# the speaker choose the language according to hisEher le"el and thatPs an easy aspect in comparison with listening. !lthough the speaker can choose the le"el# speaking is one of the most problematical skills since successful oral communication in"ol"es many things9 To know some grammar and "ocabulary. !bility to make the foreign sounds correctly. To master the suprasegmental features. Fluency. *ome listening skills. $hen a child is learning a F4# he usually makes mistakes. ! solution would be to guide oral practice to a"oid the **P mistakes# or at least to try that they make as few as possible. Then# the psychological aspect is important# because when children realise that they can speak without mistakes# theyPll be moti"ated to go on speaking properly. The main goal of speaking will be fluency# which can be defined as the ability to express oneself intelligibly# reasonably# accurately and without too much hesitation. (.: P1ann$ng a '-!a0$ng 1!''&n $hen planning a speaking lesson# we must bear in mind that speaking acti"ities should fulfill certain requirements9 !cti"ities must pro"ide opportunities for language practice. They must be interesting. !s regard to the sub:ect matter# it must be within the studentsP experience) it must be close to their li"es. *.: S-!a0$ng a)%$,$%$!' *peaking acti"ities fall into the following three categories9 acti"ities based on repetition and imitation# controlled acti"ities and autonomous interaction. A)%$,$%$!' 5a'!" &n 2!-!%$%$&n an" $+$%a%$&n 4ittlewoods structural and quasi4communicative acti"ities belong to this group. They are preparatory acti"ities# intended to prepare learners for communicati"e acti"ities. The former focus on the grammatical system and on ways in which items can be combined. The latter consist of two or more con"ersational exchanges. @rills are an example of this type of structure1orientated exercises. They help to assimilate facts about new language and enable the student to produce the new language for the first time by helping him master the basic structural patterns of the language. They are usually "ery controlled and ha"e a fairly limited potential. They shouldnPt be used either too frequently or for too long. The teacher will insist on accuracy# correcting where ** make mistakes. 'n addition# the **P talking time can be notably increased in large groups. There are different kinds of drills9 R!-!%$%$&n "2$11'D ** ha"e to repeat the sample pattern accurately and quickly) e.g. O' went to the market and ' bought[O S5'%$%%$&n "2$11'D ** are required to replace a word or phrase of the model sentence by the cue wordEphrase pro"ided by the teacher. T2an'#&2+a%$&n "2$11'D e.g. putting affirmati"e sentences in the negati"e or acti"e sentences in the passi"e. G!''$ng "2$11'D they get ** to try to find out through guessing. They are thus based on the information gap principle. *ome examples are9 - ** think of something they did the pre"ious weekend and then they take turns to find out what it is by asking. - ** imagine that they ha"e been ill and they take turns to find out each others illness by asking. C&n%2&11!" a)%$,$%$!' %ontrolled acti"ities help ** de"elop confidence and the ability to participate in simple con"ersations. Texts (dialogues and prose passages) can be exploited for oral practice. The ad"antage of the acti"ities based on them o"er the drills we ha"e looked at is that they offer a well1defined context for practice. #uestion and answer practice is one of the commonest ways of gi"ing language practice in the classroom. 7ther techniques are right $ wrong statements and corrections. ** are asked to say whether a statement is right or wrong within the context of the text and# if it is wrong# they gi"e the correct "ersion) or they are asked to correct statements. ! third technique can be '%a%$ng )&n'!@!n)!'# in which the ** ha"e to say what happened as a result of an e"ent or action described. T9 %olumbus disco"ered !merica. *-9 7ther people followed him. */9 't changes the story of the world. +airwork acti"ities pro"ide ** with a greater amount of meaningful practice. There are "arious types of pairwork acti"ities9 model dialogue and key words# gapped dialogues# cue words# picture cards# language games# decision1making acti"ities and questionnaires. 4et us outline each one of them9 %odel dialogue and key words9 ** work with a set of 61A dialogues related to the same theme together with a list of key words which they can use to produce different dialogues. 'n gapped dialogues one of the speakers has to supply the missing utterances. The speakers missing words may also be cued by indicating what functions he has to express# e.g. !.1 .......... (invite some!ody to go out with you). .1 *orry# 'm busy. !.1 .......... (suggest another day). .1 >es# that would be fine. !.1 .......... ( suggest a time). .1 !ll right. *ee you then. &uewords9 ** are gi"en cards with a number of cuewords on them# around which a dialogue can be modelled# and a model dialogue to work with. Picture cards can be used for a range of acti"ities9 - )inding uses) ** ha"e to find uses for an ob:ect within a particular en"ironment# to compare the uses for an ob:ect in two en"ironments# or to find two uses for an ob:ect# one normal use# the other absurd. - 'ssociation activities) ** ha"e to link two ob:ects e.g. in terms of use# material# etc. 'anguage games also help to impro"e speaking skills# e.g. Hide and seek# where ** 0hide2 and ob:ect somewhere in a picture. They then take turns to find out where the ob:ect has been hidden by asking questions like Is it on the !ookcase? Is it under the ;C? (ecision!making activities require ** to make certain decisions. They employ the information gap principle# that is# ** ha"e to try to find out what each has decided. For instance# they are gi"en a set of numbered places and they write the numbers on a street plan to indicate their positions# which their partners ha"e to guess. =on1pictorial aids such as maps# menus# radio and TV programmes are another way of getting ** to interact using fairly controlled language. For example# with maps ** can practise gi"ing directions. $ith menus they can decide what they are going to eat and drink. $ith TV and radio programmes they can discuss what they are going to watch or listen. #uestionnaires with mixed structures are effecti"e ways of getting ** to draw on all their linguistic resources. They in"ol"e identifying somebody who corresponds to a requirement of the questionnaire. For example# the questionnaire may read9 F$n" '&+!&n! 67&: NAME 1 is wearing black socks 1 likes flying 1 cant swim 1 has ne"er been abroad 1 would like to go to the moon A%&n&+&' $n%!2a)%$&n The last type of speaking acti"ities is related to the autonomous interaction# that aims to get from the students a free production of language. %ommunicati"e acti"ities pro"ide the learners opportunities to use the language for themsel"es. The opportunity to say something has to be gi"en to them# so that they can see for themsel"es the "alue and use of what they are learning. The acti"ities must be geared to the learners needs and the teacher should formulate the tasks in terms that ** can understand and ensure that the instructions are clear. 'f the task is "ery complex# it is ad"isable to set up a rehearsal before asking ** to start. <oreo"er# the teacher should9 make sure that e"erybody speaks &nglish and that e"erything runs smoothly. set up mixed ability pairsEgroups because ** learn from one another. elicit or pre1teach the language ** will need during the acti"ity. monitor the task discreetly. 3 E * should inter"ene only if heEshe is quite certain that learners cannot manage on their own. should not keep correcting and demand too high a standard of accuracy. 4ittlewood distinguishes two types of communicati"e acti"ities9 functional communication and social interaction.
a) *unctional communication acti"ities in"ol"e the communication of information. They ha"e to o"ercome an information gap or sol"e a problem. y Minformation gap 4ittlewood means a type of acti"ity in which one or more of the ** has to get information from someone else. *ome examples of these acti"ities are the following9 @isco"ering identical pairs9 one * has to find which of four other has the same picture as his. @isco"ering missing information9 two ** each ha"e an incomplete table and each has to get missing information from other. @isco"ering secrets (guessing games). These games are accuracy1focussed games chose purpose is to reinforce what has already been taught. For example 8;wenty questions9 (one player thinks of a famous person or place and the others try to find out what by asking no more than twenty questions). b) "ocial interaction acti"ities in"ol"e simulation and role1play. 'n a simulation ** act as themsel"es (gi"ing directions to a passer1by outside the school)# while in a role1play they act as someone else. For role play the class is usually di"ided into small groups who are gi"en situations and roles to act out. They are different ways of pro"iding a framework for role1play practice9 ,pen4ended dialogues # e.g. dialogues which lea"e the learners free to decide how to de"elop them. &apped dialogues 9 ** are gi"en functional cues on separate cards. $e may define the relationship between the two speakers# e.g. they are friends. - 'n"ite to go out with you - @ecline / *uggest another possibility / !ccept 8 %onfirm arrangements 8 !gree /ole instructions describe the situation and tell the participants how they should interact. &xample9 you go into a bookshop to buy a book (describe author and title). !sk the bookseller is he has the book. 'f the book is not a"ailable# decide whether to order it. 7ther acti"ities are discussions and fluency1focussed games# i.e. games in which ** use language rather than simply practise it# for example in a debate to choose the ** that will controll the class library. V.: SUMMARY V.: SUMMARY To summarise# in this topic we ha"e dealt with the oral skills (listening and speaking)# which# in the Foreign 4anguage !rea curriculum# are stressed o"er the written skills (reading and writing). $eP"e gi"en some guidelines in order to make a proper planning and weP"e suggest some of the acti"ities we can do when teaching both skills. VI.: REFERENCES VI.: REFERENCES ;he techniques of anguage ;eaching by illows# F.4. ;eaching anguage as communication by $iddowson# 3.N. 7xford Tni"ersity +ress. ;eaching ,ral 0nglish by yrne# @. +ublished in -.?5. -etting %tudents to ;alk by Nolewiowska# !. +ublished in -..D. T7+'% B. F7,&'N= 4!=NT!N& *+&&%3. T3& %7<+4&U'T> 7F N47!4 T=@&,*T!=@'=N '= 7,!4 '=T&,!%T'7=9 F,7< 3&!,'=N T7 !%T'V& 4'*T&='=N. *+&&%3 '+,7@T%T'7=9 '<'T!T'V& ,&+,7@T%T'7= !=@ !TT7=7<7T* ,&+,7@T%T'7=. INDEX 1. INTRODUCTION (. D.A. /IL.INS AND J.A. VAN E. *. SPECIFYING T3E DISCRETE LINGUISTIC:CULTURAL ITEMS 4. AUDIOLINGUALISM AND NEO:FIRT3IANISM I. T3E INTERPERSONAL SPEEC3 ACT L. AUTONOMOUS INTERACTION G. LISTENING AND SPEA.ING 1. INTRODUCTION *peech# or spoken language# is the most ob"ious aspect of language# it is the uni"ersal material of human language. For many hundreds of thousands of years human language was transmitted and de"eloped entirely as spoken means of communication. Tsing a foreign language eefecti"ely requires ha"ing a number of different abilities. 4inguistists ha"e identified four ma:or abilities# which are called linguistic skills. They are9 listening# speaking# reading and writing. (about their classification and their integration# see topic 8). 'n this unit we are going to study the listening and speaking skills# first how our pupils e"ol"e from hearing to acti"e listening# and second# from imitati"e speaking to autonomous talking. (. 4'*T&='=N %7<+,&3&=*'7=9 F,7< 3&!,'=N T7 !%T'V& 4'*T&='=N 4istening in a foreign language is hard work. 't is a principle that listening should precede speaking. %learly# it is impossible to expect our pupils to produce a sound which does not exist in their mother tongue or a natural sentence using the stress# rhythm and intonation of a nati"e speaker of the foreign language without first of all pro"iding them with a model of the form they are to produce. 't is not possible to produce satisfactorily what one has not heard. The logical step# then# is attempting to achie"e oral fluency or accuracy is to consider our pupilsR ability to listen. !t first sight it appears that listening is a passi"e skill# and speaking is an acti"e one. This is not really true# since the deconding of the message calls for acti"e participation in the communication between the participants. ! recepti"e skill is in"ol"ed in understanding the message. Tnderstanding is usually signalled in a face1to1face con"ersation by the nods# glances# bbody1mo"ements and often phatic noises of the listener. This "isual and "erbal signalling confirms to the speaker that listening and understanding has taken place so# while hearing can be thought of a passi"e condition# listening is always an acti"e process. *tudies of classroom interaction show that children spend a large part of their time listening L listening to the teacher# to each otther or to pre1recorded material. +roblems are likely to arise if teachers do not teach children how to listen# so that they can cope effecti"ely with these demands. esides# our work as teachers of young learners is much easier if the children are moti"ated and en:oy what they are doing. 't is up to us to ensure that the acti"ities they are engaged in are interesting andEor fun. $e also ha"e to be clear that our students cannot understand e"erything they hear. $e should pro"ide purposeful acti"ities where learners are asked to focus on specific points. $e must ensure that the childrenRs learning is supported where"er necessary. 4earners will also of course listen :ust for fun# without ha"ing to do anything with what they hear. F,7< 3&!,'=N T7 T=@&,*T!=@'=N The first stage in the listening skill learning process is ear1training# if we cannot hear we will not understand. 4ater on we must help our pupils de"elop their aural understanding abilities. 'f we want our pupils to be efficient listeners in &nglish we must gi"e them enough practice in both intensi"e and extensi"e listening. 'ntensi"e listening is closer to ear1training. 'f we feel that our pupils are not producing satisfactorily a certain sound or they ha"e not encountered it yet# we can get them to listen carefully for the sound in a gi"en passage# as a first step towards imitation# then production of the sound. This is called intensi"e listening. 7nn the other hand# we may be aware that our pupils cannot understand ordinatry &nglish of the type that is used in our coursebook tape. 'n this case a more general familiaritty with the lexis and grammar of the listening texts is required so we must prepare aural lessons which will not focus on a sound or two but on general features of the style of sicourse materials. This is called extensi"e listening. &FF&%T'V& 4'*T&='=N 4anguage comprehension is generally seen as part of an interacti"e process arising from the complex interplay of the three main dimensions of interaction9 the social# the cogniti"e and the linguistic. *tudies of young learnersRcomprehension skills show that many aspects of listening are mastered at an early age# particularly in supporti"e# con"ersational contexts where social skills are highlighted. 3owe"er# when the listening focus in"ol"es more demanding cogniti"e skills# such as processing information or monitoring the adequacy of a message# children frequently encounter problems. <any authors currently take the "iew that there are se"eral parallels between the processes in"ol"ed in 4- acquisition and 4/ learning. 't is felt that children ha"e the ability to transfer some of the skills and strategies in their 4- acquisition to second language learning. The kinds of information source used in comprehension can be summarised under two main headings9 a. knowledge about the content of the spoken message 1 general knowledge to do with facts and information 1 sociocultural knowledge to do with topics# settings and participants in interaction 1 procedural knowledge about how language is used# for example# knowing that questions generally demand responses b. knowledge about the language used in the spoken message 1 recognition of items of "ocabulary and sentence patterns 1 understanding of phonological features such as stress# intonation and sounds The role of the teacher is to encourage children to draw upon different information sources# skills and strategies in order to learn how to help themsel"es understand. 7nce the teachers are aware of these processes# they will be able to include in their planning interacti"e or specific listening tasks focusing on one or more of these strategies. *ix types of strategy are gi"en below# described in the context of listening to a story9 -. Netting the general picture9 this strategy is used when children are being encouraged to listen to a story simply for pleasure. 'n this case the learners do not attempt to focus their attention in or remember details but to listen for gist to get a general idea of what the story is about /. +redicting9 this strategy is useful when children are trying to follow the sequence of e"ents in a story. 'f the children are moti"ated and ha"e some support for their understanding# they can be encouraged first to predict and then to check whether what they hear matches their expectation. This is an example of a learning context where knowledge of the language system and general knoowledge based on pre"ious experience of 4- stories work together to facilitate comprehension 8. &xtracting specific information9 the focus here is on recognising specific components of the language system# such as selecting rele"ant ad:ecti"es to describe particular characters in a story to fill in a tick1chart or recognising specific "erbs and nouns when matching pictures with e"ents in a story. 'f the aim of the acti"ity is listening comprehension rather than memory testing# for this strategy to work the learners need to know what kind of information to listen out for. The support materials (pictures and charts) help the learner distinguish rele"ant from irrele"ant parts of the message. 6. 'nferring opinion or attitude9 an awareness of stress and intonation# combined with knowledge of lexical items and grammatical patterns# enables the learner to determine whether a character is happy# angry or sad and therefore to work our some of the context of the story A. $orking out meaning from context9 it must be made clear to children learning &nglish that they will not be able or expected to understand e"ery word in a story. Thus the teacher needs to de"elop their confidence in facing texts with new "ocabulary. Key words may be glossed beforehand while "isual support or written framewords (charts# for instance) will help the learners understand detail. *ome learners might be able to draw upon their knowledge of the langauge system. 5. ,ecognising discourse patterns and markers9 e"ery story will ha"e certain story1tellinng con"entions# for example an introduction beginning# 0<any years ago there was a wicked witch[2 The recognition of discourse markers used in logical relationships# as well as the use of appropriate intonation# will help learners to work out some of the storyline. T3& 4'*T&='=N %4!** 't is important to make a distinction between the teaching and testing of listening. The practice of asking the childrren to listen to something with no support other than questions to answer after listeniing has many drawbacks. 't concentrates too much on the testing of comprehension or memory rather than encouraging children to de"elop strategies to coping with the spoken message. This kind of methodology tends to o"erload the childRs capacity for porcessing and retaining information. Thus the emphasis is placed on assessing what the children ha"e understood rather than in supporting their understanding so that they can show that they ha"e understood. 't is only when teachers direct the childrenRs attention to the pupose of the listening task beforehand and procde a suitable framework for pro"iding acees to the spoken message that they can be said to be teaching listening. +ossible frameworks to be used can take the form of pictures# charts or questions which aim to create interest and supply moti"ation and support for the successful completion of the task. This kind of methodology reflects the "iew that the listening process is a form of interaction between the listener and the text. The meanings which learners construct in this interacti"e process depend on the one hand on their 0set2 to the text and on the other hand on the content and the language contained in the ttext. The 0set2 can be described in terms of what the learner brings to the text# that is# the schematic knowledte described earlier such as background knowledge and feelings# attitudes or interest. The content of the text will of course draw upon linguistic items such as "ocabulary and grammar as well as discourse geatures such as refference# lexical relations# logical connectors and intonation. The linguistic content may ser"e to refer to e"ents# people# animals# places# ob:ects# feelings# attributes# concpets and so forth. $ith the help of the teacher# who creates a context and a purpose for liistening# the focus of the comprehension acti"ity can be on any of these aspects. The teaching of comprehension is said to ha"e three phases9 pre1# while1 and post1 listening acti"ities. The first stage is an introduction or orientation to the text during which the teacher might elicit what the children already know about a topic by asking them questions# or create interest by relating aspects of the content to the childrenRs own experiences. The second stage in"ol"es an explanation of the pupose of the listening task so that the children are quite clear what their role is and whether they need to focus on specific aspects of the text. The purpose mau be simply to listen and en:oy a story# song or rhyme in which case they can participate if the teacher wishes. 'f the listening purpose is to extract specific information it is at this point that the teacher will explain the task and refer to any "isual or written support heEshe has planned. The learners will then listen to the text# which may be pre1recorded or spoken by the teahcer or another child# and complete the acti"ity. The stage after this is then concerned with checking information by asking questions (oral or written) or by asking for feedback on any other outcomes the learners may ha"e produced# such as completing a game# finding the correct sequence of e"ents or drawing and labelling a picture. T3& ,74& 7F T3& T&!%3&, 't requires patience# imagination and skill to create an interesting en"ironment for young learners to de"elop confidence in listening. The teacherRs role is this respect is fourfold9 -. +lanning for listening /. choosing appropriate texts and tasks9 8. +ro"iding support 6. "arying the learning context *. LISTENIING AND SPEA.ING 4istening and speaking tasks should always be properly introduced9 the context of the text and the task in"ol"ed needs to be clear to the students before they start an exrecise. Teachers should beware of setting artificially high standards of correctness. &xperienced teachers accept different degreees of "ariation from the 0perfect2 model. !dditioanlly# there are teachers who use 0teacher talk2 at certain moments of the lesson. 0Teacher talk2 is using a "ery simplified "ersion of the target language so that the students can understand better. There is no harm in doing this# as long as studnets also recei"e natural language input as well. ! teacher might use 0teacher talk2 when presenting a langauge item) an unnaturally slow pronunciation would help the students to identify the sounds better. 3owe"er# during the de"elopment session# oral drills practice should be done using natural speech patterns. !s for fluency and accuracy# the listening and speaking skills should be approached from both of these perspecti"es9 there are moments in the lesson when accuracy is imperati"e. For example# when a language item is presented# accuracy is of the utmost importance) it is equally important during oral drills sessions. 3owe"er# during productiooon# especially during free pair work and groups work acti"ities# practice for fluency is preferable. The teacheer can monitor the production of the studnets# noting language weakness which need to be dealt with in subsequent class sessions. 4istening entails the following aspects9 guessing the meaning of unknownn "ocabulary) folowing the main ideas of something spoken using natural speeach) summari(ing a speakerRs intention) recogni(ing style and register differences) identifying the structures of a spoken statement) making inferences) formulating a personaly opiniionn about a text) formulating an intellectual attitude and an emotional attitude towards a text) taking notes while listening to a speech) identifying the amin phonological aspects of the &nglish language ("owels# dipthongs# tripthongs# consonants# rhythm# stress# intonaation# word :unction)) comparing pre1 kowledege with what is being said) the speakerRs intention) the speakerRs attitude) phonological aspects. *peaking entails the following aspects9 formal and informal manner) preparing and gi"ing oral reports) asking and answering questions (inter"iews)) telling a story and expanding narrati"es) connecting sentences) di"iding speech into paragraphs and main ideas) constrciting dialogues) making correclty formed declarati"e and interrogati"e statements) interpreting a picture story) summari(ing a peech hard using notes taken) paraphrase what another person has ssaid) tell a story (in"ented or retold). UNIT H: LEARNING TO READ AND /RITE. READING COMPRE3ENSION: EXTENSIVE AND INTENSIVE READING. /RITING: FROM INTERPRETATION TO PRODUCTION. 1. /RITTEN LANGUAGE *peech uses phatic substance and writing# graphic substance. *peech is considered to be part of an interaction which both participants are present and the speaker has a specific address in mind. 7n the other hand# in written language the producer is distant from the recei"er and sometimes e"en do not know who the recei"er is. $hile speech is time1bound and dynamic# writing is space1bound and static. *o writing allows repeated reading and close analysis. 't needs careful organisation and structured expression. *ome words must be a"oided when the meaning relies on the situation. !mbiguity must also be minimised in writing# as there is no possibility of asking for immediate explanation. *ome constructions might be fond only in writing (formal) and others# in speech (slang# swear words# [) (. LEARNING TO READ AND /RITE IN T3E FIRST LANGUAGE There are many different methods to teach reading9 P7&n$) approaches try to identify the regular soundEletter relationship. +ermitted "ocabulary is restricted. G1&5a1 approaches try to recognise indi"idual words as wholes without breaking them into constituent letters or sounds. 't is based on meaning. =owadays there are some mixed schemes# integrating the strength of each. Fluent reading needs some strategies9 ,apid and selecti"e techniques (scanning) *ilent techniques (skimming) For writing is necessary to acquire the motor skill of sequencing letters# using different shapes and si(es# word spaces# spaces between lines# margins# etc. ut writing is more than that automatic exercise# it is the ability to use the structures of the language in an appropriate and mature way. There are different stages of writing acquisition9 a. asic motor skill and principles of spelling system are de"eloped. b. Tsing the writing system to express what they can already say in speech. c. $riting and speech split up# and writing de"elop its own pattern and organisation. d. $riters can make stylistic choices and de"elop a personal way of expressing. *. LEARNING TO READ AND /RITE IN T3E SECOND LANGUAGE ,eading is to distinguish the meaning of a chain of words in a text# quite quickly. &nglish spelling is different from sounds# so words and structures must be worked first in an oral way. efore reading# children must know most of "ocabulary structures and ha"e some knowledge about the topic# culture and situation. R!a"$ng %!)7n$@!' %hildren need some techniques in order to get the maximum information from a text with the minimum of misunderstanding9 &xtensi"e reading9 getting a global picture# a clear idea of the o"erall meaning of the text (skimming) 'ntensi"e reading9 paying attention to the details# getting particular points (scanning) 3a"ing an interpretation of the text based on readers own experience. Nuessing many unknown words by simply studying the context. +redicting what they are going to read next# recognising discourse linkers (although# but#[) 'nferring opinion and attitude# based on the recognition of linguistic style and appropriate purposes. !fter reading comprehension learners must interpret the text9 +icking the authors intention @istinguishing facts and opinions Finding relations with personal experience. R!a"$ng a)%$,$%$!' B%72!! '%ag!'C P2!:2!a"$ng tasks9 to familiarise with the topic. 4ooking at pre"ious knowledge. 't is necessary to create expectations in order to increase their interest. They will read to confirm expectations and that is moti"ating. (describing photographs or co"ers of the text# informal dialogues about the topic# prediction of the content# gi"ing a tittle# [) /7$1!:2!a"$ng tasks9 S0$++$ng9 reading a text to get the gist of it (suggesting the tittle of the passage# matching text tittles with series of short texts#[) S)ann$ng9 extracting specific information from the text (underlining information required# completing an information form# classifying under different headings# tick in a list of ob:ects already read# [) C&+5$n$ng both# skimming and scanning (answering questions# describing main characters physical and emotionally# completing a drawing# anticipate actions#[) <aking $n#!2!n)!'9 recognising opinion and attitudes (questions of possible interpretations) P&'%:2!a"$ng tasks9 the main aim of these acti"ities is to internalise the language of the text (crossword# drawing comics# role play# carry out a sur"ey# summarise# change the end# continuing the story# preparing a similar text# boarding games#[) 4. /RITING: FROM CONTROLLED PRACTICE TO FREE PRODUCTION Traditional methods used writing to fix linguistic forms in memory. There was no intention to teach the learner to express anything of himself through the new language. =owadays we need to identify the needs of communication of our pupils. 7ur pupils will spend most time completing tightly controlled written exercises. *ometimes they might be encouraging to produce free writing. $riting needs some a5$1$%$!'9 G2a-7$)a1 &2 ,$'a1 skills9 includes spelling# punctuation# capitalisation and format. G2a++a%$)a1 skills9 to use successfully a "ariety of sentence patterns. S%81$'%$) or !=-2!''$,! skills9 to express precise meanings in a "ariety of styles and registers. R7!%&2$)a1 skills9 cohesion and links of parts of the text into logical sequence. O2gan$'a%$&na1 skills9 sequencing the ideas# summarising rele"ant points and re:ecting irrele"ant information. $riting acti"ities might be these ones9 For -2a)%$)!9 <aking lists# personal "ocabulary %ompleting crosswords <atching labels to pictures %lassifying words under headings $riting speech bubbles for cartoons &xplaining sur"eys or questionnaires %orrecting mistakes %opying sentences that ha"e been matched !nswering questions For )&++n$)a%$&n9 $riting games (descriptions of famous people) &xchanging letters (playing a role) *tory construction (small pieces of paper) $riting reports and ad"ertisements) %orrection of written work can be done by both# teacher and pupil. The teacher must show positi"e aspects# showing the pupil where the work was effecti"e and where it was not. The teacher can underline the error and write in the margin the type of error it is9 concordance# wrong word order# unclear meaning# [ T3E /RITTEN FOREIGN LANGUAGE. APPROXIMATION, MATURATION AND IMPROVEMENT OF T3E READER:/RITER PROCESS. T3E READING COMPRE3ENSION: TEC3NIQUES FOR GLO9AL AND SPECIFIC COMPRE3ENSION OF TEXTS. T3E /RITTEN EXPRESSION: FROM T3E INTERPRETATION TO T3E PRODUCTION OF TEXTS. INTRODUCTION. 'n this unit# ' am going to explain the reading1writing process. 'n first place# ' will explain some aspects of this process in general# the relationship that exists between both of them and how can be de"elop this process in order to acquire the &nglish language. 'n the last part of the unit# ' will explain both skills# reading and writing. 'n addition# all its features like the importance of the authentic or non1authentic material which is used to do the exercises. !nother important aspect that ' am going to be in mind in the last part is the techniques and acti"ities# which can be carry out in class to impro"e both skills. T3E READING:/RITING PROCESS. 'n the first part of the unit# ' am going to explain the relationship that exists between the reading and writing skills. oth terms are narrowing linked because these skills are present from the first stages in the approach of the foreign language. The language is firstly heard and then it is read. R!a"$ng# is an important skill# which can contribute to the accomplishment of a language in posterior stages. This skill can be useful in order to achie"e "ocabulary# or it can be a moti"e to read for pleasure. ;he additional lecture# which is read in a "oluntary way# offers the opportunity to learn in an unconscious way aspects like culture from the foreign language. The main ad"antage of the reading for the students is that it impro"es their general &nglish le"el. $e ha"e as teachers to encourage the complementary readings# which has to be chose by the students. $e ha"e to realise that# when we are going to teach a language in the first stages# our students do not ha"e knowledge about grammar or syntax. @ue to that# the teacher will be the guide in the learning. Teachers will ha"e to use some strategies like the comment of the illustrations# the chose of easy situations[ 'n the first stages# it would be ad"isable direct to our students with patters# which has the same structure. 'n order %& $+-2&,! %7! 2!a"$ng:62$%$ng -2&)!'', we can use a great "ariety of acti"ities and techniques. 't is ob"ious that we ha"e to start from easy to texts that are more complex. $e will try to offer to the students short tales with familiar situations related to their daily life# alternating with fantastic stories like ad"entures with monsters. 'n class we have to e+ploit the illustrations, because they are "ery important in order to understand the context of the situation. 'n a great "ariety of acti"ities# the introduction of the teacher will help the students to understand the aim of the acti"ity. Then# the teacher can ask some questions to check if they ha"e understood what is pretend in the acti"ity. !fter that# we can do the reading. 'n the first curses# the texts are read aloud to continue to silent reading# and later# to the summaries. Then# we can do the comprehension exercise9 - questions made !y the teacher# from open to more close answers# - judgements made !y the teacher# which can be true or false and - summaries of te+ts using synonymous and paraphrases of a text. 't is ad"isable that# whene"er possible# the teacher relates the current situations that is carry out to more familiar situations. 'n more ad"anced le"els we can use9 - charts# - questionnaires and surveys where the ob:ect is to inter"iew a classmate# for example according to their likes# dislikes# preferences# - role4plays9 these acti"ities are connected with dialogues and performances. The students are appointed a certain role and they must ask according to it. 'n these ad"anced le"els# it would be ad"isable9 - the use of the dictionary and - the preparation of their own "ocabulary in personal dictionaries. 'n the last cycle is ad"isable that the students try to infer the meaning from the context. T3E READING COMPRE3ENSION. =ow# it is time to discuss the reading comprehension. R!a"$ng in the foreign language must start from the first year when the language is studied. "e have to interact with the te+t in order to understand the message# e"en where the text contains language which the students are not able to produce. 7ne aspect of reading that concerns many teachers# is the difference between authentic and non4authentic te+ts. T7! a%7!n%$) %!=%s are designed for nati"e speakers# not for language students. This kind of material can be newspapers# ad"ertisements or radio1programmes. A n&n:a%7!n%$) %!=% in language teaching terms is one that has been written especially for language students. *uch texts sometimes concentrate on the language they wish to teach. 'n these texts appear some particular grammatical structures# "ocabulary or some particular tenses. $hen teachers choose the right kind of material and the students are successful# then the benefits are ob"ious. $hat we need# therefore# are texts where the students can understand the general meaning of# whether they are truly authentic or not. ;he jo! of the teacher is to train the students in a number of skills which they will need for the understanding of reading and listening texts. These skills can be di"ide into two groups. a) T8-! &n! '0$11', are those operations that students perform on a text when they tackle (enfrentar) it for the first time. The first thing the students are asked to do with a text concerns it treatment as a whole. Thus# students may be asked to look at a text and extract specific information. They might read or listen to perform a task to confirm or check expectations they ha"e about a text. T8-! 1 '0$11' a2!: - .redictive skills9 efficient readers or listeners predict what they are going to read and hear. - 0+tracting specific information9 students ha"e to focus on the specific information they are searching for. This skill# when is applied to reading is called 0scanning2. - -etting the general idea* we often read or listen to things because we want to 0get the general idea2. $hen applied to reading this skill is often called 0skimming2. b) T8-! ( '0$11' are those that are subsequently used when studying reading or listening material and they in"ol"ed detailed comprehension of the text. They are practised after type - skills ha"e been worked on. T7!8 a2!9 - 0+tracting detailed information like9 what does the writer mean; $hat precisely is the speaker trying to say; 3ow many[; - /ecognising functions and discourse pattern. To recognise some discourse markers are an important part of understanding how a text is constructed. $e need to make students aware of these features in order to help them to become more efficient. - 6educing meaning from conte+t. 't is con"enient that in class# the student gets used to e+tensive and intensive reading. F&2 %7! $n%!n'$,! 2!a"$ng'# the students will work with short texts# from which they understand basically all the words. In %7! !=%!n'$,! 2!a"$ng, students make the effort to understand the message using all kind the strategies. These are some ideas of reading acti"ities9 - PRE QUESTION9 ! question is gi"en before reading# to find out a piece of central information. - DO IT YOURSELF QUESTIONS9 *tudents compose and answer their own question. - PROVIDE A TITTLE9 *tudents can suggest an alternati"e tittle. - SUMMARISE9 *tudents summarise the content in two or three sentences. - CONTINUE T3E TEXT9 4earners suggest what might happen next in a text. - PREFACE9 4earners suggest what might happen before. - GAPPED TEXTS9 Naps are left which can only be filled in if the texts ha"e been understood. - MISTA.ES IN T3E TEXTS9 Towards the end of a text# there can be some mistakes. *tudents ha"e to know in ad"ance how many mistakes there are in the text. - COMPARISON9 There are two texts on similar topics# students note points of similarity or difference. - RESPONDING9 The text is a letter or a pro"ocati"e article and the students discuss how to respond to the letter or write an answer to the article. - RE:PRESENTATION OF CONTENT9 The text gi"es information and students represent its content through different graphics mediums. /RITTEN EXPRESSION. 'n the last part of the unit# ' am going to explain the written expression. Frequently# writing is relegated to the status of homework. This is a pity since writing# especially communicati"e writing# can play a "aluable part in the class. ,eading has a notable influence in the writing expression# the more we read the !etter we write. 't can be said that# there is a better le"el in the written expression in those students who use a more "ariety of written texts in their daily life. $hen we are going to -1ann$ng %7! 62$%%!n a)%$,$%$!'# we ha"e to consider the following aspects9 a) #onte+tuali3ation9 when we write a message in real life# we always do it within a context or situation# because who writes presupposes certain aspects determined by the situation. $e ha"e to be in mind aspects like the type of the register. b) 'im9 writing has always a purpose# according to this# there will be determined the expressions# "ocabulary# etc. The purpose has to ha"e a meaning for the student. @ue to that# the students need to know different kind of writings and practise them in order to connect with the possible reader. c) #reativity9 it seems con"enient to pro"ide the student with occasions where they can create their own texts and feel that it is the product of their will and personal effort. d) &otivation9 the essential ob:ecti"e in language production is to pro"ide the student with moti"ation to learn. 'f the acti"ities are moti"ating# the students will feel an inner satisfaction to learn# to communicate with others and carry a task they like. e) Integration9 in a communicati"e approach of writing# it is necessary the integration with other skills which contributes to se"eral purposes9 - allows the practise of the some linguistic or functional contexts in the same skills# - de"elop two or more linguistic skills within the same context and - approximates the use of the language to the real world. ! recepti"e or an oral acti"ity can precede the writing acti"ity. The %8-!' &# 62$%$ng' can be di"ided in two groups9 - .ersonal te+ts* for personal use9 shopping lists# dates# recipes direct to other people9 messages# letters# in"itations[ - Institutional writings* commercial letters# information request# maga(ines[ !nother kind of di"ision can be9 a) !cti"ities where it is only necessary to copy a written text. b) !cti"ities designed to encourage students creati"ity. To practice handwriting# spelling and new "ocabulary at word le"el we can9 a) <ake lists. b) <ake personal dictionaries. c) %ompleting crosswords. d) %lassifying words under headings. 'n addition# under the sentence le"el students can9 a) $rite tittles for pictures. b) $rite speech bubbles for cartoons. c) <atching hal"es of sentences and copying. d) *equencing sentences and copying. e) %orrecting mistakes in written sentences. f) !nswering questions. There are a lot of %!)7n$@!' %& 7!1- '%"!n%' %& "!,!1&- %7!$2 62$%$ng !=-2!''$&n# from the "ery controlled expression to the free writing. *ome techniques are9 - "riting guides with model and visual stimulus (description of a person). $e can use photographs# drawings# maga(ines[ - "riting guides from a stimulus. Transferring information from the oral to the written language# (the elaboration of questionnaires can be an example). - "riting guided !y the esta!lishment of a situation and give instructions to write a te+t. 4ea"ing or taking messages can be an example. - )ree writing# in order to de"elop the students imagination (creation of no"els# short tales# stories# diaries about the &nglish class[). - 6iaries can be interesting for the teacher. Thus# the teacher can obtain interesting data about the students attitude.
UNIT 7- LENGUA E8TRAN9ERA ESCRITA. APRO8IMACI:N, MADURACI:N ; PERFECCIONAMIENTO DEL PROCESO LECTOESCRITOR. LA COMPRENSI:N LECTORA < T=CNICAS DE COMPRENSI:N GLO>AL ; ESPEC?FICA DE TE8TOS. LA E8PRESI:N ESCRITA < DE LA INTERPRETACI:N A LA PRODUCCI:N DE TE8TOS. In%2&")%$&n The written foreign language9 aproximation# maturation# and impro"ement The reading comprehension The written expression %onclusion !s a way of introduction is worth considering that the efecti"eness in the use of a language requires we ha"e different skills# which are# called 0linguistic skills2. $e can find two kind of skills. 7n one hand# the skills which are acquired by means of oral interaction# listening and speaking# and on the other hand# the skills acquired by means of "isual interaction# reading and writing. 'f we want to achie"e a communicati"e competence among our students# we must work simustaneously the four skills. 'n relation to the written foreign language we ha"e to bear in mind we can find three different styles according to writing purpose) the expresi"e style focuses on the expression of the writerRs personal feelings) the trasactional style focuses on logical statements and the poetic style which expresses imaginati"e experiences. 'n the same way# we can find a serie of stages in writing. TheyRll be the preparatory stage where principles of the spelling system are acquired) the consolidation stage in which children begin to use the writing system to express what they can say in speech) the differenciation stage where the students di"erge from speech and de"elop their own and finally# the integration stage where they ha"e a good command of language and they can "ary their stylistic choices. !long the +rimary &ducation we pretend students get basical necessities of written language. <oreo"er# they must be able to answer in usual situations of written language# they must express communicati"e intentions and recogni(e the characteristics in each situation. !s for the approach to reading1writing it is con"enient to begin to de"elop the reading1writing capacity of the foreign language through simple and superfluous texts# descriptions and brief narrations# class instructions# children and popular songs# tales encouraging the pleasure to interpret the written texts and en:oy with the reading. The reading allows the gradual addition of "ocabulary and the moti"ation for second language learning. *ome methods present a book for additional lecture. 'f the student reads texts spontaneously and in a "oluntary way# the success will be complete# as the readings will also gi"e him the opportunity to know and assimilate easily the culture from the foreign country. !t the beginning# the contexts of the new lessons must be easy) in this stage# the reading will be confined# most of the time# to repeat words and structures seen in the lesson (in class)# offering new combinations# "isual help as pictures# etc. The teacher will read aloud se"eral times and heRll ask them questions in order to answer yes or no. !s for maturing of the reading1writing process we ha"e to take into account as the course ad"ances# the reading1writing exercises will be# logically# more complex. TheyRll ser"e to assimilate the structures we ha"e :ust seen and re"iew the pre"ious ones. The procedure to follow could be based on an introduction of the teacher where the students obser"e a picture# the teacher asks them some questions and then he relates the text to other situations. The next step will be listening and reading the text and finally weRll present a comprehension exercise using questions which can be open# that is# the answer expected can change# or close where the expected answer is yes or no. Teacher9 $here did mummy put the cake; *tudent9 7n the cupboard. Teacher9 's the cupboard small; *tudent9 =o# itRs big. ,eaching this point# the student is able to interpret a complementary text. $ell try to offer the student short tales with familiar situations# related to their daily li"es# alternating with fantastic stories in order to get the success and arise the studentRs interest. $e can work out different types of acti"ities9 in class# the teacher will comment superficially the plot and then he will read the text) the first texts are read aloud# to continue gradually to silent reading and later to the summaries or brief written commentaries. !fter the reading# the teacher suggests a series of :udgements that will ha"e to be determined as true or false. $e can propose different endings or return to writing the text but under another point of "iew# composition of a text whose sentences appear disarranged# etc. $e are going to continue with the impro"ement of the reading1writing process. $e ha"e to consider the texts will present a greater difficulty# they may be more long extended and# in some occasions# without pictures. $hen finishing these readings# a simple comment will help understand and place the text. $eRll elaborate in class a summary# we can di"ide the text in parts with subtitles# the students can answer questions and they can explain their personal opinions about the central idea. 7n the other hand# we can use complementary readings. The additional text will consist on a reading already chosen by the student# although we can pro"ide him with comics# series of cartoons# maga(ines# etc. The traditional tales and the easy poems are a good source of reading materials. =ow that the possibilities of the students reading1writing are better# it is ad"isable the use of the dictionary# the preparation of their own "ocabulary and the elaboration of his own notebook where he can register in alphabetical order. 'n relation to reading comprehension we ha"e to bear in mind that the reading capacity of the students from +rimary &ducation# starts to acquire a more systematic characteristic. 'tRs con"enient the student gets used to extensi"e and intensi"e reading. For the intensi"e reading# the student will work with short texts# from which he will understand basically all the words (labels# ad"ertisements# letters from friends# etc.). 'n the extensi"e reading# the student will make the effort to understand the messages although he may not known the meaning of some words. 'n this case# he can ask for the teacherRs help# other classmates# basic bilingual dictionaries and other communication strategies (inference by the context# similarity with the mother tongue...). 'n the foreuign language class we can practise acti"ities of different kind focused on global or specific comprehension. !t first# the short of games proposed will be in relation with with what the student already knows in his mother tongue so he can infer from his pre"ious experience the sense of formal or referntial elements (headings# presentation...) which allow him to formulate hypothesis about the content. $e can work out a great number of clues which help the comprehension as photographs# charts# pictures# presentation of the text# the headings# words in the text which are repeated# familiar words# ask the students questions9 $ho; $hen; 3ow; The age to start reading must start from the first year when the language is studied (from the beginning). The techniques will be suitable to the studentRs le"el# the complexity will "ary as he is acquiring more knowledge and promoting to new courses. Firstly# theyll read short sentences and later theyRll achie"e the interpretation of a brief and simple text. $e can find a serie of ad"antages in reading# which consists# ha"e learn other cultures# re"iew structures and "ocabulary and a better1written expression. 'n the same way# we must distinguish three types of pupils. Those who find difficult to get a global idea# those who donRt pay attention to details (quick reading) and those who are imaginati"e readers because they interpret the text as they like. !s result# we ha"e to be careful with the texts we choose. $e ha"e to adapt the readings to the group and the indi"iduals. 'n relation to the techniques for the global comprehension# skimming# we ha"e to consider that it can be achie"ed using the following strategies or techniques9 - The student relies on the clues pre"iously mentioned who writes; $hen; $here; $hy; - The text will be adpated to the studentRs le"el. - %omprehension of the main idea in the text being neccessary to make student understand that is perfectly possible to understand the main idea without knowing all the words completely. =ouns and "erbs ha"e more important meaning than other words. - @educe the neaning of unknown words from the context. - ,egister the "ocabulary in a notebook. - 4ook up words in the dictionary. - 'dentify relations between sentences by connectors. - ,ecognise discourse patterns (con:uctions# etc.) !s examples we can include reading based on the inference system# reading carried out by the teacher in aloud "oice# reading made by the students in class# reading aloud and normal reading. !s for the techniques for specific text comprehension# scanning# weRll take into account reading performs by the teacher in aloud "oice where the students ha"e the text and repeat it. !lso# they can infer# deduce a specific information by means of clues# questions# etc. The students reading in class aloud would be another strategie pro"ided them with narrati"e or descripti"e passages or short poems) reading at home as an en:oyable acti"ity# not as a school task. !d"ertising will be interesting at the time of finding specific information. The teacher could bring a written example# preferably original and with drawings or colour photos. The scanning is a technique related to the speed in reading and in"ol"es the attainment of information by means of searching words or key propositions. 'tRs a "ery producti"e exercises where the student answers questions reading the text "ery quickly. Finally# it is important to point out that although there are different techniqes for the global and for the specific comprehension of texts# both will ha"e to be always together or integrate in order to achie"e a better acquisition of the foreign language. $e are going to continue with the written expression. Firstly we are going to expone a serie of writing skills "isual or graphical as spelling# punctuation and capitali(ation) grammatical as sentence pattern and constructions) expresi"e using different styles) rethorical in order to link parts of the text into logical related sentences) organisational re:ecting irrele"ant information or summari(ing rele"ant points and finally the fact of knowing formal structures. !lso itRs important to emphasi(e that the more we read the better we write. Krashem de"elops the hypothesis that the written skill is acquired in the same way as the speaking skill. The student would request a gi"en language# comprehensi"e input# in a quantity enough to de"elop his capacity. This input should be accomplished for pleasure and interest# so his attention would be focused on the message or content and not on the form how the message is expressed. $e ha"e to follow a serie of criteria for planning acti"ities of written expression# which consists of contextuali(ation# because when we write a message in real life# we always do it within a context or situation. The place where the written acti"ity is generated may be as well a determinant element of it. 'f this takes place in a relaxed atmosphere# the result will be "ery different that the outcome obtained in an examination atmosphere. !n another criterion is the aim# that is# writing has always a purpose which determine the expressions# "ocabulary# etc. The type of register is also important according to descriptions# informal or formal letters# etc. The creati"ity since when we write we elaborate ideas trying to express the contents by means of words or sentences. 'tRs important to pro"ide the student with occasions where he can create his own language and feel that it is the product of his effort. $e suggest the importance of programming acti"ities# where the student writes spontaneously short messages or informal notes in the target language# weRll select sub:ects about which the students ha"e read or had a personal experience and therefore are interesting for him. 'tRs interesting the reasoning of the writers and the integration with other skills in order to aproximate the use of the language to the real world# de"elop two or more linguistic skills within the same context so the students aware of the written text# the resources to achie"e# the con"entions of personal or institutional writings# headings# address# greetings#etc. The last criteria we are going to comment is to pro"ide the student with a moti"ation to learn. $e can de"elop two kind of moti"ation# intrinsic and extrinsic. 'f the acti"ities are moti"ating# the student will feel satisfaction to learn# to communicate with others and carry out a task he likes. 'n relation to the step from interpretation to text production we are going to consider some acti"ities or preparatory techniques as well as techniques of written expression. Firstly we ha"e to bear in mind we can find two main kind of writings. 7n one hand the personal writings for personal use which appear reflected in shopping lists# telephones and adresses# dates# reading books# recipes# etc. 7r directed to other people (messages# in"itations# letters# postcards# etc.) 7n the other hand# the institutional or public writings that are found in daily life9 commercial letters# biographies# posters# songs# pu((les# crosswords# games# compositions# etc. The preparatory techniques are related to the de"elopment of reading comprehension. $e may emphasi(e the inference technique of the meaning of a word in the context# or the ones guessing the meaning of unknown words and the meanings implicit in the text# and the techniques of predicting the content of a text from the knowledge of one of its parts. 'n the first place# the students are pro"ided with a text where there are a key word missing. $e ask them to pay attention to the context surrounding this word ("ocabulary# structures# idioms# etc.) to infer the meaning. 'n pairs or small group# the students try to guess which word it is. 7ther technique is the 0linguistic reflection2# which help the student to percei"e specific aspects from the text. 4ater# the students can write letters to the students from another class or formal letter to tra"el agencies. The next acti"ity is based on 0braimstorming2 and helps the student to remember and learn the "ocabulary necessary to de"elop a sub:ect. The students are asked to say the words they can think about a topic and later they will write a composition using the "ocabulary noted down. !fter the preparatory techniques# we suggest techniques to help students to de"elop their written expression# so the task they carry out will be attracti"e and easy. These will "ary from the "ery controlled to the free writing. 'n most of the acti"ities the student is encouraged to write his own communicati"e text with his experiences# interests# feelings# etc to a possible reader. $e can work out acti"ities following a model where we can present an illustrati"e drawing as orientation and stimulus# transferring information acti"ities as elaboration of questionaires# acti"ities from a situation and gi"en instructions to write a text# acti"ities without specific support (creation of tales# short no"els# writing diaries# etc.). !s conclusion of the topic we consider "ery important students feel the interest and curiosity towards the written text as well as the capacity to elaborate them. The bibliography used has been9 - ello y otros. @idGctica de las segundas lenguas. !ula UU' &d. *antillana. <adrid. -..D - 3armer. The practice of &nglish 4anguage Teaching. 4ongman. urnt <ill. -.?8 - yrne. Teaching writing skills. 4ongman. urnt <ill. -.?? - $hite# ,. +rocess $riting. 4ongman. 4ondon. -..- - %a:as ,o:as TEMARIO A: TEMA 9 Sistema fonolgico de la lengua inglesa II: Acento, ritmo y entonacin. Comaracin con el sistema fonolgico de la lengua o lenguas oficiales de la Comunidad Autnoma corresondiente. CONTENTS !. I"TRO#$CTIO" !. %&onetics and %&onology '. %&onemes and Seec& Sounds (. Stress)R&yt&m and Intonation '. STRESS !. #egrees of Stress '. %osition of Stress (. Stress in t&e Canarian #ialect) Sanis& language (. R*+T*M !. ,ea- and Strong .orms '. Regularity of R&yt&m (. R&yt&m in t&e Canarian #ialect) Sanis& language /. I"TO"ATIO" !. .alling Tone '. Rising Tone (. .all0rise Tone /. Rise0fall Tone 1. 2e3el Tone 4. .all5rise Tone 1. TEAC*I"6 IM%2ICATIO"S
!. I"TRO#$CTIO" The most noticeable feature of a foreign language is often intonation and rhythm. Some languages are described as sounding "like music", other languages as being "flat and without melody". If the pronunciation of individual sounds can be compared with the individual notes in a piece of music, the intonation can be compared with the melody or tune. When studying the pronunciation system of a language we differentiate two categories: Segmental elements: owel and consonant sounds. !rosodic elements: rhythm, stress and intonation. !. %&onetics and %&onology %*O"ETICS: is the science that studies the language sounds" how sounds are produced in general. %*O"O2O6+: is the study of the sound system in a particular language. It includes intonation, rhythm, sounds patterns, etc. '. %&onemes and Seec& Sounds %*O"EME: is the smallest unit of speech that can change the meaning of a word. S%EEC* SO$"#: is any unit of sound produced by the speech organs. They are the muscles and parts of the mouth, which we use to speak. The Phoneme is also defined as "only in terms of its differences from the other phonemes in the same language". #$: Ship sheep Minimal airs: Such pairs, which differ only in one phoneme. (. Stress, R&yt&m and Intonation When dealing with the concepts of Stress, %hythm and Intonation, we should start by referring to the concept of prominence %rominence: is the characteristic in common with all stressed syllables. &our different factors are important: a. 'oudness b. 'ength c. !itch: is closely related to the fre(uency of vibration of the vocal cords. d. ) syllable will tend to be prominent if it contains a vowel that is different in (uality from neighbouring vowels. Stress concerns the relative prominence with which one part of a word or a longer utterance is distinguished from other parts. R&yt&m concerns the relative prominence, or pattern of the stresses being perceived as peaks of prominence, occurring at somewhat regular intervals of time. #nglish is a language with a tendency for a stress*timed rhythm. Intonation is the association of the relative prominence with pitch, the aspect of the sound which we perceive in terms of "high" or "low". Ot&er rosodic systems include factors such as tempo and the relative speed of utterance. %ercetion of t&e r&yt&m 7ase may in3ol3e o7ser3ing 3ariations of loudness, itc& and seed. !. STRESS We can study stress from the point of view of roduction and of ercetion. The production of stress is generally believed to depend on the speaker using more muscular energy than is used for unstressed syllables. +any different sound characteristics are important in making a syllable recognisably stressed. In #nglish, stressed syllables are longer then unstressed ones, the vowels are more voiced within them. Stress is not marked in the spelling system, but it can be transcribed phonetically. The importance of stress should be noted, given that incorrect stress on syllables is an obstacle to communication, because it may lead the speaker to understand a different word, that follows a different stress pattern. !. #egrees of Stress We can distinguish between the primary and secondary stress. The first one is also called tonic strong stress, while the second one is also called non*tonic strong stress. #$: ,presup,ose There are other authors who consider that there e$ist three stresses. #$: ,many ,lovely ,-girls '. %osition of Stress .ormally stresses are in a fi$ed position in a word. First syllable: ,precept Second syllable: to-night Third syllable: engi-neer Fourth syllable: misunder-stood Fifth syllable: palatali-/ation #$ceptions: a. Native words and early French loans #$: ,kingly ,kingliness un-kingliness b. All abstract nouns ending in ion #$: ,mission c. Nouns ending in ity #$: ,vacuous va-cuity d. Nouns and adjectives ending in ian #$: ,liberty liber-tarian e. Adjectives ending in ic #$: ,phoneme pho-nemic f. Words with more than one function ) wide selection of words that can operate e(ually well as nouns0ad1ectives or verbs, are differentiated by their stress in the two functions: #$: ,present 2.oun or ad1ective3 pre-sent 2verb3 g. Compound nouns They are generally stressed on the first element with a secondary stress on the second element in contrast to the normal noun phrase stress pattern: #$: ,black ,bird 2compound nouns3 a ,black ,bird 2noun phrase3
h. Stress in phrases When we come to stress in phrases and other syntactic units, we provide different underlying relations between 1u$taposed items. #$: )n ,#nglish ,teacher 2someone who teaches #nglish3 )n ,#nglish ,teacher 2a teacher who is #nglish3 !. Stress in t&e Canarian #ialect) Sanis& language a. e!ical and secondary stress The 4anarian speakers should keep in mind the different importance given to the secondary accent in Spanish as compared with #nglish. The pronunciation of isolated words rarely occurs in Spanish, it only happens in )dverbs ending in "*mente", and in a few compound adverbs. #$: s5mplem6nte 7ptico*ac8stico b. Contrastive secondary stress The secondary stress occurs in the 4anarian dialect as well, but it is not prominent: #$: las cuestiones tanto ,interiores como ,e$teriores )lthough #nglish compounds generally turn into a secondary stress the one which was the primary in the root, and this secondary stress still keeps a considerable strength" Spanish moves the stress to the suffi$es: #$: ,central 0 ,centra-li/e centr9l 0 centrali/9r ) secondary stress does not appear e$cept in the cases where the general rules of Spanish regulate it. c. Stress position and "ffect In two*syllable words both languages have a preference for stressing the syllable before the last" #nglish tends to stress the antepenultimate syllable in three or more syllables words whereas Spanish keeps the penult position for stress. #nglish vowels are deeply affected by their stress, whether primary or secondary. Stressed vowels have a precise and clear pronunciation, whereas unstressed vowels have a tendency to become indistinct. &inally , in Spanish the stress is represented in the spelling, what makes it easier to be remembered and pronounced , whereas in #nglish it-s not represented. !. R*+T*M %hythm may be defined as the regular succession of strong and weak stresses in utterances. The notion of r&yt&m involves some noticeable event happening at regular intervals of time. The theory that #nglish has stress0 timed r&yt&m implies that stressed syllables will tend to occur at relatively regular intervals whether they are separated by unstressed syllables or not. Some writers have developed theories of #nglish rhythm in which a unit of rhythm, the foot is used. Some theories of rhythm go further, and point to the fact that some feet are stronger than others, producing strong*weak patterns.
!. ,ea- and Strong forms T&e 8ea- form, in which the vowel is pronounced with the schwa vowel, is more common than the other. The strong form in which the vowel is pronounced as it is written. :bviously the use of one or another form may affect the meaning of the utterance. #$: ,;ane and her ,mother ,-are ,stupid < it is not true that they are not stupid ,;ane ,-and her ,mother are ,stupid < not 1ust one, but both are stupid Weak forms are a manifestation of stress and rhythm in #nglish, and must not be avoided in teaching, or the learner will sound unnatural in connected speech. '. Regularity of R&yt&m The natural rhythm of #nglish provides roughly e(ual intervals of time between the stressed items. The prevailing tendency in unstressed syllables and words is to reduce the vowels to the obscure 0 0, thus we have 0 0 in a great many syllables: #$: a kilo of potato 0 ,ki:l v p , te t /0 %egularity of rhythm is used for specific pourposes: a. 4ounting: #$: ,one, ,two, ,three,..., seventy ,four, seventy ,five b. Inventory or lists c. #mphasis: #$: you should ,always ,look be-fore you ,cross the ,-road
!. R&yt&m in t&e Canarian #ialect) Sanis& language It is essential in #nglish to have a sentence rhythm, which does not e$ist in Spanish. In an #nglish sentence certain words which are too close to the initial rhythmic beat lose their le$ical stress in spite of having le$ical stress. This does not happen in Spanish. #$: Mary-s younger 7rother wanted fifty chocolate eanuts In this e$ample we can see the difference with the Spanish stress, in Spanish all the words will be stressed" however, in #nglish only the syllables in bold type are really stressed, thus favouring rhythm. The behaviour of prepositions and con1unctions differs in both languages: they are usually stressed in #nglish" in Spanish only the preposition "seg8n" is stressed. Stress also varies in #nglish depending on whether it is used on strong or weak forms of the same words. There is nothing in Spanish, which resembles the #nglish strong and weak forms so this will prove difficult for Spanish students. !. I"TO"ATIO" Intonation is the tune within the sentence that may alter the meaning. =ere the itc& of the voice plays the most important part. We describe itc& in terms of &ig& and lo8. There is another necessary condition and that is that a itc& difference must be erceti7le. Intonation is generally found in se(uences of stressed and unstressed syllables, though it can be a single word. We call it the tone unit, within which there is the nucleus 9caital letters:. The first stressed syllable in a tone unit is a onset 2,3, the end will be 2,-3 The rise and fall of pitch throughout is called its intonation contour. #nglish has a number of intonation patterns which add conventionali/ed meanings to the utterance: (uestion, statement, surprise, disbelief, sarcasm, teasing. )n important feature of #nglish intonation is the use of an intonational accent 2and e$tra stress3 to mark the focus of a sentence. .ormally this focus accent goes on the last ma1or word of the sentence, but it can come earlier in order to emphasi/e one of the earlier words or to contrast it with something else. #$: She ,told S:+eone-- She ,7oug&t it for a %ARty-- " " onset nucleus Tone unit !. .alling Tone This is the commonest tone in #nglish affirmative sentences, wh*word (uestion, one word answers to (uestions, and on words, names, numbers and letters said in isolation. #$: ,What-s the T>+#-- ,'?.@:.-- ,TW?-- ,A%-- '. Rising Tone It is used to suggest that what is said is not final. #$: 4ounting: ,?.#-- ,TW?--... :r because a response is needed 2though not in wh*word (uestion3: #$: )re you ,=B!py-- :r when two clauses are 1oined together: #$: When I ,CDT there-- I-ll =>T him-- ) (uestion will use a rising tone while the (uestion tag uses the falling tone. The fall and rise are by far and away the most common of the nuclear tones. (. .all0rise Intonation It often occurs in the nucleus of a doubtful condition, but it is particularly common with the initial adverb: #$: I-ll- see him if he 4?+#S-- /. Rise0fall Intonation It e$presses as it does both genuine and assumed warmth, as well as feelings of shock or surprise. #$: ,That-s C%D)T-- 1. 2e3el Tone It sometimes used to the e$act predictability of what is to follow: #$: he @%B.E-- he W?+anised he ,@>#@ 4. .all0rise Intonation It is common in everyday usage: #$: She looks &>.# to +D-- It is often used with marked focus, the fall coming on the focus item and the rise on the last le$ical item in the tone unit: #$: It-s his ,+B.ners that I can-t STB.@-- < ,What I don-t '>E# ,- are his F+9nners-- '. TEAC*I"6 IM%2ICATIO"S )ll languages have their own intonation patterns. Why is intonation importantF Intonation conveys both meaning and attitude, so when a non*native speaker gets the intonation wrong, s0he can be misunderstood or sometimes misinterpreted as sounding rude or demanding when this is not intended. If a non*native speaker is almost fluent in the #nglish language, intonation is often the only way in which one can tell that s0he is foreign. +oreover, if a foreign speaker is advanced in terms of grammar, vocabulary, etc., native speakers will make fewer allowances for intonation problems than they would with speakers who are obviously at a more elementary level. &or e$ample, if an advanced level speaker unintentionally sounds rude or demanding, the listeners will assume that s0he means it. What can be done to improve intonationF &irst of all students should be aware of the differences between their intonation and the #nglish one: Spanish intonation is much more measured, so we have to teach the students how to intonate the different #nglish elements. Intonation in Spoken Spanish does not rise and fall as much as #nglish. Students should try and keep the voice as levelled as possible. Some useful techni(ues may be : 'isten to as much spoken #nglish as possible 2on cassette if you are unable to listen to native speakers3 and be aware of where the voice rises and falls. When you listen, try to consider the attitude and feelings being conveyed. :ne word, for e$ample, can be said in several different ways, depending on the meaning you wish to convey. Stories motivate children to listen and learn, and help them to become aware of the sound and feel of #nglish. ) selection of ready*to*tell stories is included although the activities can be used with any story. 4reating @rama with poetry is an e$citing language learning e$perience. The use of poetry as drama in the #nglish as a second language 2#S'3 classroom enables the students to e$plore the linguistic and conceptual aspects of the written te$t without concentrating on the mechanics of language. Through this techni(ue, apart from several other aspects the teacher can model student-s pronunciation, intonation, stress, rhythm, and oral e$pression" We as teachers have to take into account all the differences e$isting between 'G and 'H patterns of stress, rhythm and intonation, and try our students to differentiate them. So #nglish people can understand their speaking.
T&<! .9 @&*%,'+%'W= @&4 *'*T&<! F7=74WN'%7 @& 4! 4&=NT! '=N4&*!. <7@&47* > T^%='%!* @& !+,&=@'\!F&. +&,%&+%'W=# @'*%,'<'=!%'W= > &<'*'W= @& *7='@7*# &=T7=!%'7=&*# ,'T<7* > !%&=T7*. 4! %7,,&%%'W= F7=^T'%!. -.1 @&*%,'+%'W= @&4 *'*T&<! F7=74WN'%7 @& 4! 4&=NT! '=N4&*!. 1.1.: OP&2 @P !' $+-&2%an%! 1a #&nP%$)aQ -./.1 _XuK inglKs; _!centos; 1.*.: OC<+& 2!-2!'!n%a2 1&' >'&n$"&'?Q 1.4.: La ,&;: )!2"a' ,&)a1!', a2%$)1a)$<n 8 #&na)$<n. 2gan&' a=$1$a2!'. 1.4.1.: OC<+& '! -2&")! 1a ,&;Q -.6./.1 FonaciHn. -.6.8.1 !rticulaciHn. (.: MODELOS Y TRCNICAS DE APRENDISAJE. (.1.: Pa-!1 "!1 -2&#!'&2. /./.1 TKcnicas de comunicaciHn. /.8.1 TKcnicas de producciHn. 8.1 +&,%&+%'W= @'*%,'<'=!%'W= > &<'*'W= @& *7='@7*# &=T7=!%'7=&*# ,'T<7* > !%&=T7*. *.1.: In%2&"))$<n. 8./.1 Vocales y diptongos. 8.8.1 %onsonantes. 8.6.1 *emi"ocales. 8.A.1 &ntonaciHn# acento y ritmo. 6.1 4! %7,,&%%'W= F7=^T'%!. -.1 @&*%,'+%'W= @&4 *'*T&<! F7=74WN'%7 @& 4! 4&=NT! '=N4&*!. 1.1.: OP&2 @P !' $+-&2%an%! 1a #&nP%$)aQ @espuKs de muchos a`os de estudiar y ense`ar el inglKs a hispanohablantes# he llegado a la conclusiHn de que la mayorJa de los alumnos persiguen un mismo ob:eti"o9 adquirir una fluide( de comunicaciHn oral. &sto no es nada fGcil de conseguir# teniendo en cuenta que la lengua inglesa pertenece a un grupo no romance 1como es el caso del espa`ol11# que el aparato fonKtico del hablante se OanquilosaO con la edad 1siendo por ello menos capaces de emitir mayor "ariedad de sonidos11# y que por norma general los alumnos no estGn en contacto con el OambienteO anglHfono necesario. +ara alguien que estudie una lengua fuera del paJs de origen# se hace absolutamente necesario el establecimiento de unos cHdigos que permitan la explicaciHn de los sonidos de dicha lengua. &l hablante no nati"o sHlo tiene como recurso la '<'T!%'7= de dichos sonidos. &sta OimitaciHnO# lle"arG a un me:or o peor grado de OexactitudO dependiendo de muchos factores. &ntre ellos# a mi modo de "er# el principal es la comprensiHn exacta de todos los sonidos de la lengua que se estudia. > para una buena comprensiHn de los sonidos# es necesaria una T&=! @&*%,'+%'7= de los mismos9 el oJdo tiene tendencia a OasimilarO fonemas 1que a "eces distan bastante de los de la lengua materna11. &sto significa que escuchamos lo que estamos acostumbrados a escuchar. @e forma muy simplista# un espa`ol sHlo es capa( de distinguir una OaO# y todo lo que se pare(ca a ella lo OescucharGO como una OaO. 1.(.: OQP $ng1P'Q OA)!n%&'Q 4o primero que uno descubre cuando quiere comen(ar a hablar inglKs# es la gran diferencia de OformasO del idioma que existen(tanto habladas como escritas). 4a rique(a de acentos del inglKs es realmente sorprendente# por lo que# teniendo en cuenta que hemos de '<'T!, a un angloparlante# _a quiKn elegimos como modelo; &sta es realmente una difJcil pregunta# a la que solo puedo responder9 eli:a el modelo que mGs le guste# que mGs se adapte a sus necesidades y a sus posibilidades. +ero# sobre todo# el que le sea mGs accesible y le permita un mayor namero de horas de audiciHn. +or e:emplo# si usted puede sintoni(ar con la %# utilJcela como modelo. S*erJa absurdo pretender imitar un acento escocKs sin haberlo oJdo nunca b !quJ# se muestran las explicaciones que corresponden al denominado ,*+9 +ronunciaciHn ,ecibida *tandard (,ecei"ed *tandard +ronunciation). &l acento ,*+ es una "ariedad de acento del *ur de 'nglaterra que es de los mGs utili(ados en la ense`an(a. &sta es la anica ra(Hn por la que aquJ se muestra9 como di:e antes# cuGnto mayor sea la fuente de informaciHn y la posibilidad de contacto con una "ariedad de inglKs# tanto me:or serG la '<'T!%'7= conseguida. 1.*.: OC<+& 2!-2!'!n%a2 1&' >'&n$"&'?Q @espuKs de todo lo dicho anteriormente# sHlo nos queda contestar a una pregunta crucial9_cHmo es posible representar sonidos mediante la escritura;. ueno# no es fGcil desde luego9 nada importante suele serlo. Todo requiere un esfuer(o. > por suerte otros se han esfor(ado antes que nosotros por resol"er este problema9 para representar sonidos utili(amos un con:unto de sJmbolos que los representan# incluyendo signos menores que nos permiten indicar la fuer(a de pronunciaciHn# calidad del sonido# abertura de la boca# posiciHn de los Hrganos de la fonaciHn# etc. ! ese con:unto de sJmbolos es a lo que se ha con"enido en denominar !4F!&T7 F7=&T'%7 '=T&,=!%'7=!4 ('+! Q 'nternational +honetic !lphabet). 1.4.: La ,&;: )!2"a' ,&)a1!', a2%$)1a)$<n 8 #&na)$<n. 2gan&' a=$1$a2!'. <e parece fundamental explicar# aunque sea bre"emente# los mecanismos de producciHn de la "o( humana y los elementos que en ella inter"ienen. *Hlo mediante un conocimiento de los mismos podremos# de una forma consciente# poder influir en la producciHn de los sonidos que emitimos y asJ conseguir una aproximaciHn mGxima a la pronunciaciHn del inglKs. -.6.-.1 _%Hmo se produce la "o(; @urante el proceso de la respiraciHn el aire pasa a tra"Ks de la traquea desde los pulmones. 4legado a un punto 1la nue(11# se encuentra con un obstGculo primordial9 las cuerdas "ocales# situadas en la regiHn conocida como laringe. 4as cuerdas "ocales son dos bandas elGsticas situadas una enfrente de otra. =o hay que pensar en ellas como OtirasO# sino mGs bien como# repito# ObandasO. *us bordes estGn un poco engrosados y se conocen como ligamentos "ocales. &l con:unto de cuerda y ligamento tiene la capacidad de aproximarse y ale:arse de su opuesto# produciendo una obturaciHn total del OtuboO traqueal 1impidiendo el paso del aire completamente11) o pueden separarse 1posiciHn de descanso1de:ando un hueco entre ellas que permite el paso del aire. ! ese hueco le denominamos N47T'*# o abertura glotal. 4a "o( se genera durante el proceso de expulsiHn del aire# y se puede resumir en dos grandes apartados9 (-) 4a fonaciHn) y (/) la articulaciHn. -.6./.1 FonaciHn. 4a gran "elocidad a la que discurre el aire por la laringe pro"oca la ,$52a)$<n de las cuerdas# a una "elocidad realmente sorprendente9 ?DD pulsos por segundo y mGs. &sa "ibraciHn tan rGpida y regular# pro"oca una nota musical# que es# en esencia# la producciHn de la "o(. &l tono de la nota# puede ser modificado# lo que produce una "ariedad de OsonidosO que pro"ocorGn la esencia del lengua:e hablado. &se tono se modifica por dos mecanismos9 &l estiramiento o rela:aciHn de las cuerdas# que produce una mayor o menor frecuencia de la "ibraciHn(tonos altos o ba:os) 4a modificaciHn del "olumen de sus bordes9 el adelga(amiento para altas frecuencias) el engrosamiento para ba:as frecuencias. &l control de las cuerdas "ocales se produce mediante la participaciHn de "arios masculos y ligamentos situados en la laringe (regiHn de la nue( 1 en inglKs !damPs apple 1). *implemente parGndonos a escuchar una simple frase# podremos comprobar la comple:idad y el refinamiento de los masculos citados# que permiten la articulaciHn rGpida y exacta de multitud de sonidos diferentes ( aparte de la grande(a indiscutible del canto# el instrumento musical mGs perfecto :amGs creado). -.6.8.1 !rticulaciHn. &l sonido primario formado en la laringe# serG luego modificado en el transcurso del trayecto que le queda al aire por recorrer. 4a participaciHn# unas "eces acti"a y otras pasi"a# de diferentes Hrganos# modificarG ese sonido hasta con"ertirlo en un OfonemaO# es decir# la expresiHn lingIJstica mGs reducida. 4os Hrganos que participan en la articulaciHn se denominan tambiKn <2gan&' a=$1$a2!' y son los siguientes9 4a lengua9 su posiciHn y su forma son pilares fundamentales en la articulaciHn del lengua:e. +ara demostrarlo simplemente recordar la forma en la que habla un borracho9 su incapacidad articulatoria deri"a# fundamentalmente# de la pKrdida del control sobre los mo"imientos de la lengua. *in duda es el Hrgano auxiliar mGs importante para el habla. +odemos distinguir en la lengua tres partes fundamentales9 &l Gpice o punta de la lengua# que serG utili(ado con extrema precisiHn para articular ciertos sonidos. *u parte media# en la que distinguiremos dos partes tambiKn9 la parte que descansa ba:o los al"Kolos superiores# a la que denominaremos pala. @isfruta de una mo"ilidad extrema y pude acceder# :unto con el Gpice# hasta los labios# dientes# al"Kolos# etc. 4a parte que le sigue# a la que denominaremos cuerpo# y que descansa ba:o el paladar duro. 4a posibilidad de modificar su forma# desde un aplanamiento a una conca"idad notable# modificarGn en mucho la calidad del sonido emitido. TambiKn puede contactar con el paladar produciendo una obturaciHn a la corriente aKrea. 4a raJ(9 puede tambiKn aplanarse o ele"arse para contactar con el paladar blando.
&l paladar (o cielo de la boca). *e di"ide en dos partes9 &l paladar duro# que permanece inmH"il y por lo tanto participa pasi"amente. &l paladar blando# que puede ser mo"ido "erticalmente pro"ocando la obturaciHn de la ca"idad nasal# e impidiendo el paso del aire hacia la nari(. 4a ca"idad nasal9 actaa como una ca:a de resonancia. 4os dientes. *on fundamentales y podemos distinguir tres partes9 4os dientes en sJ mismos# es decir su borde cortante. 4os al"Kolos9 es decir# el lugar donde estGn Oenrai(adosO en la encJa. <Gs que los Oagu:erosO 1inaccesibles si existen los dientes1 nos referimos al borde que existe alrededor de cada pie(a dental. 4a parte interna de las pie(as dentales que# desde el interior# puede ser utili(ada como apoyo por la lengua# ademGs de una barrera fJsica en sJ misma. (.: MODELOS Y TRCNICAS DE APRENDISAJE. (.1.: Pa-!1 "!1 -2&#!'&2. &n todos los modelos y tKcnicas de aprendi(a:e el profesor debe tener e siguiente papel9 - @ebe ayudar a los alumnos a percibir sonidos. 4os alumnos tendrGn una fuerte tendencia a imitar los sonidos del espa`ol. &l profesor debe comprobar que sus alumnos estGn escuchando sonidos de acuerdo con las categorJas apropiadas y ayudarles a crear nue"as categorJas si es necesario. - @ebe ayudar a los alumnos a producir sonidos que no ocurren en su lengua en este caso el espa`ol. *i la imitaciHn no es suficiente# el profesor debe capa( de dar trucos y tKcnicas que le ayuden a producir el nue"o sonido. - @ebe dar feedback e informaciHn sobre la actuaciHn de los alumnos y resultados. - @ebe ser capa( de reconocer posibles problemas con los que los alumnos puedan encontrarse. - @ebe establecer prioridades y decidir en quK aspecto concentrarse primero. - @ebe dise`ar acti"idades adecuadas para el ni"el y el propHsito a alcan(ar garanti(ando el progreso y la moti"aciHn de los alumnos. &l ob:eti"o a alcan(ar debe ser ra(onable en funciHn de las necesidades del alumno. Tn ob:eti"o ra(onable para la ense`an(a primaria es el de Slegar a una mGxima comprensibilidad# es decir# ser capaces de identificar con precisiHn el mayor namero de palabras. (.(.: TP)n$)a' "! )&+n$)a)$<n. +ara enfrentar a los alumnos con sonidos 0extra`os2 hay que e"itar que se perciban como "ariantes de los sonidos que ya conocen. +ara ello deben practicar con e:ercicios de discriminaciHn auditi"a. Tna "e( que son capaces de 0escuchar2 las diferencias# podrGn traba:ar hacia una me:or pronunciaciHn. &xisten "arios tipos de e:ercicios de discriminaciHn9 1 'dentificaciHn del sonido# &n un contexto familiar9 $here is it; %ome in. &n palabras aisladas9 li"e# sit# if finish. &n un contexto mGs amplio9 %ome in# <rs <itchell. - TKcnica de 0minimal pairs2# &ntre espa`ol e inglKs9 fin1fin &ntre sonidos similares del inglKs9 bitEbeet - TKcnica de diferenciaciHn de sonidos# 'nglKsEespa`ol9 it, it (igual) fin# fin (diferente) "ida# "ida (igual) 'nglKsEinglKs9 eat# eat (igual) feel# fill (diferente) - VariaciHn9 <arcar la "ocal diferente en read# heat# his, crease# ease. (.*.: TP)n$)a' "! P2&"))$<n. <ediante estas tKcnicas# el alumno produce los sonidos que ya es capa( discriminar correctamente. 3ay "arios tipos9 - &:ercicios de producciHn imitati"a# en los que el alumno repite un modelo corregir o confirmar su pronunciaciHn. - &:ercicios de producciHn no imitati"a (guiada)9 Teacher9 $here is your book; !lumno9 <y book is on the desk. - &:ercicios de producciHn autHnoma# en donde la con"ersaciHn tiene lugar e alumnos. 8.1 +&,%&+%'W= @'*%,'<'=!%'W= > &<'*'W= @& *7='@7*# &=T7=!%'7=&*# ,'T<7* > !%&=T7*. *.1.: In%2&"))$<n. 4a lengua inglesa tiene 65 fonemas o sonidos distintos# mientras que su alfabeto consta tan sHlo de /5 letras. @e ello resulta que algunas letras responden a mGs de un sonido. +or otra parte# algunos sonidos pueden escribirse con diferentes letras. 4a letra u# por e:emplo# en !us y put representa a dos fonemas diferentes y se pronuncia de distinta manera# en tanto que# aun cuando su ortografJa no sea la misma# sJ es el mismo fonema o sonido el que se da en las palabras9 she, east, receive, field, key, police. 4os sonidos de una lengua se agrupan en cfamiliasd constituidas por cada uno de estos sonidos y sus "ariantes segan ocurren en las distintas secuencias) y cada una de estas cfamilias de sonidosd constituye un fonema cuya pronunciaciHn puede "ariar ligeramente mientras no rebase los lJmites de la frecuencia fundamental y las armHnicas correspondientes a dicho fonema. %ada fonema tiene# pues# como hemos dicho# una o mGs letras que lo representan ortogrGficamente y# a la "e(# corresponde a un sonido fonolHgico que# en ocasiones# no tiene una letra especial que lo represente. +or ello# y para facilitar la adquisiciHn de todos los sonidos de una lengua# se recurre a la representaciHn de los mismos por medio de unos sJmbolos especiales recogidos en el llamado alfabeto fonFtico, en el cual cada fonema tiene una representaciHn grGfica especial que contribuye a identificarlo. &l alfabeto fonKtico es# pues# de indudable utilidad en el aprendi(a:e de una lengua. &l inglKs de 'nglaterra no difiere fundamentalmente del que se habla y escribe =orteamKrica. &xisten# sin embargo# di"ersas peculiaridades terminolHgicas y que con"iene tener en cuenta. ! continuaciHn se especifican los sJmbolos del !lfabeto FonKtico 'nternacional que corresponden a cada fonema y su representaciHn ortogrGfica. *.(.: V&)a1!' 8 "$-%&ng&'. 1 T$:T. 4a i de tree es siempre una "ocal larga# anterior# casi cerrada# que se articula con los labios distendidos y una apertura estrecha entre las mandJbulas. 4os bordes laterales de la lengua se apoyan firmemente en los molares superiores &s siempre un sonido largo) mGs largo y mGs cerrado que la espa`ola de 0sJ2. 7rtografJa9 e even e Gfinal$ he ee tree ea speak ie field ei receive i police ey key 7bsKr"ese el fonema ei9f en algunas combinaciones poco usuales9 ay en quay) eo en people. : T$T. 4a i de it es siempre una "ocal bre"e casi semicerrada. &s mGs bre"e y mGs cerrada que la anterior y el contacto entre los bordes de la lengua y los molares superiores es tambiKn menor. *e articula con las mandJbulas y los labios en posiciHn casi rela:ada. &s un sonido mGs bre"e y mGs rela:ado que la i espa`ola de cinco# silbo. 7rtografJa9 i !ig y only e 0ngland ie ladies a Gte$ climate a Gge$ village ay %unday ey money 7bsKr"ese el fonema eif en mountain, !iscuit, !uild, !usiness, !usy. *e pronuncian con eif los siguientes morfemas9 !e4 !ecome re4 return de4 demand 4less careless 4ness goodness 4es glasses 4ed wanted eif estG tambiKn presente en innumerables "ocales dKbiles (no acentuadas). 1 T!T. 4a e de pen es un fonema bre"e que se articula con los labios en posiciHn natural y una apertura mediana entre las mandJbulas. *e parece a la e espa`ola de cla"el# pero es algo mGs abierta. 7rtografJa9 e pen ea head a any ai said 7bsKr"ese el fonema eef presente en says, !ury, -eoffrey. 1 Ta!T. 4a a de man es un sonido bre"e# entre semiabierto y semicerrado. *e articula con los labios distendidos y una apertura mediana entre las mandJbulas# ligeramente mGs abierta que para eef. *e articula con cierta tensiHn de la lengua y la faringe) su timbre se aproxima a la a palatal de calle. =o obstante# la calidad de este sonido sHlo se adquiere por imitaciHn directa. %orresponde a la a ortogrGfica y sHlo la combinaciHn aS tiene idKntica pronunciaciHn. a cat ai plait 1 Ta:T. 4a a de car es un fonema posterior. &s siempre larga y totalmente abierta y se articula con los labios en posiciHn natural y la apertura entre las mandJbulas bastante amplia. =o hay contacto entre los bordes laterales de la lengua y los molares superiores. *e parece a la a "elar espa`ola de causa# pero es aan mGs larga y mGs "elar. 4a 1r que en sJlaba trabada sigue a a no se pronuncia en posiciHn final excepto cuando le sigue una palabra con "ocal inicial. 7rtografJa9 ar GH consonante$ car, cart a GH f, s, n Hconsonante$ after, past, dance a GH ff, as, th Hconsonante$ staff, father, glass er clerk ear heart a GH== muda$ calm 1 T&T. 4a o de not es siempre bre"e. &s un fonema totalmente posterior y abierto que se articula con los labios ligerJsimamente abocinados y sin contacto alguno entre los bordes laterales de la lengua y los molares superiores. &s mucho mGs abierta que la o espa`ola y parece un sonido intermedio entre y a "elar espa`olas. 7rtografJa9 o hot, not, dog ou, ow cough, -loucester, knowledge au !ecause, sausage a was, what 7bsKr"ese el fonema eof en yacht. 1 T&:T. 4a o de short es una "ocal bastante larga que se articula con los labios medianamente abocinados y sin contacto entre los bordes laterales de la lengua y los molares superiores. &s mGs cerrada que la o bre"e inglesa# y la posiciHn de los labios es menos abocinada que para articular la o espa`ola d ,oma. *u timbre se aproxima# aunque es mGs abierto y mGs largo# a la o espa`ola de orden. &n los altimos tiempos# la calidad de eo9f se ha ido despla(ando hasta aproximarse a la o cardinal# por lo que# hoy en dJa# es un sonido mGs cerrado que el que aan se oye en hablantes mGs conser"adores. 7rtografJa9 or short ou !ought au daughter aw saw ore !efore oor door oar roar our four aHl all, talk Gw$a walk, wall oHf, th, s often, cloth, loss 4as palabras cuya ortografJa pertenece al altimo grupo pueden pronunciarse tambiKn con el fonema eof# pronunciaciHn adoptada por mayorJa de la generaciHn mGs :o"en. *iguen tambiKn la misma tendencia la palabras cuya ortografJa es au o a(l). !sJ se oyen# pronunciadas indistinta mente con eof o con eo9f# palabras como 'ustralia, 'ustria, salt# etc. &ste fonema eo9f ha despla(ado casi totalmente el diptongo final que# hace unos a`os# se empleaba exclusi"amente para la ortografJa oZr. 1 TT. 4a u de full es siempre una "ocal bre"e que se articula exactamente por encima de la posiciHn semicerrada y prHxima a la regiHn central. *e pronuncia con los labios bastante abocinados# la lengua rela:ada# y sin tensiHn. =o hay contacto entre los bordes laterales de la lengua y los molares superiores %omo la "ocal eif# tiene una posiciHn centrali(ada respecto a su correspondiente fonema largo. &n timbre# es mGs abierta que la u abierta espa`ola de lu:o. 7rtografJa9 u pull# put o woman oo good#look ou would# could 1 T:T. 4a u de moon es una "ocal posterior larga y cerrada que se articula un poco por deba:o de la posiciHn cerrada y ligeramente centrali(ada. *e articula con los labios abocinados# pero sin tensar# y las mandJbulas mGs cerradas que en el correspondiente fonema bre"e euf. 7rtografia9 u Dune, %usan ue !lue o do oo soon, too ou soup, you ew new, few 7bsKr"ese el fonema eu9f en shoe. 1 TUT. 4a u de !ut, tal como la pronuncia la generaciHn :o"en es un fonema bre"e y casi abierto. *e articula hacia el centro# en posiciHn ligeramente anterior# con los labios abiertos y las mandJbulas bastante abiertas# sin que la lengua llegue a tocar los molares superiores. &ste sonido no existe en espa`ol y ha de adquirirse directamente por imitaciHn. 3ay otra "ariante de egf que usan las personas mayores# que es mGs posterior y se aproxima a la a "elar espa`ola de la exclamaciHn I&adre! 7rtografJa9 u cup, much o come, mother ou young, couple 7bsKr"ese el fonema egf en !lood, flood, does 1 T*:T. 4a "ocal de girl es un fonema siempre largo que se articula con los labios distendidos y sin contacto entre los bordes laterales de la lengua y los molares superiores. *e forma en un punto central entre las "ocales posteriores y las anteriores# y en una regiHn que se extiende desde un punto ligeramente superior al de las "ocales semiabiertas hasta un punto situado un poco por encima de las semicerradas. &n espa`ol no hay un sonido seme:ante a Kste que podrJamos describir como intermedio entre e y o# pero con los labios distendidos. *e parece a la "ocal compuesta francesa eu en feu# :eux# peu. 7rtogrGficamente# este fonema corresponde# en la mayorJa de casos# a un "ocal seguida de 1r# pero dicha 1r no se pronuncia# excepto cuando estG en posiciHn final absoluta o final de sJlaba y le sigue una "ocal. 7rtografJa9 ir, yr !ird, myrtle er, err her, err ear heard 7bsKr"ese el fonema e89f en colonel. 1 EhE &sta "ocal# como la anterior# se articula en la regiHn central y es siempre dKbil. *e articula con los labios en posiciHn natural y su timbre "arJa segan su posiciHn en la palabra. !sJ# de articularse en una regiHn por deba:o de la semiabierta# cuando estG en posiciHn final como en sister# pasa a ser entre semiabierta y semicerrada# en otras posiciones# y puede llegar has semicerrada :unto a 1k# 1g y 1ng. @ado que e(f sustituye con mucha frecuencia a otras "ocales en las sJlabas no acentuadas# es el fonema mGs ampliamente usado del habla inglesa. 7rtografJa9 a along e sentence o ondon oar cup!oard u chorus ou colour, famous a Gfinal$ #anada ar collar er father 7bsKr"ese el fonema ehf en the, picture. 1 T!$T. &l diptongo de lady es un fonema que se articula partiendo de una eef situada en un punto mGs prHximo a la regiHn semiabierta que a la semicerrada# y que se desli(a hacia eif con los labios distendidos. 7rtografJa9 a ta!le ai %pain ay day ey they ea !reak 1 T&T. 4a o no tiene dos "ariantes principales# una conser"adora y otra mGs moderna usada por las generaciones mGs :H"enes. 4a primera reali(aciHn# e uf parte de una e f reali(ada en un punto en la regiHn entre semiabierta y semicerrada y algo centrali(ada# y se desli(a hacia euf# a la "e( que el abocinamiento de los labios se acentaa. 4a segunda "ariante eauf# parte de una posiciHn central# por deba:o de la semicerrada de ehf y se desli(a hacia euf con los labios en posiciHn natural# que se abocinan ligeramente hacia la altima parte del sonido. 7rtografJa9 o old ou shoulder ow know oa road 1 Ta$T. &l diptongo eaif de child se articula partiendo de una eaf abierta situada mGs cerca de la posiciHn anterior que de la posiciHn posterior# y se desli(a hacia eif sin alcan(arla. 4os labios pasan de una posiciHn natural# al iniciarse el sonido# a una posiciHn rela:ada al terminarlo. 7rtografJa9 i wife y why ie cries ei height 1 TaT. &l diptongo eauf de house se articula partiendo de un punto por delante de la regiHn posterior y ligeramente por encima de la abierta y se desli(a# si alcan(arla# hacia euf. 4os labios pasan de una posiciHn natural a un ligero abocinamiento. 7rtografJa9 ou !louse ow !rown 1 T&$T. &l diptongo eoif de !oy se articula partiendo de una o# mGs prHxima a semiabierta que a abierta y se desli(a sin alcan(arla hacia eif. 4a posiciHn de los labios pasa desde ligeramente abocinados# al iniciar el sonido# a naturales hacia el final del mismo. 7rtografJa9 oi noise oy !oy !demGs de los cinco diptongos arriba mencionados# hay en inglKs cuatro diptongos cuyo segundo elemento es aproximadamente un mismo punto central que corresponde a ehf como se pronuncia al final de father. 1 EihE. &l diptongo de here se articula partiendo aproximadamente de eif y desli(Gndose hacia ehf. 4a posiciHn de los labios es natural# ligeramente distendidos a comien(o de la articulaciHn. 7rtografJa9 ere here eer !eer ear dear ier fierce :T!VT. &l diptongo de chair se inicia partiendo de la posiciHn semiabierta de ef y desli(Gndose hacia el fonema ehf# como se pronuncia en father, con los labios en posiciHn natural. 7rtografJa9 air chair ear pear are care 7bsKr"ense las palabras their, heir, que se pronuncian con este diptongo. 1 TVT. &l diptongo de tour empie(a partiendo de la posiciHn de euf y se desli(a hacia ehf como los anteriores# con los labios ligeramente abocinados al iniciar el sonido y realmente distendidos hacia el final. 7rtografJa9 ure sure our tour oor poor ewer fewer *.*.: C&n'&nan%!'. 1 T-T. 4a p de pen se articula con mayor fuer(a que la espa`ola. 4os labios# fuertemente comprimidos uno contra otro# se separan con "iolencia y de:an es capar el aire acumulado detrGs. &n posiciHn inicial es aspirada cuando ocurre en sJlaba acentuada) es decir# que al separar los labios se de:a escapar un ligera espiraciHn de aire parecida a una bre"Jsima h que se articula entre la p y el sonido que le sigue# como en +eter. 1 T5T. 4a b de !ed es muy seme:ante a la ebf oclusi"a espa`ola despuKs de pausa# se articula con los labios fuertemente comprimidos. %omo ocurre con epf# la ebf inglesa se reali(a con mayor fuer(a que la espa`ola# y la explosiHn de aire que ocurre al separar los labios es mGs "iolenta. &n posiciHn final precedida de m# la b es muda. TambiKn es muda en algunas palabras# precediendo a t9 dou!t JdautK. : T%T. 4a t de ten se articula apoyando la punta de la lengua en los al"Kolos superiores# pero e"itando que toque los dientes. &n posiciHn inicial es aspirada cuando se da en sJlaba acentuada. : T"T. 4a d de do se articula con la punta de la lengua apoyada contra los al"Kolos superiores pero sin tocar en absoluto los dientes. 3ay que e"itar articular una d seme:ante a la espa`ola# en la que la lengua a"an(a hasta los dientes pues con ello entrarJamos en el Grea de otro fonema y podrJa dar lugar a confusiHn. 4a d fricati"a espa`ola de venLdo no se da en inglKs. 1 EkE 4a c y la k de cat y key# respecti"amente# son seme:antes a la c espa`ola seguJda de a# o# u. &n sJlaba inicial acentuada le sigue una ligera aspiraciHn como a t y p. &l fonema ekf seguido inmediatamente de s eksf corresponde a la reali(aciHn fonKtica de +* !o+. : TgT. 4a g de garden se parece a la g oclusi"a espa`ola de gana cuando precede a, o, u. :T#T. 4a f de five se articula como la espa`ola. 4a reali(aciHn ortogrGfica de eff puede ser tambiKn ph# como en telephone. 4 T,T. 4a " de give se articula apoyando ligeramente los dientes superiores en el labio inferior y espirando el aire libremente. &s seme:ante a eff# pero sonora 4a calidad de esta e"f es muy distinta de la espa`ola que se reali(a fonKticamente como !. 3ay que cuidar especialmente la articulaciHn de dicho fonema para e"itar posibles confusiones de significado. : T T. 4a th de think es una articulaciHn fricati"a que se reali(a apoyando la punta de la lengua contra el borde y la parte posterior de los dientes# de:ando escapar el aire entre Kstos y la punta de la lengua. &l contacto es menos firme con los incisi"os que con los demGs dientes laterales. &l sonido de th inglesa es muy parecido al de c espa`ola seguida de e# i# aunque Ksta es algo mGs interdental y mGs enKrgica que la th inglesa. 1 E E. 4a th de the es un sonido fricati"o que se articula como el anterior# pero e menos interdental. &ste sonido no se da normalmente en espa`ol# pero se aproxima a la d fricati"a espa`ola de cada, aunque es menos rela:ada y mGs interdental. : T'T. 4a s ortogrGfica se reali(a de dos maneras segan su locali(aciHn en la palabra9 como consonante sorda esf y como consonante sonora e(f. *e articula de:ando escapar el aire entre la punta de la lengua y los al"Kolos superiores &n posiciHn inicial se parece a la s espa`ola aunque Ksta es algo mGs gra"e *e reali(a como consonante sorda JsK* en posiciHn inicial) en el morfema de plural 1s y en el de la tercera persona del singular del presente de indicati"o# cuando sigue a una consonante sorda9 p# t# k# f# th) en posiciHn final precedida de i# a# u) y en el fonema c seguida de e# i# y. : T;T. 4a reali(aciHn sonora del fonema esf# es decir e(f# no tiene equi"alencia exacta en espa`ol y debe adquirirse por imitaciHn directa. *e aproxima a la s espa`ola de rasgo# a la francesa de maison y a la catalana de rosa. 4os estudiantes que no posean este sonido en su lengua materna se deben esfor(ar para que su reali(aciHn sea lo suficientemente sonora para que no se confunda con la s sorda# lo que podrJa dar lugar a confusiHn. *e reali(an como fricati"a sonora e(f9 el morfema de plural de los nombres cuyo singular termine en consonante sonora o en "ocal) el morfema de tercera persona del singular del +resente de 'ndicati"o cuando sigue a una consonante sonora o "ocal) y el morfema del plural o de la tercera pers. sing. del presente de indicati"o 1es. TambiKn se reali(a como e(f la ( inicial y la final cuando "a seguida de e muda. pens Jpen3K cars Jca*3K days Jdei3K ladies Jleidi3K 3oo J3u* K si3e Jsai3K 7bsKr"ese que# cuando el morfema de plural 1es se a`ade a una palabra que termina en 1y precedida de consonante# dicha 1y se cambia por 1i antes de a`adir la terminaciHn. &l morfema 1es se reali(a siempre como ei(f. 1 E*E 4a sh de she se articula ele"ando la punta y el predorso de la lengua hacia los al"Kolos superiores# estableciendo un ligero contacto entre ambos y espirando el aire por este conducto. =o tiene equi"alencia en espa`ol# pero timbre se aproxima algo a la fricaciHn de la altima parte de la ch espa`ola de techo. +ara reali(ar una e*f correcta hay que colocar la lengua mGs hacia atrGs que para articular esf y# ademGs# abocinar un poco los labios. %orresponde a sh ortogrGfica. 1 T T. &l fonema e f de treasure se articula como el anterior# pero es sonoro. =o tiene equi"alencia en espa`ol# aunque se aproxima un poco a la ll pronunciada en !ndalucJa# %anarias e 3ispanoamKrica. 1 Et*E &l fonema et*f de chocolate se articula ele"ando la punta y el dorso de la lengua hacia los al"Kolos superiores. &s muy seme:ante a la ch espa`ola pero la fricaciHn es menos aguda y mGs larga que en la consonante espa`ola. %orresponde a ch ortogrGfica. 1 T" T. &l fonema ed f de jacket es muy seme:ante al anterior pero es sonoro. %orresponde a j y g ortogrGficas. : T7T. &l fonema ehf de have se articula espirando libremente el aire de los pulmones de forma que cause una fricaciHn sorda muy dKbil que puede ocurrir e cualquier punto de la boca# ya dispuesta para reali(ar la "ocal que le siga. &ste sonido debe practicarse con suma atenciHn porque no es una j espa`ola !unque se pare(ca# su sonido es mucho mGs sua"e. 4a mayor parte de lo espa`oles pronuncian este fonema demasiado parecido a la : espa`ola. %orresponde a h ortogrGfica. &n inglKs# la h se pronuncia siempre# exceptuando un namero muy reducido de palabras : T+T. 4a m de man es seme:ante a la espa`ola pero algo mGs fuerte. *e articula comprimiendo los labios y separGndolos con cierta "iolencia para de:ar es capar el aire acumulado detrGs# que a la "e(# sale tambiKn por la nari(. *u ortografJa normal es m# mm o mb. : TnT. 4a n de not se articula apoyando la punta de la lengua en los al"Kolos superiores y separGndolos repentinamente a la "e( que el aire escapa por la nari(. &l fonema enf tiene la particularidad de que# cuando estG precedido d t o d# forma sJlaba con ellas sin necesidad de "ocal intermedia. @ado que una combinaciHn de este tipo no se da en espa`ol# debe ser practicada cuidadosamente para obtener la calidad que requiere el sonido. *e apoya la lengua en los al"Kolos superiores como para articular t o d y# sin mo"er la lengua de esta posiciHn# se procede a articular enf. &l aire espirado para articular t o d y detenido por la presiHn de la punta de la lengua contra los al"Kolos se escapa repentinamente por la nari( al articular la enf. &l sonido asJ obtenido es enf silGbica# como la oJmos en garden y en !utton. : T T. &l fonema e f tal y como se pronuncia al final de king, se articula ele"ando el predorso de la lengua contra el "elo del paladar y espirando el aire por la nari(. 7rtogrGficamente# corresponde a ng y n seguida de k. +uede darse en posiciHn final# como en king y en wrong y en medio de palabra cuando la terminaciHn de Ksta es un morfema separable# como en kingly, singer. +ero si se da en posiciHn intermedia y la terminaciHn no es separable# ha de pronunciar se como enf mGs egf o ekf y no como e f. &ste fonema# por sJ solo# no se da en espa`ol (sal"o en posiciHn final 1con1 en algunas regiones como Nalicia !ndalucJa y %anarias). =o obstante# ocurre cuando n precede a g y a k. .o lo tanto# el sonido final de king o think se aproxima al espa`ol de tengo o de cinco. : T2T. &l fonema erf de red se articula ele"ando la punta de la lengua hacia la regiHn postal"eolar# para de:arla caer inmediatamente# sin tocarla y casi sin fricciHn y pasar a articular la "ocal siguiente. &l fonema erf se pronuncia de esta forma cuando le sigue una "ocal aunque Ksta sea inicial en otra palabra que siga inmediatamente erf. &n posiciHn intermedia la r se pronuncia como fuera inicial cuando precede inmediatamente a una "ocal en la sJlaba siguiente. &n posiciHn final# no seguida de palabra con "ocal inicial erf no pronuncia# ni tampoco delante de consonante. 1 T1T. &n inglKs el fonema elf tiene dos "ariantes principales. 4a primera corresponde de a una l clara# parecida a la espa`ola# que se articula apoyando la punta de la lengua en los al"Kolos superiores y de:ando escapar el aire por los lados de la misma. &sta "ariedad se emplea delante de "ocal# exceptuando e muda. 4a segunda "ariante es una l "elar coscurad parecida a la l catalana# que se reali(a delante de e muda# delante de consonante y en posiciHn final *e articula con la punta de la lengua en posiciHn seme:ante a la primera "ariante de l pero con el predorso de la lengua ba:o y el postdorso retraJdo. %orresponde a l y ll ortogrGficas9 feel# all. *.4.: S!+$,&)a1!'. &n inglKs hay dos sonidos que no enca:an en ninguno de los grupos descritos. *on fonemas que lingIJsticamente funcionan como consonantes pero que me:or dirJamos que fonKticamente se reali(an como "ocales por la forma de su articulaciHn. *on e:f y ewf. 1 EET. *e articula como una i muy bre"e con los labios distendidos o naturales y ella se pasa rGpidamente al sonido que siga. %on frecuencia este sonido reali(a fonKticamente en ew# ue# ui# u. *u reali(aciHn fonKtica responde principalmente a la semi"ocal y a la "ocal i. 4as palabras en las que ocurre deben practicarse especialmente para que su reali(aciHn sea lo suficientemente rGpida. yes JjesK, new Jnju*K. : T6T. *e articula como una u# reali(ada con los labios muy redondeados# de la cual se pasa rGpidamente al sonido que le sigue. %uando el sonido que sigue a ewf sea una "ocal que se realice con los labios abocinados# como por e:emplo eof o euf# la posiciHn de los labios serG tanto mGs redondeada para resaltar la diferencia. 3ay que cuidar especialmente la reali(aciHn de este sonido como queda dicho# sin confundirlo con la g fricati"a espa`ola# con el que no tiene ninguna conexiHn. &sta asimilaciHn es frecuente entre personas de habla espa`ola9 incluso llega a escribirse en palabras adoptadas del inglKs# como ocurre con la "o( sandwich, reali3ada fonKtica y ortogrGficamente# en espa`ol# con g. TA9LA DE PRONUNCIACIN *.I.: En%&na)$<n a)!n%& 8 2$%+&. 4a cur"a melHdica de la "o( al hablar constituye la entonaciHn de una lengua. @entro de cada una de Kstas# hay distintas "ariantes de ritmo y de entonaciHn por medio de las cuales se expone# no sHlo la expresiHn fonolHgica de dicha lengua como distinta de las demGs# sino matices intelectuales y emocionales debidos a circunstancias transitorias que alteran el ritmo usual de la oraciHn que podrJamos llamar bGsica. !quJ nos limitaremos a dar las cur"as melHdicas fundamentales del inglKs# que todo estudiante de dicha lengua debe conocer si quiere comunicarse con hablante nati"os sin correr el riesgo de que sus palabras puedan ser incorrectamente comprendidas por su interlocutor. &l ritmo del inglKs es muy uniforme. 4as palabras que tienen acento tHnico (nombre# "erbo# ad:eti"o y ad"erbio) se suceden a inter"alos regulares en la cadena del habla# y cuantas sJlabas no acentuadas se dan entre dos de estos acentos tHnicos han de pronunciarse en un perJodo de tiempo igual# tanto si es una sola como si son "arias. @e aquJ que algunas sJlabas no acentuadas hayan de pronunciarse con gran rapide(# en tanto que otras sean mGs largas. &sto da a la lengua un ritmo muy peculiar y ha contribuido no poco a la neutrali(aciHn de muchos sonidos# que son por ello difJciles de recoger por un oJdo poco acostumbrado. 3ay en inglKs tres cur"as melHdicas fundamentales. 4a primera de ellas se conoce como cur"a descendente o entonaciHn melHdica final descendente. &n ella la "o( empie(a en una nota bastante alta y desciende hasta una nota muy ba:a &ste descenso de la "o( se hace de manera gradual# partiendo de la primera sJlaba acentuada de la oraciHn y descendiendo un tono en cada sJlaba acentuada en la que desciende hasta una nota realmente gra"e. %uantas sJlabas no acentuadas se den entre los acentos tHnicos que haya en la frase deben pronunciarse e el mismo tono que el acento tHnico precedente. 4as altimas sJlabas despuKs del altimo acento son totalmente dKbiles y se pronuncian en un tono muy gra"e# sin que la "o( se ele"e nunca por encima del tono del altimo acento9 I Mphoned him Myesterday. M"here do you Nwant to Mgo? @entro de esta misma cur"a existe la posibilidad de que haya una palabra que se quiera destacar especialmente en la oraciHn o# sencillamente# aligerar la monotonJa de la inflexiHn. &n este caso# al llegar a dicha palabra# la "o( se ele"a ligerJsimamente y desciende despuKs hasta el final como en la primera "ariante. M"here do you Mthink he Mwants to Mgo? 4a entonaciHn descendente se emplea9 a) en oraciones ase"erati"as firmes) b) en preguntas introducidas por palabras interrogati"as del tipo9 who, what, when, etc.# cuya respuesta no es *J ni :oO c) en exclamaciones y Hrdenes) d) en preguntas confirmati"as (tag questions) que siguen a una oraciHn expositi"a cuando se espera acuerdo por parte del interlocutor. 4a segunda cur"a melHdica es la cur"a melHdica ascendente. &n ella# la "o( desciende# como en la anterior# hasta la altima sJlaba acentuada en la que alcan(a ni"el mGs gra"e de la inflexiHn# y el tono "uel"e a ele"arse un poco# aunque sin alcan(ar gran altura. *i# despuKs de la altima sJlaba acentuada# hubiese sJlabas dKbiles# la inflexiHn ascendente se reali(arG en Kstas. 're Mthose the ones you M!ought? M're you Mcoming? %omo en la "ariante anterior# puede recalcarse cualquier palabra de la oraciHn que se desee. &n este caso# la "o( descenderG hasta alcan(ar su tono mGs gra"e en sJlaba acentuada de esta palabra y seguirG en el mismo tono hasta la altima sJlaba acentuada# en la que efectuarG la inflexiHn ascendente. 4a entonaciHn ascendente se emplea9 a) en oraciones interrogati"as que requieren *J o =o como respuesta) b) en oraciones enunciati"as empleadas como interrogati"as y que requieren *J :o como respuesta) c) oraciones subordinadas o frases introductorias en una oraciHn compuesta# cuando se sigue hablando) d) preguntas confirmati"as cuando no se espera# necesariamente# acuerdo) e) enumeraciHn de los distintos puntos de una lista (en el altimo la "o( desciende) 4a tercera cur"a melHdica es la descendente1ascendente. &n ella la "o( desciende en la palabra mGs importante de la oraciHn y se ele"a de nue"o# ya sea en la misma sJlaba# ya en alguna otra de las siguientes. 4as sJlabas no acentuadas antes la sJlaba en que la "o( desciende se pronuncian en un tono gra"e# y las sJlabas acentuadas# si las hay# ba:an de tono gradualmente desde la primera# que se pronuncia en un tono bastante alto hasta llegar a la palabra principal# que ba:a ha pronunciarse en un tono muy gra"e. ! partir de aquJ# la ele"aciHn de la "o( puede reali(arse en la misma sJlaba# o en otra de las siguientes# como ya se ha dicho. &n este altimo caso# las sJlabas intermedias entre el tono mGs gra"e y el mGs agudo han de pronunciarse en tono gra"e. *e emplea la inflexiHn descendente1ascendente9 a) en oraciones ase"erati"as seguidas de algan determinante) b) para expresar discrepancia# sugerencia# protesta# duda implJcita# correcciHn d algo dicho) c) para expresar Knfasis. 3e PisnPt Pcoming# Pis he; Nood Pmorning. 'Pm Pso Psorry. 4.: LA CORRECCIN FONRTICA. &n toda tKcnica de aprendi(a:e existen una serie de factores que afecta aprendi(a:e de la pronunciaciHn9 - 4a lengua nati"a. %uanto mGs diferencias haya# mGs dificultades e alumno. - &l factor edad. 4os estudios demuestran conclusiones di"ergentes# debido interacciHn de la edad con otros factores como la habilidad# la moti"aciHn# interKs# etc. - %antidad de exposiciHn a la lengua. =o sHlo es importante este factor# tambiKn la manera en que el alumno reacciona a las oportunidades para y usar el inglKs. - 3abilidad fonKtica. !lgunos alumnos "en me:or las diferencias entre sonidos otros. @e todos modos# la prGctica puede me:orar sus habilidades. - !ctitud e identidad. 'mitar correctamente el habla de una persona puede ser forma de demostrar respeto e interKs hacJa esa persona y hacia el grupo que representa. 4as personas con actitudes positi"as hacia la lengua de desarrollar acentos mGs perfectos. - <oti"aciHn y preocupaciHn por una buena pronunciaciHn. 4a mentalidad 0=o quiero decirlo si no puedo hacerlo perfectamente2. +ara corregir errores de pronunciaciHn# sobre todo aquellos que afectan ScomunicaciHn# es necesario que el alumno practique con e:ercicios de discrJmii hasta la total identificaciHn de los sonidos. !quellos alumnos que no son distinguir ciertos sonidos tampoco serGn capaces de producirlo. &s necesario# concentrarse en posibles focos de errores9 - !quellos sonidos en inglKs que no tienen equi"alente en espa`ol# como 1s , 31 o 1f , v1. - !quellos sonidos en inglKs que son aparentemente iguales a algunos en espa`ol# como el inglKs E*E y el sonido espa`ol EchE. !quellos sonidos en inglKs que son similares a algunos en espa`ol pero que tienen distinta distribuciHn# como E E en this, que es un fonema en inglKs# pero un alHfono en espa`ol9 dado (Eda oE). TEMARIO A: TEMA 9 Sistema fonolgico de la lengua inglesa II: Acento, ritmo y entonacin. Comaracin con el sistema fonolgico de la lengua o lenguas oficiales de la Comunidad Autnoma corresondiente. CONTENTS 4. I"TRO#$CTIO" !. %&onetics and %&onology '. %&onemes and Seec& Sounds (. Stress)R&yt&m and Intonation ;. STRESS !. #egrees of Stress '. %osition of Stress (. Stress in t&e Canarian #ialect) Sanis& language <. R*+T*M !. ,ea- and Strong .orms '. Regularity of R&yt&m (. R&yt&m in t&e Canarian #ialect) Sanis& language 9. I"TO"ATIO" !. .alling Tone '. Rising Tone (. .all0rise Tone /. Rise0fall Tone 1. 2e3el Tone 4. .all5rise Tone !=.TEAC*I"6 IM%2ICATIO"S
'. I"TRO#$CTIO" The most noticeable feature of a foreign language is often intonation and rhythm. Some languages are described as sounding "like music", other languages as being "flat and without melody". If the pronunciation of individual sounds can be compared with the individual notes in a piece of music, the intonation can be compared with the melody or tune. When studying the pronunciation system of a language we differentiate two categories: Segmental elements: owel and consonant sounds. !rosodic elements: rhythm, stress and intonation. /. %&onetics and %&onology %*O"ETICS: is the science that studies the language sounds" how sounds are produced in general. %*O"O2O6+: is the study of the sound system in a particular language. It includes intonation, rhythm, sounds patterns, etc. 1. %&onemes and Seec& Sounds %*O"EME: is the smallest unit of speech that can change the meaning of a word. S%EEC* SO$"#: is any unit of sound produced by the speech organs. They are the muscles and parts of the mouth, which we use to speak. The Phoneme is also defined as "only in terms of its differences from the other phonemes in the same language". #$: Ship sheep Minimal airs: Such pairs, which differ only in one phoneme. 4. Stress, R&yt&m and Intonation When dealing with the concepts of Stress, %hythm and Intonation, we should start by referring to the concept of prominence %rominence: is the characteristic in common with all stressed syllables. &our different factors are important: e. 'oudness f. 'ength g. !itch: is closely related to the fre(uency of vibration of the vocal cords. h. ) syllable will tend to be prominent if it contains a vowel that is different in (uality from neighbouring vowels. Stress concerns the relative prominence with which one part of a word or a longer utterance is distinguished from other parts. R&yt&m concerns the relative prominence, or pattern of the stresses being perceived as peaks of prominence, occurring at somewhat regular intervals of time. #nglish is a language with a tendency for a stress*timed rhythm. Intonation is the association of the relative prominence with pitch, the aspect of the sound which we perceive in terms of "high" or "low". Ot&er rosodic systems include factors such as tempo and the relative speed of utterance. %ercetion of t&e r&yt&m 7ase may in3ol3e o7ser3ing 3ariations of loudness, itc& and seed. '. STRESS We can study stress from the point of view of roduction and of ercetion. The production of stress is generally believed to depend on the speaker using more muscular energy than is used for unstressed syllables. +any different sound characteristics are important in making a syllable recognisably stressed. In #nglish, stressed syllables are longer then unstressed ones, the vowels are more voiced within them. Stress is not marked in the spelling system, but it can be transcribed phonetically. The importance of stress should be noted, given that incorrect stress on syllables is an obstacle to communication, because it may lead the speaker to understand a different word, that follows a different stress pattern. !. #egrees of Stress We can distinguish between the primary and secondary stress. The first one is also called tonic strong stress, while the second one is also called non*tonic strong stress. #$: ,presup,ose There are other authors who consider that there e$ist three stresses. #$: ,many ,lovely ,-girls '. %osition of Stress .ormally stresses are in a fi$ed position in a word. First syllable: ,precept Second syllable: to-night Third syllable: engi-neer Fourth syllable: misunder-stood Fifth syllable: palatali-/ation #$ceptions: i. Native words and early French loans #$: ,kingly ,kingliness un-kingliness j. All abstract nouns ending in ion #$: ,mission #. Nouns ending in ity #$: ,vacuous va-cuity l. Nouns and adjectives ending in ian #$: ,liberty liber-tarian m. Adjectives ending in ic #$: ,phoneme pho-nemic n. Words with more than one function ) wide selection of words that can operate e(ually well as nouns0ad1ectives or verbs, are differentiated by their stress in the two functions: #$: ,present 2.oun or ad1ective3 pre-sent 2verb3 o. Compound nouns They are generally stressed on the first element with a secondary stress on the second element in contrast to the normal noun phrase stress pattern: #$: ,black ,bird 2compound nouns3 a ,black ,bird 2noun phrase3
p. Stress in phrases When we come to stress in phrases and other syntactic units, we provide different underlying relations between 1u$taposed items. #$: )n ,#nglish ,teacher 2someone who teaches #nglish3 )n ,#nglish ,teacher 2a teacher who is #nglish3 '. Stress in t&e Canarian #ialect) Sanis& language d. e!ical and secondary stress The 4anarian speakers should keep in mind the different importance given to the secondary accent in Spanish as compared with #nglish. The pronunciation of isolated words rarely occurs in Spanish, it only happens in )dverbs ending in "* mente", and in a few compound adverbs. #$: s5mplem6nte 7ptico*ac8stico e. Contrastive secondary stress The secondary stress occurs in the 4anarian dialect as well, but it is not prominent: #$: las cuestiones tanto ,interiores como ,e$teriores )lthough #nglish compounds generally turn into a secondary stress the one which was the primary in the root, and this secondary stress still keeps a considerable strength" Spanish moves the stress to the suffi$es: #$: ,central 0 ,centra-li/e centr9l 0 centrali/9r ) secondary stress does not appear e$cept in the cases where the general rules of Spanish regulate it. f. Stress position and "ffect In two*syllable words both languages have a preference for stressing the syllable before the last" #nglish tends to stress the antepenultimate syllable in three or more syllables words whereas Spanish keeps the penult position for stress. #nglish vowels are deeply affected by their stress, whether primary or secondary. Stressed vowels have a precise and clear pronunciation, whereas unstressed vowels have a tendency to become indistinct. &inally , in Spanish the stress is represented in the spelling, what makes it easier to be remembered and pronounced , whereas in #nglish it-s not represented. '. R*+T*M %hythm may be defined as the regular succession of strong and weak stresses in utterances. The notion of r&yt&m involves some noticeable event happening at regular intervals of time. The theory that #nglish has stress0 timed r&yt&m implies that stressed syllables will tend to occur at relatively regular intervals whether they are separated by unstressed syllables or not. Some writers have developed theories of #nglish rhythm in which a unit of rhythm, the foot is used. Some theories of rhythm go further, and point to the fact that some feet are stronger than others, producing strong*weak patterns.
!. ,ea- and Strong forms T&e 8ea- form, in which the vowel is pronounced with the schwa vowel, is more common than the other. The strong form in which the vowel is pronounced as it is written. :bviously the use of one or another form may affect the meaning of the utterance. #$: ,;ane and her ,mother ,-are ,stupid < it is not true that they are not stupid ,;ane ,-and her ,mother are ,stupid < not 1ust one, but both are stupid Weak forms are a manifestation of stress and rhythm in #nglish, and must not be avoided in teaching, or the learner will sound unnatural in connected speech. '. Regularity of R&yt&m The natural rhythm of #nglish provides roughly e(ual intervals of time between the stressed items. The prevailing tendency in unstressed syllables and words is to reduce the vowels to the obscure 0 0, thus we have 0 0 in a great many syllables: #$: a kilo of potato 0 ,ki:l v p , te t /0 %egularity of rhythm is used for specific pourposes: d. 4ounting: #$: ,one, ,two, ,three,..., seventy ,four, seventy ,five e. Inventory or lists f. #mphasis: #$: you should ,always ,look be-fore you ,cross the ,-road
'. R&yt&m in t&e Canarian #ialect) Sanis& language It is essential in #nglish to have a sentence rhythm, which does not e$ist in Spanish. In an #nglish sentence certain words which are too close to the initial rhythmic beat lose their le$ical stress in spite of having le$ical stress. This does not happen in Spanish. #$: Mary-s younger 7rother wanted fifty chocolate eanuts In this e$ample we can see the difference with the Spanish stress, in Spanish all the words will be stressed" however, in #nglish only the syllables in bold type are really stressed, thus favouring rhythm. The behaviour of prepositions and con1unctions differs in both languages: they are usually stressed in #nglish" in Spanish only the preposition "seg8n" is stressed. Stress also varies in #nglish depending on whether it is used on strong or weak forms of the same words. There is nothing in Spanish, which resembles the #nglish strong and weak forms so this will prove difficult for Spanish students. (. I"TO"ATIO" Intonation is the tune within the sentence that may alter the meaning. =ere the itc& of the voice plays the most important part. We describe itc& in terms of &ig& and lo8. There is another necessary condition and that is that a itc& difference must be erceti7le. Intonation is generally found in se(uences of stressed and unstressed syllables, though it can be a single word. We call it the tone unit, within which there is the nucleus 9caital letters:. The first stressed syllable in a tone unit is a onset 2,3, the end will be 2,-3 The rise and fall of pitch throughout is called its intonation contour. #nglish has a number of intonation patterns which add conventionali/ed meanings to the utterance: (uestion, statement, surprise, disbelief, sarcasm, teasing. )n important feature of #nglish intonation is the use of an intonational accent 2and e$tra stress3 to mark the focus of a sentence. .ormally this focus accent goes on the last ma1or word of the sentence, but it can come earlier in order to emphasi/e one of the earlier words or to contrast it with something else. #$: She ,told S:+eone-- She ,7oug&t it for a %ARty-- " " onset nucleus Tone unit !. .alling Tone This is the commonest tone in #nglish affirmative sentences, wh*word (uestion, one word answers to (uestions, and on words, names, numbers and letters said in isolation. #$: ,What-s the T>+#-- ,'?.@:.-- ,TW?-- ,A%-- '. Rising Tone It is used to suggest that what is said is not final. #$: 4ounting: ,?.#-- ,TW?--... :r because a response is needed 2though not in wh*word (uestion3: #$: )re you ,=B!py-- :r when two clauses are 1oined together: #$: When I ,CDT there-- I-ll =>T him-- ) (uestion will use a rising tone while the (uestion tag uses the falling tone. The fall and rise are by far and away the most common of the nuclear tones. (. .all0rise Intonation It often occurs in the nucleus of a doubtful condition, but it is particularly common with the initial adverb: #$: I-ll- see him if he 4?+#S-- /. Rise0fall Intonation It e$presses as it does both genuine and assumed warmth, as well as feelings of shock or surprise. #$: ,That-s C%D)T-- 1. 2e3el Tone It sometimes used to the e$act predictability of what is to follow: #$: he @%B.E-- he W?+anised he ,@>#@ 4. .all0rise Intonation It is common in everyday usage: #$: She looks &>.# to +D-- It is often used with marked focus, the fall coming on the focus item and the rise on the last le$ical item in the tone unit: #$: It-s his ,+B.ners that I can-t STB.@-- < ,What I don-t '>E# ,- are his F +9nners-- /. TEAC*I"6 IM%2ICATIO"S )ll languages have their own intonation patterns. Why is intonation importantF Intonation conveys both meaning and attitude, so when a non*native speaker gets the intonation wrong, s0he can be misunderstood or sometimes misinterpreted as sounding rude or demanding when this is not intended. If a non*native speaker is almost fluent in the #nglish language, intonation is often the only way in which one can tell that s0he is foreign. +oreover, if a foreign speaker is advanced in terms of grammar, vocabulary, etc., native speakers will make fewer allowances for intonation problems than they would with speakers who are obviously at a more elementary level. &or e$ample, if an advanced level speaker unintentionally sounds rude or demanding, the listeners will assume that s0he means it. What can be done to improve intonationF &irst of all students should be aware of the differences between their intonation and the #nglish one: Spanish intonation is much more measured, so we have to teach the students how to intonate the different #nglish elements. Intonation in Spoken Spanish does not rise and fall as much as #nglish. Students should try and keep the voice as levelled as possible. Some useful techni(ues may be : 'isten to as much spoken #nglish as possible 2on cassette if you are unable to listen to native speakers3 and be aware of where the voice rises and falls. When you listen, try to consider the attitude and feelings being conveyed. :ne word, for e$ample, can be said in several different ways, depending on the meaning you wish to convey. Stories motivate children to listen and learn, and help them to become aware of the sound and feel of #nglish. ) selection of ready*to*tell stories is included although the activities can be used with any story. 4reating @rama with poetry is an e$citing language learning e$perience. The use of poetry as drama in the #nglish as a second language 2#S'3 classroom enables the students to e$plore the linguistic and conceptual aspects of the written te$t without concentrating on the mechanics of language. Through this techni(ue, apart from several other aspects the teacher can model student-s pronunciation, intonation, stress, rhythm, and oral e$pression" We as teachers have to take into account all the differences e$isting between 'G and 'H patterns of stress, rhythm and intonation, and try our students to differentiate them. So #nglish people can understand their speaking.
TEMA 10 BESPECWFICO DE AUDICIN Y LENGUAJEC *'*T&<!* !4T&,=!T'V7* > %7<+4&<&=T!,'7* @& %7<T='%!%'W=. &4 +,7%&*7 @& &V!4T!%'W= > T7<! @& @&%'*'7=&* *7,& 47* *'*T&<!* !4T&,=!T'V7*. &4 +,7%&*7 @& '=T&,V&=%'W=. -. *'*T&<!* @& %7<T='%!%'W= !4T&,=!T'V7* >E7 %7<+4&<&=T!,'7*. . /.*.+.%. 8.4'**9 3'*T7,'!# _XT^ &*;# V&=T!F!*. 6.<^T7@7* @& &@T%!%'W= @& *TF&T7* %7= @&F'%'&=%'! !T@'T'V!. 1 %4!*'F'%!%'W= 1 7,!4'*<71<!=T!4'*<7 1 4&=NT!F& @& *'N=7* 1 %T&@1*+&&%3 1 4&=NT!F& '<7@!4 A.&4 +,7%&*7 @& &V!4T!%'W= > 4! T7<! @& @&%'*'7=&* *7,& 47* *'*T&<!* !4T&,=!T'V7*. &4 +,7%&*7 @& '=T&,V&=%'W=. &V!4T!%'W= @& 47* *'*T&<!* 4'** > *+% &V!4T!%'W= @& 47* <^T7@7* 4&=NT!F& @& *'N=7*# %T&@1*+&&%3 > '<7@!4 5.'4'7N,!Fi! 1.SISTEMAS DE COMUNICACIN ALTERNATIVOS YTO COMPLEMENTARIOS *on el con:unto de sistemas que se han desarrollado para facilitar la comunicaciHn de los su:etos# que por distintas ra(ones# no poseen una emisiHn normal del lengua:e oral. *e puede distinguir entre9 *istemas alternati"os9 se ofrecen como la anica forma de lengua:e que puede desarrollar el su:eto. *istemas complementarios9 "ienen a apoyar otra forma de lengua:e que el su:eto ya posee. @iferenciamos dos bloques de sistemas alternati"os yEo complementarios9 <Ktodos de comunicaciHn no "ocal9 *+% > 4'**# se emplearGn con su:etos afectados de +.%.# con deficiencias fJsicas que impiden su comunicaciHn oral# con autistas y deficientes mentales. <Ktodos especJficos de los su:etos con deficiencias auditi"as9 lengua:e de signos# bimodal y cued1speech. =o deben ser considerados como definiti"os o excluyentes del lengua:e oral# sino que se ofrecen como una herramienta de sustituciHn del mismo# aunque en algunos su:etos si se pueden con"ertir en la anica forma de comunicaciHn debido a su grado de deficiencia. (.SPC, SISTEMA DE SWM9OLOS PICTOGRXFICOS PARA LA COMUNICACIN. *e basa# principalmente# en sJmbolos pictogrGficos# es decir# dibu:os sencillos e iconos. %ada sJmbolo aparece acompa`ado de la palabra que representa# y en caso de tKrminos demasiados abstractos# puede aparecer sHlo la palabra escrita. 4os sJmbolos del *+% presentan las siguientes caracterJsticas9 ,epresentan las palabras y conceptos mGs habituales en el lengua:e cotidiano. +uede ser utili(ado por distintos grupos de edad. *Jmbolos fGciles y rGpidamente diferenciables. &l "ocabulario# se di"ide en seis categorJas9 +ersonas Verbos. !d:eti"os y ad"erbios =ombres. !rtJculos# con:unciones... TKrminos sociales %ada sJmbolo es coloreado segan a la categorJa a la que pertenece# asJ tenemos9 +ersonasQamarillo VerbosQ"erde TKrminos descripti"osQa(ul =ombresQnaran:a TKrminos di"ersosQblanco TKrminos socialesQrosa &ste cHdigo cromGtico tiene como "enta:as9 facilitar una locali(aciHn mGs rGpida# reestructurar las frases sencillas# moti"aciHn del ni`o. ! la hora de aplicar Kste mKtodo# hay que tener en cuenta algunas consideraciones9 !decuado para personas con un ni"el del lengua:e expresi"o simple. =o indicado para personas con problemas "isuales. 4os su:etos deben poseer un mJnimo de habilidades cogniti"as. &l su:eto debe sentir la necesidad de comunicarse. Todas las personas implicadas# deben mostrar paciencia para ense`arlo. *.SISTEMA 9LISS 3'*T7,'! Fueron creados por el australiano %3. 4'**# quien quiso crear un lengua:e internacional que pudiera ser entendido por cualquier persona del mundo. &n -.6. publicH su primer manual# pero no obtu"o ningan Kxito# hasta que en -.B- fue utili(ado por un grupo de especialistas para la comunicaciHn en ni`os deficientes fJsicos. _XT^ &* &4 4'**'<74'*<7; *istema de sJmbolos que utili(a formas para transmitir significados# son formas geomKtricas bGsicas (cuadrado# cJrculo....) y cada uno estG asociado a un significado especJfico. +ueden combinarse entre sJ para formar nue"os significados. 4os sJmbolos se agrupan en cuatro categorJas9 *Jmbolos pictogrGficos9 recuerdan la forma de lo que representa. *Jmbolos ideogrGficos9 no recuerdan la imagen pero la e"ocan. *Jmbolos arbitrarios9 no pueden ra(onarse. *Jmbolos combinados9 combinaciHn de los anteriores. 7tros factores# ademGs de la forma# sir"en para determinar el significado del sJmbolo9 Tama`o posiciHn direcciHn amplitud referencias. Tna caracterJstica# es que los sJmbolos se agrupan en categorJas que reciben un color especJfico (igual que en el *+%). &l su:eto posee un tablero donde estGn los sJmbolos con un orden concreto# en cada uno aparece escrito lo que significa facilitando asJ la interpretaciHn a personas que no cono(can el mKtodo y quieran comunicarse con el su:eto. &s un mKtodo especialmente indicado para personas con deficiencia fJsica. 4as habilidades bGsicas que debe poseer el su:eto son9 3abilidad de discriminaciHn "isual 3abilidad cogniti"a 3abilidades motrices uena coordinaciHn entre comprensiHn auditi"a y "isual. V&=T!F!* @&4 <^T7@7 4'** son las siguientes9 FGciles de aprender FGcil generali(aciHn %ontribuyen a la estructuraciHn mental !yudan a la adquisiciHn de la lectura 4.MRTODOS DE EDUCACIN DE SORDOS %4!*'F'%!%'W= 4os clasificamos en9 <^T7@7* 7,!4&*9 T='*&=*7,'!4&* <T4T'*&=*7,'!4&* !T@'77,!4&* !T@'77,!4&* %7= ,&+,&*&=T!%'W= <!=T! <^T7@7* N&*TT!4&*9 <i<'%! +T,! @!%T'4747Ni! +T,! <i<'%! %7= 4&=NT!F& 7,!4 <i<'%! %7= 4&=N &*%,'T7 <^T7@7* <'UT7*9 %7<T='%!%'W= '<7@!4 %7<T='%!%'W= T7T!4 7+7*'%'W= 7,!4'*<71<!=T!4'*=7 3ay tres grupos claramente definidos9 &l grupo oralista# se basa en el uso del lengua:e oral# descartando el lengua:e de signos por considerarlo poco estructurado y entorpecer el lengua:e oral. &l manualista# defiende la expresiHn de la palabra mediante signos reali(ados con las manos y los dedos. &l tercer grupo lo forman los mKtodos mixtos#educar al su:eto sordo "aliKndose de todos los recursos y procedimientos que estKn a nuestro alcance# ya sea mJmica# oralismo# gestos.... 4&=NT!F& @& *'N=7* &l lengua:e mJmico# manual o gestual# es uno de los lengua:es utili(ados por los su:etos con deficiencia auditi"a# consta de signos reali(ados con las manos y dedos# acompa`ado de gestos (opuesto al oralismo). @entro del lengua:e mJmico# podemos diferenciar "arios mKtodos9 4&=NT!F& <i<'%7 9 @!%T'4747Ni! 4&=NT!F& @& *'N=7* Da)%$1&1&gYa 9 o alfabeto manual# representa cada una de las letras del alfabeto por medio de distintas configuraciones de la mano. *e reali(a con una sola mano y suele ser"ir de complemento al lengua:e de signos para designar nombres propios o tKrminos sin traducciHn. L!ngaE! "! '$gn&' 9 a su "e(# puede comprender9 4engua:e de signos utili(ado en las comunidades de sordos 4engua:e de signos con estructura gramatical seme:ante a la de los normoyentes. *istema que sir"e de apoyo al lengua:e oral. =o es uni"ersal# lo que significa que sordos de distintos paJses ( o incluso del mismo paJs# pero de diferente ciudad) utili(an signos distintos. &n este tipo de lengua:e nos podemos encontrar signos icHnicos y signos arbitrarios. =o consiste solamente en un con:unto de gestos# sino que presenta una estructura# determinada por una serie de parGmetros9 %onfiguraciHn de la mano 4ocali(aciHn <o"imiento %T&@1*+&&%3 7 +!4,! %7<+4&<&=T!@! &s un complemento "isual a la lectura labial que permite eliminar #las posibles confusiones de fonemas con el mismo punto de articulaciHn. +ertenece a la corriente oralista. *u ob:eti"o es facilitar la discriminaciHn y comprensiHn de los sonidos del habla por medio de se`ales manuales que se reali(an cerca de la cara. *u metodologJa # se basa en tres posiciones de la mano para las "ocales (lado# barbilla y garganta)# y ocho para las consonantes. Tn requisito bGsico# es su prGctica ante el espe:o# para fi:ar bien las posiciones de las manos y e"itar mo"imientos inapropiados. &l sistema se basa9 4a sJlaba es la unidad bGsica 4os kinemas en sJ no tienen significado &l ni`o tiene que leer los labios del interlocutor &l sistema es simple y puede ser aprendido por ni`os menores de / a`os ! partir de los estudios reali(ados a ni`os sordos espa`oles# se producen las siguientes hipHtesis9 4a palabra complementada despe:a la ambigIedad del mensa:e +arece indicado para sordos profundos !similaciHn perfecta en ni`os con deficiencia auditi"a *'*T&<! '<7@!4 &xpresiHn simultGnea manual y oral de la lengua de una comunidad de oyentes# utili(ando para su emisiHn el "ocabulario del lengua:e de signos. =o es la utili(aciHn de dos lenguas# sino que se trata de un solo lengua:e (oral) acompa`ado de signos("ocabulario de signos). &ste tipo de comunicaciHn desempe`a dos funciones claras9 @esarrollar la comunicaciHn del su:eto +ermitir el aprendi(a:e del lengua:e oral &n la prGctica educati"a# tanto profesores# padres...# deberJan utili(ar este mKtodo para la comunicaciHn. 4os signos deben aprenderse de forma natural# segan sur:an las necesidades del ni`o# aunque es con"eniente traba:ar algunas de forma mGs sistemati(ada como las nociones espaciales# temporales# causales# las categorJas y preguntas concretas. &n este sistema# el ni`o adquiere ante los signos que las palabras# por lo que debemos ense`arle a partir de nociones y construcciones ya adquiridas en el ni`o su correspondencia oral. I.EL PROCESO DE EVALUACIN Y TOMA DE DECISIONES SO9RE LOS SISTEMAS ALTERNATIVOS. EL PROCESO DE INTERVENCIN. 4a elecciHn del sistema# estG condicionada por las posibilidades reales que presente el su:eto con el que "amos a traba:ar. &s e"idente que son muchos los factores a tener en cuenta para reali(ar la elecciHn9 +osibilidades del su:eto (tipo de deficiencia# grado de afectaciHn...) !ctitud de padres y educadores !mbiente educati"o en el que el su:eto estG inmerso# etc... &V!4T!%'W= @& 47* *'T&<!* *+% > 4'** !mbos mKtodos son muy similares en cuanto a su estructura y composiciHn# lo que incluso puede lle"ar el uso con:unto de ambos sistemas. V&=T!F!*9 *u aprendi(a:e y memori(aciHn pueden ser relati"amente fGciles# al incluir muchos sJmbolos pictogrGficos e ideogrGficos. +uede estar indicado para personas que no estKn preparadas para el uso del alfabeto# pero que necesitan comunicarse con las personas de su entorno. 4os sJmbolos pueden ampliar mucho su significado mediante distintas combinaciones y ampliaciones. Fa"orece el desarrollo personal global del ni`o a ni"el social# emocional# y de me:ora de la propia imagen. '=%7=V&='&=T&*9 +ara que la comunicaciHn sea efecti"a es necesario que el interlocutor cono(ca tambiKn el sistema liss o *+%. +uede con"ertirse en una alternati"a al lengua:e oral# impidiendo su aprendi(a:e y desarrollo. &s necesario elaborar el tablero con los sJmbolos# siendo casi siempre necesario reali(arlos manualmente (por ausencia de impresoras que realicen estos sJmbolos). &V!4T!%'W= @& 47* <^T7@7* 4&=NT!F& @& *'N=7*# %T&@1 *+&&%3 > '<7@!4. LENGUAJE DE SIGNOS 4as V&=T!F!* son9 +roporciona un medio de comunicaciHn al su:eto con deficiencia auditi"a desde muy temprana edad. 4os signos se aprenden antes que el lengua:e oral y escrito. +ermite el desarrollo lingIJstico del ni`o. &s fGcil de aprender por los padres y educadores. 4os '=%7=V&='&=T&* son9 +ara algunos autores# no potencia el desarrollo del lengua:e oral. *on diferentes los signos empleados entre distintas comunidades de deficientes auditi"os. 3ay conceptos o palabras que no pueden ser representados si no es con ayuda de otros mKtodos (dactilologJa). CUED:SPEEC3 4as V&=T!F!*# son9 Fa"orece la discriminaciHn fonKtica que facilita la lectura labial# y amplJa el "ocabulario. +uede aplicarse desde edades tempranas. &l ni`o aprende a hablar antes que a leer y escribir# como ocurre con el ni`o normoyente. !l concentrar la atenciHn en los labios# se contribuye a desarrollar la aptitud para la lectura labio1facial. 4a "elocidad de articulaciHn de las palabras es casi el doble que con el lengua:e de signos. 4os '=%7=V&='&=T&*#son9 =ecesita un programa paralelo para desmuti(ar al ni`o. @emasiada dependencia "isual y esfuer(o contJnuo de la atenciHn en la cara del interlocutor. @ependencia de la palabra complementada para entender a cualquier interlocutor. LENGUAJE 9IMODAL 4as V&=T!F!*# son9 *uponen un uso complementario de dos canales de informaciHn # lo que aumentarG y facilitarG la comprensiHn del su:eto. &l '=%7=V&='&=T&# es que no es de carGcter uni"ersal. 9I9LIOGRAFWA !*'4# % *istemas de %omunicaciHn no Vocal# para ni`os con disminuciones fJsicas. Fundesco. <adrid. -.?A. <!,%3&*'# !. &l desarrollo cogniti"o y lingIJstico de los ni`os sordos. !lian(a. <adrid. -.?B. <7=F7,T# <. 4os trastornos de la comunicaciHn en el ni`o. %epe. <adrid. -.?A. 7$,!=# 4. 4os sJmbolos liss# una introducciHn. <ec. <adrid. -.?A. ANEXO TEMA 10 !+4'%!%'W= @'@j%T'%! @&4 T&<! -D +!TT!* %7=%,&T!* @& !%TT!%'W= %7= T= ='k7 +!,!4iT'%7 %&,&,!4 '=T&N,!@7 &= T=! %4!*& @& +,&&*%74!,9 &=*&k!=\! @&4 4'**. 4as pautas de actuaciHn irGn encaminadas en estos sentidos9 %onseguir una posiciHn adecuada. !daptaciHn del material didGctico. +rofesor de !poyo a la 'ntegraciHn. +autas concretas en la ense`an(a del liss. !@!+T!%'W= @&4 <7'4'!,'7 &*%74!, <esa9 altura# semicJrculo cortado# tablas su:eciHn... *illa9 altura# reposapiKs# ruedas# molde.... +etos9 cu`as... !@!+T!%'W= @&4 <!T&,'!4 @'@j%T'%7. *e`ali(adores9 4icornios Varilla1mu`eca 4interna *oportes9 Tablero &T,!= %omunicador. Todas estas adaptaciones "an encaminadas por una parte a posibilitar el acceso fJsico del ni`o a los materiales didGcticos que mGs adelante se exponen# asJ como a conseguir una posiciHn corporal que inhiba los mo"imientos refle:os anormales que caracteri(an a los ni`os con +.%.9 +osturas inhibidoras de refle:os y espasticidades. +osturas que posibiliten el equilibrio. +osturas que mantengan erguida la cabe(a. +,7F&*7, @& !+7>7 4a presencia de un ni`o de cinco a`os con +arGlisis %erebral# en el aula de preescolar# es posible que necesite del apoyo de otra persona que no sea el tutor de la clase. Tna posibilidad es que el profesor de !poyo a la 'ntegraciHn o el profesor de !udiciHn y 4engua:e (logopeda) estK un tiempo determinado en el aula de preescolar atendiendo a ese ni`o# sobre todo en los momentos concretos en que se desarrolle el programa de liss. &stG claro que estos detalles dependerGn de la dotaciHn de personal que hubiese en el centro# y que la forma de lle"ar a cabo este traba:o no tendrJa que ser igual en todos los colegios. +,7N,!<! 4'** P2$+!2 -a'& *erJa establecer las respuestas *iE=7 mediante dibu:os significati"os. +odrJan ser9 Tn ni`o coge sua"emente a un gato....................*i Tn ni`o coge a un gato por el rabo......................=7 &stos dibu:os se harJan en la pi(arra# cada uno en un extremo# y ser"irJan para iniciar la comunicaciHn entre los ni`os 0normales2 con el ni`o con +.%. %ualquier pregunta que se hiciese serJa contestada con un mo"imiento de los o:os# que se dirigen hacia el dibu:o representati"o de *i o =7. <Gs tarde se a`adirJa a estos dibu:os los signos (Z) y (1)# como una iniciaciHn a la simboli(aciHn. S!gn"& -a'& +uesta en contacto con los sJmbolos pictogrGficos bGsicos. &stos sJmbolos serJan siempre en negro y se les a`adirJa color como ayuda. &:emplo9 el sJmbolo 0alimento2 (cJrculo con una lJnea hori(ontal deba:o) se le a`adirJa un tenedor y un cuchillo en color a los lados. T!2)!2 -a'& !cti"idades comunes para todo el grupo de clase9 +lastilina9 los ni`os hacen Grboles# barcos# animales...y los empare:an con los sJmbolos correspondientes con 0churros2 de plastilina. +lantillas9 recortamos las formas de los sJmbolos en cartHn. <urales9 al reali(arlos# a los ob:etos mGs conocidos les colocamos al lado el sJmbolo liss. Franelograma9 usar los ob:etos con su sJmbolo al lado. <arionetas9 pegar a cada persona:e el sJmbolo correspondiente. %ompletar fichas9 dibu:os y sJmbolos) unir los que correspondan. %on estas acti"idades# todos los ni`os se inician en el sistema liss como un :uego# se pueden comunicar con su compa`ero +.%. y se sientan las bases de la aceptaciHn mutua. TOPC 10 &=N4'*3 7,T37N,!+3'% %7@&*. ,&4!T'7=*3'+ &T$&&= *7T=@ !=@ 7,T37N,!+3>. +,7+7*!4* F7, T3& T&!%3'=N 7F T3& $,'TT&= %7@&. 7,T37N,!+3'% !++4'%!T'7=* '= $,'TT&= +,7@T%T'7=*. This unit is about &nglish orthography# how it changes depending on the morphological functions of words. The topic is di"ided into six different sections9 1 The first section is a brief introduction. - The second one is the orthographic codes. - The third one is the relationship between sound and letter. - The fourth one is where we are going to talk about different acti"ities to impro"e the pupils writing. - The fifth one is the conclusion. - !nd the last section is the bibliography. !s an introduction to this topic we can say that &nglish orthographic system was fixed between the ? th and . th centuries. 'n &nglish there is no a uni"ocal system of orthographic reference for all the different sounds such as in *panish. This is due to the e"olution of the phonological system and the e"olution of the written system which took place in different centuries. The written system took place between -6 th and -A th # whereas phonological one appeared between -? th and -. th . =ow we are going to go on the next point# which deals with spelling codes. ' am going to talk about the main orthographic rules in &nglish# but of course# there are so many that it would be impossible to remember each one of them. ' will start by these concerning capital letters. The initial letter of the following cases must be written in capital9 - @ays# months and bank holidays. - +eople first name and places. - <r# <iss# <rs# @r. - %ountries# places of origin and language. - The first written word of tittles in books# films# places# etc# as well as the rest of initial except prepositions and articles. ' will continue with plural formation. +lural is usually formed by adding Ls to the singular. ut there are some cases which must be named9 - $hen singular words end in Ly and when preceded by a consonant will change to Li and will add Les. ( ladyE ladies). ut Ly when preceded by a "owel will :ust add Ls. ( boyE boys) - $hen singular words end in Lch# 1sh# 1s# 1x# 1(#1o# in plural formation will end in Les. ( church E churches). ut ending in Lo of foreign origin :ust adding Ls.( pianoEpianos) - !mong the words ending in Lf# 1fe there are three different solutions9 there are twel"e nouns which form their plural by changing Lf # 1fe to L"es. ( knifeEkni"es) nouns such as scarf# wharf and hoof form their plural :ust adding 1s# or L"es indistincti"ely. ( scarfsE sacar"es). other words ending in Lf# 1fe form their plural :ust adding Ls. (safeEsafes). - There are other nouns which form their plural by means of a "ocalic change. ( man Emen). (an exception# childEchildren). - There are nouns which do not admit any plural feature. !nimal species# (fish). - To sum up the plural point ' will includ all those cases which dont follow the rules for se"eral reasons9 *ome words ha"e only singular forms# (news# knowledge) 7thers always ha"e plural form# ( police# glasses# clothes) $ords ending in Lics# (mathematics). ut when they are referred as sciences they are considered as singular words. There are words with plural form but the "erb accompanying them is singular.( news) - $ords of foreign origin. Nreek and 4atin words which are kept exactly the same change to plural according to the rules of the language where they come from. (terminusEtermini). 3owe"er# there is an increasing tendency to assimilate those "ery common words to the &nglish plural formation. (dogmaEdogmas). *ometimes both forms# that of origin and the &nglish one co1exist# but the meaning is different. (indexE indexesE indices) - %ompounds. 'n compound words is normally the last word the one which adds the plural form. (armchairE armchairs). 'f the first part of a compound word is man or woman# both parts will take plural form. ( men students) $hen compounds words ha"e been formed by prepositions or ad"erbs only the first part of the noun takes plural form.(brothers in law) $hen the last part of a compound word is an ad:ecti"e# the first word is the one taking plural form. (courts martial) !bbre"iations may also take plural form. ($'+s) !fter ha"ing seen plural formation# we are going to look at duplication of final consonants. $hen we add the following endings9 1ed# 1ing# 1er# 1est# to a word in order to form compounds# the final consonant duplicates whene"er it is Lb# 1d# 1g# 1l# 1m# 1n# 1p# 1r# 1t. (robE robber) =e"ertheless# there are cases where the consonants dont duplicate e"en though the circunstances stated abo"e are gi"en. (openE opening). 't is due to the fact that the consonant duplicates only when the accent falls on the last syllable of the word. !nother item will be the suffix Lly. The addition of this suffix to an ad:ecti"e makes it become a manner ad"erb. (nice Enicely) The addiction of this suffix sometimes implies an orthographic change in some words. - $hen a word ends in Ly will change to Li. (happy E happily) - 'f an ad:ecti"e ends in Lle will change its ending to Lly. ( possible E possibly) - 'f the ad:ecti"e ends in Lic when adding Lly a "owel La also be added. ( tragic Etragically) - &xceptions to this rule are9 ( truly# publicly) =ow the change of Ly to Li. !part of the rules already stated abo"e# there are some more changes9 - $hene"er any suffix is added to any word ending in Ly# it will change to Li . (hurry E hurried# easy E easier) - &xceptions# a suffix beginning in Li such as Lism# 1ish# 1i(e# 1ing makes Ly be kept. ( boy E boyish). &xcept ( sayEsaid# layElaid# pay Epaid) - $ords ending in Lie change this ending to Ly before Ling. ( dieE dying# lieE lying). !nother item is numerals. 3undred# thousand# million# when used as a specific number ha"e no plural form. ( six hundred people) 3owe"er plural must be used when the idea of a large non specific number is gi"en. ( hundreds of years) 7ne more orthographic rule in &nglish is weights and measures. - 7unce# pound and ton take Ls when used as nouns. *tone doesnt take plural. ( two pounds of sugar# my weigh is fi"e stone). =umerals ne"er take Ls when used as compound ad:ecti"es. ( six1 pound note). 14ength measures usually take plural Ls. ( six inches# two miles). Foot and feet may be used. ne"er these measures change to plural when used as compounds. (a ten mile walk# a six foot quilt). 7ne more rule is Le in final position. - $e omit it when adding a suffix beginning with a "owel. ( writeE writing). This doesnt happen when the word ends in Lee. ( disagreeE disagreeable). - $hen a word ends in Lce and the suffix Lous is added then Le changes to Li. ( "iceE "icious). - 'f a suffix beginning with a consonant is added# then Le is kept. ( hope E hopeful). - &xcept in some words9 trueE truly# argueE argument. !nother rule in spelling is the suffix Lfull. The suffix Lfull loses the last consonant when added to a word to form an ad:ecti"e. ( beautyE beautyful). The original suffix is kept when ad"erbs from these ad:ecti"es are formed. ( beautiful E beautifully). $hen the words to which the suffix is added ends in Lll one of them will be lost. ( skillE skilful). 1'se or Li(e in final position is another rule. oth groups Lise# .i(e appearing in some &nglish "erbs may sometimes be used indistinctly. ( computerise E computeri(e). The written form Li(e is preferred but with some exceptions. - Two syllable words. ( re"ise# ad"ise). - The following words.( ad"ertise# impro"ise# exercise) - =e"ertheless Lise is used more in ritish &nglish# and Li(e is more in !merican &nglish. The last rule we are going to mention is hyphened compouns# but as we said before there are too much rules that is impossible to explain each one. - %ompound ad:ecti"es are usually :oined by a hyphen. ( blue1eyed). - ! group of words which are commonly used as ad:ecti"es before a noun are also :oined by a hyphen. ( a fi"e1pound note). - 3yphen is also used in group of words forming a compound whose first word is the stressed one. 7nce ha"ing studied some orthographic rules in &nglish we are going to mo"e onto the next point in the topic which deal with the relationship between sound and orthography. $hereas the &nglish written form starts to be fixed during the ? th and . th centuries# the phonological system takes a more or less fixed structure about -? th and -. th centuries. This fact makes almost impossible to establish a correct correspondence between phonemes and letters# in order to ha"e a model to follow both when writing what we hear and when pronouncing what we read. $hen an equi"alence is obser"ed and we try to systematise it# exceptions are so many than it is useless to establish a rule. =e"ertheless# among the "ery few equi"alences we will point out the following9 - !t the end of a word and after a "owel# both phonemes EkE and EtfE may be represented by Lck and 1tch. ( pack# watch) - !fter a consonant or two "owels both phonemes EkE and EtfE are usually represented by Lk and Lch.( bank# bench). - The "ocalic phoneme Ei9E is frequently written Lie and in some cases Lei. ( belie"e# ceiling). - The consonantal group Lgh usually represented the phoneme EfE. *ometimes it is no pronounced. ( cough# enough). &xception ( although) - The phoneme EkE is represented by Lch when it is in between1"owel position. ( headache) - The letter a is read as EeE in9 any# many. - The letters ea are read as EeE in 9 breakfast# head. - 'n other cases the letters ea are pronounced EeiE. (steak). - The "owel o is pronounced as EgE in 9 mother. - The phoneme EgE may be also represented by the letters ou9 country. - The letter u is read as EuE9 put. - The phoneme EaiE corresponds to se"eral different letters9 buy# dial. - There are letters which in particular positions within the word dont represented any phoneme# they are not pronounced# M silent letter. 4# should# walk. T# preceded by s# castle# listen. $ and K in initial position when following by a consonant9 writer# knife. N# sign# campaign. %onsonants # = preceded by <# plumber# autumn. 3# when# where. , after a "owel makes the "owel be long# car# iron. - $e can find three1syllable written words# the stress falls on the first one and the central "owel is not pronounced. ( e"ening) . - !s far as plurals are concerned# the regular ending is L(e)s has three different pronunciations9 !fter EsE# E(E# EfE# EtfE and Ed8E the plural ending is Les# which corresponds with the phoneme Ei(E. ( buses). !fter any "oiceless phoneme EpE# EfE# EXE# EtE and EkE the plural ending L (e)s corresponds with the phonemeEsE. (caps). !fter all the "owels and "oiced consonants the plural ending L(e)s correspond with the phoneme E(E. (plays). &xceptions to this rule are found in words where the plural ending affects the pronunciation of the word root.(house). - Third person singular of the present of "erbs and possessi"e case followed these rules abo"e. ' should like to say that it is difficult to establish rules for the pronunciation of words in &nglish that students should learn. To follow with this topic we are going to analyse some proposals for the teaching of the written code. !nd also# orthographic applications in written productions. $e shall start this section by saying that the pupils to whom we are teaching the foreign language in the first year are likely to ha"e problems when reading or writing their own mother tongue. Therefore# introducing them a new writing code may be confusing for them. $e must also consider that in real life they write "ery little# e"en in their mother tongue# that is why we propose that the students should start by copying words. $hich ser"es as a starting1 point for making this acti"ity en:oyable or boring and monotonous. - $e can try to a"oid it by gi"ing them a card with drawing and card with words related to these drawings# they only ha"e to combine the words with the drawings# by copying both in their notebook. - $e can also gi"e them a strip of comics with the chosen words and the students will ha"e to insert the words in the speaking bubbles of each comic. <atching pictures to speech bubbles. - !nother acti"ity is called word machines# consisting of obtaining one word by means of two or more transformations of a pre"iously gi"en word. ( pin from den). - $e may also ask the students to group the words containing two or more equal letters in different order. - $e may gi"e them groups of four or fi"e words in which one of them is not correctly written and they will ha"e to find one and tell why it is incorrect. - !nother rather successful game is called hangman# where we can eliminate as many elements as we think necessary according to the difficulty of the words for our students le"el. *imilar to this game is the shark with stairs. - $e cam also use crosswords or word games focused on words about a particular topic. 't is useful for warming up and relaxing acti"ities. - !nother game is M' spy with my little eye which has endless possibilities of explotation. $ith good le"el# make sentences with mistakes and students ha"e to correct them. - The well1known game Mnoughts and crosses may be adapted to our orthographic needs. - $e find also "ery "aluable the use of a dictionary. 't is con"enient to ha"e a dictionary in the class. Tasks and games in groups or pairs are particularly useful# that is# when the teacher plays the role of a facilitator. !nother encouraging task for the students is to make their own dictionary where they can include the "ocabulary already studied in class. - 'n order to make the students aware of how difficult it is the relationship between sounds and letters we can also make colleges where to include drawings referred to a word which they know both the orthography and the pronunciation and then add a short clue referred to a different word which is pronounced the same and# howe"er# is written differently. !fter ha"ing studied some proposals to achie"e orthographic rules in &nglish# we are going to finish the topic with a brief conclusion. 't will be interesting that all these different changes produced must be taught little by little# and also in an en:oyable way to moti"ate students# otherwise they will re:ect them because they will find them too difficult to be assimilated. --. 4&U'%!4 !=@ *&<!=T'%!4 F'&4@* 7F &=N4'*3. 1.INTRODUCTION. $ords are essential to communication. &"erybody learns to speak in isolated words and then we begin to use chains of words and "erbs. *tudents tend to pick up "ocabulary first and then a framework in which these words can be used. !t the same time that students learn "ocabulary they must learn phonetics and grammar. Tsually students ha"e a problem with the "ocabulary when they ha"e to use it in a context and also with words that dont ha"e the same meaning as in their mother tongue. For that reason# they must practice to assimilate them. (.LEXICAL AND SEMANTIC FIELD. $e can identify two groups9 4exical field9 which refers to the formation of words. *emantic field9 which refers to the understanding of words. *.LEXICAL FIELD. To understand this sub:ect# first ' am going to explain what !*& and *T&< are# within the rules of word1formation. !*&9 is a form to which a rule of word1formation is applied. *T&<9 is the part of the word that remaining after e"ery affix has been remo"ed. For example9 9a'! S%!+ Friend18 Friend Friend Unfriend18 Friendly Friend The *T&< can be understood as the root of the word and the !*& as the original part from which a mixture is made. 7nce a base has undergone a rule of word1formation# the deri"ed word itself may become the base for another deri"ation. For example9 >Un#2$!n"1$n!''? Friend[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[ =oun (Friend)118[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[ =oun[[[[[[ !d:ecti" e Un1((friend)1ly)[[[[[[[[[[[[[. !d:ecti"e[[[ !d:ecti" e (Tn1((friend)1ly))1n!''[[[[[[[[.. !d:ecti"e[[... =oun The chief processes of &nglish word1formation by which the base may be modified are9 *.1. A##$=a%$&n: aC P2!#$=a%$&n !dding a -2!#$= to the base9 happy111nhappy 4;ypes of prefi+es. =egati"e prefixes Un:: unfair R!,!2'a%$,! -2!#$=!' D$':: discontent P!E&2a%$,! -2!#$=!' M$':: misinform P2!#$=!' &# "!g2!! &2 '$;! *uper19 '-!2+a20!% P2!#$=!' &# a%%$%"! An%$:: anti1social L&)a%$,! -2!#$=!' S5:: subway P2!#$=!' &# %$+! an" &2"!2 P2!:: precaution N+5!2 -2!#$=!' T2$:: trident C&n,!2'$&n -2!#$=!' En:: endanger O%7!2 P2!#$=!' V$)!:: "icepresident 5C S##$=a%$&n !dding a '##$= to the base9 happy11111happi18 4;ypes of suffi+es. 1. N&n '##$=!': O))-a%$&na1 :!29 gangster D$+$n%$,! &2 #!+!n$n! :!'': waitress S%a%' 17&&": childhood O%7!2 n&n '##$=!' :#1: spoonful N&nTa"E!)%$,!' '##$=!' :!'!: %hinese D!,!25a1 '##$=!' :!2: dri"er D!:a"E!)%$,a1 '##$=!' :!!: employee /. Verb suffixes9 :$#8: simplify :B$;!C: popularise :!n: sadden *. A"E!)%$,! '##$=!': S##$=!' a""!" %& n&n' :#1: useful S##$=!' )&++&n $n 5&22&6!" an" n!&:)1a''$)a1 6&2"' :$): !rabic O%7!2 a"E!)%$,! '##$=!' :a51!: readable 4. A",!25 '##$=!': :18: happily :6a2" B'C: backwards :6$'!: weatherwise *.(. C&+-&n" 6&2"'. !dding one base to another9 tea Z potQ teapot. 1. .$n"' &# )&+-&'$%$&n $n %7! n&n: *ub:ect Z "erb9 playboy Verb Z ob:ect9 storytelling Verb Z ad"erbial compounds9 sun1bathing =oun Z noun compounds9 frogman !d:ecti"es Z noun9 blackboard ahubrihi compounds9 paperback (. .$n"' &# )&+-&'$%$&n $n %7! ,!25: ack1formation9 housekeeper Verb Z ad"erb9 outdo *. A"E!)%$,! )&+-&n"': 7b:ect Z 1ing participle9 heartbreaking Verb Z ad"erbial compounds9 homemade Verbless compounds9 tax1free ,eduplicati"es or repetition compounds9 ping1pong 4. SEMANTIC FIELD. !s ' ha"e said# the semantic field refers to the understanding of words (homonyms# synonyms and antonyms). 4.1. 3&+&n8+8 an" P&18'!+8. 3&+&n8+8 is when a single word has different meanings not closely related. For example9 File 1 a box for keeping papers in order 1 a tool for smoothing surfaces 1 a line of persons or things one behind the other $e can find two classes of homonymy9 -. 3&+&-7&n!'9 are the words that show identity of pronunciation9 0no21110know2 /. 3&+&g2a-7'9 are the words that ha"e the same spelling9 0saw (noun)211110saw ("erb)2 : 3&+&+&2-7 is the term to refer to those words which share the same morphological form# the same stem. This concept is rele"ant to grammar9 fast (ad:ecti"e)lfast (ad"erb). !nd# P&18'!+8 is when a word has se"eral different but closely related meanings. For example9 ranch 1 of a tree 1 family 1 railway line[ 4.(. S8n&n8+8. *ynonymy is the relationship between words that mean exactly the same. 't is a semantic relation. For example9 Foggy111<isty Fiddle1111Violin 4.*. An%&n8+8. !ntonymy is when a word is opposite in meaning to another. For example9 better111 worst aC C&+-1!+!n%a2$!'9 words that are incompatibles and there is no possibility of a third lying between them9 true111false 5C M1%$-1! In)&+-a%$51!': @ays# seasons# months[ 0'ts <onday2 excludes all other the days. )C G2a"a51! An%&n8+': There are intermediate terms between them9 hotE warmE coolE cold. "C C&n,!2'!': The words are reciprocal9 husband111wife EE father111son. I. FALSE FRIENDS. $e call false friend to a word that is similar to another in our language. For instance# *panish students must pay attention to 4atin fields because they may change9 0*uccess2111Kxito# not 0suceso2 0%ontamination21111infecciHn# not 0contaminaciHn211110pollution2 L. TEAC3ING VOCA9ULARY. To learn "ocabulary words# the teacher should pronounce the new item# in association to the orthographic reali(ation of the same and also to teach it meaning. The teacher also has to use the new word on a context to help students assimilate this word with its meaning. !fter this# student must try to use the new item# inserting it in a context they think suitable to use it. Finally# the student should use this word as many time as possible to fix it in their minds. There are some techniques in "ocabulary teaching that may help /.?/.B/.-/Bstudents. These are the followings9 aC T7! '! &# ,$'a1' Flashcards) blackboard) transparencies) 0clock board2) labels) maga(ine pictures) props) colour coding) classroom ob:ects) posters[ 5C T7! '! &# g!'%2!' *tudents can gesture when describing ad:ecti"es as tall#[ )C T7! '! &# 0n&6n ,&)a51a28 The teacher can use synonyms and antonyms) categories) definitions[ to explain the new meanings. G. CONCLUSION. There are many different methods to teach "ocabulary. These methods depend on the le"el of the students and on the types of items we want to teach them. 3owe"er# as the students ad"ance in their learning process# their needs become more and more important. For that reason# we must study which are the most common fields that they would like to deal with in the class. T3&<& -- 9 4&U'%!4 !=@ *&<!=T'% F'&4@* 7F T3& &=N4'*3 4!=NT!N&. 4&U'%7= ,&XT',&@ F7, T3& *7%'!4'\!T'7=# '=F7,<!T'7= !=@ &U+,&**'7= 7F !TT'TT@&*. T>+&* 7F !%T'V'T'&* F7'=&@ T7 T3& T&!%3'=N !=@ 4&!,='=N 7F 4&U'%7= '= T3& F7,&'N= 4!=NT!N&. The first thing a child does in hisEher <other Tongue# once heEshe has carried out the emission of sound stage# is to say words# isolated words but with meaning. They are connected with the world around himEher and are probably those with which the child has a narrow relationship. !ccording to the increase of hisEher perception and knowledge of the reality# hisEher "ocabulary also increases. *o# in order to establish which "ocabulary can ha"e <7,& '=T&,&*T for our studentsR learning# we must take into account the world they live in and the purpose they have when they learn a )oreign anguage# with the purpose of being a *'N='F'%!=T V7%!T4!,> for them. 't must be a "ocabulary for %7<<T='%!T'7=# based on the child or being specially interesting to himEher. *o# "ocabulary is an important factor in all language teaching 9 students must continually be learning words at the same time they learn Nrammar and +honetics. +resenting new words is only the first step in the process of language learning# and students must remember them and make them part of their own "ocabulary. ut sometimes it is quite difficult because there are *7<& +,74&<* that do not allow the acquisition process to be easier 9 7n the one hand# some of the words taught in Foreign 4anguage lessons occur naturally in sequence 9 days of the week# numbers# etc[ and these series are easily memori(ed# but the problem arises when students ha"e to use them out of the sequence. 7n the other hand# some similar words or %7N=!T&* facilitate the learning of new words ) some of them are 8;rue cognates9# it is# their meaning is more or less equi"alent in both languages (ex.# 0real2 Q 0real2 )# and some of them are 8)alse cognates9# which lead students to confusion (ex.# 0!ctually2 means 0en realidad2# not 0actualmente2 ). 'n the first case they are easy to remember# but in the second case we ha"e to help our students. !nother problem arises when the words in the <other Tongue and in the Foreign 4anguage do not co"er the same area of meaning. There are words in the Target 4anguage which do not make distinctions that the Foreign 4anguage does (ex.# 0trip# tra"el# :ourney#[2). These distinctions imply that there is a change in the way of "iewing reality and# therefore# this change must be learnt too. 'n order to remember this "ocabulary better# it can be connected in groups which ha"e a common element9 a topic# semantic associations# or the formal relations used to form deri"ations of these words ) when words are associated this way# we call it 0*&<!=T'% F'&4@*2 or 0$7,@ F!<'4'&*2# and when the connectors are the formal relations they form 0PI#' )I06%. !t the same time we should look for general centres of our studentsR interests so that we could choose the most suitable "ocabulary for those settings# which could be the following ones 9 1'nformal con"ersations with the classmates. 1@escriptions of ob:ects# persons or animals. 1'nter"iews. 1Telephone calls. 1%hildrenRs stories# etc[ *o# 7T, <!'= T!*K is to pro"ide our pupils with a series of resources that help them to ha"e independence when they ha"e to communicate in a Foreign 4anguage. The use of these resources will make their "ocabulary# more or less limited# be increased in a way that does not require a lot of effort. The first step consists of making our students be aware of that in &nglish there is the same possibility as in their <other Tongue to form new words by means of the following T&%3='XT&* 9 =.#,:C0/%I,: Q.'))IP';I,: R.#,&.,A:6I:- -. %7=V&,*'7= 't is a process in which an item is adapted or con"erted to a new word1class without the addition of a suffix. The most common are the following 9 a) Verb to noun con"ersion. &x.# 0to lo"e2 lm 0lo"e2 b) !d:ecti"e to noun con"ersion. &x.# 0a daily newspaper2 lm 0a daily2 c) =oun to "erb con"ersion. &x.# 0bottle2 lm 0to bottle2 d) !d:ecti"e to "erb con"ersion. &x.# 0a brick garage2 lm 0the garage is brick2. /. !FF'U!T'7= 'n this group we include 9 a.) ./0)IP0%# which do not generally alter the word1class of the base. &xamples 9 -. =egati"e prefixes 9 0un10 # 0in10 # 0il(l)10 #... &x.# unfair# inhuman# illogical. /. +refixes of @egreeE*i(e 9 0super10# 0under10#[ &x.# superman# undercook. 8. +e:orati"e prefixes 9 0mal10 # 0pseudo10#... &x.# pseudoscientific# maltreat. 6. =umber prefixes 9 0uni10 # 0bi10 # [ &x.# unisex# bicycle. A. +refixes of TimeE7rder 9 0pre10# 0post10# 0ex10#[ &x.# pre1war# ex1president. 5. +refixes of !ttitude 9 0co10# 0anti10#[ &x.# co1education# anti1war. B. 4ocati"e prefixes 9 0sub10 # 0inter10#[ &x.# subway# interplay. ?. &tc[ b.)%A))IP0%# which frequently alter the word1class of the base. &xamples 9 -. Verb to noun suffixes 9 01er2 # 01ing2#[ &x.# dri"er# painting. /. !d:ecti"e to noun suffixes 9 01ness2# 01ity2#[ &x.# happiness# di"ersity. 8. =oun to ad:ecti"e suffixes 9 01ist2# 01y2#[ &x.# masochist# hairy.
6. =oun to noun suffixes 9 01hood2 # 01ship2#[ &x.# boyhood# friendship. A. !d:ecti"e suffixes. There are some ad:ecti"e suffixes for which it is impossible to specify a particular meaning# that is# their semantic functions are extremely "aried. &x.# 01i"e2# 01able2# 01al2# etc...# such as in 0explosi"e# criminal or acceptable2. 5. &tc[
8. %7<+7T=@'=N ! compound is a unit consisting of / or more bases. ,rtographically# compounds are written 9 b.) %,I6 9 in - word. &x.# 0bedroom2# 2headache2# 0hangman2#[ c.) H7.H0:';06 9 &x.# 0tax1free2# 0sister1in1law2#[ d.) ,.0: 9 &x.# 0reading material2# 0tele"ision screen2# 0na"y blue2#[ .honologically# they ha"e got a <!'= *T,&** on the first element and a *&%7=@!,> *T,&** on the second one. &x.# Rbed#room . %emantically# they can be seen to be isolated from ordinary syntactic constructions by ha"ing a meaning which may be related to but cannot simply be inferred from the meaning of its parts. %ompounds may be 9 -.1 /eduplicative # which are compounds with / or more elements that are identical or only slightly different# such as 0knock1knock2# 0tick1tock2#[ /.1 #lipping # which implies the substraction of - or more syllables from a word# which is also a"ailable in its full form# such as 0phone2 (telephone)# 0exam2 (examination)# 0ad2 (ad"ertisement)# [ 8.1 Blend # in which# at least# - of the elements is fragmentary when compared to its corresponding word for# such as 0'nterpol2 ('nternational +olice)# &uro"ision (&uropean Tele"ision)# [ 6.1 'cronyms # which are words formed from the initial letters of words that make up a descripti"e or a proper name# such as 0F'2 (Federal ureau of 'n"estigation)# TF7 (Tnidentified Flying 7b:ect)# [ Tp till now we ha"e made reference to word1formation# which is going to be useful for our students in order to establish relationships between new words and the pre"ious known ones. ]!t +rimary *chool we know the "ocabulary presented to our students must be related to their necessities and world around them such as the family# animals# toys# etc[and we also know we must pro"ide them with the 4inguistic and =on1linguistic strategies to fa"our the '=T&,!%T'7= $'T3 T3& 7T3&,* through# for example 9 1simple greetings 9 0Nood morning. 3ow are you;2#[ 1social 0nglish 9 03a"e a nice weekend2#[ 1asking for permission 9 0%an ' go to the toilet# please;2#[ 1communicative strategies 9 0*orry# ' donRt understand2#[ *o# it is a "ery important point for us to bear in mind that we ha"e to help children relate the new "ocabulary and expressions they are learning in the foreign language to their li"es# it is# they must reali(e that if they are learning# for instance# the members of the family# it is going to be useful for them to get information about their classmatesR families and "ice "ersa too) we mean that new words are learnt# not only to do the acti"ities in the book or to pass a test# but to fa"our their *7%'!4'\!T'7=# to know their classmates better# and to exchange '=F7,<!T'7= about their feelings# needs# interests# li"es# etc[ *o it is "ery important the N,7T+ $7,K in the &nglish class. ut# as well as these F&!TT,&*# when teaching new "ocabulary# we ha"e also to take into account 9 a. ;he students5 needs. 't is "ery useful to study in depth which are the most common fields that the children would like to deal with in class. These fields will depend "ery much on the studentsR age# social background# interests and hobbies# etc[ b. ;he frequence of the item# because it is not "ery useful to keep on teaching new words which are =7T frequently used. c. ;he time we have at our disposal to teach new "ocabulary. d. ;he students5 conditions to learn new words# such as phonological problems# difficulties for memori(ing# etc[ e. ;he lack of materials such as dictionaries# TV# flashcards#[ f. !nd the /eceptive and .roductive Coca!ulary. The first kind comprises the words students recogni(e but which are not mostly used) the second type are the words which are mostly used by them. For example# the ,ecepti"e "ocabulary is 0pullo"er and sweater2 and the +roducti"e one could be only 0:umper2. $e know that :ust telling the students the expressions and mechanisms of the Foreign 4anguage does =7T make them learn. $hene"er we do an acti"ity for pupils to learn certain "ocabulary we must try# in the first place# that this "ocabulary is presented in /0' %I;A';I,:' or I:-AI%;I# %0;;I:- that let them guess the meaning) on the other hand# new words and expressions must be always presented in an ,/' "'7 to a"oid pupils getting wrong conclusions about their pronunciation when they see the written form. !fter this# students must try to use the new items producti"ely# that is# to insert the words in a context they think suitable to use it. This is the best way to make them understand all the different meanings that the new words ha"e# since they always relate the meaning of these items in the Foreign 4anguage with the possible meanings that these words may ha"e in their <other Tongue. The classroom is where the most of the studentsR interactions take place# and we know these communicati"e exchanges are not always spontaneous# it is# they are started# guided and controlled by the teacher# and the main reason could be that pupils do not recei"e from the "ery beginning of the Teaching and 4earning process the necessary linguistic and non1 linguistic strategies or resources to do that on their own. ]There are many different methods to teach "ocabulary. They depend[ 9 1on the one hand# on the linguistic le"el that the students already ha"e. 1and# on the other hand# on the type of items we want to teach them. ut# in broad outlines# some of the T&%3='XT&* or !%T'V'T'&* we can present to children in order to help them de"elop their autonomous learning of lexicon little by little could be the following ones 9 -. 'n order to '=T,7@T%& new "ocabulary 9 !. Tsing ob:ects# because as much of the "ocabulary at this educati"e stage consists of concrete nouns# so introducing a new word by showing the real ob:ect often helps them memori(e it better. . Tsing flashcards or transparencies with the picture and the written form of the new item. %. @rawings# that is# ob:ects can be drawn on the blackboard or in their notebooks. @. <ime# gestures#[may be used for certain descripti"e ad:ecti"es# prepositions of place# action "erbs# etc[ &. *ongs are another way of introducing new "ocabulary. There is a great "ariety of them we may use in class with this purpose 9 1*ongs that deal with certain topics9 the colours# the family# etc[ 1*ongs to mo"e their bodies. 1*ongs to work rhythm# stress and intonation. 1*ongs to repeat a certain structure. 1&tc[ F. *ynonyms and !ntonyms# what let pupils associate the new word with a concept they already know. N. Nuessing the meaning from context. This meaning can be obtained by means of the relation with the pictures# the orthographic or pronunciation similarities with their mother tongue. 3. =ames of categories can also be taught "erbally if the students know some names of items that belong within a particular category. &x.# 0TennisEFootballEaseballEasketballE [ is a sport2 '. &tc[
F. Translation# if none of those techniques works. The use or the a"oidance of the <other Tongue is a matter that must be decided by each indi"idual teacher according to hisEher groupRs characteristics9 some students at the elementary le"els feel more comfortable when they mentally relate the new words with a nati"e equi"alent# but other students like to disco"er the meaning of the new items that ha"e been explained without the resource of the =ati"e 4anguage and they feel "ery proud of their disco"ery. 'n any case# it must !e minimi3ed in the classroom. /.7nce we ha"e presented the "ocabulary# the following step is to gi"e the students the opportunity to +,!%T'*& it in suitable real contexts within the classroom. *ome of the techniques we may use are the following 9 !. Names# such as 9 10KimRs game2 . 10@ominoes2 or 0ingo2. 1<emory games# such as9 . 8#hinese "hisper9 (the *panish 0Fuego del TelKfono2). . 8I went to the market9 (in which a child starts saying# 0' went to the market and ' bought potatoes2# then the next student adds a word and says# 0' went to the market and ' bought potatoes and tomatoes2# and so on). 1 &tc[ . <atching words to pictures. %. <aking handicrafts# slides# puppets# etc[ related to the new "ocabulary worked out in the class. @. %olour coding is another technique which help students to associate the new concepts that they are learning to what they already know# so it is easier for them to remember new words. For instance# we may associate the 0yellow2 colour with nouns# the 0red2 colour with "erbs# and so on using coloured discs# or coloured symbols# etc... &. 4abelling pictures with the right word. F. +icture dictation# in which the teacher gi"es instructions focusing on specific "ocabulary. &x.# 0@raw a red tableEpencilEcat[2. N. 7rdering a text# in which we ha"e a text and we cut it into stripes) then we hand them out to pupils for making the text up. 3. &tc[ 8.<any children learn new words relati"ely quickly# but they also forget them quickly. 7nce "ocabulary has been introduced and practised# some techniques may be used to %7=*74'@!T& and ,&V'*& it# such as 9 !. .icture dictionaries1Coca!ulary !ooks created by the own student. $e can organi(e these alphabetically or by topics. 't is useful to use a ring1folder so they can add new pages when necessary. +upils collect or draw pictures to illustrate the meaning of a word and write the name below. . #ollages or .osters# in which students collect pictures or photos around a topic# then they stick them on to a large sheet of cardpaper and write their names. These posters or collages are an element to remember the "ocabulary that has been learnt and# at the same time# they can be used to decorate the classroom walls. %. "ord families1sets with pictures coloured and labelled. They are kept into en"elopes which can be labelled too# for example# 0%lothes2 # 0Fruit2# etc[ and may be used# from time to time# as games to re"ise it. @. -ames# such as 0+ictionary2# etc[ ]$e could conclude that# starting from our classR characteristics# we will select which "ocabulary and which of the pre"ious techniques explained are the most suitable and useful. The use of "aried resources and materials will encourage children and will make the &nglish lessons be more effecti"e and pleasant# which is "ery important if we want to create a suitable atmosphere in the class and to de"elop our studentsR moti"ation. !/A*A 00 CAKI&AC A$ .A*A!I& FIAC$. I !/A ABCI./ CAB%ABA. A&A..A"G CAKI&# F#" .#&IACI.A!I#, IF#"*A!I# A$ AK<"A..IB A!!I!%$A.. !G<#C#BG #F A&!IHI!IA. !IA$ !# !AA&/IB A$ CAA"IB H#&A+%CA"G I !/A &CA.."##*. 0. Introduction. 2. Ce,ical and semantic fields in the Anglish language. 2.0. *eaning. 2.2. Word formation. 1. ecessary le,icon for socialisation, information and e,pressing attitudes. 1.0. .ocialisation. 1.2. Information. 1.1. A,pressing emotional attitudes. 1.4. A,pressing intellectual attitudes. 4. !ypology of activities tied to teaching and learning vocabulary in the classroom. 4.0. !eaching vocabulary. 4.2. Activities. 4.1. !he importance of dictionary. 5. +ibliography. 0. I!"#$%&!I#. An ability to manipulate grammatical structure does not have any potential for e,pressing meaning unless words are used. We talk about the importance of 'choosing your words carefully( in certain situation, but we are less concerned about choosing structures carefully. !hen structural accuracy seems to be the dominant focus. In real life, however, it is even possible that where vocabulary is used correctly it can cancel out structural inaccuracy. For many years vocabulary was seen as incidental to the main purpose of language teaching ) namely the ac=uisition of grammatical knowledge about the language. Hocabulary was necessary to give students something to hang on to when learning structures, but was fre=uently not a main focus for learning itself. "ecently methodologists and linguists have increasingly been turning their attention to vocabulary, stressing its importance in language teaching and reassessing some of the ways in which it is taught and learnt. !eachers should have the same kind of e,pertise in the teaching of vocabulary as they do in the teaching of structure. 2. CAKI&AC A$ .A*A!I& FIAC$. I !/A ABCI./ CAB%ABA. !here are a vast number of words that are not found everywhere, words that are restricted to a particular country or to a particular part of the country. Attending the le,ical and semantic fields, there are a great number of varieties. We can emphasise regional and collo=uial varieties. "egional dialect words have every right to be included in an Anglish vocabulary count. !hey are Anglish words even if they are used only in a single locality. +ut no one knows how many there are. *ost regional vocabulary )especially that used in cities ) is never recorded. !here must be thousands of distinctive words inhabiting such areas as +rooklyn, the Aast And of Condon, .an Francisco,... none of which has ever appeared in any dictionary. !he more collo=uial varieties of Anglish, and slang in particular, also tend to be given inade=uate treatment. In dictionary writing, the traditional has been to take material only from the written language, and this has led to the compilers concentrating on educated, standard forms. !hey commonly leave out non) standard e,pressions, such as everyday slang and obscenities, as well as the slang of specific social groups and areas, such as the army, sport, public school, banking or medicine. 0.0. *eaning. !he first thing to realise about vocabulary items is that they fre=uently have more than one meaning. When we come across a word and try to decipher its meaning we will have to look at the conte,t in which it is used. .ometimes words have meanings in relation to other words. !hus students need to know the meaning of 'vegetable( as a word to describe any one of a number of other things >cabbages, carrots,...? We understand the meaning of a word like 'good( in the conte,t of a word like 'bad(. Words have 'opposites( >antonyms? and synonyms. What a word means can be change, stretched or limited by how it is used and this is something students need to know about. Word meaning is fre=uently stretched through the use of 'metaphor( and 'idiom(. We know that the word 'hiss( for e,ample, describes the noise that snakes make. +ut we stretch its meaning to describe the way people talk to each other. Word meaning is also governed by collocation ) that is which word go with each other. In order to know how to use the word 'sprained( we need to know that whereas we can say 'sprained ankle(, 'sprained wrist(, we cannot say 'sprained rib(. We often use words in certain social and topical conte,t. What we say is governed by the style and register we are in. If you want to tell someone you are angry you will choose carefully between the neutral e,pression of this fact 'I3m angry( and the informal version 'I3m really pissed off(. !he later would certainly seem rude to listeners in certain conte,ts. At a different level we recognise that the two doctors talking about an illness will talk in a different register than one of them who then talks to the patient in =uestion, who has never studied medicine. .tudents need to recognise metaphorical language use and they need to know how words collocate. !hey also need to understand what stylistic and topical conte,ts words and e,pressions occur in. 2.2. Word formation. Words can change their shape and their grammatical value too. .tudents need to know facts about word formation and how to twist words to fit different grammatical conte,ts. .tudents also need to know how suffi,es and prefi,es work. !here are over 0;; common prefi,es and suffi,es in Anglish. Another important techni=ue is to join two words together to make a different word, a compound, as in blackbird, shopkeeper and frying)pan. ote that the meaning of a compound isn3t simply found by adding together the meaning of its parts. Also not that compounds aren3t always written as single words. 1. A&A..A"G CAKI&# F#" .#&IACIJA!I#, IF#"*A!I# A$ AK<"A..IB A!!I!%$A.. !he purpose of language is to communicate, whether with others by talking and writing or with ourselves by thinking. In verbal communication, si, main categories within the functions of language can be distinguished: &ommunicating and searching for information based of facts. A,pressing and finding out emotional attitudes. A,pressing and finding out moral attitudes. A,pressing and finding out intellectual attitudes. !elling someone to do something >persuasion? .ocialising. !his list of functions is not e,haustive. First of all, it is difficult to make a complete list. .econdly, the list represent a list contemplated for the 'threefold level(. *ore functions can be added at higher levels. 1.0. .ocialisation. #ur aim in teaching Anglish is enable students to use the language in real life and to develop hisFher communicative competence. We are going to see now, at a elementary level, the necessary le,icon and structures to develop social relations. !o greet people: /ello, Bood morning. ice to see you... When meeting people:/ow are youE I3m fine, thanks. What about youE Introducing and being introduced: *y name is... /ave you met...E When leaving: Bood bye. .ee you later. Bood night. Asking for things: &an you give me...E &ould you lend me...E "e=uesting others to do something: &ould you ..., pleaseE A,pressing sympathy: I3m sorry. !hat3s too bad. what a shameO Apologising: I3m sorry about ...gerund. &ongratulating: &ongratulations. I3m gladO !hat3s wonderfulO #ffering things: $o you want...E Would you like...E $o you fancy... gerundE #ffering to do sth: $o you want me to...E .hall I...E Asking for permission: *ay I...E $o you mind if I...E Inviting: Would you like to...E Agreeing to meet: I3ll see you... Cet3s meet... !hanking: !hank youF !hanks. 1.2. Information Information also implies its transmission. /alliday divides this function into two: the logical function and the e,perience function. !he latter is used to communicate ideas and the former relates these, places them on the same level or on a subordinate level. Affirmative sentences are used to give information and =uestions to ask for information. <ersonal identification: )ame: What3s your nameE I3m... )Address and telephone number: Where do you liveE )$ate and place of birth, age and nationality: Where was he bornE Where are you fromE )@obs, family, character, physical appearance: What does he doE /ow many brothers have you gotE What3s he likeE What does she look likeE "eporting, $escribing, arrating: What happenedE I came... &orrection: Gou3ve never been in CiverpoolO Asking: Where do you spend...E Who3s your favourite...E In Anglish we have also the direct or indirect speech, and the =uestion tags as special structures for giving and receiving information. 1.1. A,pressing emotional attitudes. It3s important to establish some general objectives bearing in mind that our students possess this affective ability. !hese are mainly: )!o benefit from the new language. )!o find enjoyment in the new language. )!o discover a new form of communication. )!o discover a new source of diversion. Feelings: )<leasure: What funO I love watching... )$ispleasure: I hate homework. I don3t like washing up. ).atisfaction: I3m so pleased you have come. )$isappointment: What a pityO Gou3ve missed the party. )<reference: I prefer skating to skiing. )Bratitude: !hanksO Wishes: )Want, desire: I would like to have long hair. )<olite re=uest: Would you mind picking up my suitcasesE )#ffering to help: .hall I help you downstairsE )"e=uest for oneself: *ay I borrow your classnotesE )*aking re=uests: *ay I have a glass of waterE Intentions: )A,plaining intentions: I3m going to work hard this term. )<ersuading: #h, come !omO Gou will enjoy the party a lot. )*aking plans: Cet us meet at 631; in the post office. )<romises: I will be there. )Asking about intention: What are you going to doE 1.4. A,pressing intellectual attitudes. A very important group of communicative functions is the one which serve to e,press intellectual attitudes that are developed by means of a huge and comple, series of specific structures and le,icon. A,pressing agreement and disagreement: I agree with you. I don3t think so. In=uiring about agreement and disagreement: $o you think soE $enying something: o, I never go there. Accepting or denying an offer or invitation: !hank you. All right. #ffering to do something: &an I help youE 5. +I+CI#B"A</G. +illows F.C. !he !echni=ues of Canguage !eaching >Congman 0:88? +right /.A. *cBregor. !eaching Anglish as a second language >Congman 0:8;? $off A. !each Anglish >&ambridge %niversity <ress 0:99? /armer @. !he <ractice of Anglish Canguage !eaching. Widowson /.B. !eaching Canguage as &ommunication >#,ford %niversity <ress 0:99?. TOPIC 11. LEXICAL AND SEMANTIC FIELDS IN ENGLIS3. SOCIALISATION, INFORMATION AND ATTITUDE EXPRESSION VOCA9ULARY, ACTIVITIES USED IN TEAC3ING AND LEARNING VOCA9ULARY IN T3E FOREIGN LANGUAGE CLASSROOM. '=T,7@T%T'7= 'n this topic we will go into detail some aspects of semantics (study of meaning in language). The unit of semantics is the lexeme or lexical item. $e will discuss 7&6 ,&)a51a28 $' &2gan$;!"# the "ocabulary needed to express common communicati"e functions and some acti"ities that we can use in learning and teaching "ocabulary. There are se"eral 6a8' &# &2gan$;$ng 1!=!+!'. $e can study also the paradigmatic relationships. $e will now focus on lexical and semantic items. /. 4&U'%!4 !=@ *&<!=T'% F'&4@* '= &=N4'*3 (.1. L!=$)a1 T S!+an%$) #$!1"' *emantic or lexical fields can be defined as semantically related groups. The words of a language can be classified into sets which are related to conceptual fields and divide up the semantic space* feeling# possession# perception# speech# existence. (.(. S!n'! 2!1a%$&n'7$-' They are the internal organising principle that creates lexical fields. There are two types9 n syntagmatic relationships9 are the relationship on the hori(ontal axis when two items are often used together e.g. rural life, green area, dark, hair.. n +aradigmatic relationships9 are the relationships on the "ertical axis. $e can find se"eral types9 a) *ynonymy EsinonimiE9 it should be noted (es importante decir) synonymy is not frecuent in the language. They are groups of words that share a general sense and so may be interchangeable in a limited numbers of contexts. e.g. die Gmorir$, pass away Gpasar al otro mundo$ b) !ntonymy 9 antonymy is the relationship of oppositeness of meaning. :on4grada!le or ungrada!le antonyms, are mutually e+clusive, eg. alive1dead, male1female... -rada!le antonyms permit the e+pression of degree, e.g. !ig1small, cold1hot. 'nd the comparative Gwarm, cool, chilly, cold$. #onverses denote a reciprocal relationship* one term presupposes the other Gfamily and social relation4 e.g. parent1child...$ c) 3yponymy9 it is the relationship of inclusion in that the meaning of the general term (superordinate) is included in the meaning of the specific term e.g. flowerErose# colourEblue# season (superordinate)Ewinter (hyponymy). d) 'ncompatibility9 exclusi"e members of the same superordinate category are referred to as incompatibles# e.g. winterEsummer. ,elationship between hyponymyns. (.*. C&+-&n!n%$a1 ana18'$' %onsists of 52!a0$ng "&6n %7! 1!=$)a1 items within the same semantic field into their constituent parts in order to examine the similarities and differences between them. 1 *7%'!4'\!T'7=# '=F7,<!T'7= !=@ !TT'TT@& &U+,&**'7= V7%!T4!,> 'n this section we will deal with the "ocabulary our students need to express themsel"es with fluency in common situations. *.1. S&)$a1$;a%$&n ,&)a51a28 't is the "ocabulary used to introducing oursel"es. 'n sociali(ation we will study the language related to9 a) Nreetings9 In%2&")$ng &n!'!1# an" 5!$ng $n%2&")!": This "ocabulary is used when people meet for the fist time. 1 3ello# 'm E 3ello my name is... 1 +leased to meet you (formal) E =ice to meet you (informal) S&)$a1 a552!,$a%$&n': <r# <rs# <iss# <s# *ir# 4ady... G2!!%$ng -!&-1!: 1 3ello E Nood morning (formal)E morning (informal) 1 Nood night (formal) E =ight 1 night (for children) Sa8$ng g&&"58!: 1 Nood bye E bye E *ee you later C&ng2a%1a%$ng: 1 $ell done E congratulations S!a'&na1 g2!!%$ng': 1 3appy birthdayb E <erry %hristmasb b) &xpressing good wishes9 1 3a"e a good time E day E &n:oy yourself c) 'n"iting9 1 %an E could ' see you tonight; $hat time is good for you; 1 $ould you like to come round for dinner on *aturday; d) Thanking9 1Than you E thank you "ery muchE thanks a lot e) !pologi(ing9 1 ';m sorry E sorry E ';m terribly sorry about that.... f) &xpressing symphaty9 1 $hat a pity E ';m sorry E 3ow terribleb... g) 7ffering to do something9 1 @o you want me to ... ; E *hall ' .....; 8. (. In#&2+a%$&n ,&)a51a28 Typical structures to gi"e or get information AC A'0$ng #&2 an" g$,$ng $n#&2+a%$&n a) 'nformation about oneself9 name (whats your name;)# origin# =ationality# date of birth# address# telephone numbwer# age# mental status# :ob# family#.. b) 'nformation about the time9 $hat time is it; E whats the time; c) 'nformation about physical cahracteristics9 $hat does he look like; 3e is tall... d) 'nformation about pri(es9 3ow much is this book; E 't is A pounds 9C D!')2$5$ng '&+!&n! T '&+!%7$ng 7ur pupils must learn to describe people and common places 1 @eclarati"e sentences9 't is ... # 't has ... 1 !d:ecti"es 1 +repositions 1 Vocabulary9 colours# si(es# materials# weight# etc.. CC Na22a%$ng $e can list the elementos that are essential for narration 1 Verbal tenses 1 4ink (%onnectors) (then# afterwards# later# so...) DC A'0$ng #&2 an &-$n$&n 1 $hat do you think about...; E ' think ... $hat about you; E 1 3ow do you feel about; EC C1a2$#8$ng 1 ' mean E in fact E in other words FC A'0$ng #&2 )1a2$#$)a%$&n 1 +ardon; E %ould you repeat that; E *ay that again# please E $hat do you mean by..; 8.8. !ttitude expression "ocabulary AC In%!11!)%a1 a%%$%"!' a) &xpressing agreement and disagreement9 1agreement9 ' share your opinion E ' agree E Thats :ust what ' think E Thats all right b) &xpressing opinions9 1 'n my opinion E ' belie"e E 'f you ask me E From my oint of "iew c) &xpressing certainly E uncertainly9 1 %ertainly9 ' am sure E ' certainly think. 1 @oubt9 <aybe E +erhaps E ' wonder if... 1 Tncertainly9 ' dont know if they are well E 'm not sure if they are well d) &xpressing possibility and impossibility9 1 't is possible that... E 't is impossible that... E They may be in Fuly by now ... e) &xpressing obligation9 1 ' must begin working now (internal obligation) 1 you ha"e to be here by fi"e again (external obligation) f) &xpressing appro"al E disappro"al9 1 ' appro"e of ... E you are right in.. 1 'm apposed to ... E ' ob:ect to E ' strongly disappro"e of... 9C E+&%$&na1 a%%$%"!' a) &xpressing a feeling9 1 4ikes and dislikes9 ' like E ' lo"e fish E ' en:oy E ' am ford of E ' hate ' dislike E ' cant stand E ' am tired of .. 1 *adness9 ' really feel down today E ' am under the weather 1 'ndifference9 ' dont care at all 1 *urprise9 This is a surprise E 't is surprising E 3ow ama(ing E $hat a surprise.. 1 3ope9 ' hope so E ' expect to come tonight 1 Fear9 'm afraid of exams 1 Nratefulness9 thank you "ery much b) &xpressing intention9 1 'm going to Z infiniti"e (intention to do something) 1 ' intend to come back on *unday 6. !%T'V'T'&* T*&@ '= T&!%3'=N !=@ 4&!,='=N V7%!T4!,> '= T3& F7,&'N= 4!=NT!N& %4!**,77< There are three crucial factors in "ocabulary learning9 -) 7nce the teacher has introduced the new lexical item# hEs should pro"ide the students !n&g7 &--&2%n$%$!' %& 52$ng %7! $%!+ $n%& a)%$,! +!an$ng#1 '!. /) The lexical items taught '7&1" 5! 2!1!,an% %& %7! 1!a2n!2'K n!!"' an" $n%!2!'%'. 8) 'n introducing "ocabulary# the teacher '7&1" '! ,$'a1 a$"'. Visual back up is "ery important to help con"ey meaning and to help pupils memori(e new words. (Flash cards# photos# realia# mime...) ACTIVITIES a) !cti"ities to practise language structures or -a%%!2n' $n )&n%!=% 9 1 <emori(ing short dialogues E role plays E making dialogues with a similar structure# e.g. to do a menu# timetable.... b) !cti"ities using the "$)%$&na28: 1 <atching with their word definitions E looking up homophones c) !cti"ities based on '!+an%$) #$!1"' . !cti"ities based on "$ag2a+': :!.g.: pupils must complete a diagram with different types of ad:ecti"es related to 1hair (colour) (type)... :!.g. : $hich word do not belong in their groups; (for example words related to food) 1 The students are pro"ided with a list of words. They ha"e to draw a diagram 1 7dd man out (one word is different)9 Tick the word which does not belong in a series. 1 *equencing acti"ities9 *utdents ha"e to put a series of words rin the appropiate place on the cline# ladder# scale....e.g. bad# good# terrible# quite good# horrible# so1so# awful# fabulous# great d) !cti"ities based on an%&n8+'.: 1matching antonyms# gi"ing antonyms# antonym card game (complete pair of antonyms) e) !cti"ities based on -$)%2!': 1<atching or labelling ob:ects E =arrati"e based on pictures f) <ultiple choice acti"ities g) Names9 Nuessing games E %rosswords E word bingo E a word begining with... A. *T<<!,> 'n this topic we ha"e expounded the different ways in which lexemes can be organised9 semantic or lexical fields# sense relationships and componential analysis $e ha"e then presented the "ocabulary our pupils need to communicate with others in habitual situations. $e ha"e grouped this "ocabulary into sociali(ation "ocabulary# information "ocabulary and attitude expression "ocabulary. 'n last section of the topic we ha"e suggested "arious types of "ocabulary acti"ities. REFERENCES: 1 982n!, D. Teaching writing skills. 4ongman. 4ondon (-.??) 1 3a118"a8, M.A... Functional Nrammar. !rnold. 4ondon. (-.?/) 1 Ma%!2$a1!' -a2a 1a R!#&2+a. P2$+a2$a. <&%. <adrid (-../) *TF&%T --. %!<+7* 4^U'%7* > *&<j=T'%7* &= 4! 4&=NT! '=N4&*!. 4^U'%7 =&%&*!,'7 +!,! 4! *7%'!4'\!%'W=# 4! '=F7,<!%'W= > 4! &U+,&*'W= @& !%T'TT@&*. T'+747Ni! @& !%T'V'@!@&* 4'N!@!* ! 4! &=*&k!=\! > &4 !+,&=@'\!F& @&4 4^U'%7 &= 4! %4!*& @& 4&=NT! &UT,!=F&,!. 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H 5*)t $5"*!t#nt 1$n&) *+ #,t!#t$*n #!< V*$($n' *+ +$n#, (*n)*n#nt)< #&%$( An*.nC- #&%$) A %!3 C, /*.) A n*.nC- /*.) A %!3C S/$+t *+ )t!))< W/n &$)B,,#3$( %!3) 3(*5 n*.n) t/ )t!)) )*5t$5) (/#n' +!*5 t/ )(*n& t* t/ +$!)t )B,,#3,. T/$) /#""n) @$t/ @*!&) ,$1 (*n&.(t, (*nt!#)t,(*n+,$(t,(*n%!t,.... 3. COMPOUNDING T/$) "!*()) (*n)$)t) $n ".tt$n' t@* 3#)) t*'t/! +*!5$n' # )Bnt#(t$( .n$t. T/! #! &$++!nt tB")< NOUN COMPOUNDS< A! t/*) @/$(/ +.n(t$*n #) n*.n). T/! #! )%!#, tB"). -SU>9ECT H VER>< ).n!$) It/ ).n !$))F -VER> H O>9ECT< !(*!&-",#B! I 8 ",#B) t/ !(*!&F -VER> H ADVER>IAL< )@$55$n'-"**, I8 )@$5) $n t/ "**,F -VER>LESS COMPOUND< #)/t!#B I # t!#B A$)C +*! t/ #)/F AD9ECTIVE COMPOUNDS< #! t/*) @/$(/ +.n(t$*n #) #&D(t$%). TB")< -VER>HO>9ECT< # 5#n-#t$n' '$#nt I8 #t) # 5#nF -VER>H ADVER>IAL< #n *(#n-'*$n' 3*#t I 8 '*) #(!*)) t/ *(#nF -VER>LESS COMPOUND< (,#))-(*n)($*.) I8 $) (*n)($*.) *+ /$)G/! (,#))F VER> COMPOUNDS< #! t/*) @/$(/ +.n(t$*n #) %!3). T/ "!*3,5 @$t/ t/$) 1$n& *+ (*5"*.n&) $) t/#t t/B #! n*!5#,,B 3#(1-+*!5#t$*n) *+ n*.n (*5"*.n&).E.'.<3#3B-)$t, 0. >ACK FORMATION F*!5#t$*n *+ # n@ @*!& 3B t/ !5*%#, *+ A !#, *! #""#!nt C #++$-) +!*5 # -$)t$n' @*!&. T/ 5#D*!$tB *+ 3#(1-+*!5#t$*n) $n En',$)/ #! %!3).E.'.< ->.!', A+!*5 3.!',#!C J t* !*3 -/*.)1" A +!*5 /*.)1"$n'C 2. REDUPLICATION
TEMA 11. CAMPOS L=8ICOS ; SEMRNTICOS EN LENGUA INGLESA. L=8ICO NECESARIO PARA LA SOCIALIZACI:N, LA INFORMACI:N ; LA E8PRESI:N DE ACTITUDES. TIPOLOG?A DE ACTIVIDADES LIGADAS A LA ENSESANZA ; EL APRENDIZA9E DEL L=8ICO EN LA CLASE DE LENGUA E8TRAN9ERA. n this unit we will study how we can order vocabulary (lexical fields) and how vocabulary is organised (semantic features), then we will see some vocabulary needed to express some common communicative functions (socialization, information and attitude expression and finally techniques used in learning and teaching vocabulary. Without vocabulary, structures and function haven't got any sense. We can see the importance of vocabulary when we don't find the words we need to express something. However, many teachers spend more time in teaching grammar than in teaching vocabulary. Firstly, am going to start talking about the )5#nt$( )t!.(t.!. There are several ways of oraganizing lexemes. We can try to group them into fields of meaning, or studying the types of paradigmatic relationships existing between them, or analyzing lexical items into a series of semantic features or components. Talking about semantic or lexical fields we can say that lexemes can be organised into a system, in which these lexemes interrelate, and define each other in specific ways, For example, the various lexemes for " parts of the body (head, neck, shoulders, etc.) t has been argued that the whole of a language's vocabulary is structured into fields; but there is in fact a great deal of variations as we move from one part of the language to another. There would be little difficulty gathering together all the English lexemes for "body parts, for example; but it would be very difficult to do the same job for "noise or "sociology. There have been many philosophical and linguistic attempts to classify the concepts or words in a language. n recent times, the most influential and popular work has been the Thesaurus of Peter Mark Roget (1779-1869), fir published by Longman in 1852. Roget divided the vocabulary into six main areas: abstract relations, space, matter, intellect, volition and affections. Each area was given a detailed and exhaustive subclassification, producing 1.000 Semitic categories in all. The first three classes cover the external world. Abstract relations deals with such ideas as number, order and time; Space is concerned with movements, shapes, and sizes. Matter covers the physical world and humankind's perception of it by means of the five senses. The last three classes deal with the internal world of human beings. ntellect studies the human mind. Volition deals with the human will. Affections, whose original tittle is emotion, religion and morality, deals with the human heart and soul. There is a progression from abstract concepts through the material universe, to mankind itself, culminating in what Roget saw as humanity's highest achievements: morality and religion. Oral: One path through the thesaurus is the following: affections general terms personal sympathetic moral religious
obligation sentiments conditions practice institutions
temperance intemperance sensualism aceticism Thesauri of this kind have now been produced for several languages, and prove to be a useful adjunct to many practical linguistic activities, such as professional writing, translating, and setting or solving crosswords. For the semanticist, however, their value is limited, as they contain no information about the sense relationships between individual lexemes, and items that come from different regional, social, or professional varieties are juxtaposed without comment. To study the structure of a semantic field, more precise means of plotting the sense relations between lexemes need to be used. n this point we have to talk about sense relationships too. The organization of the lexemes of a language is based on our intuitions that groups of lexemes are related in sense. The relationships between lexemes can be analyzed under two main headings: 1. Syntagmatic relationships that refer to the tendency of lexemes to work together or collocate in predictable ways, for example we know what items are commonly associated with "kitchen, for instance. 2. Paradigmatic relationships that refer to the way in which lexemes can substitute for each other. Several types of paradigmatic relationships have been recognized. These include: a) synonymy that is the relationships of "sameness of meaning, for instance, kingly, royal, regal. And the search for synonyms is a traditional pedagogical exercise b) Hyponymy that refers to the notion of inclusion, whereby we can say that something is a kind of something else, for example, an orange, or an apple are fruits. apple or orange are hyponyms. c) Antonymy that is the relationship of oppositeness. where there are a variety of different forms of oppositeness, such as: complementary (they cannot be graded (single/married), converseness (two-way contrasts that are interdependent) (husband/wife), gradability ( permit the expression of degrees)(big /small). d) ncompatibility that refers to groups of lexemes that are mutually exclusive members of the same superordinate category. For example red and green are incompatible lexemes within the category colour. For language learners, there is a further type of sense relation but most learners find this useful to make a conscious effort to link words between a foreign language and their own. The second main point of the theme refers to the n())#!B ,-$(*n +*! )*($#,$L#t$*n, $n+*!5#t$*n #n& -"!))$n' #tt$t.&). n verbal communication, six main categories within the functions of language can be distinguished: 1. Communicating and searching for information based on facts. 2. Expressing and finding out emotional attitudes. 3. Expressing and finding out moral attitudes. 4. Expressing and finding out intellectual attitudes. 5. Telling someone to do something (persuasion). 6. Socializing. Each one of these categories, and each one of the functions, can be carried out separately in speech acts. Often, however, two or more functions will combine in the same speech act. Moreover, a person can search for information and at the same time express surprise (emotional attitude). This list of functions is not exhaustive. First of all, it is difficult to make a complete list. Secondly, the list represents a list contemplated for the "threshold level (nivel umbral). More functions can be added at higher levels. We will then examine the structures and lexicon needed for social relations and to give and receive information, as well as how emotional and intellectual attitudes are expressed. 1. Socialization vocabulary. Understanding and controlling interactions in discourse are important for a child because they enable him to enter communicative spaces, to understand acceptable presentation procedures, to understand the rights of others in communication, to interpret the message of a public advertisement, to use the telephone properly, or to be able to ask for information at public entities, etc. Now we will see the structures and lexicon necessary for social relations. a) Starting and ending a conversation: * Greetings: responses: Hello! /Hi hello hi How are you? am fine, thanks. How are you doing/getting on? am very well, thanks am not too bad, thanks. Good morning Good morning. * Farewell: Good bye, good night the same Bye, cheers, see you later, so long, cheerio. Nice to have met you Yes, hope we meet again. t's been nice knowing you. Give my regards to your wife Yes will. Remember me to your parents. Say hello to Jim. Take care. * ntroductions: Hello am Jim. Hello, Jim./ Nice to meet you. How do you do? My name is James How do you do, James? b) Complimenting and congratulating: * complimenting: responses What a marvellous meal! 'm glad you liked it. That was one of the best book 've ever read t's nice of you to say so. * congratulating: responses Well done! thanks a lot. May we congratulate you on... t's very kind of you. C) Offering and thanking: * offering: Would you like another helping? Yes, please, No, thank you. * thanking: thanks a lot. You're welcome/ Not at all. d) Apologising and regretting: *Apologising:Oh , forgive me, 'm terribly sorry.- That's quite all right, no harm done. do apologize- t doesn't matter. Sorry about that- Don't worry. * regretting: regret that e) Expressing condolences: Please accept my deepest sympathy on the death of your mother. f) Expressing good wishes, seasonal greetings and toast: * Good wishes: Good luck! Best wishes for..! Have a good time...! Enjoy yourself! * Seasonal greetings: Merry Christmas! Happy birthday! * Toasts: Good health! Cheers! bottoms up! g) speaking on the phone: * receiving the call: Hello,456788 * Making a call: Can speak to Jim, please? We have already listed some simple acts of communication whereby people establish and maintain social relations with one another. Now we are going to study the exression of information. Probably one of the most important reasons we use language for is to give someone some piece of information which we think they do not know. Questions and statements are the structures we typically use to convey or ask for information. They do not need, however, the use of a specific vocabulary, with the exception, perhaps of interrogative pronouns. Where we do need to teach our pupils specific vocabulary is when we consider people's reactions to information, for instance opinion, agreement, interruption and so on. a) Opinion: * asking for an opinion: What do you think about/ What are your feelings about , What your attitude is to.. * giving an opinion: in my opinion, as see it, My own view of the matter is that... * asking without giving your opinion: don't know what to think about, have no particular views on, have no strong feelings about... b) Expressing agreement and disagreement: * Agreement: agree, couldn't agree more, That's just what think, So do . share your opinion. * Disagreement: can't agree with you, disagree, don't think that is true, it is awful. * Partial agreement: it's true that..., but/ f accept this you must accept.. c) nterrupting: Excuse me, sorry, just a moment. d) corroboration: agree, and what is more,/ Yes, in fact, d) Clarification: * Clarifying: , mean.../..., in other words... * asking for clarification: sorry?, Pardon?, Could you repeat that?, What do you mean by..? The last thing we will see in this point is the !oca"ulary needed to exress attitudes, where we have to distinguish in the next functions: a) Volition: * willingness: am ready to paint your home/ will do anything for you * wish: wish you every happiness in your wedding dayWould you like? *ntention: intent to see you tomorrow/ am going to see her tomorrow. * nsistence: insist on overcome the issue. b) Liking and disliking: *Likes: like, love, enjoy, am fond of, am keen on * Diskikes: don't like, dislike, hate, detest , can't stand, am fed up with * ndifference: don't mind * Preference: prefer reading c) Hope: hope she arrives on time. d) Anticipation of pleasure: am looking forward to hearing from you, e) Regret: wish were tall, am sorry to hear that, f) Approval and disapproval: * approval: you are quite right to, am in favour of, * disapproval: must object to, am opposed, g) Surprise: t's rather surprising that, what a surprise h) Concern: am worried that, t's disturbing that... i) Emotive emphasis: * nterjections: Whoops, mm, gosh, whoah * Exclamations: What a man!, How extraordinary! *repetition: He is very very silly. * Emphasizers: She's an absolute beginner. As we can see there are many lexical items that our pupils must be able to use in order to acquire a basic communicative competence. To finish we will see the third main point in the theme, t/ t(/n$M.) .)& $n ,#!n$n' #n& t#(/$n' %*(#3.,#!B. Now we will point out the most common techniques to introduce the new vocabulary. The first thing we will see is how we must introduce the new vocabulary. The first step is introducing the ne# !oca"ulary, the main thing here is the meaning. To explain the meaning there are several techniques and these are: a) Visual techniques: We can use flashcards, photographs, blackboard drawings, wall charts and realia that we can carry to our class easily. A picture has a great importance because a pupil can remember more easily a word when we have showed him/her the picture than we have only translated the word. (TARJETAS MEGAS) b) Verbal techniques: We can give a definition in simple English with words that they know. We may also use synonyms. We may also use any of the types of antonyms we have described. c) The use of records with sounds that they can associate with the object before they listen to the word in English for instance the transports like a car, train, motorbike, etc. d) The use of mime, action and gesture: With gestures the teacher can explain a lot of words, action verbs such as drink, eat, walk as well as adjectives like happy, sad or deictic words such as from, to there... e) Translation: when other techniques are not useful to explain any difficult word, the teacher can use the translation into the mother tongue. However, translation cannot be the main technique if we don't want our pupils to continue to use Spanish as a framework on which to attach English items. The second step in teaching vocabulary is that our pupils remem"er them, and if we want our pupils to remember the vocabulary we will have to practice it and there are three main ways of practising it: a) Revision through denotation: These activities are based on showing our pupils the real object or action, or a picture: 1. Labelling: our pupils are given a picture and have to write the names of the objects in the picture. 2. spy: a pupil think in an object that the rest of the class can see and he/she gives a clue that is the first vowel. The rest of the class try to guess the word. The phrase they use is: spy with my little eye something beginning with B. s it a book? 3. spot the difference: our pupils are put into pairs. Each member has a slightly different picture. Without showing it to one another they have to discover the differences. 4. Describe and draw: This activity is similar to the last one, one member of the pair has a drawing and the other one a blank piece of paper. The pupil with the picture must tell his partner what to draw. 5. Picture dominoes and picture rummy: this games are based on the associations our pupils may establish between the objects appearing in cards. n dominoes they do it with pairs of cards, while in rummy they do it with threes, fours. 6.Kim's game: we show our pupils a picture or a tray with object on it, or series of different flash cards or magazine pictures. They have two minutes to memorize as man as they can, and afterwards they will have to say or write what they saw. And we can transform this game into Chinese whispers if only one child sees the tray and then whispers the objects into his partner's ear. The process goes on and we see the similarities and differences between the initial and the final list. 7. spy: A pupil thinks about an object that the rest of the class can see and he or she says: spy with my little eye something beginning with... and the first letter of the object and the rest of the class try to guess it. b) Revision through word families: n this activities we revise vocabulary in relation to other words in the same lexical field. Some examples of these activities are the following: 1. Word thermometers: these are useful for indicating degree. For example place these words in the correct place on the thermometer: always, sometimes, usually, never, rarely. (dibujar un termometro). 2. Series: this game uses lexical fields. Our pupils must write as many words as they know in one field. We can use these words in Word Bingo. Our pupil write ten words relating to one lexical field. We call out words connected with this lexical field. The firs pupil who crosses out all the words on his page is the winner. 3. Spiders: we draw a spider in the blackboard with a topic or a word and they have to write in the legs all the words they can think of connected with this word. 4. Odd man out: the teacher says four or five words but one of them isn't related to the rest and they have to guess it. 5. Categories: we use jumbled words which must be categorised into lexical fields. c) Revision through explanations: n these activities where paraphrase the words we are revising. Some examples are the following: 1. Crosswords: These can be divided round topic ideas. 2. Coffee-pot: is a word which is used instead of a particular verb a pupil has thought of. The rest of the class must find out this verb by means of questions such as: When do you coffee pot? 3.Vocabulary quizzes: n groups they prepare questions that elicit the correct answer. Then, they ask them in turns. Now we are going to see to finish the learner$centred techni%ues. Recent developments have emphasised the importance of equipping our pupils with the necessary strategies for dealing with skills activities. n learning vocabulary his involves: 1. Asking others, in English, if possible, can foster co-operative learning and it also makes our pupils to offer the best context to elicit the word they want This is a skill we have in our mother tongue, and we use it very frequently when we do not know a lexical field. 2. Using a dictionary is one of the most important skills we must teach our pupils. Teaching students how to use a dictionary should include the following aspects: The students must know how a dictionary is organized regarding ideas, etymology, synonyms, etc., They must be familiar with the symbols and abbreviations used in the dictionary.. A skill that the teacher should practice with his students is understanding the dictionary definitions of words. The learners must acquire a critical ability that will enable them to discern the advantages of using a certain type of dictionary as opposed to another in specific situations. Finally, the student must develop the ability to choose the correct use of word based on a specific concept. At initial levels it is better to use pictorial dictionaries. 3. Another skill we can teach our pupils is to deduce meaning out of context. This is a predictive skill that they must use both in listening and in reading. Oral: For evaluating vocabulary we have many examples of activities: 1. Cloze test: the pupil must write the words that there aren't write in the text because they are necessary. 2. Matching antonyms. 3. Matching words with their definition. >$3,$*'!#"/B Alburquerque. R et al. En el aula de ngles. Longman. London, 1990 Gairns R& Redman S Working with words. CUP. 1986. Wallance M Teaching Vocabulary Heinemann 1982 Propuesta de Secuencia. Lenguas Extranjersa. Mec. Escuela Espaola. Madrid. 1992. Picture dictionaries. Abbs B Picture Workbook Longman 1986 Oxford Children's Picture Dictionary OUP. 1981 T3&<& -/9 &**&=T'!4 <7,+37*>=T!%T'%!4 &4&<&=T* '= &=N4'*3. &4&<&=T!,> %7<<T='%!T'V& *T,T%TT,&* !=@ T*& 7F N,!<<!T'%!4 %!T&N7,'&* '= 7,!4 !=@ $,'TT&= +,7@T%T'7=*. +. ,ntroduction. The structures of a language# the rules go"erning the changes of their forms and the combination of elements composing it# constitute the grammar of that language. 'f our intention is to learn a language# we cannot :ust learn its "ocabulary but we will ha"e to learn also the elements making it up. !part from learning a language# if we want to communicate with it producti"ely# we will ha"e to learn that there are other factors shaping the meaning of a grammatically correct sentence in a language# such as9 situations# speakers and social background# that is# the context. -. &ssential elements of morphosyntax. The range of constructions studied by grammar is di"ided into sub1fields. The oldest and most widely1used di"ision is that between morphology and syntax. The most basic units of syntax are the '!n%!n)! and the 6&2". The sentence is the largest unit of syntax9 as we mo"e upwards beyond the sentence we pass from syntax into discourse analysis) the word is the lowest unit of syntax9 as we mo"e downwards beyond the word we pass from syntax into morphology. The most elementary words# such as girl# car# to# ha"e only one +&2-7!+!# the smallest units of meaning and the units of morphology. 'n this theme we will study the main grammatical units9 - morpheme - word - sentence +.+. -he morpheme. I# 6! '%"8 %7! '%2)%2! &# %7! #&11&6$ng 6&2"': un!friend!ly, cat!s, bring!ing, 6! )an see that the elements friend, cat, !ring# ha"e a meaning# as do the elements attached to them (the affixes). 7ther words cannot be di"ided into different meaningful units. 'n &nglish is difficult to analy(e irregular nouns and "erbs) mice is the plural of mouse, but it is not ob"ious how to identify a plural morpheme in the word# analogous to the Ls ending of cats. !nother complication is that morphemes sometimes ha"e more than one phonetic form# eg. The past tense morpheme Sed in &nglish is pronounced in three different ways. These "ariant forms of a morpheme are known as allomorphs. Two main fields are traditionally recogni(ed within morphology9 a) In#1!)%$&na1 +&2-7&1&g8: studies the way in which words "ary in order to express grammatical contrasts in sentences# such as singularEpast or pastEpresent. These grammatical contrasts are called grammatical categories9 - a'-!)%9 perfecti"e# imperfecti"e progressi"e# nonprogressi"e - )a'!: nominati"e# "ocati"e# accusati"e# geniti"e# partiti"e - g!n"!2: masculine# feminine# neuter# animate# inanimate - +&&": indicati"e# sub:uncti"e# optati"e - n+5!2: singular# dual# trial# plural - -!2'&n: first# second# third... - %!n'!: present# past# future - ,&$)!: acti"e# passi"e b) D!2$,a%$&na1 +&2-7&1&g8: studies the principles go"erning the construction of new words# without reference to the specific grammatical role a word might play in a sentence. There are three chief processes in &nglish by which new words are created9 - A##$=a%$&n: di"ided into prefixation (adding prefixes) and suffixation (adding suffixes). - C&n,!2'$&n: a word changes its class without any change of form e.g. aim and to aim. - C&+-&n"$ng: adding one base to another e.g. !lack!oard. - R!"-1$)a%$&n: type of compound in which both elements are the same e.g. knock4knock. - C1$--$ng: informal shortenings e.g. flu, ad, telly. - 91!n"$ng': two words merge into one# e.g. smog T smoke H fog. - In#$=a%$&n: emphatic structures such as a!so4!ooming4lutely. +... -he word. !s we ha"e already pointed out# words sit at the boundary between morphology and syntax. $ords are usually the easiest units to identify in the written language# as they commonly ha"e spaces on either side. 't is more difficult to decide what words are in the stream of speech as pauses do not occur between each word in natural speech. $ords ha"e been grouped into word classes# traditionally labelled the parts of speech. aC C1&'!" )1a''!': They can be composed of all the existing elements or of those that may be created. 'n order to define them in relation with other words# we must do it with those with which they ha"e a semantic relation. - -2!-&'$%$&n': of, at, in without, in spite of. - -2&n&n': he, they, any!ody, one, which - "!%!2+$n!2: the, a, that, when, although - )&nEn)%$&n': and, that, when , although - +&"a1 ,!25': can, must, will, could - -2$+a28 ,!25': !e, have, do - a2%$)1!': the, a, an - "!+&n'%2a%$,!': this, that, these, those 5C O-!n )1a''!': The components of this group do not admit any addition of other elements. - n&n': Dohn, room, answer, play - a"E!)%$,!': happy, steady, new - #11 ,!25': search, grow, play - a",!25': steadily, completely, really )C T& %7!'! 6! +a8 a"" %6& 1!''!2 )a%!g&2$!': - n+!2a1': one, first - $n%!2E!)%$&n': ugh, phew - 6&2"' &# n$@! #n)%$&n: not, to +./. -he sentence. 'n the discourse# the basic unit is the '%a%!+!n% which is defined because it is a fragment of communication# no matter what its extension is# within to marked pauses or the pre"ious silence plus a marked pause. For the fragmentation we do not take into account its grammatical structure or its context# which may be insufficient and incomplete. *tatements can be isolated9 a) *ome organise all its constituents in relation to a "erb con:ugated in a personal form. These are named '!n%!n)!'. b) 7ther statements are characterised in relation to the lack of a "erb in personal form according to the nucleus# e.g. yes. These are called -72a'!'. +./.+. Parts of a sentence. !ccording to Xuirk and Nreenbaum when analysing the smallest parts of the sentences# they distinguish between '5E!)% and -2!"$)a%!: S5E!)% P2!"$)a%! &ary pointed at him. P2!"$)a%!: has a close relationship with what is being dealt with# what the sentence is about# and it generally implies that something new is being told about a sub:ect which has pre"iously appeared in another sentence. S5E!)%: determines the agreement and it is also the changing part within the sentence# that is the reason why few generalisations are permitted. The predicate can be sub1di"ided into a=$1$a28 and ,!25a1 -2!"$)a%$&n: S5E!)% P2!"$)a%! A=$1$a28 V!25a1 -2!"$)a%$&n He will write 'rthur a letter. 0) 0uxiliaries as 1operators2. The "erb may be composed of se"eral auxiliaries# e.g. ;hey would have !een..., in these cases the first auxiliary is considered the 0operator29 would. 'n declarati"e affirmati"e sentences where there is no auxiliary# when an operator is needed do is introduced# e.g. 6id you tell him? and the "erb to be and have perform as operators whether they are auxiliary or not9 Dohn is a student S ,s Dohn a student? ;hey have Ggot$ a cottage S 3ave they Ggot$ a cottage? +./... lements of a sentence. There are fi"e elements we can split the sentence in. -. *ub:ect /. Verb 8. %omplement a) *ub:ect complement or atribute. b) 7b:ect complement. 6. 7b:ect a) @irect ob:ect b) 'ndirect ob:ect A. !d"erbial +./...+. -he "ub4ect. The sub:ect of a sentence can be a clause with nominal function9 G;hat he came quickly$ was unusual. but it is normally a nominal clause and in its simples forms are a personal pronoun or a proper noun. 'n affirmati"e sentences the sub:ect is always placed before the "erb and in interrogati"e sentences the sub:ect is placed after the operator. 't also keeps person and number agreement with the "erb. +./..... Verb categories. T7! ,!25a1 '!n%!n)! +a8 5! )&+-&'!" &# &n! &2 %6& 6&2"'. In %7! )a'! &# %6& 6&2"', $% $' )&+-&'!" &# a +a$n ,!25 -2!)!"!" 58 &n! &2 +&2! >a=$1$a28? ,!25'. Dohn wrote a letter He had given her an apple. There are different types of "erbs# in close correspondence to other types of ob:ects and complements. Xuirk and Nreenbaum distinguish between9 -) In%!n'$,! ,!25': sentences with sub:ect complement. /) E=%!n'$,! ,!25': the rest. !ll the extensi"e "erbs admit a direct ob:ect# some also admit an indirect ob:ect. 8) In%2an'$%$,! ,!25': they are followed by no obligatory element .rices rose. 6) T2an'$%$,! ,!25': they are followed by and ob:ect. a) <onotransiti"e9 %he likes carrots. b) @itransiti"e9 He gave me a pen. c) %omplex transiti"e9 %he lead me to my seat. A) P2&g2!''$,! ,!25': they admit a progressi"e aspect9 "e wrote 'rthur a letter. 5) N&n:-2&g2!''$,! ,!25': they do not admit a progressi"e aspect9 Dohn is a student S Dohn is !eing now a student G"/,:-$ M&2-7&1&g$)a118 %7! ,!25 )an 5! )1a''$#$!" $n %6& )a%!g&2$!': aC 4exical "erb9 walk, write b) !uxiliary "erb9 : primary: 7a,!, 5! : modal: +a8, )an, '7a11 T7! Eng1$'7 ,!25' 7a,! #$,! )&+-&n!n%': 1C 4exeme9 -2!'!n% B!=)!-% %7$2" -!2'&n '$ng1a2C, $+-!2a%$,!, '5En)%$,! an" $n#$n$%$,!. (C L(e)s form9 %7$2" -!2'&n '$ng1a2. *C +resent participle (1ing)9 )&n%$n&' #&2+ an" -2!'!n% -a2%$)$-1! '!n%!n)!' BM!!%$ng 7$+ 6a' g&&"C. 4C +ast participle (1ed)9 -!2#!)% %!n'!' &# 2!g1a2 ,!25', -a''$,! ,&$)! an" -a'% -a2%$)$-1! $n [!" '!n%!n)!'. IC 4exical irregular "erbs9 #2&+ * %& H, !.g. 5!, a+, a2!, $', 6a'... LC <odal auxiliaries9 '-!)$a1 ,!25' 6$%7 n& $n#$n$%$,!, n& [$ng -a2%$)$-1!, n& [!" -a2%$)$-1! an" n& $+-!2a%$,!. +./.../. &omplements. These elements may ha"e the same structure as the sub:ect itself. $e must distinguish between9 1C S5E!)% )&+-1!+!n%: this type of complement has a direct relationship with the sub:ect. Dohn is a student sub4ect complement 5attribute6with stative ver!s). He !ecame richer sub4ect complement 5predicative6with dynamic ver!s as the result of the action) (C O5E!)% )&+-1!+!n%: this complement has a relationship with the direct ob:ect similar to the one the sub:ect complement keeps with the sub:ect. -he pri7e made him rich o!ject complement Gresulting attri!ute$ , drank the coffee cold. o!ject complement Gcurrent attri!ute$ +./...8. 9b4ects. The ob:ects are placed after the sub:ect and the "erb. $hen the sentence is passi"e# both of them assume the sub:ect status.
1C D$2!)% &5E!)%: 'n general it is a name referred to a person and the semantic relation between them is that something is done for or recei"ed by someone. 't is more frequent than the indirect ob:ect and this always appears whene"er there is an indirect ob:ect# preceding it. (C In"$2!)% &5E!)%: 't is normally the recipient or recei"er of the action. Dohn wrote his friend a letter direct ob4ect
indirect ob4ect +.8. 0dverbial categories. !d"erbials may be many and "aried. From a syntactic point of "iew the only classification which is important to make is that between obligatory ad"erbials and the remainder. *ome ad"erbs can be omitted and the sentence would only suffer a slight change# remaining its sense almost untouched# like this %$+! a",!25$a1: 7esterday she opened the door noisily S %he opened the door noisily. 3owe"er# other types of ad"erbial like +ann!2 a",!25$a1': noisily and use carefully, silently, etc.# when they are replaced by other# the meaning of the sentence would change although the sentence will continue being grammatically correct. The same happens when we place some of these ad"erbials in a sentence with a stati"e or non1progressi"e "erb9 Dohn is a student noisily G"/,:-$ The ad"erbials can be performed by9 -) A",!25$a1 1&)%$&n' with and ad"erb as nucleus9 He went home slowly. (C N&+$na1 '8n%ag+a: "e go on holiday every summer. 8) P2!-&'$%$&na1 '8n%ag+a (nominal clause introduced by a preposition)9 "e live in a large house. 6) C1a'!' with !$%7!2 -!2'&na1 or $+-!2'&na1 #&2+': "atching him go she cried 1 &y father took me to the 3oo when I was @. +.:. -ypes of sentence structure. P1a)! A",!25$a1 Dohn is at home. In%!n'$,! S5E!)% C&+-1!. Dohn is a student at ,+ford at the moment. S5E!)% N '%a%$,! V. E=%!n'$,! an" %2an'$%$,! N D$2!)% &5E!)% He saw the parcel on his desk at seven oMclock. In%!n'$,! N S5E!)% C&+. He got angry little !y little at work yesterday. M&n&%2an. (@irect 7b:ect) %he carefully opened the parcel in his office at B. S5E!)% N D8na+$) V. T2an'$%$,! D&51! ('ndirect 7b:ect E @irect ob:ect) "e happily wrote him a postcard from +aris during our holiday. E=%!n'$,! C&+-1!= (@irect ob:ect E 7b:ect comple.) ;he pri3e suddenly made him rich last year.
In%2an'$%$,! He came home slowly last night.
+.;. (iscourse elements. +. <oun. $e must make the difference between proper and common nouns. $ithin the common ones# apart from any other subdi"ision# we can take into account the difference between countable and uncountable nouns and those which can be both depending on the way they are used. =ouns ha"e no genre indication# but they do ha"e number indication. .. 0d4ective. The ad:ecti"e has neither genre nor number. 'n most cases# it admits inflexion to form the comparati"e (1er) and the superlati"e (1est). 7ther ad:ecti"es which do not admit inflexion form their comparati"e and superlati"e differently9 good, !etter, !est, !ad, worse, worst. !d:ecti"es are placed before the noun. $hen there is more than one ad:ecti"e referred to the same noun the order is as follows9 -) S5E!)%$,! &-$n$&n': careful, naughty,... /) S$;! an" 6!$g7% &2 &%7!2 '5E!)%$,! &-$n$&n': small, wealthy... 8) Ag!: old, young... 6) S7a-!: round, square, oval... A) C&1&2: !lue, green, red, !rown 5) C&n%28 &2 &2$g$n: -erman... B) Ma%!2$a1: glass, leather, woollen... /. 0dverb. The main characteristic of an ad"erb is of morphological type9 most ad"erbs add the Lly suffix. They are formed by adding the Lly suffix to an ad:ecti"e. *yntactically# ad"erbs are characterised by two types of functions9 1C A",!25$a1 #n)%$&n. There are three different types of ad"erbial clauses9 a) a"En)%' (they are integrated in the sentence)9 "e usually go there. b) "$'En)%' (not integrated and used to express an opinion about what is being said)9 Honestly, I am tired. c) )&nEn)%' (not integrated and ha"e a connecting function)9 If you go on smoking, them, I am leaving. (C A"E!)%$,! an" a",!25 +&"$#$!2 The ad"erbs also admit to establish comparison relationship. The inflexion to form the comparati"e and superlati"e has the same characteristics as the ones already stated before9 well, !etter, !est 1 little, less, least 8. Preposition. They expresses the existing relation between two entities# being one of them the one represented by the prepositional complement. *emantically# they are di"ided into9 place# time# cause# instrument. ! prepositional phrase is composed of a preposition followed by a prepositional complement9 Preposition Prep. &omplement. at home There are '$+-1!# like at, in, for... and )&+-&n"# like in front of, along with... :. Pronoun. They substitute the noun. There are personal# reflexi"e# reciprocal# possessi"e# relati"e# interrogati"e# demonstrati"e uni"ersal (each# all# e"ery and its compounds# partiti"e and quantifying pronouns. ;. -he articles. $e must distinguish between specific reference article and generic reference article. The reference is specific when we refer to a specific element within a group9 ' man and two women are waiting outside. $hen we refer to the group to which the element belongs to# then the reference is generic9 ;he monkey is a funny animal. =. Pro!forms. $e shall refer to two subdi"isions9 - P2&n&n': they substitute the noun9 "e wrote 'rthur a letter S "e wrote him a letter. - P2&:,!25': they also substitute nominal clauses9 #ome home S #ome here. >. #uestion and negation. 1C Q!'%$&n. aC /7:@!'%$&n'. $ithin the category of substitutes there is a series of words forming a special class which substitutes certain parts of a sentence which may need explanation. These substitutes are9 which, when, why, where, who, whose and how. "ho writes her a letter every day? 5C Y!':n& @!'%$&n'. There are questions demanding an affirmati"e or negati"e answer with reference to a full sentence9 6id Dohn write her a letter? (C N!ga%$&n. 'ts use implies a full predicate negation with the operator and the negati"e ad"erb not# placed between the operator and the "erbal nucleus9 Dohn did not write her a letter. .. lementary communicative structures and progressive use of grammatical categories in oral and written productions. A% %7! '%ag! &# P2$+a28 E")a%$&n, )7$1"2!n 7a,! n&% 8!% a)@$2!" %7! )a-a)$%8 &# a5'%2a)%$&n. F&2 %7!+ %& 1!a2n a #&2!$gn 1angag! 6$11 5! %& )&++n$)a%! 6$%7 &%7!2 -!&-1! #&2 "$##!2!n% a$+'. /! +'% %a0! a",an%ag! &# %7$' )&n)!-%$&n an" g$,! -2$&2$%8 %& %7! )&n%!n% &# +!''ag!', %& %7! '$%a%$&n' an" %& %7! a)%$,$%$!' 67!2! %7! 1angag! $' -2!'!n% an" %7! 1angag! $' '!", +a0$ng %7! 1!a2n$ng &# g2a++a2 '&+!%7$ng 7$""!n. 'nteraction will make possible that in particular moments specific needs of certain structures# either new or more complex ones arise. Then# first of all# the student will be able to use non linguistic resources and when the latter are not sufficient# the pupils can ask their teacher so that he can gi"e them the appropriate mechanisms. 't is the teacher duty to design a series of acti"ities progressi"ely demanding more complex linguistic uses. !fter that# we may go through the following phases9 - In 62$%%!n -2&")%$&n: copying short messages and lists, writing daily sentences for dictation... - In &2a1 -2&")%$&n: descri!ing family and friends, referring to age, si3e, weight, hair colour, etc... ..+. -he place of grammar in language teaching and learning. These are the aspects of the teaching and learning of grammar categories9 TEAC9ING- LEARNING GRAMMAR CATEGORIES
FORM MEANING 4'*T&='=N +erception and recognition of the spoken form of the grammar categories. %omprehension of what the spoken grammar category means in context. *+&!K'=N +roduction of well1formed examples in speech. Tse of the grammar categories to con"ey meanings in speech. ,&!@'=N +erception and recognition of the written form. %omprehension of what the written grammar categories means in context $,'T'=N +roduction of well1formed examples in writing. Tse of grammar categories to con"ey meanings in writing. .... ?ule learning@ induction and explication. Nrammar rules may be acquired in either of two ways9 -) Through induction. 't is not possible to learn the rules of a language entirely through explication gi"en the current state of knowledge. The process of induction is one whose essence is learning through self1disco"ery. $e present our pupils with rele"ant language data and they# first# abstract a rule based on the presented data# and secondly# de"elop a basis for its application. /) Through explication. 4earning through explication requires two essentials9 - basic knowledge of the language of the explanation - ad"anced cogniti"e de"elopment The formal learning of grammar is not our ob:ecti"e when teaching &nglish to our pupils. $e want them to use grammar categories to impro"e their communicati"e competence. $e can do this using# for example# songs and stories# which can introduce our pupils to the grammatical patterns of &nglish in a natural and authentic way. ../. -he organi7ation of grammar teaching. $e can distinguish three stages9 - -2!'!n%a%$&n: the aim is to get the learners to percei"e the grammar categories in both speech and writing and to take it into short term memory. - )&n%2&11!" -2a)%$)!: the aim is to cause the learners to transfer what they know from short1term to long1term memory preparing them to use them for communication. - -2&")%$&n '%ag!: production or comprehension of meaning for some non1linguistic purpose# for some real1life purpose. There are some principles which definitely contribute to successful grammar learning and teaching9 -. P2!1!a2n$ng: familiari(e learners with the material# not to introduce it. /. V&1+! an" 2!-!%$%$&n: 4anguage structures are easily forgotten so our pupils need initial "olume to absorb them and follow1up repetition to maintain their knowledge. *. S))!'':&2$!n%a%$&n. 6. 3!%!2&g!n!$%8: The exercises ha"e different le"els of proficiency. A. T!a)7!2 a''$'%an)!: $e must support and assist our pupils in the production of acceptable responses rather that correct or assess them. 5. In%!2!'%: ! well1designed acti"ity must be interesting to our pupils. TEMA0!' !. I"TRO#$CCI>" 'a morfosinta$is ha sido el componente lingI5stico (ue ha go/ado de un ciera preminencia sobre los dem9s. ) la oraci7n "=e go to the bank", (ue contiene suficiente informaci7n l6$ica, le falta la morfosint9ctica correspondiente, por(ue no sabemos si el (ue la ha pronunciado o escrito se refiere a algo (ue va a hacer, o le gustar5a hacer, o ha hecho o debe hacer, o har5a, etc. #s decir, le falta la informaci7n morfosint9ctica (ue nos indi(ue las relaciones (ue e$isten en la cadena hablada entre las palabras, es decir, la concordancia, el r6gimen, la fle$i7n, etc. !referimos hablar de morfosinta$is, en ve/ de gram9tica, por las siguientes ra/ones: G. 'os l5mites del 9rea de estudio (ue abarca parecen estar m9s claros. H. 'a palabra gram9tica tradicionalmente tambi6n ha incluido otros sectores 2la prosodia, la ortograf5a, la sinta$is, etc.3. J. #n las teor5as lingI5sticas m9s recientes 2gram9tica transformacional*generativa de 4homsky, gram9tica de los casos de &illmore, etc.3, la pralabra "gram9tica" abarca tambi6n cuestiones sem9nticas. K. #n la lingI5stica, o en did9ctica del ingl6s, la palabra "gram9tica" se emplea para referirse a estructuras sint9cticas agrupadas en repertorios de tipo conceptual, como las llamadas "gram9tica funcional o nacional". !.!. E2EME"TOS ESE"CIA2ES #E MOR.OSI"TA?IS #E 2A 2E"6$A I"62ESA 'a morfosinta$is se mueve entre dos unidades: la mayor, llamada oraci7n, y la menor, morfema. #ntre ellas hay otras intermedias (ue ahora citaremos. !ero previamente precisaremos una distinci7n (ue se suele hacer en la lingI5stica entre oraci7n 2sentence3 y elocuci7n 2utterance3. Se conocen con el nombre de sentences las formas abstractas (ue constituyen el conocimiento (ue el hablante nativo tiene de su lengua 2langue3" y utterances son las reali/aciones concretas de esas formas. 4omo unidad de e$presi7n es la m9$ima en sinta$is, y por medio de ella manifestamos un 1uicio o pensamiento completo, estando constituida por un su1eto y un predicado, los cuales pueden ir e$pl5cito o t9citos. a3 'as cl9usulas o proposiciones son el t6rmino (ue se suele aplicar a las oraciones constitutivas de una oraci7n compuesta, en especial a las oraciones subordinadas. b3 'os sintagmas. Toda oraci7n simple consta te7ricamente, y, en principio, de dos sintagmas: el sintagma nominal, (ue cumple la funci7n de su1eto, y el sintagma verbal, (ue reali/a la funci7n de predicado. )hora bien, el predicado puede, a su ve/, tener alg8n sintagma nominal, (ue desempeLe cual(uiera de las funciones del nombre 2complemento directo, indirecto, etc.3. c3 'a frase. Tradicionalmente, las palabras frase y oraci7n han sido sin7nimos. )(u5 la empleamos en el sentido pr7$imo a frase adverbial o secuencia de palabras precedidas por una preposici7n: in the morning, with a hat, after lunch, etc. d3 'a palabra ha sido definida convencionalmente como sonido o con1unto de sonidos (ue e$presan una idea o representa una persona, animal o una cosa. e3 #l morfema es la unidad m5nima significativa. 4uando el significado es referencial estamos ante le$emas 2boy, cat, house, etc.3. 4uando el significado es gramatical 2"s" del plural o del genitivo sa17n, etc.3, estamos ante los morfemas llamados gramemas. !.'. E".O@$ES SOARE 2A MOR.OSI"TA?IS #n el estudio de la morfosinta$is se pueden detectar tres direcciones principales: la tradicional, la estructural y la generativa. #sto no (uiere decir (ue no haya m9s corrientes. 4ada cierto tiempo se acuLan nuevos t6rminos: gram9tica estratificacional, gram9tica sist6mica, gram9tica de los casos, etc. !ara nuestros intereses, nos es suficiente con las tres citadas. a3 'a gram9tica o morfosinta$is tradicional se basa en el lat5n como modelo de descripci7n, es prescriptiva o normativa y de car9cter mentalista, es decir, la definici7n de las partes de la oraci7n y sus relaciones se establecen de acuerdo con criterios sem9nticos. b3 'a gram9tica estructural es descriptiva en el sentido de (ue no trata de legislar sobre lo (ue se deber5a decir o sobre c7mo se debe usar la lengua" s7lo pretende describir hechos o pautas lingI5sticas, las llamadas patterns. #s antimentalista, ya (ue huye de criterios sem9nticos, pero es, en cambio, ta$on7mica y distributiva. #stos tres t6rminos 2pattern, ta$onom5a y distribuci7n3 son clave. 4on los dos 8ltimos nos referimos a la tendencia a buscar unidades o constituyentes de la oraci7n, de acuerdo con el comportamiento distributivo. )s5, en ingl6s, el ad1etivo es la palabra (ue se coloca entre el art5culo y el nombre y no acepta el morfema "s" de plural. #n realidad, en la morfosinta$is estructural no se habla de nombres, verbos, etc., sino de clase I, clase II, etc. 'as t6cnicas empleadas son la segmentaci7n y la sustituci7n. +ediante la sustituci7n intentamos reempla/ar la unidad (ue es ob1eto de nuestro estudio por otra, en el mismo conte$to, y si la sustituci7n se puede reali/ar sin cambios fundamentales en el conte$to, entonces decimos (ue la nueva unidad y la sustituida pertenecen a la misma clase. 'a teor5a de los constituyentes inmediatos de una oraci7n es una de las principales aportaciones del estructuralismo americano. #ste an9lisis ayud7 a revelar los principios por los (ue se organi/a lingI5sticamente la estructura de un mensa1e. !ara representar los constituyentes inmediatos se emplearon diversos tipos de cuadros y diagramas. =e a(u5 algunos: #1emplo G: ORACN SNTAGMA NOMNAL SNTAGMA VERBAL ARTCUL O FRASE NOMNAL VERBO FRASE PREPOSCONAL ADJETVO NOMBRE PREPOSC N PRONOMBRE The Old Man Looked at me #1emplo H: #l concepto de pattern practice se basa, por una parte, en el e1e paradigm9tico del lengua1e, y por otra, en las ca1as de los constituyentes inmediatos. c3 !ero para la gram9tica generativa, la morfosinta$is estructural es bidimensional o est9tica por(ue s7lo e$plica las relaciones (ue e$isten entre los constituyentes. 4homsky reconoce (ue esta gram9tica tiene algunos m6ritos, pero es escasa, insuficiente y con poca altura de miras, ya (ue no presta atenci7n a la producci7n e interpretaci7n de la oraci7n, (ue impl5citamente lleva a cabo todo hablante nativo. #s la gram9tica generativa la (ue aLade la tercera dimensi7n o proceso de generaci7n de las oraciones, por medio de las transformaciones. )un(ue son atractivos y originales los puntos aportados por la gram9tica transformacional*generativa, el 6nfasis se ha puesto en los procesos cognoscitivos del aprendi/a1e. !.(. 2A #I#BCTICA #E 2A MOR.OSI"TA?IS #n la gram9tica tradicional, la presentaci7n de la morfosinta$is se hace de un modo e$pl5cito y cognoscitivo. Se facilita una regla, seguida de e1emplo y de e1ercicios de aplicaci7n. !or e1emplo, "must" e$presa la obligaci7n ineludible" "should", el conse1o, etc. #n la estructural se tiende a restar importancia al aspecto te7rico, para centrarse lo antes posible en la creaci7n de h9bitos por medio de pattern practice 2pr9ctica con un modelo3, (ue consta de e1ercicios llamados drills, dirigidos a la automati/aci7n. .o obstante, conviene aclarar (ue se aplica este nombre tambi6n a e1ercicios (ue no contienen patterns. 'os defensores de los drills manifiestan (ue con ellos se consigue: a3 Superar las transferencias negativas de la lengua materna. b3 )utomati/ar la e$presi7n por medio de la generali/aci7n anal7gica. c3 &avorecer la "reorgani/aci7n cognoscitiva", creando la abstracci7n 2regla3 en el subcons*ciente, mediante las repeticiones constantes. '. ESTR$CT$RAS COM$"ICATICAS E2EME"TA2ES 'a finalidad curricular de esta 9rea es enseLar a nuestros alumnos a comunicarse en la lengua inglesa. #sto implica y e$plica (ue se adopte un enfo(ue basado en la comunicaci7n y orientado a la ad(uisici7n de una competencia comunicativa. #sta competencia, a su ve/, incluye diferentes subcompetencias como la competencia gramatical, o capacidad de poner en pr9ctica las unidades y reglas de funcionamiento del sistema de la lengua inglesa, y la competencia discursiva, o capacidad de utili/ar diferentes tipos de discurso y organi/arlos en funci7n de la situaci7n comunicativa y de los interlocutores. 'as estructuras comunicativas elementales (ue deben dominar los alumnos de !rimaria en lengua inglesa son las siguientes: '.!. #ES#E E2 %$"TO #E CISTA 6RAMATICA2 #s esencial desde este punto de vista el dominio de los siguientes puntos gramaticales: * !resente Simple de los verbos 2to be, have got3, thereMs, thereMre. * )rt5culos indefinidos 2a, an3. * .ombres plurales. * !ronombres personales y posesivos. * Cenitivo sa17n 2Ms3. * !roposiciones de lugar 2near, by, ne$t to, ...3, tiempo y distancia. * This0that0the. * Imperativos 2sit down, stand up, open the door, etc.3. * Some0any 2nombres contables e incontables3. * )dverbios de tiempo, frecuencia y lugar 2early, sometimes, there, etc.3. * "*ing" para actividades espec5ficas 2reading, swimming, etc.3. * !asado simple de los verbos. * !resente continuo con sentido futuro 2IMm going to 'ondon tomorrow, etc.3 * )d1etivos comparativos y superlativos 2estructuras de comparaci7n3. * !resente !erfecto 2I have gone to the doctor, etc.3. * Some0something en ofrecimientos 2"@o you like some coffeF", etc.3. * &uturo con "Will" 2IMll stay at home tomorrow", etc.3. * #structuras condicionales 2"If I go to 'ondon IMll buy a dress", etc.3. * 4an y Ne able to. * !osici7n de los adverbios de frecuencia, etc. * Secuenciaci7n y uni7n de palabras 2ne$os3 2and, both, but, etc.3. '.'. #ES#E E2 %$"TO #E CISTA .$"CIO"A2 @esde este punto de vista, los alumnos aprender9n a: * Saludarse y presentarse. * 4omen/ar una conversaci7n con una persona e$tran1era. * !articipar en conversaciones m9s largas. * @ecir adios. * @ar y pedir informaci7n 2edad, nombre, direcci7n3. * Identificarse a s5 mismos y a otras personas. * @escribir a las personas. * Solicitar (ue repitan algo (ue no se ha entendido bien. * !reguntar acerca de la salud de las personas. * @isculparse. * #$presar arrepentimiento. * @istinguir distintos niveles de formalidad. * @eletrear y contar los n8meros. * #$presar opiniones 2gustos y man5as3. * @ecir la hora. * #$presar una (ue1a. * #$presar educaci7n 2ser "polite" en una conversaci7n3. * @escribir ob1etos y lugares. * !reparar informaci7n acerca del idioma ingl6s. * :frecer cosas y responder a ofrecimientos de otras personas. * .arrar sucesos o eventos. * =acer la compra. * =acer preguntas en una agencia de via1es o solicitar informaci7n sobre via1es. * =acer una reserva en un hotel o un restaurante. * 4ambiar dinero en un banco. * 4omparar personas, cosas, situaciones, etc. * #specular. * =acer invitaciones y responder a invitaciones. * @escribir actividades, planes, hobbies, etc. * Telefonear a alguien. * )l(uilar una bicicleta, una casa, etc. * !edir prestado algo a algien. * #$presar desacuerdo o acuerdo y negociar con alguien. * %epetir las palabras de otra persona. * @ar permiso y no conocederlo a alguien para hacer algo. * +ostrar inter6s por algo o alguien. * !reguntar la opini7n de alguien sobre alguien. * !edir los platos en un bar, restaurante, etc. * =acer predicciones sobre el tiempo, etc. * )divinar acontecimientos, opiniones, etc. * =acer sugerencias. * #$presar simpat5a hacia algo o alguien. * @ar instrucciones de uso de alg8n ob1eto o de c7mo llegar a un sitio. * )conse1ar a alguien. * )dvertir a alguien. * )nunciar p8blicamente una opini7n. * !rotestar. '.(. #ES#E E2 %$"TO #E CISTA "OCIO"A2 @esde este punto de vista, los alumnos al finali/ar la etapa !rimaria habr9n aprendido: * 'os nombres de las personas, apellidos. * 'a edad. * #l estado civil. * #l origen y la nacionalidad. * 'as direcciones 2addresses3. * 'os empleos 21obs3. * 'a salud 2cuerpo humano3. * 'a familia 2los miembros (ue la componen y la relaci7n entre 6stos3. * 'a apariencia f5sica de personas, animales y cosas. * 'as relaciones entre las personas. * 'os n8meros y las letras. * 'os lugares. * 'os n8meros de tel6fono. * 'os muebles. * 'as casas, edificios, etc. * #l traba1o. * #l tiempo libre. * 'a comida y la bebida. * #l precio de algunas cosas. * Custos y mam9s. * !referencias. * 4osas comunes y diferentes entre ambas culturas. * @5as de la semana. * .8meros ordinales. * #l tiempo. * 'a posici7n relativa 2cerca, le1os, etc.3 de las personas, animales y cosas. * Cenerali/ar. * 4uantificar. * Craduar. * 'as rutinas. * 'os colores. * #l estado f5sico y emocional de las personas. * 'a ropa. * 'as tallas. * 'a historia de algunas personas. * 'a pobre/a y la ri(ue/a. * 'a felicidada y la infelicidad. * #l racismo. * 'a infancia. * 'a educaci7n. * 'as habilidaes personales y de otras personas. * 'as cualidades de las personas. * 'os pesos y medidas. * 'a personalidad propia y a1ena. * 'os meses y las estaciones del aLo. * #l clima. * !lanes futuros. * 'as vacaciones. * 'as similitudes y diferencias. * 'os contrastes. * #l tiempo pasado. * 'os deportes. * 'a m8sica. * #l cine y la televisi7n. * 'a lectura. * 'as m9(uinas. * 'os hor7scopos. * #l peligro. * 'os prop7sitos e intenciones. * #l futuro. (. $SO %RO6RESICO #E 2AS CATE6ORDAS 6RAMATICA2ES E" 2AS %RO#$CCIO"ES ORA2ES + ESCRITAS %ARA MEEORAR 2A COM$"ICACI>" Ona de las t6cnicas m9s aplicadas en la enseLan/a de una lengua e$tran1era es el uso de los denominados "drills" a la hora de practicar la morfosinta$is y aplicarla directamente tanto en e1ercicios orales como de e$presi7n escrita. (.!. 2OS #RI22S )lgunos de los principales "drills" utili/ados actualmente son los siguientes: G. %epetici7n: es el primer drill, o, al menos, el m9s conocido. #l profesor enuncia diferentes oraciones o e$presiones y los alumnos las repiten al ob1eto de asimilar su pronunciaci7n, el orden de las palabras, la entonaci7n, etc. H. Sustituci7n: @ada una estructura gramatical, el alumno se familiari/a con ella sustituyendo, dentro del mismo paradigma, una palabra por otra. ) este e1ercicio lo llamamos sustituci7n simple: #1emplo: ) book I buy a book ) car I buy a car ) comb I buy a comb, etc. 4uando cambiamos de paradigma dentro del mismo e1ercicio, estamos ante una sustituci7n m8ltiple: #1emplo: I I get up at seven eight I get up at eight +ary +ary gets up at eight we We get up at eight go to bed We go to bed at eight ten We go to bed at ten, etc. #n las sustituciones m8ltiples, normalmente hay (ue decir, cuando se dan las instrucciones, "introduciendo los cambios necesarios". !or e1emplo, en el e1ercicio anterior hemos tenido (ue aLadir el morfema "s" al presentar el su1eto "+ary". 'as palabras o elementos (ue han de ser sustituidos se pueden presentar oralmente, con realia, es decir, mostrando o seLalando los ob1etos reales, o con tar1etas, tambi6n conocidas con el nombre de "flash cards". J. Transformaci7n: #s un e1ercicio tradicional (ue consiste en pasar oraciones activas a pasivas, o de presente a pasado, o de afirmativas a negativas, o a la inversa, o ad1etivos atribuidos en predicativos. 2#1emplo: "The door is white" P "ItMs a white door"3, etc. Q Q )d1etivo )d1etivo atributivo predicativo #1emplo: +ary works in a bank @oes +ary work in a bankF !eter is a doctor Is !eter a doctorF Susan has got a new car =as Susan got a new carF ;ohn arrived last night @id ;ohn arrive last nightF #ste e1ercicio ha empleado distintos tiempos verbales y distintos tipos de verbos. 4omo es evidente, se puede hacer con un solo tiempo verbal o con un solo tipo de verbo. K. #$pansivo: #n este e1ercicio el alumno va ampliando una oraci7n inicial con los elementos (ue le facilita el profesor. Tambi6n se le llama a este e1ercicio "pir9mide". #1emplo: always: =e reads books =e always reads books #nglish: =e always reads #nglish books at night: =e always reads #nglish books at night. R. %educci7n: #1ercicio opuesto al anterior, tambi6n conocido con el nombre de "pir9mide invertida". #1emplo: She always gets up at seven and has breakfast has breakfast Se always gets up at seven at seven She always get up always She gets up S. %econstrucci7n: @ados unos elementos desordenados, el alumno debe darles el orden sint9ctico correcto, efectuando los cambios necesarios. #1emplo: To come, he, yesterday P =e came yesterday T. 4ontestar preguntas preparadas estructuralmente: #1emplo: Why donMt you payF 2loose my money3 * I donMt pay because I lost my money Why didnMt she comeF 2forget it3 * She didnMt come because she forgot it U. &ormular preguntas a respuestas dadas: #1emplo: I visit my grand parents very often * when did you visit themF I write to my friends very often * when did you write to themF V. Traducci7n inversa controlada: #ste e1ercicio es conveniente para practicar puntos gramaticales (ue son muy distintos de una lengua a otra. #1emplo: !uede (ue 6l venga P =e may come !uede (ue llueva P It may rain !uede (ue 2ella3 llame por tel6fono P She may call #studio desde hace un mes P IMve been studying for one month #stos e1ercicios o drills se pueden hacer m9s comple1os combinando sustituciones, transformaciones, e$pansiones, etc. 'o importante es dar las instrucciones bien claras y un e1emplo o modelo antes de cada pr9ctica. 4omo es evidente, la mayor5a de ellos se pueden hacer tanto oralmente como por escrito" es el maestro (uien debe decidir la conveniencia de un medio o del otro. ':S I.4:.#.I#.T#S @# ':S @%I''S: 'os drills tienen dos inconvenientes importantes. Si se usan en clase m9s de un tiempo prudencial, el inter6s y la motivaci7n decaen" el otro inconveniente es la situaci7n absurda en (ue se encuentran muchos alumnos, (ue, cuando se trata de manipular las estructuras en clase, lo hacen perfectamente, pero al pasar a situaciones reales cometen errores como "want you a cup of teaF" despu6s de haber practicado insistentemente la forma interrogativa del presente habitual con todo tipo de drills. !oco a poco, los drills se han ido acomodando a una posici7n m9s situacional y cognoscitiva por medio de la conte$tuali/aci7n. W esto es posible en el aula, ya (ue en ella hay personas reales, con un presente, un pasado y un futuro, con posesiones, anhelos, problemas, familia, etc. )dem9s, el ser humano es un animal curioso: le gusta enterarse de lo (ue hacen los dem9s. #s mucho m9s provechoso, por tanto, (ue las pr9cticas (ue se hagan sobre estructuras determinadas se relacionen directamente con la vida de los miembros de la clase. (.'. %RBCTICA CO"TE?T$A2IFA#A #E2 %RESE"TE CO"TI"$O Suponiendo (ue los alumnos ya hayan visto la estructura a trav6s de una presentaci7n por di9logo o te$to, (ue se les haya e$plicado su funci7n y sus variantes, y (ue se hayan puesto a su disposici7n unos cuantos verbos corrientes, como work, play, cook, drive, eat, drink, write, etc., se pueden seguir los siguientes pasos a fin de (ue los alumnos asimilen totalmente esta categor5a gramatical en ingl6s: a3 #l profesor hace un dibu1o en la pi/arra de su propio padre 2o esposa, madre, novia, etc.3. 'os alumnos le hacen preguntas: * Is your father working in his officeF * Is your father playing footballF * Is your father cooking lunchF * Is your father driving his carF )ntes de contestar, el profesor consulta su relo1. #sto indica claramente a los alumnos (ue se trata de ahora mismo. #ntonces contestar9 la verdad: * Wes, he is. * .o, he isnMt. * !robably. * !robably not. * !erhaps. b3 ) continuaci7n, se invita a un alumno a dibu1ar en la pi/arra a alg8n pariente suyo, y se repite el e1ercicio. 'a forma afirmativa puede practicarse si cada alumno piensa en un miembro de su familia y menta lo (ue probablemente est9 haciendo, teniendo en cuenta la hora (ue es: * +y father is probably working in the factory. * +y mother is probably watching T.. * +y sister is probably studying in the library. Tambi6n se puede decir lo (ue seguramente no est9n haciendo los miembros de su familia: * IMm sure my father isnMt dancing in a disco. * IMm sure my mother isnMt playing cards. * IMm sure my brother isnMt studying. #l 8nico problema (ue se presenta con este tipo de pr9ctica es el del vocabulario. 2"#s (ue mi hermana debe estar estudiando en la biblioteca. X47mo se dice "biblioteca"F3. .o es un problema grave" se le dice simplemente al alumno (ue pregunta (ue biblioteca es library. .o es necesario (ue toda la clase aprenda la palabra library, aun(ue muchos lo har9n por simple curiosidad" la necesidad s7lo ataLe al alumno (ue (uiere decir lo (ue est9 haciendo su hermana, y a los (ue (uieren entenderle. @e todas formas, es un error restringir en este nivel de !rimaria el vocabulario a "lo (ue poner el libro" por(ue los alumnos tienen siempre una curiosidad muy grande por saber palabras sueltas, y por(ue cada alumno tiene sus necesidades l6$icas, (ue para 6l ser9n vitales, aun(ue a otros les pare/can poco importantes. )dem9s, evita el uso constante del llamado "classroom vocabulary" *la ti/a, las sillas, las mesas, los bol5grafos" o del "te$tbook vocabulary" *los niLos, la nevera, el coche, la casa, etc.*. (.(. %RBCTICA CO"TE?T$A2IFA#A #E2 .$T$RO SIM%2E !ara practicar el futuro simple se presentan varias situaciones, ilustradas con dibu1os, acompaLadas de "promts" o vocabulario de apoyo, etc. 'os e1ercicios han sido diseLados para (ue haya traba1o individual y por pare1as. Tanto en 6ste como en otros e1ercicios (ue se pueden reali/ar, el maestro no debe olvidar (ue, aun(ue est6 prestando toda la atenci7n al componente morfosint9ctico, no se pueden descuidar ni la fonolog5a ni el vocabulario. Suponiendo (ue los alumnos ya se hayan familiari/ado con la estructura del futuro simple en ingl6s y (ue se les hayan e$plicado las funciones de 6ste, se pueden seguir los siguientes pasos: SIT$ACI>" !: a3 #l profesor presentar9 la situaci7n o conte$to. ") construction company is building a house for +r. #vans. They promised him a lot of thing for 4hristmas." put the roof0complete the kitchen0etc. b3 Traba1o individual: * What have the construction company promised they will do by 4hristmasF * They promised they will put the roof, they will complete the kitchen, etc. c3 Traba1o por pare1as: Wou are +r. #vans, and your friend is the manager of the construction company. Wou are impatient, and you are asking him (uestions with will you ..... by 4hristmasF * Will you put the roof by 4hristmasF Wes, we will. * Will you finish the kitchen by 4hristmasF Wes, we will, of course. SIT$ACI>" ': a3 #l profesro presentar9 la siguiente situaci7n: ")nthony ;ones is a young writer. =e wants to be very famous, he wants to do many things by the year HYYY". * become internationally famous 0 win the .obel pri/e 0 write more than JY novels 0 etc. b3 Traba1o individual: * What does )nthony think he will do by the year HYYYF * =e thinks he will be famous, he will write many books, etc. c3 Traba1o por pare1as: Wou are a television interviewer asking (uestions to )nthony ;ones. )sk him (uestions like: * )re you optimistic about your futureF Wes, I am very optimistic. * What will you do by the year HYYYF I will write many novels, I will win the .obel pri/e, etc. SIT$ACI>" (: a3 #l profesor presentar9 la situaci7n: "Neatrice Wood is pessimistic about the ecologial situation. She thinks we will do many terrible things by the end of the century". Eill all the whales 0 destroy the )ma/on forest 0 Eill fish 0 etc. b3 Traba1o individual: * What does Neatrice Wood think we will do by the end of the centuryF * She thinks we will kill all the whales and fish, etc. c3 Traba1o por pare1as: Wou are talking to Neatrice Wood. )sk her these (uestions: * What will happen to the whales by the end of the centuryF * What will happen to the )ma/on forestF * What will happen to the fishF Ny the end of the century we will kill the whales, fish and we will destroy the )ma/on forest. NIN'I:C%)&>) )'4)%)Z [ +::@W. 'a did9ctica del ingl6s. #d. )lhambra. +adrid. GVUH +.#.4. 4a1as ro1as para la %eforma. Brea de lenguas e$tran1eras. +adrid. GVVH N#'': y :T%:S. @id9ctica de las segundas lenguas. #d. Santillana 2)ula \\I3. +adrid. GVVH SW)+ [ W)'T#%. The new 4ambridge english course. 4.O.!. 4ambridge. GVVG TEMA 1* 3ISTORIA DE LA EVOLUCIN DIDXCTICA DE LAS LENGUAS EXTRANJERAS: DE LOS MRTODOS DE GRAMXTICA:TRADUCCIN A LOS ENFOQUES ACTUALES. LOS PRINCIPALES MRTODOS EN LA ENSE\ANSA DE IDIOMAS +. ' %A-9(9 1-?0(,&,9<0'2 &n la ense`an(a de idiomas# cualquier metodologJa que se presente o se imponga no debe entenderse como algo que surge casualmente o como un fenHmeno aislado. Toda metodologJa responde a una realidad comple:a# preexistente o concomitante a un con:unto de moti"aciones di"ersas# aunque siempre dentro de las coordenadas del pensar de una Kpoca. !ntes de empe(ar a hablar del mKtodo tradicional debemos puntuali(ar que el empleo de dicho tKrmino no es muy apropiado) estudiando la historia de la ense`an(a de las lenguas se constata inmediatamente# y como "eremos a continuaciHn# que no ha habido 0mKtodos tradicionales2sino que mGs bien los distintos mKtodos se han ido sucediendo o turnando. &n inglKs se ha utili(ado una denominaciHn mGs a:ustada a la realidad9 8mFtodo de gramUtica y traducciVn2# respondiendo asJ a las prGcticas mGs comunes y caracterJsticas del mencionado mKtodo. +or mFtodo tradicional, esquemati(ando y simplificando# podrJamos reducir el contenido de esta metodologJa a los siguientes puntos9 -. VisiHn normati"a y prescripti"a del lengua:e# como base sobre la que se asientan los contenidos que se ense`an. /. +redominio de un modelo de lengua:e deri"ado del legado escrito de autores 0consagrados2# es decir# encontraremos una lengua formal # correcta y relacionada con las corrientes puristas. 8. %on"encimiento y creencia (consciente o no) en el hecho de que los procesos lingIJsticos son procesos fundamentalmente lHgicos# adquiridos por deducciHn. &n consecuencia# se hace necesario aprender primero las reglas gramaticales) despuKs la aplicaciHn de tales reglas permitirG la formaciHn de frases y oraciones bien hechas# utili(ando lKxico "ariado en combinaciones distintas. 6. &l concepto de lengua oral yEo coloquial es sinHnimo de 0"ulgar2 de ba:o ni"el o calidad. =o solamente no se toma como modelo sino que incluso se debe e"itar en el uso y recha(ar como incorrecto. A. 4a memori(aciHn de reglas gramaticales por un lado y de largas listas de "ocabulario por otro# son los ob:eti"os prioritarios en una lecciHn del mKtodo tradicional. 5. 4a tKcnica de la traducciHn directa e in"ersa es la mGs ampliamente utili(ada en clase. B. &l "ocabulario utili(ado es el que me:or sir"a a la aplicaciHn de las reglas gramaticales# no necesariamente el que mGs se use en la comunicaciHn interpersonal. @esde el punto de "ista histHrico# parece lHgico asumir que el mKtodo tradicional habrJa sido difJcil de aplicar cuando la gramGtica no estaba clara o la conceptuali(aciHn gramatical no habJa alcan(ado un grado de desarrollo analJtico mJnimo. &n este sentido las aportaciones de los griegos# particularmente# 'ristVteles y 6ionisio ;racio fueron hitos importantes que permitieron acercarse mGs al estudio de las lenguas desde un punto de "ista analJtico. %on toda seguridad# en aquel entonces# las lenguas se aprendJan por contacto lingIJstico entre los hablantes# mediante la prGctica en el medio adecuado. !sJ el latJn se aprendia sobre todo mediante tutores que con"i"Jan con el educando# hablando ambos en esa lengua. &n siglos no le:anos# <ontaigne toda"Ja nos cuenta cHmo Kl aprendiH latJn con ese sistema# llegando a hablarlo con soltura y prontitud. &n el contexto que nos ocupa no podemos de:ar de lado el tema de la 0gramUtica especulativa2. 4os gramGticos de esta tendencia hablan de los aspectos lHgicos de la lengua mediante el estudio de la relaciHn lenguaje1mente4intelecto. Traba:an en la basqueda de elementos comunes a todas las lenguas# elementos que deben existir 1afirman1 puesto que la mente humana tambiKn tiene muchos elementos en coman y todo ello se debe refle:ar en los lengua:es naturales porque todos se fundamentan en la mente y son creaciHn del hombre. &ste hecho es de gran rele"ancia para entender el Knfasis dado a los aspectos gramaticales y normati"os# Knfasis que acaba instalGndose por largo tiempo en el pensar lingIJstico europeo. %omo consecuencia de este pensar aparece en el campo de la ense`an(a de idiomas lo que se podrJa llamar 8escuela austriaca9 con ,llendorf Gsiglo PIP$ primero# y #.lot3 despuKs . Fue en aquella corte prusiana en la que se desarrollH el mKtodo denominado 8tradicional9# dicho mKtodo se expandiH de forma excepcional por toda &uropa. 4os libros de 7llendorf para la ense`an(a de lenguas extran:eras alcan(aron gran difusiHn y se podrJan definir diciendo que en ellos es muy importante que la gramGtica constituya la parte mGs importante de la ense`an(a de la lenguas. +ero 7llendorf no descubre nada nue"o) que la ense`an(a y aprendi(a:e de las reglas gramaticales son el ingrediente fundamental sobre el cual los alumnos han de cifrar su atenciHn ya habJa sido centro de polKmicas en siglos anteriores. <uy ilustrati"a a este respecto es la discusiHn protagoni(ada por Brookes y "e!!e en 'nglaterra# en el siglo UV''. <ientras $ebbe# buscando la me:or manera de ense`ar latJn intentaba prescindir de toda gramGtica# rookes# defiende los esquemas de la ense`an(a tradicional. +ara el altimo resultaba escandaloso intenta aprender una lengua sin aprender la gramGtica. $ebbe# por su parte# trataba de demostrar que tambiKn era posible aprender mediante la experiencia y la repeticiHn de actos. Vol"iendo de nue"o a ,llendorf, "ale la pena estudiar mGs a fondo cHmo se estructura cada lecciHn de su mKtodo# puesto que durante muchos a`os no cambiH.&n el siglo UU #hubo un intento de cambio# aparecieron libros de texto con el tJtulo de 07llendorf reformado2# pero tales reformas fueron siempre mJnimas y no sustanciales. %omo decJa# en una lecciHn tJpica ollendorfiana encontrarJamos los siguientes apartados9 -. Tna lista de palabras en ambas lenguas encabe(ando la unidad) a "eces# en "e( de lista de palabras# se presenta una lista de frases que refle:an lo que posteriormente se "a a exponer en la regla gramatical. &:emplo9 &l palacio del rey The kings palace. &l :ardJn de la se`ora The ladys garden. /. *e enuncian a continuaciHn las reglas gramaticales (aunque a "eces pueden aparecer antes). &:emplo9 0FamGs se hace uso de este geniti"o con los ad:eti"os empleados sustanti"amente2 > se a`aden e:emplos para ilustrar la regla9 0 4a felicidad del mal"ado es pasa:era2. 0The happines of the wicked is but transitory2. 8. 4uego# se introducen las prGcticas9 e:ercicios de traducciHn directa e in"ersa# siempre tratando de que la regla expuesta anteriormente encuentre en la prGctica un refuer(o adecuado. &l lengua:e seleccionado por el autor nunca es arbitrario# de ahJ que el lengua:e resulte con"encional e irreal# en ningan momento se preocupan por reproducir un diGlogo normal. &:emplo9 0_Tiene su hi:o# papel para escribir un billete; =o# no lo tiene. 4a filosofJa de esta orientaciHn metodolHgica estG contenida en los prHlogos de diferentes autores que siguen a 7llendorf9 0*iempre el maestro comen(arG cada lecciHn llamando la atenciHn del alumno hacia los "ocablos de mayor importancia gramatical# y hacia las reglas que en cada lecciHn se encuentren2. &l mismo autor dice9 0%i se sigue este mFtodo sin acortarlo, garanti3o formalmente que no ha!rU discLpulo alguno, siempre que no sea im!Fcil o idiota, que deje de aprender !ien el inglFs2. *in embargo# es fGcil encontrar una notable falta de exactitud en la enunciaciHn de las reglas gramaticales# y en lo relati"o a la pronunciaciHn# las explicaciones curiosas abundan9 &:emplo9 Vocal 0eespecial2# que es preciso oJr a un inglKs. +or otro lado# los mKtodos de idiomas no deben estar desconectados de la realidad social en la que aparecen y se desarrollan. &n la actualidad# el mFtodo tradicional estG fuera de lugar# despla(ado y desfasado. > es natural que asJ sea# entre otras ra(ones# porque los estudios linguJsticos apuntan en otra direcciHn y porque la consideraciHn de quK es necesario en el aprendi(a:e de una segunda lengua ha cambiado sustancialmente. +ensemos# por e:emplo# en la primacJa de la lengua oral# fa"orecida actualmente por los medios de comunicaciHn# medios que facilitan el contacto entre las gentes y exigen incluso la necesidad de conocer una segunda lengua para poder entendernos en los frecuentes "ia:es. &n cuanto al mKtodo 0,llendorf reformado2encontramos algunas "ariantes. &=7T# por e:emplo# dice9 06ada la lecciVn, y enterado ya el alumno de todo lo mUs importante, no de!en oirse en la clase mUs pala!ras en espaWol que las advertencias que el profesor ju3gue necesario hacer2. &ste tipo de mKtodo presenta con frecuencia al inicio de cada lecciHn no listas de palabras aisladas sino frases o expresiones cortas que se refieren a las reglas gramaticales que se encuentran a continuaciHn. 4a palabra se presenta pues# dentro de un contexto (aunque a "eces sigue refle:ando un lengua:e artificial y for(ado). *al"o este incon"eniente# se a"an(H bastante con respecto al empleo del mFtodo tradicional que implicaba el uso casi exclusi"o de la lengua materna del alumno. ,ecordemos tambiKn que la ordenaciHn del material por lecciones y la estructuraciHn de las lecciones# en cuanto tales# tenJan una base y un fundamento gramatical. &n -?AD ..D. /ojas publicH un mKtodo para ense`ar inglKs a espa`oles# basado en el del doctor /o!ertson., @urante mucho tiempo se pretendiH ense`ar idiomas explanando teorJas# haciendo reglas y de:ando la aplicaciHn prGctica a la impericia o al capricho del discJpulo# sin embargo# mediante el mFtodo de /o!ertson se comen(aba a leer# a traducir# a escribir# a hablar# a adquirir conocimientos gramaticales desde la primera lecciHn (decJan)# pero la realidad no se a:ustaba a tales ob:eti"os) en la primera lecciHn se ofrecJa un texto de caracter histHrico y con un "ocabulario y sintaxis poco usual en la "ida cotidiana. asGndose en el texto# el autor# se`ala como se pronuncia cada palabra y cada sonido# se hace la "ersiHn literal y 0casti(a2# y# una y otra "e(# se hacen preguntas en castellano y se responden en inglKs para hacer entender el texto. 4uego se hace lo mismo en inglKs y castellano y# mGs adelante# siguen -B pGginas dedicadas a anali(ar la pronunciaciHn# la morfologJa y la sintaxis. &n este tipo de mKtodo encontramos variantes# pero no ruptura real con lo anterior. 4a ruptura reside mGs bien en la organi(aciHn del material9 no sigue ningan orden preestablecido como se hacJa en las gramGticas anteriores# ahora los textos que aparecen ademGs de ficticios son# generalmente# comple:os. ien es cierto que esa comple:idad es anali(ada en detalle y organi(adamente en las abundantes pGginas explicati"as que componen cada lecciHn. :,;' )I:' 7 B'':#0 a) &l imperio de la gramGtica. 4a insistencia de los aspectos gramaticales no deberJa# a pesar de todo# cifrarse exclusi"amente en el mKtodo tradicional. &l 8'rs -rammatica 8 de 6onato, contaba con una base didGctica importante# fue elaborada a modo de preguntas y respuestas. &n el siglo U'''# 'lejandro Cilledien escribiH tambiKn otra gramGtica con fines didGcticos. &sta insistencia tan pertina(# ya desde tiempos tan le:anos# nos re"ela al menos dos cosas9 -. Xue la gramGtica ha sido considerada siempre como bGsica en el estudio de las lenguas y del lengua:e. /. Xue si tanta importancia le ha sido dada por lingIJstas de todos los tiempos# las ra(ones deben haber sido serias. b) *obre el mKtodo tradicional. &s preciso e"aluar un mKtodo partiendo de los ob:eti"os que se propone y tratando de apreciar si los ha obtenido o no. &n este sentido# si el ob:eti"o del mKtodo tradicional era fundamentalmente aprender a leer y traducir una lengua extran:era# los resultados obtenidos con el mismo son considerablemente positi"os. &l aprendi(a:e del cHdigo gramatical# del "ocabulario y# por otro lado# los e:ercicios apuntaban a ello. %riticar este mKtodo diciendo que con Kl no se aprende a hablar# es distorsionar la realidad9 el mFtodo tradicional no pretende enseWar a ha!lar al alumno. ;ampoco tiene como o!jetivo el aprendi3aje de la lengua coloquial# ya que no lo considera correcto. &s la lengua literaria formal la que se erige en norma. &n cuanto al "ocabulario# diremos que con frecuencia se ofrece sin contexto# aisladamente# y el aprender "ocabulario fuera de contexto es un peligro para el que aprende. 4a traducciHn # estG supeditada a los puntos gramaticales que se trata de aprender. 4a consecuencia inmediata es la apariciHn de frases atJpicas. *in embargo# no estG demGs decir que los mismos ob:eti"os podrJan lograrse con frases que ofreciesen mayor naturalidad# extrayKndolas de contextos adecuados. =o ol"idemos# tampoco# que la memori(aciHn de reglas se exagerH excesi"amente# llegH a constituirse en fin# en "e( de ser un medio para lograr un fin. (. ' %A-9(9 (,?&-9 &n el siglo UV'' el gran didacta #,&0:I, publicaba su 0Ianua inguarum9# complemento de otro mKtodo "isual para la ense`an(a de las lenguas# 8,r!is %ensualium .ictus9. *in embargo# no fue una idea original suya# copiaba el tJtulo de un manuscrito de un :esuita irlandKs# B';H0, que en sus a`os de estancia y docencia en la Tni"ersidad de *alamanca# habJa escrito el primer Inaua inguarum. &n este libro escrito para aprender latJn# el autor habla "arias "eces de algo equi"alente al &Ftodo directo* 0 3asta el presente solamente se han desarrollado dos mKtodos para el aprendi(a:e de idiomas. *on el regular Ges decir, indirecto o gramUtica4traducciVn) y el irregular Go directo$# ampliamente usado por todos aquellos que aprenden idiomas mediante la prGctica oral y la lectura. &l primero de ellos consigue una mayor precisiHn# mientras que los segundos consiguen una mayor fluide( lingIJstica...2 +ero el mKtodo que hoy denominamos directo# encontrH su mGximo exponente# desde el punto de "ista de su di"ulgaciHn y concreti(aciHn en un libro de texto# en las obras y labor docente de &.6. B0/I;X. *u mKtodo es una amalgama de elementos de distinta Jndole# pro"enientes en parte de autores tan sobresalientes como %omenio y +estalo((i# y# en parte# resultado de una reacciHn frente al mKtodo mGs extendido hasta entonces# el tradicional. Berlit3 da como principios de su mKtodo los siguientes 9 -. !sociaciHn directa de la percepciHn y el pensamiento con la lengua y sonidos de la lengua que se aprende. /. Tso constante y exclusi"o de la lengua que se estG aprendiendo. > a partir de estos dos puntos cardinales# llega a conclusiones que definen y condicionan la metodologJa a seguir. &s fundamental la utili(aciHn de ob:etos reales para la ense`an(a de una lengua. &ste principio encuentra su origen en los 0realia2 aludidos en muchas obras de siglos pasados. #omenio ya decJa que las palabras no podJan ser aprendidas separadas de las cosas y .estalo33i (-B651-?B/)# habla del mFtodo natural. +ara Kl# el aprendi(a:e de una lengua es uno de los elementos cla"e de todo aprendi(a:e humano. &n su obra 6e cVmo -ertrudis enseWa a sus hijos# nos lega su filosofJa del aprendi(a:e referido a las lenguas. &n primer lugar# trata del aprendi(a:e de la lengua materna. &l proceso es 0natural2# influyendo de forma decisi"a la impresiHn por los sentidos# y dichas impresiones pro"ienen de experiencias exteriores# entre las cuales estGn los ob:etos. @ice que se debe buscar# en el proceso de aprendi(a:e# la aplicaciHn y la basqueda de estJmulos que ofre(can los ob:etos y cosas de las cuales suele estar rodeado el ni`o# y# utili(ar dichos ob:etos de formas di"ersas presentando al ni`o las sensaciones mGs "ariadas. 4a utili(aciHn de los ob:etos del mundo real# y la insistencia en el mKtodo natural# hacen que poco despuKs ). )rancke trate de explicar tal proceso aplicado a la ense`an(a de idiomas. 'ntenta de:ar claro que el proceso de %2a"))$<n utili(ado en la ense`an(a de idiomas es poco econHmico# porque sigue la lJnea eLE:LM:Cf# es decir# 1!nga !=%2anE!2a:1!nga +a%!2na: )&n)!-%&# cosa innecesaria# puesto que basta seguir la trayectoria 1!nga !=%2anE!2a: )&n)!-%&,eLE:Cf. *e puede aprender la palabra de la lengua extran:era relacionGndola con el ob:eto en cuestiHn. &s mGs#lo primero# dificulta el aprendi(a:e mGs que facilitarlo. %uando erlit( habla de 0leyes naturales2 en el proceso de aprendi(a:e# a`ade a lo dicho por +estalo((i que el ni`o al aprender la lengua materna# no aprende gramGtica# ni reglas# ni nada seme:ante y es capa( de hablar una lengua . !demGs# su aprendi(a:e es mGs seguro y efica(. *in embargo hay que tener en cuenta que el aprendi(a:e de la lengua materna es diferente al de una lengua extran:era9 -. !l aprender la lengua materna# el ni`o no dispone de otro medio lingIJstico de comunicaciHn. /. !prende una lengua por primera "e(. 8. 4a lengua que aprende le es "ital para poder comunicarse con lo que le rodea y con aquellos con quienes con"i"e a diario. 6. Vi"e hora tras hora en un contexto lingIJstico apropiado para aprender el idioma que usa# sin nada que se lo impida y con todo a su fa"or. +estalo((i exprime el tema al ampliarlo al mundo de los adultos) dice que no se puede comparar el aprendi(a:e del ni`o y del adulto porque a la hora de aprender una lengua extran:era# el adulto estG me:or equipado al poseer un sistema y estar habituado ya a establecer relaciones ob:eto1pensamiento1palabras. <ientras# el ni`o ha de empe(ar por lo mGs elemental9 la captaciHn e identificaciHn del ob:eto en cuanto a tal (e"identemente se refiere a ni`os muy peque`os). %ercano a +estalo((i y a sus seguidores# estG -,AI:# quien basa su metodologJa en la obser"aciHn de cHmo aprende el ni`o9 :ugando# comentando# preguntando y relacionando significado# acciHn y palabras ( con el consiguiente Knfasis en las formas "erbales# que el autor resalta expresamente en el margen derecho de la situaciHn en que se desen"uel"en sus unidades didGcticas). &n realidad# este mKtodo que nos ocupa estG enfocado al aprendi(a:e de una lengua extran:era por adultos# y sus defensores lo que quisieron fue encontrar un paralelo con el proceso de aprendi(a:e de la lengua materna de un ni`o. +ero dicho paralelismo era sHlo parcial porque9 !1 &l ni`o estG adquiriendo el lengua:e y una lengua concreta. 1 &l adulto tiene una capacidad de lengua:e bien o suficientemente desarrollada. TambiKn posee una primera lengua ya adquirida. !1 &l ni`o tiene muchas horas para aprender# dJas# meses# a`os... 1 &l adulto busca economJa en el tiempo# aprender lo mGximo en el mJnimo espacio de tiempo posible. !1 &l ni`o estG inmerso en el ambiente lingIJstico que aprende. 1 &l adulto no# a no ser que estK "i"iendo en un paJs extran:ero donde se hable la lengua en cuestiHn. !1 &l ni`o no estG condicionado por otro sistema de comunicaciHn. 1 &l adulto sJ. !demGs los habitos lingIJsticos pesan y se interfieren. !1 &l ni`o "a adquiriendo a lo largo de los a`os su capacidad de abstracciHn. 1 &l adulto ya ha dado esos pasos. &n consecuencia# el sentido que las reglas gramaticales tienen para el ni`o y para el adulto es diferente. +ara el adulto la abstracciHn de las reglas gramaticales no es nada nue"o# generalmente# pueden ayudarle en su aprendi(a:e y qui(G las exi:a porque estG habituado a ellas. &n el otro caso# el del ni`o# la explicaciHn y presencia de reglas puede llegar a ser contraproducente si no se aplica un buen criterio y metodologJa. @ebemos pensar tambiKn que la abstracciHn de las reglas gramaticales ayuda a desarrollar la capacidad intelectual y abstractora del ni`o# precisamente dos pilares bGsicos en el aprendi(a:e de un idioma. Vol"iendo de nue"o con erlit(# a`adamos algunas de sus palabras# decJa que con su mKtodo se aprende 0como si se estuviese en el paLs en que se ha!la el idioma2. +ero tal comparaciHn no se da ni en el me:or de los casos# falla la premisa fundamental# el que aprende permaneciendo en su paJs de origen# estudia dos# tres# cuatro# seis u ocho horas diarias# dificilmente mGs. &l resto del dJa se sumerge de nue"o en el ambiente que le es propio# escucha la tele"isiHn# la radio# lee...en su idioma nati"o. &n cambio el que reside en el paJs de la lengua que estG aprendiendo tiene otra composiciHn mucho mGs fa"orable. +ara empe(ar tiene que aprender el nue"o cHdigo de comunicaciHn para sobre"i"ir# integrarse...#aprende la lengua todo el dJa# t"# radio# traba:o... &V!4T!%'W= @&4 <^T7@7 @',&%T7 &n lJneas generales los defensores del <Ktodo directo se oponen a la explicaciHn de las reglas gramaticales y la traducciHn en una clase de lengua extran:era. +retenden la asociaciHn ob:eto1palabra. +ero bien pensado el alcance de este resorte es mGs bien reducido9 los ob:etos que se pueden lle"ar al aula no son muchos# en tal momento tenemos el recurso de los dibu:os. &s el recurso ya preconi(ado por %omenio9 0podemos recorrer la sel"a sin salir de nuestra aula2# aunque la "ariante es que se utili(a la imagen# no el ob:eto real. Frente a lo ofrecido por los mKtodos tradicionales# basados en la gramGtica y traducciHn# este mKtodo representa una alternati"a totalmente opuesta9 ausencia de gramGtica# ausencia1 en los primeros ni"eles al menos1 de textos literarios# ausencia de listas iniciales de palabras a las cuales se habJan de aplicar las reglas gramaticales. &n contrapartida se ofrece la lengua 0 tal cual se habla 0 en la "ida diaria# y el inmediato uso de la misma en situaciones de interacciHn comunicati"a a ni"el oral. !l alumno se le ofrece la lengua sin anali(ar# se espera de Kl un aprendi(a:e por inducciHn# de la misma manera que aprendiH su primera lengua# por exposiciHn a la misma y uso de ella. &l profesor del <Ktodo @irecto suple la traducciHn mediante el uso de ob:etos# mJmica o similares. +ero este procedimiento en sJ inocuo# encierra muchos peligros. *obre todo el peligro de que el alumno no capte el significado correcto y aprenda un error que si no se soluciona lo repita siempre y pueda ser el origen de una cadena de errores o de acumulaciHn de deficiencias. +or otro lado# a medida que a"an(a el ni"el # las frases sencillas de la "ida cotidiana "an de:ando paso a otras mGs comple:as# que seguramente requerirGn un anGlisis mGs detallado# incluyendo las explicaciones gramaticales. %on el <Ktodo @irecto se intenta sumergir al alumno desde el principio en el contexto de la lengua que aprende# pero no cabe esperar que esa inmersiHn sea del mismo calibre que la del ni`o que aprende su primera lengua. &l hGbito de pensar en el idioma que se aprende es un ob:eti"o primordial. @e hecho una "e( logrado eso# ya se puede decir que en "erdad se ha llegado a un pleno dominio de esa lengua. +ero es un ob:eti"o difJcil de alcan(ar y muy pocos lo logran. %on este mKtodo se supone que al utili(ar siempre la lengua que se aprende se facilita tal ob:eti"o. %ontrastando esto con el mKtodo tradicional el cambio de Knfasis y direccionalidad es muy notable. @esde el punto de "ista de el profesorado# el profesor del &Ftodo 6irecto ha de tener dos cualidades sobresalientes9 -. 3ablar muy bien la lengua que ense`a y desen"ol"erse en ella con agilidad y facilidad. /. *er acti"o en la clase. &n cuanto a lo primero# uno de los moti"os del fracaso inicial de dicho mKtodo fue la carencia de personal docente preparado. *in el excelente conocimiento de la lengua a ense`ar es imposible lle"ar la clase# es mGs# es muy difJcil que el profesor transmita al alumno una creati"idad en la lengua que ense`a cuando Kl mismo carece de ella. ,eferente al segundo punto# al ser una metodologJa acti"a se necesitan profesores con temperamento acti"o# de lo contrario no podrJan lle"ar este tipo de clases con desen"oltura.
/. ' %A-9(9 0B(,9!9?0' &sta nue"a orientaciHn se debe principalmente a los estudios lingIJsticos y al nacimiento fuerte y pu:ante de la lingIJstica como ciencia ampliamente aceptada. > tambiKn a las ya establecidas crJticas contra el empleo excesi"o de la gramGtica en la clase de idiomas. &n el siglo UV' u!inus ya consideraba esta prGctica como contraria al sentido coman) en el s. U'U# tambiKn se decJa que los 0mKtodos antiguos tenJan el incon"eniente de atribuir sobrada importancia a la gramGtica# sin de:ar paso al la prGctica# exponiendo al que aprende a que quede para siempre imposibilitado de hablar y escribir la lengua extra:era con genuinos giros# con franca propiedad# a trueque de haber logrado escribir o hablar sin faltas gramaticales. %on el &Ftodo audio4oral# no estamos ante nada realmente nue"o# sigue esta lJnea# es decir# fueron profesionales de la ense`an(a de idiomas del siglo U'U los que dieron el primer paso. &n nuestros dJas# tenderJamos a asumir que cualquier mKtodo del siglo U'U deberJa caer dentro del denominador coman de 0mKtodo tradicional2. *in embargo# existJan mKtodos como el del se`or 'A%'% o el se`or /,B0/;%,: que lo criticaban. +ero tambiKn en estos a`os se dieron reacciones de signo totalmente opuesto a las ideas de 4lausas. ! Kl se opone el mKtodo D'#,;,; # quien opina que todos esos mKtodos que estaban in"adiendo &uropa y !mKrica tienen defectos capitales al desterrar todo estudio gramatical y fiar a la prGctica# hecha sin plan ni gradaciHn# el conocimiento de un idioma extran:ero. 4a metodologLa audio4oral , intentarG a"an(ar en el campo de la ense`an(a de idiomas. Fue un mKtodo muy circusncrito a los &stados Tnidos de !mKrica# Gaudiolingual method$, particularmente desarrollado y e+tendido por la Aniversidad de &ichigan . *u base principal se encuentra en la lingIJstica# en el estructuralismo. ! ello se aa`aden elementos tomados de la psicologLa aplicada # especialmente del conductismo skinneriano . 4os lingIJstas estructuralistas# aplicando los criterios de la ob:eti"idad cientJfica en boga# estudiaron la lengua desde un punto de "ista descripti"o. =o se pretendJa acomodar la realidad de la lengua a moldes o reglas preconcebidas a las cuales el hablante se deberJa a:ustar. &l proceso era in"erso9 se estudiaba el sistema de una lengua para tratar de describir su comportamiento) de ahJ podJan establecerse despuKs estructuras o 0comportamientos lingIJsticos2. *e estudiaba la lengua tal cual era en la prGctica de los hablantes de cada dJa. &l cambio de orientaciHn es radical# 0 la lengua es como es y no como alguien piense que debe ser2 acostumbran a decir algunos lingIJstas. &n consecuencia# se aceptan palabras y estructuras que anteriormente eran consideradas incorrectas y se admiten construcciones que en a`os anteriores habrJan herido a muchos puristas. *e amplJan los hori(ontes de lo 0aceptable2 a todos los ni"eles9 pronunciaciHn# morfologJa y sintaxis. 4a norma lingIJstica "endrG dada no por grupos selectos o Klites# sino por el con:unto de hablantes de cada lengua. %on ello se admite que no hay norma lingYLstica inmortal y dogmUtica) las normas pueden ser cambiantes si asJ lo admiten los hablantes en la prGctica real de la lengua. &sta nue"a "isiHn darG lugar a nue"os libros de texto en los que no se explicarGn o expondrGn reglas a las que se ha de a:ustar algo# sino que se expondrG la lengua tal cual se da en la prGctica oral y escrita. *erGn muy apreciados los estudios contrasti"os para mostrarle al alumno quK se aseme:a o quK es diferente entre la lengua que aprende y su lengua materna. &"identemente# estos estudios estGn reali(ados a un ni"el de estructuras superficiales# fGcilmente ob:eti"ables# puesto que en esta Kpoca lo ob:eti"o era lo que se admitJa como "Glido desde un punto de "ista cientJfico. !demGs si la lengua era uso# no tenJa por quK basarse exclusi"amente en la gramGtica o en el texto literario# habJa que aprender ( y ense`ar) la lengua tal cual era usada# la lengua ha!lada. ! esto se unJa la necesidad o el afGn de comunicarse oralmente en otra lengua (afGn que no es gratuito9 las confrontaciones bKlicas lo habJan hecho importante# al igual que los nue"os medios de comunicaciHn). 4a lengua hablada se con"ierte asJ en el ob:eti"o prioritario de la ense`an(a# ob:eti"o que coincide plenamente con el de los estudios de los lingIJstas. 3ay otro elemento que apunta tambiKn en esta direcciHn9 la creencia de que la lengua hablada es la primera modalidad de lengua que todos aprendemos cuando nacemos y que# en consecuencia# este proceder en el proceso de aprendi(a:e# es el mismo que ha de seguirse al adquirir una segunda lengua. @e aquJ deri"a el eslogan2 .rimero la lengua ha!lada, luego la escrita2. 3ay que apuntar que de esta forma se reaccionaba contra la prGctica predominante de las escuelas en las que la lengua escrita era la anica protagonista. &n la prGctica# y con la ayuda de los poderosos medios de comunicaciHn# surgieron algunos lemas que acabaron por con"ertirse en dogmas para muchos profesore. &l lingIJsta ". &oulton enunciaba asJ los principales puntos de la nue"a metodologJa9 -. 4a lengua es la lengua oral# no la escrita. /. 4a lengua es el resultado de un con:unto de hGbitos. 8. 3ay que ense`ar la lengua# no algo sobre la lengua. 6. 4a lengua es lo que hablan los hablantes nati"os de la misma. A. 4as lenguas son diferentes. &l segundo principio# estG estrechamente relacionado con los principios skinnerianos de conductismo o !ehaviorismo. *egan %kinner# la lengua es la consolidaciHn de un con:unto de hGbitos lingIJsticos. 7pina que la lengua es un hGbito porque es un con:unto de destre(as y habilidades y# en consecuencia# se adquirirG mediante la repeticiHn de aquellos elementos que constituyan el sistema lingIJstico ( en este caso# el "ocabulario y las estructuras lingIJsticas). &sa fue precisamente la tarea de los lingIJstas estructuralistas. +or otro lado# aceptando que *kinner tenJa ra(Hn# solamente era preciso que el alumno repitiese# practicando una y otra "e(# los mismos modelos y las mismas estructuras9 el E hombreEcomeEpan. el Eni`o EdaE limosna. laEni`aEpideE agua. *on frases que tienen la misma estructura# y# sus distintos elementos desempe`an la misma funciHn. <Gs aan9 los elementos que desempe`an la misma funciHn pueden ser sustituidos por otros equi"alentes sin que la estructura cambie. !sJ# Oel hombre2puede ser cambiado por Ola mu:erO# Ola ni`aO... 4a conclusiHn que se "a a extraer con relaciHn a la ense`an(a es que# aprendiendo la estructura# el discente serG capa( de aplicarla en cualquier otro caso solamente mediante el cam!io de unos elementos por otros funcionalmente iguales# que a su "e(# tambiKn serGn sustituibles por otros equi"alentes. &n esta premisa se basan los e:ercicios de repeticiHn mecGnica y los e:ercicios de laboratorio. +ero de nue"o# sobre la no"edad de este proceder es preciso hacer algunas obser"aciones9 la repeticiHn de frases y estructuras es un elemento beneficioso para el aprendi(a:e de idiomas# este principio ya lo habJa aplicado anteriormente 0rasmo en sus #olloquia) Brookes en la 'nglaterra del siglo UV''...# y por estar mGs estrechamente relacionado con los procedimientos del mKtodo audio1oral# merece la pena citar a ;h. .rendergast y su &astery %istem (-?BD). +rendergast habJa obser"ado cHmo los ni`os aprendJan repitiendo una y otra "e( estructuras que les llamaban la atenciHn# entreteniKndose con ellas y utili(ando cuanto "ocabulario les era posible utili(ar. &n tales obser"aciones patentH su mKtodo. =o habJa gramGtica# pero sJ un sistema graduado con el fin de adquirir progresi"amente hGbitos linguJsticos. %on una tabla en la que aparecen elementos diferentes# con:ugados entre ellos de maltiples y posibles formas# el namero de combinaciones es impresionante9 $hy did you not ask him to come with two or three of his friends to see my brotherPs gardens; %ome to my brotherPs withE three of his friendsE to see his gardens. %ome whitEtwo or three of his friendPsE to my garden. !sk my three friends Eto come toE my friendPs garden. ... ... ... ... y asJ sucesi"amente. @e todos modos# el supuesto# tanto de +rendergast como de los defensores del audio1oralismo mGs tarde# no es plenamente sostenible# aunque a primera "ista pueda parecer asJ. &s "erdad que cuando el ni`o aprende una lengua repite lo que escucha# pero el hablante ademGs de ser capa( de repetir lo que escucha# crea constantemente estrucuturas que no habJa practicado antes. 7tro punto a anali(ar es el siguiente9 las estructuras lingIJsticas a que se refieren los del mKtodo audio1oral han de estar basadas en el uso real de la lengua# sin embargo# topamos de nue"o con una contradicciHn metodolHgica. =ada mGs re`ido con la lengua coloquial que los e:ercicios mecGnicos o estructurales del cari( siguiente9 1 @Hnde estGn los estudiantes;Elos chicos;E las cerillas;E... 1 &stGn en la claseE en el armarioE en el suelo... ! pesar de que se diga que este tipo de e:ercicio se reali(a para consolidar la estructura# dicha estructura no se consolidarG realmente porque el alumno fuera de ese contexto no sabrG o no serG capa( de producir o generar frases diferentes de las que le fueron inculcadas en los e:ercicios de mecani(aciHn. Todo lo humano es mGs comple:o y por eso la reducciHn del lengua:e a esquemas simples# fi:os y mane:ables de manera mecGnica no da resultados Hptimos. 4a repeticiHn como tKcnica se torna en arma arro:adi(a cuando se con"ierte en tKcnica casi exclusi"a. > esto es asJ porque la creati"idad# que forma parte del uso de la lengua por cualquier hablante#queda totalmente anulada y excluida. &n general# hemos de partir de la base de que cualquier tKcnica utili(ada debe reunir dos requisitos bGsicos9 ser eficiente y favorecer la motivaciVn del alumno. Tna tKcnica no serG todo lo efica( que se desea si no moti"a al alumno. @e otro lado# un alumno bien moti"ado# "erG entorpecido su aprendi(a:e si las tKcnicas utili(adas no son adecuadas. > es precisamente en este sentido en el que el mKtodo audio1oral difJcilmente podrG moti"ar a muchos alumnos debido a los e:ercicios de repeticiHn mecGnica. *uponJan sesiones demasiado largas en las que se repetJan machaconamente determinadas estructuras# se sobrepasaba con frecuencia la capacidad de retenciHn de la mente humana porque normalmente despuKs de "einte minutos ya no suele ser biolHgicamente capa( de mantener una atenciHn intensa. 4as sesiones de laboratorio solJan durar una hora. &l primer contacto de una clase con el mKtodo audio1oral solJa ser muy positi"o y hasta altamente moti"ador para el alumno9 Kste entraba en el aula y se "eJa enfrentado de inmediato con la lengua que querJa aprender) desde el principio se usaban palabras atiles# estructuras sencillas y relacionadas con la "ida diaria) no se empleaba la lengua materna del alumno y la gramGtica ni se mencionaba. +ero no era un mKtodo milagroso y de hecho era frecuente comprobar que a partir de las -D H -A primeras horas de clase# algunos alumnos ya no seguJan el ritmo de la clase y se sentJan perdidos. %on frecuencia no sabJan por quK hacJan lo que hacJan y# lo que es mGs gra"e# no entendJan lo que repetJan. +or tanto# la perfecta gradaciHn y estudio del material que les era ofrecido de poco les ser"Ja# ya que no lo asimilaban de forma efica(. 7tro de los principios de este mKtodo es que se enseWe la lengua y 8no algo so!re la lengua9 . *e trata de e"itar la insistencia en las explicaciones de tipo gramatical# pero _+or quK ha de existir una contradicciHn entre ense`ar la lengua y dar informaciHn analJtica de la misma; 4os ni`os no suelen aprender mediante explicaciones analJticas sobre la lengua 1se dice1 y sin embargo# la aprenden. +ero el ni`o# aunque empie(a aprendiendo la lengua en el entorno familiar# despuKs recibe el complemento y la ayuda proporcionada por la educaciHn estatal# entre cuyos ob:eti"os se encuentra el perfeccionamiento del lengua:e. +or otro lado# el conocimiento de las normas gramaticales sir"e de gran ayuda a la hora de aprender un segundo idioma. =o hay pues oposiciHn# sino complementariedad. &l cuarto principio 0 la lengua es lo que ha!lan los nativos 0# es un principio que deri"a# con toda lHgica# de las bases en que se fundamenta el estructuralismo. &l sistema lingIJstico es fruto del con:unto de hablantes que lo usan como sistema de comunicaciHn) pero constituye igualmente# un entramado o cHdigo al cual todos los ha!lantes de!en a su ve3 sujetarse. *in este requisito# la arbitrariedad de cada hablante conducirJa a un caos# a una carencia total de comunicaciHn por desconocer el cHdigo del otro. &l hablante# pues# no es autHnomo respecto a la lengua porque tiene reglas y entre otras# el significante ha de significar lo mismo para el hablante y el oyente. 4os indi"iduos somos su:etos y ob:eto de un todo coherente que hemos creado entre todos# y# ese todo es anali(able# abstracto# pero sometido a unas normas que hay que respetar. &ste mKtodo aporta una no"edad sin precedentes y es que nunca se habJa dado una liga(Hn tan estrecha entre lingIJstas y profesores de idiomas . 4os primeros se apoyan en los segundos para lle"ar a la prGctica unos principios determinados) y los profesores "en en las teorJas de los lingIJstas la 0sal"aciHn2 a muchos de sus problemas en el aula. &sta fraternidad no durH mucho tiempo y el lingIJsta acabarG defendiKndose# cobi:Gndose en su teorJa# aduciendo que Kl no estudia lo que pasa en la clase o cHmo se ha de aplicar su teorJa a la prGctica. #homsky consolidarG esta posiciHn en -.5? ante un millar de profesores de idiomas congregados para oJrle. 4a la lingIJstica# sin embargo# con o sin pretensiHn ha aportado muchos puntos positi"os a la ense`an(a de idiomas# entre ellos9 1 la insistencia en la necesidad de que el profesor estK me:or preparado profesionalmente) 1 la mayor concienciaciHn del mismo en su traba:o) 1 la aplicaciHn de nue"as tKcnicas en la clase) 1 una in"estigaciHn mGs intensa en torno al tema metodolHgico) 1 la discusiHn y populari(aciHn del tema de la ense`an(a de las lenguas extran:eras. 8. '9" %A-9(9" 9 -A&<,&0" 0B(,9V,"B0'". 4os mKtodos audio"isuales tienen como punto de partida mGs prHximo la metodologJa audio1 oral. +ero# si nos ale:amos en el tiempo# los elementos "isuales tambiKn aparecen en la ense`an(a de idiomas de hace tiempo. 4os chinos los usaron y en 7ccidente# el ,enacimiento ofrece testimonios consistentes en este sentido. &s #omenio en el siglo UV''# quien ofrece por "e( primera una obra en la que los elementos "isuales estGn presentes lecciHn por lecciHn y coordinados con los elementos lingIJsticos. &n su ,r!is %ensualium .ictus (-5A6)# cada lecciHn o secciHn estG encabe(ada por un dibu:o y los tKrminos lKxicos "an se`alados con nameros que se corresponden con los ob:etos# animales o personas presentes en los dibu:os. !sJ# %omenio ponJa en prGctica su con"encimiento de que en el aprendi(a:e han de participar todos los sentidos o tantos cuantos sea posible utili(ar. &l libro supone una "erdadera inno"aciHn. +ero el coste econHmico de la impresiHn debJa ser toda"Ja un importante obstGculo para continuar por tal camino. Hoole maestro de inglKs de aquel entonces# se que:aba precisamente de que el libro de %omenio era demasiado caro para ser accesible a la clase. !ntes de %omenio ya otros habJan sugerido la con"eniencia de utili(ar grabados baratos (Cossius, gramUtico holandFs del siglo PCI$, asJ los alumnos podrJan aprender los nombres de las cosas sin tener que recurrir a la lengua materna (traducciHn). &sta idea era uno de los ob:eti"os fundamentales de la utili(aciHn de mKtodos audio"isuales. *e dice# en efecto# que con la imagen el alumno podrG prescindir de su lengua nati"a porque asociarG inmediatamente el ob:eto con la palabra correspondiente y e"itarG pasar por el intermediario ahorrando tiempo en el aprendi(a:e. *in lugar a dudas# la in"enciHn de la imprenta es el principal elemento no"edoso que facilita el uso de elementos "isuales en la docencia. 4o que antes tenJa que dibu:arse en carteles murales o pi(arras# se reproducJa fGcilmente por medio de la imprenta. ># aunque en un principio era en blanco y negro# las facilidades fueron considerables en relaciHn con lo que existJa anteriormente. Xue %omenio publicase todo un libro con dibu:os para ense`ar latJn fue el inicio de lo que ocurrirJa despuKs y siempre estarJa presente hasta nuestros dJas. +odrJamos decir que los medios audio"isuales se populari(aron por "arias ra(ones9el simple hecho de que inter"enga un sentido mGs# la "ista# es positi"o por sJ mismo) se sustituye el empleo de la lengua materna por la representaciHn pictHrica del ob:eto# y# no ol"idemos que a tra"Ks de las imGgenes se pueden ofrecer materiales mucho mGs atracti"os# moti"antes para el alumno al refor(ar su atenciHn y predisponerlo para que en su con:unto la clase sea mGs agradable y apetecible a la "ista. &n el siglo UU la utili(aciHn de la imagen no sHlo se ha enriquecido en ra(Hn de las posibilidades tKcnicas que estGn a nuestro alcance#sino que tambiKn se ha profundi(ado en su uso. &n este campo hay que destacar lo reali(ado en Francia# especialmente en la escuela de %t. #loud, donde se insistJa en la utili(aciHn de la imagen como sugeridora de un contexto global. %ada elemento se considera estrechamente unido a otros elementos# formando con:untos o estructuras interrelacionadas. +or un lado# los elementos indi"iduales conducen a un todo# y por otro# ese todo es anali(able y conducente a cada uno de los elementos indi"iduales. &n realidad# lo que se hacJa era seguir las pautas del estructuralismo en cuanto que este mo"imiento considera!a el lenguaje como un conjunto de estructuras jerUrquicamente interdependientes. *e parte# por tanto# de un todo concebido globalmente. *e entiende mediante la memori(aciHn y se memori(a mediante la repeticiHn y posterior anGlisis de las partes. ^ste era el mKtodo ya propuesto anteriormente por Dacotot (-BBD1-?6D)# quien afirmaba9 0Il faut apprendre quelque chose et y rapporter tout le reste2 (03ay que aprender algo relacionGndolo con el resto2). &l principio de Facotot aparecerG reproducido con nue"os elementos en el &Ftodo estructuroglo!al# que podrJa definirse como la mGs importante aportaciHn# original o no# que en Francia se ha hecho en relaciHn con la utili(aciHn de medios "isuales en la clase. &ste mKtodo estructuroglobal audio"isual# %-'C# parte de tres supuestos9 -. 4a lengua estG constituida por un con:unto de estructuras# 0 un ensemble# un systeme de rapports2. &sto nos recuerda que la base de partida es la lingIJstica estructural9 cada unidad no tiene "alor por sJ misma# aisladamente# sino solamente dentro del todo al cual pertenece. /. &xiste una realidad que no es precisamente lingIJstica# pero que afecta directamente a la lengua9 la realidad socio1biolHgica que hace que la persona tienda a recha(ar todo nue"o sistema cuando ya posee uno adecuado a su entorno# sus necesidades# etcKtera. *e trata de una resistencia incosnciente pero real. 8. 4a lengua oral es prioritaria. 4a lengua escrita debe ser introducida mGs tarde. &ste sistema de prioridades deri"a del hecho de que 1segan ellos1 la lengua escrita pro"oca en el alumno la rememori(aciHn de los mecanismos articulatorios propios de su lengua materna# actuando como interferencia importante en el proceso de aprendi(a:e de cualquier otro sistema lingIJstico. &n consecuencia hay que eliminar ese obstGculo# al menos hasta el momento en que el alumno ya tenga las defensas bGsicas necesarias para enfrentarse a tal interferencia. Tna de las tKcnicas consiste precisamente en eliminar en cada sonido aquellas frecuencias que puedan recordar al alumno el sistema de sonidos de su lengua materna. &l +rofesor -u!erina# in"estigador fundamental# tenido en cuenta por los defensores de esta metodologJa# ideH y construyH un aparato (%AC'I:-A') para filtrar los sonidos# haciendo concentrar la atenciHn en aquellos que interesa que el alumno capte con mayor rapide(# teniendo en cuenta en todo momento las interferencias pre"isibles en relaciHn con la lengua materna del alumno. &l +rofesor -u!erina decJa que9 -. &l alumno es sordo a los sonidos de la lengua que aprende si Kstos no son iguales o similares a los de su lengua materna. &l alumno que aprende una segunda lengua ha de ser# pues# estimulado para captar esas peculiaridades de los sonidos que no son propias de su lengua materna. +ara ello ha de ser entrenado mediante el estJmulo de su capacidad perceptora# capacidad que depende de comple:os mecanismos cerebrales. !sJ# un :aponKs pronunciarG calo o lalo# por caroEraro# al aprender espa`ol) Kl# naturalmente piensa que ha pronunciado 0caroEraro2# pero no es consciente de que en realidad Kl oye en un principio (hasta que su oJdo sea entrenado para ello) 0caloElalo2. /. @e lo que antecede se deri"a que el condicionamiento auditi"o y percepti"o es un factor cla"e en el aprendi(a:e de una lengua. > de ahJ se deduce9 1 4a necesidad de una continuada e intensa exposiciHn del alumno al idioma que aprende. 1 4a insistencia en la entonaciHn como mKtodo para asimilar el sistema global y configuraciHn de los sonidos de la lengua cuya adquisiciHn se pretende lograr. 1 &l traba:o intensi"o y regular por parte del alumno. 8. 4as tKcnicas audio"isuales pretenden enfocar la ense`an(a de las lenguas a tra"Ks de la repeticiHn y la audiciHn. 4a audiciHn que es el primer estadio# pasa por la exigencia de una perfecta reproducciHn) despuKs entrarG en :uego la ilustraciHn mediante dibu:os# asJ como la mJmica# el mo"imiento y las acti"idades de toda Jndole. 4os elementos audio"isuales tienen tambiKn como finalidad expresa el e"itar el uso de la lengua materna# para ello se requiere que cada imagen se a:uste de la me:or manera posible y con la debida precisiHn a los contenidos del texto. 4a imagen# dicen# tiene la funciHn de sugerir el contexto y no sHlo el texto# de acompa`ar al sonido para asociarlo a la imgen y e"itar el recurso a la lengua materna. B'':#0 &l mKtodo %AC'-# en definiti"a# aporta como no"edad la insistencia ra(onada en el hecho de que la percepciHn de los sonidos estG condicionada por el sistema lingIJstico que poseemos. &xige# por otra parte# una especiali(ada preparaciHn del profesor y una ense`an(a practicamente indi"iduali(ada# difJcil de lle"ar a cabo en nuestras aulas. 4a insistencia en la comprensiHn global es positi"a# aunque no nue"a. &n la prGctica# el enfoque basado en 0situaciones2 es muy similar al anterior. %on la diferencia de que este se centraba en el significado del texto y el mKtodo estructuroglobal amplJa los ob:eti"os insistiendo en la percpciHn global del sistema fonolHgico. 7tro de los incon"enientes que plantea este mKtodo es que el hecho de utili(ar la imagen para sugerir un contexto puede lle"ar a sugerir lo que no deseamos sugerir si los dibu:os no estGn bien reali(ados. !demGs superado el ni"el elemental# en que una imagen puede fGcilmente ilustrar una oraciHn# en ni"eles superiores# lo que se suele hacer es ilustrar una idea# la idea central del texto o situaciHn. !penas se podrJa hacer mGs. > el hecho de e"itar la traducciHn es muy difJcil porque la asociaciHn significante1significado es enormemente Jntima y nada fGcil de destruir o esqui"ar. :. '0 %-9(9'9GC0 <9&,9<0'!*B<&,9<0' 4os di"ersos mKtodos basados en el estructuralismo# abra(ados por tantos como soluciones milagrosas# se de:aron de lado con furia. &ste desencanto no fue ocasional sino que llegH de la mano con la llamada teorJa lingIJstica transformacional# que hacJa hincapiK en la creati"idad del lengua:e. *upuso una reacciHn diametralmente opuesta a la teorJa estructuralista y a los mKtodos audio1orales al obser"arse que ambos procederes carecJan de creati"idad y que la lengua ense`ada estaba demasiado disociada de los aspectos comunicati"os que mGs la caracteri(an en su utili(aciHn cotidiana. %on el ad"enimiento de la lingYLstica chomskiana# los profesores# cansados de las repeticiones propias del mKtodo audio1oral quieren "er en estos nue"os enfoques una salida afortunada para solucionar los problemas de la clase de lengua. 4a constante se repite de nue"o9 por una parte el profesor de idiomas gusta de tachar a los lingIJstas de 0teHricos2 por hablar de cosas que no interesan o estGn ale:adas de la prGctica) de otro lado buscan en sus teorJas explicati"as de la realidad del lengua:e# soluciones e ideas que faciliten la docencia y les orienten en su labor. !sJ pues# los profesores volvieron sus ojos hacia el transformacionismo, pero la respuesta de #homsky fue realmente muy concisa* 8 el lingYLsta no tiene por quF solucionar los pro!lemas de la clase) Kse es un problema concreto que compete al profesor. *in embargo# debemos decir inmediatamente# completando esta obser"aciHn# que las explicaciones y anGlisis de la lengua y del lengua:e son la base mGs firme que han de ser"ir al profesor de idiomas en cuanto que a tra"Ks de ellas accederG a un me:or conocimiento y entendimiento del fenHmeno lingIJstico. @e ese me:or entendimiento surgirG un mGs adecuado mane:o y presentaciHn de la lengua concreta que se ense`e. &l hecho de que el transformacionalismo insistiese sobre todo en la creati"idad del lengua:e# en las reglas ( en cuanto que son los motores generadores de nuevas estructuras desde la estructura profunda a la superficial) implicaba una firme toma de posiciHn frente a la extendida prGctica de los mKtodos audio1orales que precisamente excluJan las reglas e insistJan en la repeticiHn de estructuras y sus correspondientes e:ercicios mecGnicos. &n realidad# la teorJa generati"o1funcional no ofreciH ni sustento ni cobi:o suficiente para que la metodologJa de la ense`an(a de idiomas encontrase en ella un apoyo definiti"o# pero siempre se da un paso mGs y la meta en este campo se orientaba cada "e( con mayor insistencia hacia un ob:eti"o muy claro9 la lengua como instrumento de comunicaciVn interpersonal. D0%.0/%0: como gran lingIJsta y profesor# ya habJa afirmado que no se debe pensar en un sHlo enfoque o mKtodo para la ense`an(a de idiomas# tambiKn se habJa adelantado a nuestros tiempos se`alando que las lenguas deben ser aprendidas en conte+to y en situaciones comunicativas. 4a 01!nga !' )&+n$)a)$<n2 era uno de sus lemas. &n nuestros dJas todo apunta hacia esa meta# los medios de comunicaciHn# a todos los ni"eles son la realidad dominante. 4a metodologJa estructuralista no habJa penetrado con tanta insistencia y fuer(a en &uropa como en &&TT. &n &uropa# en cambio se desarrollaron mGs las tKcnicas audio"isuales y# sobre todo en 'nglaterra# la "ertiente que se podrJa llamar situacional. &ste tKrmino incluye no solamente el marco lingIJstico dentro del cual todo acto de comunicaciHn tiene lugar# sino tambiKn el entorno cultural y social dentro del cual la comunicaciHn lingIJstica se desarrolla. &n este campo fueron influyentes dos nombres )irth# y despuKs Halliday. 0l mFtodo situacional es en !uena parte eclFctico. &n un libro de texto de estas caracterJsticas# la situaciHn inicial incluye# de manera ordenada y programada# aspectos gramaticales y lKxicos# pero tomando en consideraciHn situaciones normales (usuales) de la "ida diaria# segan criterios de frecuencia. > todo ello porque se entiende que la lengua es un instrumento de comunicaciHn y el alumno debe# por tanto# aprender el lengua:e propio de aquellas situaciones en las que se desarrolla realmente la comunicaciHn interpersonal. &n dichas situaciones se introducen tambiKn aspectos tradicionales y gramaticales# elementos audio"isuales para facilitar una comprensiHn global de la situaciHn y e"itar el recurso a la lengua materna del alumno. =o obstante# los mKtodos situacionales no alcan(an qui(Gs una autonomJa real# a pesar de ser ampliamente utili(ados. &stGn muy ligados al audio"isualismo en general# a la preocupaciHn por aspectos gramaticales# a la ordenaciHn e introducciHn gradada# a aspectos conductistas relati"os al apredi(a:e# a la introducciHn del "ocabulario en funciHn de listados de frecuencia...# es decir# intentan reunir todo lo hecho hasta el momento en los mKtodos de idiomas. &n este contexto nace lo que en inglKs se denominH# al principio de los a`os sesenta# <otional!functional syllabus 5programa nocional!funcional$. 4as definiciones de dicho mKtodo no coinciden plenamente entre sJ# pero todas ellas se reducen a dos elementos cla"e9 ausencia de aspectos gramaticales e insistencia en los aspectos comunicativos de la lengua a enseWar . $'4K'=* precisa diciendo 0 el mKtodo nocional1funcional contrasta con el gramatical y el situacional porque toma como punto de partida la necesidad comunicati"a del lengua:e... &n "e( de preguntar cHmo se expresan los hablantes o cHmo y cuGndo utili(an la lengua# nos fi:amos mGs en quK es lo que se comunica mediante la lengua. !sJ podemos organi(ar la ense`an(a de la lengua en fuciHn del contenido y no de las formas lingIJsticas.2 !nali(ando por puntos diremos que9 -. &l mKtodo nocional1funcional parte de la consideraciHn de la lengua que se "a a ense`ar como un instrumento de comunicaciHn interpersonal. /. 4a elaboraciHn del material docente en un libro de texto# no toma como punto de partida una organi(aciHn por temas gramaticales# ni lKxicos de frecuencia# ni situaciones de la "ida real# sino aquellas unidades de comunicaciHn (actos de comunicaciVn lingYLstica$ que forman parte integrante de la comunicaciHn en la "ida real. 8. &sas unidades del lengua:e se ordenan adecuadamente de acuerdo con las necesidades de comunicaciHn de aquellos que aprenden un idioma. 6. @ado que los actos de comunicaciHn lingIJstica admiten "arias formas# se debe proceder tambiKn a una selecciHn de las formas o estructuras lingIJsticas# de acuerdo con el grado de dificultad o comple:idad de las mismas y siempre teniendo en cuenta las necesidades y ob:eti"os de quien aprende. B'':#0 &s preciso admitir que la sola aceptaciHn de los principios y procedimientos anteriormente rese`ados ya supone un "uelco considerable en relaciHn con los mKtodos a los cuales se estaba acostumbrado) e incluso a la larga tradiciHn# siempre subyacente# de considerar la gramGtica como punto de partida primordial. &n el mKtodo nocional1funcional se parte de otra perspecti"a9 una selecciHn de los actos de comunicaciHn mGs pertinentes para cada ni"el y con las formas tambiKn mGs adecuadas a los distintos estadios del aprendi(a:e. =o quiere ello decir que los problemas gramaticales se eliminen# pero se abordan de manera distinta9 no mediante la programaciHn gramatical pre"ia a la que se estaba habituado# sino como exposiciHn descripti"a #a posteriori# de lo que resulta de los actos de comunicaciHn lingIJstica# que constituyen el ob:eti"o de cada lecciHn. !sJ# por e:emplo# si el acto de comunicaciHn lingIJstica que queremos ense`ar se refiere a saludar# apareceran registros como el siguiente9 1 IHola!, (quF tal? (#Vmo estUs? 4 &uy !ien, gracias, (y tZ? &sta simple manera de saludar a un amigo# a ni"el coloquial# implica una serie de "ocabulario y de estructuras9 flexiHn del "erbo estar) quF, cVmo...+ero dichas estructuras se pueden tornar mGs comple:as# dentro de la misma situaciHn comunicati"a a otro ni"el ( el formal)9 1 0ste es el %r. .ere3 4 &ucho gusto 40ncantado > asJ sucesi"amente... @e aquJ se deduce que el material didUctico se ordena en funciVn de los actos de comunicaciVn y de acuerdo a criterios de frecuencia y uso, y, teniendo en cuenta tam!iFn el grado de complejidad de los elementos lingYLsticos implicados en cada caso. *i la gramGtica no es el punto de partida en la ordenaciHn del material docente# tampoco ha de constituir el ob:eti"o del profesor en la clase. =o debe usarse de la misma manera que en un mKtodo audio"isual o estructural. &ntiKndase# por otra parte# que si los mKtodos nocionales1 funcionales parten de fundamentos extremadamente pragmGticos# no significa# sin embargo# que los elementos de gramGtica hayan de estar ausentes en la clase de manera total y por definiciHn. 4o que importa es que no se con"iertan en el ob:eti"o prioritario y fundamental de la clase. &sta metodologJa no es tan ingKnua como para pensar que la gramGtica# la fonKtica o el "ocabulario no deben constituir parte integrante de la ense`an(a de una lengua. 4a presentaciHn del material lingIJstico a la clase se hace en tKrminos de globalidad# tal cual se da en la realidad de los actos de comunicaciHn. > el profesor no deberJa actuar de forma distinta porque los problemas pueden incrementarse y desbordar la situaciHn debido a que en los actos de comunicaciHn presentados en los textos las implicaciones gramaticales pueden ser muy heterogKneas. > su explicaciHn explJcita podrJa dar lugar a sesiones interminables e incluso complicadas que perderJan tanto al alumno como al profesor. @e hecho# puede ocurrir que algunas estructuras gramaticales consideradas como difJciles por los mKtodos tradicionales# apare(can desde las primeras lecciones# simplemente porque aparecen en actos de comunicaciHn lingIJstica de importacia bGsica. +or e:emplo# para pedir un fa"or a alguien en espa`ol podrJamos encontrarnos algo asJ9 1 _ HarLa usted el favor de decirme donde estU correos? 4 %L, coja usted la primera a la derecha. 0stU a unos =[[ metros de aquL. 4a estructura HarLa usted el favor de...# tanto en la gramGtica tradicional como en los mKtodos audio1orales# aparecerJa en los libros de texto con toda probabilidad sHlo despuKs de que el alumno hubiese "isto ya las formas de presente y qui(G tambiKn las de futuro. *in embargo# el acto de comunicaciHn que implica el uso de estas formas de condicional es e"identemente de importancia suma y capital en la comunicaciHn interpersonal. Xueda pues :ustificada su apariciHn temprana en el material de aprendi(a:e. +ero que el profesor se entretenga en explicar las formas del condicional serJa imprudente) posiblemente es lo que harJa un profesor inexperto en el uso de esta metodologJa y acostumbrado a hGbitos propios de otros mKtodos. as e+plicaciones gramaticales en un mKtodo nocional1funcional suelen presentarse como GRAMXTICA FUNCIONAL #al final de cada unidad. *i tomamos como modelo el e:emplo de pedir un fa"or "erJamos como esta estructura puede ser"ir para contextos similares (pedir un fa"or# puede aplicarse para 0ir a correos2# 0 a la estaciHn2# 0pedir fuego2# etcKtera). &n tales casos# la estructura no experimenta "ariaciones) sHlo cambian algunos elementos lKxicos. 4o que importa es que el alumno se fi:e en la funcionalidad de la estructura y la consolide mediante transferencia a otros contextos similares desde el punto de "ista de la comunicaciHn. !hora no se pretende que el alumno memorice la estructura (estrategia que se seguJa en los mKtodos anteriores). &ste mKtodo espera que los alumnos aprendan una lengua basGndose en actos de comunicaciHn sin que necesariamente tengan que aprender todas las implicaciones gramaticales. 4a idea es Hptima para lenguas como el inglKs# pero con el francKs# el espa`ol y todas aquellas que son mGs flexionadas# el problema de la morfologJa es ciertamente menos ineludible. %omparando con otros mKtodos# el mKtodo nocional1funcional no estG muy le:os del mKtodo situacional. Tanto las nociones lingIJsticas como los actos de comunicaciHn lingIJstica se dan dentro de un contexto mGs amplio9 la situaciHn. > tambiKn este mKtodo tiene elementos estrucutralistas# en el sentido de que la explotaciHn y transferencia# asJ como el refuer(o de las funciones# se lograrG mediante la repeticiHn de contextos paralelos y en base a las mismas estrucuturas funcionales. Tiene igualmente elementos "isuales# porque tambiKn Kstos pueden ayudar a comprender me:or un acto de comunicaciHn# global o especificamente. > tiene elementos de gramGtica tradicional porque la 0gramGtica funcional2 puede tambiKn explicitarse en aquellos casos en los que sea mGs comple:a o# sencillamente porque los alumnos pidan que se den explicaciones para comprender me:or lo que estGn aprendiendo.. &"identemente# aprender y consolidar elementos lingIJsticos comple:os a tra"Ks de esta metodologJa puede enfrentar al alumno a problemas serios# desde el punto de "ista gramatical# debido a que los actos lingIJsticos mGs necesarios y bGsicos de la "ida real suelen implicar estructuras frecuentemente comple:as. Todo esto supone que a partir de un cierto ni"el elemental# tal "e( sea necesario recurrir a tKcnicas que se aproximen mGs a los mKtodos anteriores# es decir# a la metodologJa audio"isual# situacional o tradicional. &l mKtodo nocional1funcional responde muy bien# sin embargo# a los ob:eti"os que se propusieron en el %o:nse:o de &uropa9 una homogenei3aciVn de niveles de aprendi3aje mLnimos para facilitar la comunicaciVn interpersonal entre quienes, por ra3ones polLticas y comerciales, han de estar en contacto permanente. > esto ocurre sin lugar a dudas entre los paJses que forman la TniHn &uropea. @e todos modos# y para finali(ar# lo que debe quedar muy claro es que la metodologJa nocional1funcional requiere un cambio de mentalidad en el profesor y en el alumno# un buen entrenamiento del profesor para que no fracase en su uso y '&52! %&"& %!n!2 !n )!n%a @! 7a'%a a7&2a n& !=$'%!n +P%&"&' +]g$)&' @! -!2+$%an a-2!n"!2 & !n'!^a2 na 1!nga '$n !'#!2;& 8 -2!')$n"$!n"& "!1 #a)%&2 %$!+-&.
T&<! -6 <^T7@7* > T^%='%!* &=F7%!@7* ! 4! !@XT'*'%'W= @& %7<+&T&=%'!* %7<T='%!T'V!*. FT=@!<&=T7* <&T7@74WN'%7* &*+&%iF'%7* @& 4! &=*&k!=\! @&4 '=N4^*. D. '=T,7@T%T'7=. - . *+&%'F'% <&T37@747N'%!4 FT=@!<&=T!4* 7= &=N4'*3 4!=NT!N& T&!%3'=N. -.-. !++,7!%3# <&T37@# !=@ T&%3='XT&. -./. !++,7!%3. -./.-. Theory of language. -././. Theory of language learning. -.8. @esign. -.8.-. 7b:ecti"es. -.8./. The syllabus. -.8.8. Teaching and learning acti"ities. -.8.6. The roles of the learner. -.8.A. The roles of the teacher. -.8.5. The roles of materials. -.6. +rocedure. -.A. %onclusion. /. %7<<T='%!T'V& 4!=NT!N& T&!%3'=N. /.-. !pproach. /.-.-. Theory of language. /.-./. Theory of language learning. /./. @esign. /./.-. 7b:ecti"es and syllabus. /././. 4earning and teaching acti"ities. /./.8. The roles of the learner and teacher. /./.6. The roles of materials. /.8. +rocedure. 8. '4'7N,!+3>. +!N - D. '=T,7@T%T'7=. 'n the long search for the best way of teaching a foreign language# a proliferation of new approaches and methods has been de"ised. %rertain methods are widely recogni(ed because of their influential role in the history of ideas surrounding this sub:ect# for example# the grammar1translation method# the natural method# the direct method or the audio1lingual method. @uring the -.BD# howe"er# there was a strong reaction against methods that stressed the teaching of grammatical forms and paid little or no attention to the way language is used in e"eryday situations. !concern de"eloped to make foreing language teaching more communicati"e. These methods differ in the way they address fundamental methodological issues such as9 1 $hat should the goals of language teaching be; 1 $hat is the basic nature of language; 1 $hat are the principles for the selection of language content; 1 $hat are the best principles of organi(ation# sequencing and presentation; 1 $hat should the role of the nati"e language be; 1 $hat processes do learners use in learning a language; 1 $hat are the best teaching techniques; The answer to these questions will enable us to understand the fundamental nature of methods in &nglish language teaching. !s the analysis of these specific methodological fundamentals is pre"ious to the study of any particular approach# method or technique we will discuss first the essentials of &nglish as a foreign language teaching. =ext# we will thoroughly study communicati"e language teaching. -. *+&%'F'% <&T37@747N'%!4 FT=@!<&=T!4* 7F &=N4'*3 4!=NT!N& T&!%3'=N. The change from one methold to another or from one set of classroom techniques and procedures ha"e reflected responses to a "arietiy of historical issues and circumstances. !s the study of methods and procedures assumed a central role within applied linguistics from the -.6Ds on# "arious attempts ha"e been made to conceptuali(e the nature of methods. -.- !pproch# method# and technique. 'n describing methods# the difference between a philosophy of language teaching at the theoretical le"el# and a set of procedures and techniques for teaching in the classroom# is +!N / %entral. The !merican linguist &dward !nthony proposed a clarifying scheme in -.58. 3e identified three le"els of conceptuali(ation and organi(ation9 1 !pproach 1 <ethod 1 Technique !n approach is a set of correlati"e assumptions which the all with the nature of language and its teaching. Therefore# and approach is axiomatic and is formed by a theory of language and a theory of language learning. ! method is not axiomatic) it is procedural. ! method is a glo"al plan for the presentation of language material. This presentation is based on a theory of language and language learning# and approach# and so a method cannot contradict its approach# but it is possible to ha"e more than one method within a certain approach.That is the reason for the plural in the title of this topic metodos y tecnicas ) there are many possible methods within the communicati"e approach. Techniques are implementational# what really occurs in the classroom. They are consistent with a method and therefore with and approach as well. !=T37=>P* <7@&4 !pproach11111111111111111111111111111 Theory of language 11111111111111111111111111111 Theory of language learning <ethod111111111111111111111111111111111 Theory into practice9 *kills to be taught %ontents to be taught 7rder of presentation Technique11111111111111111111111111111 %lassroom procedures ,ichard s and ,odgers (-.?5) ha"e re"ised and extented the original model. They see approach and method treated at the le"el of design# that le"el in which ob:ecti"es# syllabus# and content are determined# and in which the roles or teachers# learners and materials are. specified. !nthonyPsle"el of technique is referred to as procedure. They see# therefore# that a method is theoretically related to and approach# organi(ationally determined by a desing# and is practically reali(ed in a procedure. +!N 8 ,'%3!,@* !=@ ,7@N&,*R* <7@&4 !pproach111111111111111111111111111111111 Theory of language Theory of language learning @esign11111111111111111111111111111111111111 7b:ecti"es The syllabus Teaching and learning acti"ities The roles of the learner The roles of the teacher The roles of the materials +rocedures111111111111111111111111111 %lassroom techniques -./. !pproach !pproach refers to theories about the nature of language and language learning that ser"e as the source of practiques and principles in language teaching. -./.-. Theory of language Three different theories of language and language proficiency underline current approaches and methods in language teaching9 1 *tructural "iew 1 Functional "iew 1 'nteractional "iew The structural "iew is the "iew that language is a system of structurally related elements for the coding of meaning. The tar:et of language learning is seen to be the mastery of the units of the system ( phonological# grammatical and lexical ). The audio1lingual method# Total +hysical ,esponse# or the *ilent $ay embody this particular "iew of language. The funcional "iew is the "iew that language is a "ehicle for the expression of functional meaning. $e will see later how the communicati"e mo"ement in language teaching embodies this "iew of language . The third "iew is the interactional "iew. 't sees language as a "ehicle for the reali(ation of interpersonal relations and for performance of social transactions between indi"iduals. %ommunity 4anguage 4earning seems to ha"e embodied this point of "iew lately. +!N 6 -././. Theory of language learning. ! learning theory underlying an approach must take account of the psycholinguistic and cogniti"e processes in"ol"ed in language learning# and the optimal conditions for these processes to be acti"ated. 4earning theories may emphasi(e one or both aspects. +rocess1oriented theories build on learning processes# such as habit formation# induction# inferencing# hypothesis testing# and generali(ation. %ondition1oriented theories emphasi(e the nature of the en"ironment# both human and physical# in which language learning takes place. For example# KrashenRs <onitor <odel is an example of a learning theory on which a method has been built (the natural method). !t the le"el of process# he distinguishes between acquisitions and learnin. 3e also addresses the conditions necessary for the process of adquisition to take place9 the input must be comprehensible# roughly 1 tuned# rele"ant# in sufficient quantity# and experience in low 1 anxiety contexts. These principles may or may not lead to a method. $e may di"ise our own teaching +rocedures following a particular approach# and then change this procedures on the basis 7f the performance of our pupils. Theory does not dictate a particular set of teaching procedures. $hat links approach with procedure is what ,ichards and ,odgers call design. -.8. @esign. @esign is the le"el of method analysis where we consider the ob:ecti"es# the syllabus# the types of learning tasks# the roles of learners and teachers# and the roles of instructional materials -.8.-. 7b:ecti"es. !t the le"el of design we must deal with the specification of the general and specific 7b:ecti"es of the method. *ome methods may focus on oral skills. *ome methods may focus 7n communication skills. 7ther may place a greater emphasis on accurate grammar or +ronunciation. $e may distinguish between these methods whose ob:ecti"es are expressed in linguistic Terms (product1oriented) and those which define their ob:ecti"es in terms of learning eha"iours (process1oriented). 3owe"er# some methods that claim to be process1oriented *how a great concern with accurate grammar and pronunciation. -.8./. The syllabus. !s we ha"e to use the target language in order to teach it# we must make decisions about The selection of language items we are going to use. These languages items are to be +!N A *elected not only in linguistic grounds but also according to sub:ect1matter# i.e.. we must make decisions about what to talk about and how to talk about it. 'n traditional# grammar1 based courses# contents were selected according to the difficulty of the items. 'n communicati"e courses the sequence of the elements is normally based on our pupils communicati"e needs. +rocess1oriented methods (e.g.# %ounselling 4earning) normally ha"e no language syllabus# as considerations of language content are secondary. 4earners select content for themsel"es by choosing topics they want to talk about. -.8.8. 4earning and teaching acti"ities. The ob:ecti"es of a method are attained through the interaction of teachers# learners and material in the classroom. The acti"ity types that a method ad"ocates may ser"e to differentiate methods. The *ilent $ay# for example# uses problem1sol"ing acti"ities which in"ol"e the use of coloured rods. %ommunicati"e language teaching ad"ocates the use of tasks that in"ol"e an information gap# as this is considered to be one of the elements of real1 life communication. @ifferences in acti"ity types may result in different arrangements and groupings of learners. drills# for instance# require different groupings than problem1sol"ing acti"ities. &"en if we use the same acti"ity# differences at the le"el of approach may determine different goals for it in two different methods. For example# interacti"e games are often use in audiolingual courses for moti"ation and to pro"ide a change of pace from drill) in communicati"e language teaching they are used to practice particular types of interacti"e exchanges which are useful in real communication. @ifferent assumptions in ob:ecti"es# syllabuses# and acti"ities result in different roles to learners# teachers and instructional materials. -.8.6. The roles of the learner. @esign is greatly influenced by how learners are regarded. The learnerRs contribution to the learning process# i.e.# his passi"ity or acti"ity and in which degree# marks the types of acti"ities they will carry out# the groupings# the degree to which they will influence the learning of others# and their "iew as processors# performers# initiators or problem sol"ers. !udiolingualism# for example# saw learners as stimulus1response1reinforcement mechanisms whose learning was a result of repetiti"e practice. =ewer methodologies exhibit more concern for "ariation among learnersRroles. The teacher must create the conditions for learning to take place. 4earner1centred learning tries to teach languages in a en"ironment of quasi1independence form the teacher. +!N 5 -.8.A. The roles of the teacher. =ew methodologies ha"e resulted in a proliferation of teacher roles# such as informant# conductor# diagnoser# corrector# consultant# model... !ll these roles are related to essential methodological issues9 1 the types of functions the teacher is expected to fulfil 1 the degree of control the teacher has o"er how learning takes place 1 the degree of control the teacher has about the content of the course 1 the interactional patterns that de"elop between teachers and learner $e must be aware of the roles we can play in the classroom# as only when we are sure of our role and our pupilsRconcominant one will we depart from the security of traditional coursebook1oriented teaching. -.8.5. The roles of materials. The role of materials will reflect decisions concerning the primary goals of the materials (to present content# to practice content# to facilitate communication#...) the form of the materials (textbooks# audio"isuals# supplementary readers#...) the relation of materials to other sources of input (whether they are the principal source or not)# and the abilities of the teacher (degree of training and competence). Therefore# the role of materials will be different in different methodologies. For example# within a communicati"e approach materials will focus on the communicati"e abilities of interpretation# expression# and negotiation. 7n the other hand# an indi"iduali(ed instructional system may include as the main role of the materials to allow the learners to progress at their own rates of learning. These roles do not need to be seen as antithetical# in fact# both roles must be played by our materials according to our curriculum. The third and last le"el of conceptuali(ation is the le"el of technique (!nthony9-.58) or procedure (,ichards and ,odgers9-.?5). -.6. +rocedure. +rocedure consists of the techniques# practices# and beha"iours that operate in the real teaching situation according to a particular method. $e are concerned with the use of teaching acti"ities to present# practice and produce language# and with the procedures and techniques used in gi"ing feedback to our pupils (e"aluation techniques). $e also take account of the resources in terms of time# space# and equipment used by the teacher and the interactional patterns obser"ed during the lessons. +!N B -.5. %onclusion. $e ha"e described the specific methodological fundamentels of &nglish 4anguage Teaching with reference to approach# design and procedure. 't is clear that methodological de"elopment does not always proceed neatly from approach# through design# to procedure. 3owe"er# national curricula# which draw on the expertise of interdisciplinary working committees# usually do. *panish Foreign 4anguages curriculum departs from a constructi"ist theory of learning and a "iew of language as communication towards generally outlined procedures to allow for indi"iduali(ation through a design le"el in which the syllabus# acti"ities# learner roles# teacher roles# and role of the instructional materials are defined not "ery strictly to allow for ad:ustments in particular teaching situations. 7ne of the basic ingredients of our curriculum is its adaptability. This adaptability# howe"er# is limited by a communicati"e framework as the main aim of teaching &nglish in our educational system is to achie"e communicati"e competence. $e are now going to study the essentials of communicati"e language teaching. /.%ommunicati"e language teaching. %ommunicati"e language teaching draws on %homskyRs criticism to structural theories of language# which are incapable of accounting for the creati"ity and uniqueness of indi"idual sentences# as well as ritish applied linguist criticism of current approaches to language teaching# which inadequately addressed the functional and communicati"e potential of language. !nother impetus for different approaches came from changing educational realities in &urope. The %ouncil of &urope took a great interest in education. !s a result# a group of experts was set up in -.B- to in"estigate the possibility of de"eloping language courses on a unit1credit system. 7ne of the members of this committee# $ilkins# proposed a functional or communicati"e definition of language that could ser"e as a basis for de"eloping communicati"e syllabuses. They were based on two types of meanings 9 notions (such as time#sequence# quantity...) and categories of communicati"e function (such as requests# denials# offers# complaints...) This work was rapidly followed by an almost uni"ersal acceptance of the theoretical principles of the %ommunicati"e !pproach# and its rapid application in textbook# curriculum de"elopment centres and go"ernments. ecause of this# the %ommunicati"e !pproach to language teaching is the most extended foreign language teaching system. 'ts aims are to make communicati"e competence the goal of language teaching and de"elop procedures for the teaching of the four skills. =ext we analy(e it in detail# following ,ichards and ,odgers di"ision into approach# design and procedure. +!N ? /.-. !pproach. /.-.-. Theory of language. The communicati"e approach in language teaching starts from at theory of language as communication. The main goal is to acquire what 3ymes defined as communicati"e competence. %homsky ( -.AB ) defined language as a set of sentences# each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements. !n able speaker has a subconcious knowledge of the grammar rules of his language which allows him to make sentences in that language. 3owe"er# @ell 3ymes thought that %homsky had missed out some "ery important information9 the rules of use. $hen anati"e speaker spekas he does not only utter gramatically correct forms# he also knows where and when to use this sentences and to whom. 3ynes# then# said# that competence by itself is not enough to explain a nati"e speakerPs knowledge# and he replaced it with his own concept of comunicati"e competence. 3ymes distinguished four aspects of this competence9 systematic potential# appropriacy# occurrence and feasibility. *ystematic potential means that the nati"e speaker possesses a system that has a potential for creating a lot of language. This is similar to %homskyPs competence. !ppropriacy means that the nati"e speaker knows what language is appropiate in a gi"en situation. 3is choice is based on the following "ariables# among others9 setting# participants# purpose# channel# topic... 7ccurrence means that the nati"e speaker knows how often something is said in the language and act accordingly. Feasibility means that the nati"e speaker knows whether something is possible in the language. &"en if there is no grammatical rule to ban /D1ad:ecti"e pre1head cosntruction we know that these constructions are not possible in the language. These four categories ha"e been adapted for teaching purposes. Thus# ,oyal @ecree -DD5E -..-# of -6 Fune ( 7& /A Fune)# which establishes the teaching requirements for +rimary &ducation nationwide sees communicati"e competence as comprising fi"e subcompetences9 1 Nrammar competence9 the ability to put into practice the linguistic units according to the rules of use established in the linguistic system. 1 @iscourse competence9 the ability to use different types of discourse and organi(e them according to the comunicati"e situation and the speakers in"ol"ed in it. +!N . 1 *ociolinguistic competence9 the ability to adequate the utterances to the specific context in accordance with the accepted usage of the determined linguistic community. 1 *trategic competence9 the ability to define# correct or in general# make ad:ustments in the course of the communicati"e. 1 *ociocultural competence9 this competence has to be understood as a certain awareness of the social and cultural context in which the foreign language is used. Nrammar competence refers to what %homsky called linguistic competence and 3ymes systematic potential.'t os the domain of grammaticak and lexical capacity. @iscourse competence os the aspect of communicati"e competence whoch describes the ability to produce unified written or spoken discourse that shows coherence and cohesion and which conforms to the norms of different genres. 7ur pupils must be able to produce discourse in which successi"e utterances are linked through rules of discourse or discourse competence. *ociolinguistic competence refers to an understanding of the social context in which communication takes place# including role relationships# the shared information of the participants#... *ociolinguistic competence refers to an understanding of the social contexr in which describes the ability of speakers to use "erbal and non1 "erbal communication strategies to compemsate for breakdowns in cmminication or to impro"e the effecti"eness of communication. *ociocultural competence refers to the learnerPs lnowledge of the cultural aspects of rhe target language speaking countries. !ll these elements are part of the language as language is not something abstract but a tool for effecti"e communication. /.-./. Theory of language learning. @ifferent learning theories may be found in communicati"e language teaching. !ll of them share the same principles. The communication principle establishes that acti"ities that in"ol"e communication promote learning. The second element is the task principle# acti"ities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning. ! third element is the meaningfulness principle# language that is meaningful to the learner supports +!N -D The learning process. 4earning acti"ities#as we will see# are consequently selected according to how well they engage the learner in meaningful and authentic language use. /./. @esign. /./.-. 7b:ecti"es and syllabus. $e ha"e already studied the main ob:ecti"e of communicati"e language learning as it is central to its theory of language9 to reach communicati"e competence. @ifferent syllabuses may fulfil this ob:ecti"e. @iscussions of the nature of the syllabus ha"e been central in this approach. The early notional1functional approach was soon criticised as it seem only a replacement of grammatical lists by notional1functional lists. !fter that many syllabuses ha"e been designed# though some linguists e"en re:ected the notion of syllabus# the most fa"oured of which is rumfitRs model# which has a grammatical core around which notions# functions# and communicational acti"ities are grouped. The range of the last is really unlimited# but we now try to define and classify them. /././. 4earning and teaching acti"ities. %ommunicati"e acti"ities must fulfil a series of conditions9 1 enabling learners to attain the communicati"e ob:ecti"e of the curriculum 1 engage learners in communication 1 require the use of communication processes (information sharing# interaction...) <ost communicati"e techniques are based in the information gap principle. 'n an information gap acti"ity# one of our pupils knows something that another pupils needs# to do the acti"ity. y means of negotiation# interaction and information transfer techniques the gap is bridged. 4ittlewood (-.?-) distinguishes between functional communication acti"ities and social interaction acti"ities. Functional communication acti"ities include such tasks as learners comparing sets of pictures and noting similarities and differences) working out a likely sequence of e"ents in a set of pictures) disco"ering missing features in a map or drawing) following directions# etc. *ocial interaction acti"ities include con"ersation and discussion sessions# dialogues and role plays# simulations# debates#... 3armer (-.?8) has defined a set of characteristics that communicati"e acti"ities share9 1 a desire to communicate 1 a communicati"e purpose 1 content not form +!N -- 1 "ariety of language 1 no teacher inter"ention 1 no materials control 3e also di"ided communicati"e acti"ities into oral and written. 7ral communicati"e acti"ities may be studied in se"en areas9 1 reaching a consensus 1 comunication games 1 problem sol"ing 1 interpersonal exchange 1 story construction 1 simulation and role play 'n reaching a consensus acti"ities our pupils must agree with each other after a certain amount of discussion. %onsensus acti"ities are "ery successful in promoting free an spontaneous use of &nglish# e.g. they ha"e to decide what ten ob:ects they will take with them if they ha"e to go to a camping site near a mountain range. 'n relaying instructions we gi"e the necessary information for the performance of a task to a group of pupils. $ithout showing this information to a different group they ha"e to enable this group to perform the same task# e.g.. a dance# a drawing# a model# a map... %omunication gap games are based on the principle of the information gap. 'nterpersonal exchange acti"ities are "ery similar to information gap ones. The only differece is that the difference is not in factual knowledge# but rather of opinion so they can be called Oopinion gapO acti"ities# e.g. your fa"orite food# film# book... *tory construction uses the principle of the information gap and adds the :igsaw principle. $e gi"e our pupils partial information and then ask them# to use that information as part of a story they must complete by asking other pupils who ha"e other items of information. *imulation- and role play/ in"ol"e the pretence of a real1life situation in the classroom. 'n simulations our pupils are in the situation as themsel"es while in a role play we ask them to play a role following a role card. &.g. police officer... 3amer distinguishes six main types of written communicati"e acti"ities9 - The idea in simulations is to create a pretence of real life in the classroom. The difference simulations ha"e with role plays is simply that in the former# the students are asked to dramati(e the situations with no guide about their characteres (they# thus# play as themsel"es)# while in the second their beha"iours are guied by means of the role card pro"ided. 't seems clear# then that role plais are a specific kind of simulation. / ! role play is an acti"ity for which the context an the roles of the students are @eterminated by teacher# but in which students ha"e freedom to produce the language Thei feel appropiate to that context and assigned roles +!N -/ 1 relaying instructions 1 exchanging letters 1writing games 1 fluency writing 1 story construction 1 writing reports and ad"ertisement 'n relaying instructions one group of pupils has information for the performance of a task# and they ha"e to get another group to perform the same task by gi"ing them written instructions. $e may use this acti"ity gi"ing directions# writing messages which requiere an answer#... &xchanging letters is a type of acti"ity in which one of our pupils write a letter to each other and then recie"e a reply. They may be playing a role# such as writing to agony column# to make the letter more interesting. 't is important to teachElearn the special lay1out of &nglish letters. $riting games may be used to produce written language in a moti"ating way# e.g. our pupils can write descriptions of famous people or places. Then# they ha"e to read it aloud. The first pupil to identify the described person or place wins. 'n fluency writing we get our pupils to write as much as possible in a definite period of time. ,esearch has suggested that if this is done quite frequently# our pupils will be able not only to write greater quantities# but the quality will impro"e as well. For example we can gi"e them a series of pictures# sequence them and tell a story with a time limit. 'n story construction we gi"e indi"idual pupils partial information which they must pool together with other pupils to write a narrati"e. Finally# in writing reports and ad"ertisements we may use some acti"ities based on our pupilsRfields of interest. For example we can prepare a smoking questionnaire. 7ur pupils will de"ise a questionnaire and then write a report based on the results they obtain. /./.8. The roles of the learner and teacher. %ommunicati"e language teaching emphasis on communication# rather than the mastery of language forms# leads to different roles for learners and teachers form those found in traditional teaching. *uccessful communication is an accomplishment :ointly achie"ed an so the main role of the learner is that of negotiator. y means of cogniti"e and social interaction# i.e. with himself# his classmates# the teacher# and the materials# he must be able to communicate. The teacher must assume se"eral roles in communicati"e language teaching# such as needs analyst# counsellor# group process manager# informant#... ut all these roles ser"e two main functions. First of all# the teacher must facilitate the communication process in the classroom. *econdly# he must be a participant within the learning1teaching group. +!N -8 /./.6. The roles of materials. %ommunicati"e language teaching sees materials as a way of influencing the quality of classroom interaction# The primary role of materials is therefore to promote communicati"e language use. $e can distinguish three types of materials9 text1based) task1based and realia. Text1based materials are sometimes no more than structurally organi(ed texts whih some interspersed communicati"e acti"ities. 3owe"er# there are communicati"e texts# which are "ery different from traditional organi(ed texts. For example# they may consist of cues to initiate communication# or be based in information gap pair work# ... Task1based materials consist of games# role1plays# simulations#... sometimes the information is complementary 1 the information gap again 1 and parterns must fit their parts of the :igsaw into a composite whole. Finally# realia may include the use of maga(ines# newspapers# maps# pictures# ob:ects... /.8. +rocedure. ecause of the wide range of communicati"e acti"ities and techniques that we can use# it is not possible to describe a typical classroom procedure. $e can say# howe"er# that traditional procedures are not re:ected and that they may be used in the first stages of language learning# such as presentation and controlled practice# while communicati"e acti"ities are mainly used in the free production stage. Therefore we can establish a sequence of acti"ities as follows) +,7%&@T,& *tages acti"ities +resentation *trucutural +re1communicati"e +ractice quasi1communicati"e +re1communicati"e +roduction Functional communication communicati"e +roduction social interaction communicati"e !s a conclusion# we can say that communicati"e language teaching uses a wide range of techniques and acti"ities# which in"ol"e different roles for teachers# learners and material as well as different syllabuses# to reach its main aim9 the attainment of communicati"e competence. +!N -6 8. '4'7N,!+3>. rumfit# %# and Fohnson# K# The communicati"e approach to language teaching. 7T+. 7xford# -.?-. %rystal# @. The %ambridge &ncyclopedia of language. %T+. %ambridge# -.?B. 3armer# F. The +ractice of &nglish 4anguage Teaching. 4ongman. 4ondon# -.?8. 3owatt# !.+.,. ! 3istory of &nglish 4anguage Teaching. 7T+. 7xford# -.?8. Fohnson# K. %ommunicati"e *yllabus @esign and <ethodology. 7T+. 7xford# -.?/. 4ittlewood# $. %ommunicati"e 4anguage Teaching. %T+. %ambridge# -.?-. <athews# !. !t the %halkface. =elson. 3ong Kong# -..-. +ygmalion# &quipo. 4a &nse`an(a del 'nglKs. =arcea. <adrid# -.?B. ,ichards# F.%.# +latt# F. !nd +latt# 3. 4ongman @ictionary of 4anguage Teaching Y !pplied 4inguistics# 4ongman. 4ondon# -../. *teinberg# @.@. +sycholinguistics. 4ongman. 4ondon# -.?/. Theme -A9 +eriods# authors and most suitable literary genres to be used in the &nglish class. Types of texts. D. ,ntroduction. &"en at the early stages students can in fact do a great deal with the language9 identifying sounds) produce them orally) recogni(e then in a text. 'n short# e"en the "ery beginners can do something with the language. $e must build from that point by adding input which is neither too ad"anced# nor too easy. %inema# music and literature are rich and moti"ating materials. 'f we manage to know how to select and to present content in such a way that it will both challenge and moti"ate them. 7ur curriculum establishes two general aims which are related this topic. They read as follows9 9b4ectives 0ssessment criteria -. To understand easy written and oral texts... B. To read with the help of the teacher... 6. To read short and easy texts... !ccording to this it is clear that we can and# it is possible# we should use literature in our classroom. The general aim of our approach to the teaching of literature is to let our pupils deri"e the benefits of communicati"e acti"ities for language impro"ement within the context of suitable works of literature. $e also ha"e the following specific aims9 - <aintain our pupils interest and in"ol"ement by using a wide range of pupil centred acti"ities. - Try and bring to life the printed page# exploiting as fully as possible the interest that well1chosen literature has for our pupils. - $e must help our pupils "alue their own responses to the printed page. $e may find three types of :ustification for using literary texts. &ach one deals with a different type of content9 %oncepts9 literary texts offer genuine samples of a wide range of styles# register and text1types# they pro"ide a rich context in which indi"idual lexical or syntactical items are made more memorable. *kills or procedures9 the opinion gap between one pupils interpretation and anothers can be bridged by genuine interaction. !ttitudes9 the genuine feeling of literary texts is a powerful moti"ator. +. Periods, authors and most suitable literary genres to be used in the nglish class. 1.1. T7! 1$%!2a28 g!n2!' an" #$g2!' $n EFL. The &nglish language is certainly rich in literary figures and genres) and the literary ages are full of intriguing aspects that students can find extremely moti"ating. !s long as we know how to select and to present the content (keeping in mind Krashens model of 0input Z -) L input :ust a little abo"e the students le"el L a great many literary figures can be successfully used in T&F4. 1.(. /!11:0n&6 %a1!' an" 278+!'. The following is a selection of authors# genres and periods that could be used in T&F4. /!11:0n&6n %a1!'. /!11:0n&6 278+!'. 8;he elves and the shoemaker9O 8;he tree little pigs9 8;he little red hen9O 8;he princess and the pea9O 8#hicken icken9O 8;he ugly duckling9O 8;he emperor\s new clothes9O 8%leeping !eauty9O 8.uss in !oots9O 8ittle red riding hood9O 8Hansel and -retel9O 8#inderella9O Beauty and the !east9O 8%now white and the seven dwarfs9O 8;he wi3ard of ,39O 8ady!ird9O 8/umpelstiltskin9O 8-oldylocks and the three !ears9. 8,ne, two, put on your shoe9O 8/ain, rain go away9O 8;his is the way9O 8,ld &acdonald had a farm9O 8Hickory, 6ickory, 6ock9O 8Baa, !aa, !lack sheep9O 8;hree !lind mice9O 8Insey "insey spider9O 8.ussy cut, pussy cat9O 8Humpty 6umpty9O 8Dack and Dill9O 80any, &eeny, &iny, &o9O 8;here is a hole in my !ucket9O 8;he house that Dack !uilt9O 8%he sells seashells9O 8;hirty days %eptem!er9O 8;here was an ,ld "oman who swallowed a fly9 $hen selecting a work of literature we must bear in mind that we want our pupils engage interacti"ely with the text# with classmates# and with us# the teachers. To reach this we must follow these g$"!1$n!': a) The text itself# and not information about it# is of central importance. b) 7ur pupils must genuinely interact with the text# their classmates and the teacher and not be mere recipients. c) 7ur acti"ities must be designed so as to enable our pupils to share their personal experiences# perceptions and opinions. d) 7ur acti"ities must be "aried and interesting. e) The selection must be based on their potential interest for our pupils and not in the literary qualities of the works. 1.(. S%&285&&0'. -. %riteria for selecting storybooks. $e can find many simplified storybooks which ha"e been graded with children learning &nglish in mind. <ost authors# howe"er# consider that the use of authentic materials can be more fruitful (real language and moti"ation). $e can also find authentic books with high1quality illustrations which will play an important role in aiding comprehension. a) 7ur pupils needs and abilities. The chosen texts should always be appropriate to the age# interests and goals of our pupils. 'n order to understand literary texts our pupils need to be able to read at a reasonable speed for an extended period without fatigue. This speed should# for extensi"e reading# be at a rate of at least /DD words per minute. 7ur youngest pupils# those in the second cycle# will not be able to read at this speed in &nglish so we must use short# simple texts with illustrations. $e can also use 2!a"$ng %!)7n$@!' to impro"e our pupils reading speed. These are normally di"ided into %!)7n$)a1 or -2a)%$)! +!%7&"'. T!)7n$)a1 +!%7&"': use a de"ice of some kind to co"er up the written words as our pupils read# forcing them to speed up their reading. These methods may be more useful for the *panish language classroom. P2a)%$)! +!%7&"' are more suitable for the &nglish class our oldest pupils# as the texts they are able to cope with begin to increase in si(e# e.g. texts followed by certain tasks# decrease the time allowed for reading. 1. CRITERIA FOR SELECTING STORY9OO.S BE11$' an" 92!6'%!2C. N!!"' an" a5$1$%$!'. 1. C&n%!n%T'5E!)% +a%%!2. a) ,ele"ant) b) 'nteresting) c) !musing) d) <emorable. (. V$'a1'. a) Tse of illustrations) b) !ttracti"eEcolourful) c) *i(e) d) Target culture. *. En)&2ag! -a2%$)$-a%$&n. a) ,epetition) b) +rediction) c) @e"elop memory) d) uild confidence. 4. M&%$,a%$ng. a) ,elate to their experiences and characteristics. I. A2&'! )2$&'$%8. a) 'nterest in getting to know more about &nglish language and culture. L. C2!a%! -&'$%$,! a%%$%"!'. a) Target language# b) Target culture) c) 4anguage learning. $e can see how these first criteria of suitability depend on each particular group of pupils# their needs and interests. b) 4anguage difficulty9 linguistic and stylistic le"el. L$ng$'%$) 1!,!1: 'f we want our pupils to en:oy reading a text we should bear in mind the following points9 - the "ocabulary and syntax of the text should be within our pupils grasp - idiomatic language should be kept at a minimum 't would be a5'2" to use the +a'%!2-$!)!' of childrens literature in our classes. Tnknown words should not occur more frequently than one or two e"ery hundred. $e must also bear in mind complex structure. This may also hinder comprehension as they will not see how one part of the text relates to another. Therefore# if both sentence structure and "ocabulary must be at a le"el they can understand# we will not be able to use classic children storybooks masterpieces. 'n fact the only type of classic childrens literature we can use will be 278+!' and '&ng'. $e must use +&"!2n '%&285&&0' with simple# short texts and meaningful illustrations. Ni"en the problems that lexical and structural difficulty pose# we may need to assess linguistic difficulty in a systematic way. From the point of "iew of &F4 it would be better# as 3ill suggests to use a clo(e test9 T3E CLOSE TEST 1 $e prepare a reasonably typical extract from the book and delete words from the passage on a regular basis (e"ery sixth or se"enth word). 1 $e instruct our pupils to supply the missing "ocabulary# so we will need -A deletions to ha"e "alidity. 7b"iously we assume we cannot really use it with our youngest pupils. 1 !"erage class results are9 a) M&2! %7an IG -!2 )!n% )&22!)%: our pupils can read the text on their own. b) 9!%6!!n 44 [ IG -!2 )!n%: our pupils can read it with us or with the dictionary help. c) 9!1&6 44 -!2 )!n%: they cannot read the text. *tylistic le"el. The use of unusual word order# di"ergent "ocabulary# and son will produce instances of foreground that cannot be appreciated if we do not ha"e a solid knowledge of what constitutes the linguistic norm. 't is useless therefore to choose texts of great stylistic complexity for the early stages of language learning. *tyle analysis should be based on the linguistic features with which our pupils are already familiar. !s a summary# based on &llis and rewster# we ha"e9 (. CRITERIA FOR SELECTING STORY9OO.S. L$ng$'%$) an" '%81$'%$) 1!,!1 -. L$ng$'%$) 1!,!1. a) Vocabulary) b) *tructures) c) Functions. /. S%81$'%$) 1!,!1. a) Foregrounding of "ocabulary and structure. c) !mount of background information required. 7ur pupils understanding of a text can also be hindered by their lack of background knowledge of &nglish speaking countries culture. $e must therefore bear in mind the amount of time we will ha"e to explain background knowledge when choosing the texts. 't is clear that our pupils limited knowledge of the world will not allow us to expand on most of these topics. 7nce and again we can ob"iously see that the linguistic# stylistic and background knowledge which is required for a fully understanding of most classic childrens literature works is #a2 beyond our pupils ken. M&"!2n '%&285&&0' are also more suitable from needed background knowledge point of "iew. d) &ducational and follow1up potential. 7nce we ha"e analy(ed the pre"ious aspects# we can finally ask oursel"es about the educational potential of the story in terms of9 learning &nglish language and culture) learning about other sub:ects) learning about the world) learning how to learn and also about the #&11&6:- -&%!n%$a1. e) %onclusions. The study of the pre"ious sections enables us to come to the following conclusions about the most suitable periods# literary genres and authors. MOST SUITA9LE PERIODS, AUT3ORS AND LITERARY GENRES. 1. P!2$&". <ostly nowadays works but we can also use traditional tales with an e"erlasting appeal such as 8ittle /ed /iding Hood9. (. A%7&2'. Traditional storytellers such as +errault and authors on the +uffin or &arly ird series such as Fack Kent# ,aymond riggs# Fohn urningham or ,oald @ahl. *. G!n2!'. $e can use small poems but mostly storybooks. $e will now study how to use these storybooks in our classroom. /. Tsing story books in the classroom. Tnderstanding a story in &nglish is hard work for our pupils# so the first thing we ha"e to pay attention to is how to help our pupils understand the story. SUPPORTING C3ILDRENKS UNDERSTANDING -. $e must pro"ide a )&n%!=% for the story and introduce the main characters. /. P2&,$"! ,$'a1 '--&2%: drawings on the blackboard# cut1out figures# flash cards#... 8. E=-1a$n the context# keywords and ideas in the mother tongue# if necessary. 6. 'dentify your 1$ng$'%$) &5E!)%$,!'. A. ,elate the story or associated acti"ities to work in other '5E!)% a2!a' if possible. 5. @ecide 7&6 1&ng you will spend on the story. B. @ecide in which &2"!2 to introduce or re"ise the language necessary for understanding the story. ?. @ecide 67!n and 7&6 you will read the story. .. 'f necessary# modify the story to make it +&2! a))!''$51! to your pupils. -D. Find out if there are any 278+!' or '&ng' to reinforce the language introduce. --. @ecide #&11&6:- a)%$,$%$!' to pro"ide opportunities for pupils to use the language in different contexts. 7nce we ha"e decided on the pre"ious questions we can begin to plan a story1based lesson9 P1ann$ng '%&28:5a'!" 1!''&n'. There are many ways to plan a lesson. 3owe"er# a predominantly oral lesson normally follows quite a fixed plan with small "ariations. $e may ha"e for example9 - /a2+:- an" 2!,$!6: informal chat to maintain rapport with our pupils. $e remind our pupils of what we did during the last lesson. - P2!'!n%a%$&n: both of the aims of the lessons and subsequently of the new language. - P2a)%$)!: controlled stage. - P2&")%$&n: communicati"e stage. - F$na1 2&n"$ng:-. .. -ypes of storybooks. There is a wide range of texts that we could use for the teaching of &nglish. 3owe"er# we consider storybooks as one of the most useful for that purpose# hence# we will mainly focus on this type. &llis and rewster ha"e classified storybooks under three headings9 Na22a%$,! #!a%2!' C&n%!n% La8&% 1 ,hyming words 1 ,epeating words 1 %umulati"e content and language 1 'nteracti"e 1 3umorous 1 &"eryday life 1 !nimal stories 1 TraditionalEfolkEfairy tales 1 Fantasy 1 Flap 1 %ut1away pages 1 <inimal text 1 =o text 1 *peech bubbles $e ha"e also made distinctions based on the le"el of difficulty but it is e"en more important to distinguish between a%7!n%$) and graded or a"a-%!" %!=%'. $e prefer to use authentic texts if this is not possible# at least we should use real1simulated texts gi"ing suggestions to adapt too difficult texts. (.1. A%7!n%$) ,' g2a"!" %!=%'. The main aim of all our teaching is to enable our pupils to reach communicati"e competence. !s the focus will be on assisting our pupils to do in class what they will need to do outside# the materials to be used will reflect the world outside. =unan describes authenticity as follows 0authentic materials are usually defined as those which ha"e been produced for purposes other than to teach language ("ideo clips# recordings of authentic interactions# extracts for TV[). !uthentic materials are easily :ustified on the grounds that specially scripted texts are artificial. <anipulating these texts does not mean that our pupils will comprehend and manipulate language in real communicati"e situations. 3owe"er# especially with our pupils# who are beginners# it may be necessary to edit authentic materials in a way. &dited materials can be classified into simulated authentic and artificial. ! non1authentic text# in language teaching terms# is 0one that has been designed especially for learners2 (3armer). $e can make a distinction here# howe"er# between texts which ha"e been made to illustrate particular language points for -2!'!n%a%$&n (artificial) and those which a--!a2 %& 5! a%7!n%$). <anipulating and comprehending simulated authentic texts will help our pupils to acquire the necessary skills they will need when they come to handle authentic material. *o we can conclude saying that the material designed to foster the acquisition of communicati"e competence must a% 1!a'% be simulated authentic. $e will finally see how we can adapt authentic texts which are slightly abo"e our pupils le"el. (.(. A"a-%$ng '%&2$!'. $hen adapting a story we face a "$1!++a9 if we simplify too much our pupils will lose the fla"our of real stories# so# what we can do is to try and adapt stories without losing much of the original magic following &llis and rewster guidelines. ADAPTING STORIES V&)a51a28 an" g!n!2a1 +!an$ng. -. %heck unfamiliar content or words. /. %heck idioms. 8. %heck clarity G2a++a2. -. %heck tenses. /. %heck use of structures. 8. %heck word order. O2gan$;a%$&n &# $"!a'. -. %heck sentence length and complexity. /. %heck time references. 8. %heck the way ideas are linked. 6. %heck the way ideas are explained. S%&28 1!ng%7. -. %heck the number of ideas in the story. y following the pre"ious criteria of selection and use of storybooks we will intend to make the most of literature in the classroom. /. Eibliography. %hildrens literature9 The %ambridge Nuide to &nglish literature. %T+. %ambridge# -..D. <ethodology9 &44'*# N. and ,&$*T&,# F.9 -he storytelling 3andbook for Primary -eachers. P!ng$n. L&n"&n, 1MM1. $&44147V&@ T!4&* *&,'&*9 L&g75&2&g7: La"85$2" 9&&0', 1MG4. OPOSICIONES AL CUERPO DE MAESTROS GALICIA ESPECIALIDAD: INGLRS T3EME 1I AUT3ORS, GENRES, AND LITERARY AGES SUITA9LE FOR TEFL. .INDS OF TEXTS PART ONE: TA9LE OF CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION 'f we consider that le"el is what students can actually do with the language# it will become ob"ious that e"en at the early stages students can in fact do a great deal with the language9 They can identify sounds ("owels. consonants# intonation# stress# rhythm)# certain words and structures. They can produce these orally) recogni(e them in a text and# at the "ery least# underline words# if they canPt actually set them down on a separate sheet of paper. 'n short# e"en the "ery beginners can do something with the language. The teacher then must build from that point by adding input which is neither too ad"anced# nor too easy. The input must be moti"ating enough for them to want to try to understand# first# and then try to reproduce in some way. %inema# music# and literature are rich in moti"ating material# if the teacher knows how to select and to present content in such a way that it will both challenge and moti"ate them. (. CONTENTS /.-. T7! 1$%!2a28 g!n2!' an" F$g2!' $n EFL The &nglish language is certainly rich in literary figures and genres) and the literary ages are full of intriguing aspects that students can find extremely moti"ating. %haucer# for example# is not merely an author who wrote a few famous tales in a strange dialect that nobody uses today. ut rather he tells some "ery good stories which# if a teacher can get beyond the purely academic side of the great literary figure# could well be introduced to students in such a way that suits their particular age group and le"el. ;he #anter!ury ;ales, for example# is tremendously full of material that will moti"ate students. !s long as the teacher knows how to select and to present the content (keeping in mind KrashenPs model of Oinput Z -O (input :ust a little abo"e the studentsP le"el) a great many literary figures can be successfully used in T&F4. $ithout forgetting# of course# that literature must be suitable to the studentsP le"el and age group# and that any text can be adapted to suit the needs and capabilities of &F4 students# the following is a selection of authors. genres# and periods that could be used in T&F4. /./. /!11:0n&6n %a1!' The following are some of the well known tales which are often published in colourful and easy1to1read graded readers9 OThe el"es and the shoemaker#O OThe three little pigs#O OThe gingerbread boy#O OThe little red hen#O OThe princess and the pea#O OThe sly fox and the little red hen#O OThe three billy1goats gruff#O O%hicken licken#O OThe three bears#O OThe ugly duckling#O OThe emperorPs new clothes#O OTown mouse and country mouse.#O*leeping beauty#O O+uss in boots#O O,umpelstiltskin ,apun(el#O OThe wolf and the se"en little kids#O O4ittle red riding hood#2 The bra"e tailor#O OFack and the beanstalk#O O3ansel and Nretel#O O%inderella#O Oeauty and the# beast#O O*now $hite and the se"en dwarfs#O OTomb ThumbO# OThe little mermaid#O and OThe $i(ard of 7(2 (O$ell1lo"ed talesO 4adybird9 -.55). o /!11:.n&6 R78+!' !dditionally# the following are a few well known rhymes and songs9 O7ne# two# put on your shoe#0 O$here is thumbkin#O O+olly put the kettle on#O O,ain# rain# go away#2 Two little birds sitting on a wall#2 This is the way#2 07ld <lacdonald had a farm#O O3ickory# dickory. @ock#2 0@iddle# diddle# dumpling#O OThis little pig#2 0This old man2# 0aa# bas# black sheep#O OThree blind mice#2 03ere is a church#2 2'nsey winsey spider#O O+at a cake#O O+ussy cat# +ussy cat#O O3umpty dumpty#O O,ide a cock horse#2 0Fack and Fill#O O3ey diddle# diddle#2 04ittle miss muffet#O O4ittle Fack horner#2 0$ee $illie $inkie#O O7ne potato# two potatoes#2 0Ten green bottles#O O&eny# meeny# miny# mo#O OThere was a girl#2 0'tPs raining# itPs pouring#2 0Fie# fie# foe# fum#2 0The bra"e old @uke of >ork#O OTherePs a hole in my bucket2# 0There was an old woman who li"ed in a shoe.O O3ush little baby#O O4ittle bo1peep#O O*ing a song of sixpence#O O7h dear# what can the matter be;#O O4ittle boy blue The house that Fack built#O O*he sells seashells#O O+eter piper.O OThirty days has *eptember#2 There was an old woman who swallowed a fly#O OTen green and speckled frogs The owl and the +ussy cat#O (@akin -.5?). (.4. 92$%$'7 A%7&2' an" T!=%' Beowulf The text# in 7ld &nglish. is from the -Dth1cent. ut it was belie"ed written in the 5th1cent. The tale is about the life of the Neatish hero eowulf who in his youth fights and kills Nrendel# a monster and then kills the monsterPs mother. Fifty years later he battles a dragon and both are killed. %haucerPs ;he #anter!ury tales, in prose and "erse# was written in the late -6th1cent. The story begins when twenty1nine pilgrims on their way to %anterbury agree to tell tales as they go to make the time pass by quicker. There are twenty1four tales told altogether. They include the following9 OThe knightPs tale#O OThe millerPs tale#O OThe ree"ePs tale The cookPs tale#O OThe man of lawPs tale#O OThe wife of bathPs tale#O OThe friarPs Tale#O OThe summonerPs tale#2 0The clerkPs tale#2 0The merchantPs tale#O OThe squirePs tale The FranklinPs tale#O OThe physicianPs tale The pardonerPs tale#O etc. %ir -awain and the -reen <night is an alliterati"e poem from the second half of the -6th1 cent. The story begins at King !rthurPs court in %amelot during a new yearPs feast. ! large green man appears and dares the knights to cut his head off. >oung Nawain obliges him# after accepting the challenge that he will allow his own head to be cut off on the same day the following year. The Nreen Knight picks up his se"ered head and retires. ! year later# Nawain sets out to meet his fate# coming to a castle# where he is in"ited in as a guest. The lord of the castle comes to an agreement with him# that whate"er comes to pass the young knight will report it to the lord. $hen the lordPs wife tries to seduce him# he resists. but the lady insists and he allows her at last to make a present to him of her garter. 3e does not report this to the lord of the castle who re"eals his true identity9 he is the Nreen Knight. The Nreen Knight honors him for his honesty and courage# and pardons Nawain the debt he has come to pay. =e"ertheless# he cuts the young knightPs neck with his axe# for not telling him about his wifePs garter. .iers .lowman, a late -6th1cent. poem in <iddle &nglish by $illiam 4angland# tells of how the narrator fell asleep in the forest one day and of the many things that passed in his dream. *ir +hilip *idney (-AA61?5) is an attracti"e figure9 3e was a romantic poet and a courageous knight who was killed in Flanders in an attack he led on a *panish supply con"oy. There are aspects of his life1if not some of his literary work1which students would find interesting. &dmund *penser (c. -AA/1..) was author of# among other works# ;he )aerie Eueene, which contains some interesting material about courtiers and knights# dragons and medie"al castles. *penserPs life is of some interest# especially his friendship with *ir $alter ,aleigh and his encounter with the 'rish people. $illiam *hakespeare (-A561-5-5) has a great many plays which are of particular interest to the young. 3is history plays are full of intriguing stories of &nglish kings and queens GHenry CIII, /ichard III$. There are parts of some of his tragedies which are particularly moti"ating# such as the three witches in &ac!eth, or the ghost scene in Hamlet, and of course# /omeo and Duliet attracts much attention among the young. *e"iral of his comedies are appealing to young students# especially ! &idsummer :ightMs 6ream and ;he ;empest # both of which ha"e a good many# scenes in"ol"ing youths about the same age as the students. Though the 0metaphysical2 writings of Fohn @onne (-AB/1-58-) are "ery difficult to appreciate# the life of the man can be of interest to you and students. The poet sailed with &ssex to sack %adi( in -A.5 and with ,aleigh to hunt the *panish treasure ships off the !(ores in -A.B. en Fonson (-AB/E81-58B) is another intriguing literary figure whose life is of particular interest to students. %oming from the lower class# he struggled to educate himself and e"entually became one of the known playwrights in &ngland. +arts of his comedies are moti"ating9 Colpone is about a man who pretends he dying to get money from people who pretend to be honest but are in fact rogues. 3e wrote ;he &asque ofBlackness for Xueen !nne because she had always wanted to appear on stage as a =egress. !nd ;he 'lchemist is an hilarious comedy about a ser"ant# Face# who# with a fake alchemist# takes ad"antage of the absence of the owner of a house in lackfriars in 4ondon during an epidemic. They use the house to trick roguish people out of money. Fohn <ilton (-5D?1B6) li"ed during a "ery crucial period in the history of ritain. 3e was a +uritan who sided with those who fa"ored the execution of King %harles '. The sub:ect of the ci"il war is intriguing and full of anecdotes. <iltonPs .aradise ost, an epic poem in twel"e books written in blank "erse# is the story of !dam and &"e and the Narden of &den. The character of *atan was unique in that the demon was presented in "ery humanlike# and at times sympathetic# terms. There are scenes in long the poem that are worth summari(ing# such as when *atan# ee(elbub# and the legions of the rebellious angels ha"e an assembly) or when *atan and &"e first meet. !phra ehn (-56D;1-5?.) is a tremendously intriguing figure. *he was a spy for King %harles '' and worked under co"er in !ntwerp during the @utch war. 3er play ;he /over is about the ad"entures of a band of &nglish ca"aliers in =aples and <adrid. !nd ,roonoko, or ;he /oyal %lave, one of the first no"els e"er written# is about !fricans who are captured and sold into sla"ery in *outh !merica. The no"el is full of interesting anecdotes. !nimals were used in Oooks for boys and girlsO and O%ountry rhymes for childrenO# published in -5?5. The stories had a moral to teach. They were well known not only in ritain but also in 'taly# France# and *pain. Furthermore# some of the "erse from O@i"ine and moral songs for childrenO are still heard to this day9 O3ow doth the little busy bee;O @aniel@efoe(-55D1-B8-) is best known fo rhis no"e 0,obinson%rusoe2 .The time in which he wrote is particularly interesting# since it coincided with the growth of the colonies in =orth !merica. The no"el is based on the experiences of !lexander *elkirk on the island of Fuan Fernande(. The relationship between the shipwrecked ,obinson and an indigenous inhabitant of a deserted island is of particular interest. Fonathan *wift (-55B1-B6A) is especially well known for his -ullivers ;ravels, about a shipwrecked surgeon on the island of 4illiput# where the inhabitants are a mere six inches high. 'n the second part# the surgeon is shipwrecked on an island where the inhabitants are as tall steeples. 'n the third part# the surgeon finds himself on a flying island# and in the fourth part he is in a country ruled by horses with more sense (reason) than most humans. $illiam %ongre"e (- 5BD1-B/.) is of inter est to young students in that he wrote his satirical plays during the ,estoration period# when the monarchy was restored after twenty years of exile in France. %ongre"e# &therege# Farquhar# Vanbrugh# and $ycherley wrote hilarious satires in the comedy of manners style. The fashion and the influence of the French court on &nglish society is an interesting topic to de"elop) it is something which the comedy of manners style has preser"ed. +erhaps less intriguing for the young than @efoe and *wift# loseph !ddison (-5B/1-B-.) and *ir ,ichard *teele (-5B/1-B/.) are of interest in that they wrote for newspapers and periodicals such as the ;atler, ;he %pectator, ;he -uardian. Fournalism is a "ery important literary style today as it was in !ddison and *teelePs day. %omparing bhe two ages and making periodicals or newspapers in class can be quite moti"ating. The writings of the poet !lexander +ope (-5??1-B66) typify the =eoclassical style in ritish literature. 3is poem in rhyming couplets ;he /ape of the ock is interesting as a story in itself. !t a card game# a young gentleman# enamored with a young lady# bra(enly cuts off a lock of her hair in front of e"eryone. 't is not only an excellent piece for discussing the manners of that time# but also representati"e of the kind of encounters of a sexual nature that young people normally face. *amuel Fohnson (- BD.1?6) is an example of a writer who was born with few economical means and became one of the most renowned man of letters in the -?th1cent. 3is early friendship with @a"id Narrick# before the latter because a famous actor# is interesting# as there are many of oswells anecdotes in his biography of Fohnsons life. /asselas, .rince of '!ysinia is a no"el which is full of ad"entures about a young prince and his sister on a :ourney to exotic far away places. Fohn =ewbery (-B-815B) was one of the earliest known publishers of childrenPs books. 3e published fables# poems# tales and no"els. ONoody Two *hoesO# considered the first book created especially for children# may ha"e been written by the playwright 7l"ier Noldsmith (; - B8D1B6) 1the author of the uproariously funny play %he %toops to %onquer1for =ewbery. 'n -BA8# he published OThe 4illiputian <aga(ineO# in -B5/# OTuiii TelesuupeO# and O<other Noose Fairy TalesO in -B5A. =ursery rhymes or O"erse for childrenO were a mixture of popular folklore# myths and age old songs. 3a"ing been created for entertainment more than for didactic reasons# they tended to be playful and imaginati"e. 't is for this reason that they often seem strange or absurd. <ary $ollstonecraft (-BA.1.B) is a tremendously appealing figure whose life was a continuous ad"enture. 'n -B./ she went to +aris to participate in the French ,e"olution# and there fell in lo"e with an !merican writer# by whom she had a daughter who would die soon afterwards. <ary managed to escape the ,eign of Terror in France. @own and out in 4ondon# she tried to take her life# but was nurtured back to health by $illiam Nodwin# a philosopher of anarchical opinions# with whom she later had a daughter# <ary# who would one day marry the poet *helley and write the no"el )rankenstein. <ary $ollstonecraft is known for her two books# ! Cindication ofthe /ights of men and ! Cindication of the /ights of "omen, written two years later. *he died shortly after gi"ing birth to her daughter. There are ob"iously a great many aspects worthy of attention not only with regard to the authorPs life# but also to the messages of her books. <ary $ollstoneeraftPs daughter# <ary $ollstoneeraft *helley (-B.B1-?A-)# eloped with the young +erey ysshe *helley at se"enteen# and li"ed with the poet abroad till his premature death in -?//. *he knew yron and Keats "ery well# and her life is an example of the young romantic world "iew of the early nineteenth century. 3er novel )rankenstein is still an often read classic# and many "ersions of it ha"e been reenacted. $illiam lake (-BAB1-?/B) is an alluring figure and his poetry# especially %ongs of innocence and of e+perience, and is full of material suitable for young people. !nd as he was also a painter and an engra"er# there are prints a"ailable of much of his work. %ongs of Innocence and of 0+perience contains some "ery moti"ating poems# such as OThe %himney *weeperO (O$hen my mother died - was "ery young#E !nd my father sold me while yet my tongueE could scarcely cry ooPweepb Pweep# PweepbmmO)# or OThe TygerO (OTygerb Tygerb burning brightE 'n the forests of the nightO) or OThe 4ittle lack oyO (O<y mother bore me in the southern wild#E !nd - am black# but 7hb my soul is whiteO). !nd an added plus is that his poems are generally expressed in a "ery simple language. ,obert urns (-BA.1.5) was an extra"agant figure who wrote poems in *cottish dialect. 3is life is of interest9 !s a young man he greatly belie"ed in the equality of all mankind# and so he defended the cause of the French ,e"olution. 7ne of his poems# O!uld 4ang *yneO# though in a language which is difficult to understand# is still sung by a great many nati"e speakers of &nglish the world o"er on =ew >ears &"e9 O*hould auld acquaintance be forgot#E !nd ne"er brought to minP;E *hould auld acquaintance be forgot#E !nd days oP lang syne;E For auld lang syne# my dear# For auld lang syne#E $ePll take a cup oP kindness yet#E For auld lang syne.O $illiam $ordsworth (-BBD1-?AD) was a poet who was in fa"our of the French ,e"olution when he was young# but who later spoke out against it. 3e left a French girl# with child and returned to &ngland and settled down with his sister @orothy. 3is yrical Ballads, which he coauthored with %oleridge is considered a landmark in &nglish ,omanticism. 7f particular interest to the young is his long poem ;he .relude, in which he spends a great deal of time speaking about his infancy and school days. The psychological insight into his childhood experience is remarkable. *amuel Taylor %oleridge (-BB/1-?86) as a young man was an idealist who fa"oured the French ,e"olution and in -B.6# along with ,obert *outhey# planned to start a +antisocratic commune in !merica# which ne"er came to be. %oleridge became addicted to opium# as did people in ritain in the early -.th1cent. after doctors prescribed huge quantities of laudanum (opium dissol"ed in alcohol) to ease pain. There is a lot to his long poem OThe ,ime of the !ncient <arinerO that can be adapted9 ! ship in the *outh +ole region runs into a streak of "ery bad luck when a madner kills an albatross for no particular reason. The story is told by the mariner# and the scenes he narrates command attention. *ir $alter *cott (-BB-1-?8/) wrote no"els of medie"al sub:ects which were popular in ritain and !merica. Ol"anhoeO is still widely# read among young people9 'n it# $ilfred of '"anhoe# son of a noble *axon# :oins ,ichard the 4ion 3earted at the %rusade in the 3oly 4and. Fohn# ,ichardPs younger brother# tries to o"erthrow him in his absence. '"anhoe helps ,ichard restore authority. 'n the no"el# ,obin 3ood and Friar Tuck also appear. 7ther no"els by *cott include ;he &onastery, ;he '!!ot, and ;ales ofv the #rusades. Neorge Nordon yron (-B??1-?/6) belonged to the generation of &nglish ,omantic poets that followed $ordsworth and %oleridge. 3e ga"e up a seat in the 3ouse of 4ords to li"e in exile. 3is poem O%hilde 3aroldPs +ilgrimageO made him famous in -?-/. The poem describes the poetPs tra"els# among other places# through +ortugal and *pain. yronPs personal life was the talk of &urope at the time# for he was rich and handsome and notorious for his escapades of pleasure and OsinfulO beha"iour. 3e is said to ha"e swum the 3ellespont with a friend for the fun of it. 3is O@on FuanO contains parts which young *paniards may find interesting# especially the part that describes Fuan as a youngster in *e"ille and# when he gets older# his mother# O@onnaO 'ne(# sends him away to %adi( and then abroad. 3e was also an idealist who armed a body of troops with his own money in order to help the Nreeks in their filht against the Turks. 3e died of fe"er# though# before the Oyron rigadeO saw real action. The poet +ercy ysshe *helley (-B./1-.//) was a friend of yron. !s a student at 7xford# he was notorious for his uncon"entional dress and his eccentricity. 3e was a rebel# denouncing royalty# and a "egetarian. 3e eloped with <ary Nodwin $ollstonecraft when she was se"enteen# and he li"ed abroad for the remainder of his life. O+rometheus TnboundO is perhaps the most promising of his poems for the &F4 teacher. +rometheus is said to ha"e disobeyed \eus by teaching mankind how to use fire. *helley has him chained to a rock as punishment for disobeying the supreme god. ut +rometheus does not repent his act# and in the end# +rometheus triumphs o"er tyrany. *helley was drowned when# returning from "isiting yron# his boat capsi(ed near 4i"omo. Fohn Keats (-B.A1-?/-) was a friend of *helley. 3e didnPt write poetry until he was eighteen# and :ust in a few years he had earned a name for himself and had a "ery successful future ahead of him. ut he died of tuberculosis at the age of twenty1six. 3is poem OThe &"e of *t. !gnisO is particularly promising in its treatment of legend that says that if a young girl performs a certain ritual# she will dream of her future husband on the e"ening before *t. !gnesP @ay (Fanuary /-st). Keats writes a breathtaking story of how a young maid is "isited that night by a youn ( man who is in lo"e with her# and what betides them. !lfredTennyson(-?D.1./) was a popular poet in both &ngland and the Tnited*tates. 7ne of his most often read poems still is OThe %harge of the 4ight rigade#O which he wrote after reading in ;he ;imes about a heroic ca"alry charge at alacla"a during the %rimean $ar in which three quarters of the six hundred ca"alrymen were killed or captured by the ,ussians who defended the position. !nother example of expatriate &nglish writers were the poets ,obert rowning (-?-/1?.) and &li(abeth rowning (-?D515-) who were married in -?65 and went to li"e in 'taly. The fact that both were famous poets# married# and expatriates is sufficient enough material to pursue. ,obertPs O*oliloquy of the *panish %loisterO and O%hristmas1&"e and &aster1@ayO are alluring titles# but hardly material for young &F4 students. %harles @ickens (- ?-/1BD) is by far one of the most useful authors for &F4 teachers. &specially popular are his no"els 6avid #opperfield, ,liver ;wist, and -reat 0+pectations, and his ! #hristmas #arol is still customat >uletide reading for the yourth. The rontp sisters# %harlotte (-?-51AA)# &mily (-?-?16?) and !nne (-?/D16.)# are interesting figures. Their father was an 'rishman who was curate of 3aworth# >orkshire. Their mother died in -?/A# lea"ing them to be cared for by their aunt. They were sent to a %lergy @aughtersP *chool which# it is belie"ed# pro"ed to be such a harsh place that it impaired their health and may ha"e hastened the deaths of two elder sisters. The girls grew up reading and admiring such authors as yron and $alter *cott# and such exotic tales as ;he 'ra!ian :ights. The harshness of schools and schoolmasters at that time is a sub:ect of interest for young students# as is the story of three girls who e"entually became famous authors. !nnePs 'gnes -rey was originally published under the pseudonym !cton ell. %harlottePs Dane 0yre is especially well known because of the 7rson $ells film that was made of it. !nd &milyPs "uthering Heights was also made into a film in -..6. 4ewis %arroll# whose real name was %harles 4utwidge @odgson# (-?8/1-?.?) is famous for two books which he wrote especially for children9 'lice in "onderland and ;hrough the ooking4-lass. 7f the two# perhaps the &F4 teacher will find the former more useful9 %ertainly many of the scenes# such as the rabbit rushing down the hole after consulting his watch# are quite well known. The story of how %arrol had made up the tale to entertain the two daughters Lone of whose names was !lice1 of a friend on a boat trip offers possibilities of capti"ating the attention of the students as well. 3e apparently later created the second tale specially for !lice. /oald 6ahl G=>QB4=>>=$ wrote some of the most popular novels for children in recent years* #harlie and the #hocolate )actory, ;he "iiches, -remlins, and a many others. !s a boy he was educated in &nglish boarding schools# and many of his no"els reflect the many unpleasant experiences he had there. (.I. A%7&2' an" %!=%' #2&+ %7! Un$%!" S%a%!' Though it did ha"e a few high spots in the early years of the ,epublic# The Tnited *tates had no flourishing literature of its own until the middle of the -.th1cent. 't is a good idea for &F4 teachers who are non1nati"e speakers to familiari(e themsel"es with !merican authors and their works in order to better understand the culture and the language that !mericans use. Though students can hardly be expected to read these authors themsel"es# the teacher can help them to appreciate the literature# in the hope that at some time in the future they will read the texts on their own. %ertainly :ust talking about any one of the following authors and the time and place they li"ed would pro"ide ample moti"ating material for &F4 class acti"ities. $ashington 'r"ing (-B?81-?A.)# a =ew >orker# published his well known tale O,ip Van $inkleO in -?/D. Th5 still often told story is about a man who falls asleep on a mountain and wakes up many years later to find that the colonies ha"e become a republic. The tale offers many possibilities of comparing life in the T.*. before and after the @eclaration of 'ndependence. =athaniel 3awthorne (-?D61-?56) was a from =ew &ngland +uritan stock. 3is stories and no"els depict some of the harshest realities of +uritanism and its effect on people. !side from his well known no"els ;he %carlet etter and ;he House of the %even -a!les, he also wrote some works for children# such as ! "onder Book and ;anglewood ;ales. 3is short story O>oung Noodman rownO is an intriguing tale of how a man meets a demon in the forest who in"ites him to a party. &dgar !llan +oe (-?D.1-?6.) was from oston# <assachusetts# but he spent fi"e years in a primary school in &ngland. 3is ;ales of the -rotesque and 'ra!esque includes one of his most famous stories# OThe Fall of the 3ouse of Tsher#O a Nothic tale in which the narrator "isits a childhood friend in his decayed old mansion. !dditionally# his poem OThe ,a"enO is still popular. 3erman <el"ille (-?-.1-?.-) was friends with =athaniel 3awthorne. !s a boy# <el"ille sailed to 4i"erpool# found work on a whaler bound for the *outh *eas# :umped ship and :oined the T* =a"y# ser"ing for three years. From his experience on the high seas he wrote his famous no"el &o!y46ick, about an obsessed captain in relentless pursuit of a great white whale. Billy Budd, )oretopman is about a sailor who is abused by an officer whom he strikes dead in a fit of anger and is hanged for it. ! well known short story is Oartleby the *cri"enerO# about a law1copyist who decides to mo"e into the office where he works in the $all *treet district of <anhattan# and his bossPs repeated and unsuccessful efforts to get him to lea"e. 't is a good story for discussing how scri"eners used to copy e"erything by hand# and what $all *treet was like then and what it is like now. <ark Twain (-?8A1-.-D) was *amuel 4anghome %lemensP pseudonym. 3is years growing up on the banks of the <ississippi ri"er and later as a pilot on the ri"er were recreated in his two most famous no"els ;om %awyer1about the antics of Tom in a small town1 and Huckle!erry Finn1about the orphan 3uck and his excursion down the <ississippi with an escaped sla"e. ;he .rince and .auper narrates how a prince changes places with a beggar. ! #onnecticut 7ankee in <ing 'rthur #ourt is perhaps one of his most imaginati"e works# telling of how a >ankee businessman is clubbed o"er the head by his factory workers and comes to in during King !rthurPs legendary reign in early medie"al &ngland. The no"el can introduce a comparison of medie"al life to what life was like in the late -.th1cent. and to modern life. <ark Twain also wrote some entertaining stories# such as OThe %elebrated Fumping Frog of %ala"eras %ountyO and OakerPs lue:ay >arnO. ret 3arte (-?851-.D/) wrote a good many stories about life in the !merican $est. OTennesseePs +artnerP. OThe 7utcasts of +oker Flat#O and OThe 4uck of ,oaring %ampO pro"ide excellent descriptions of what it was like to li"e in the $est. !nd his poem O+lain 4anguage from Truthful Fames#O does honour to a culture that respects directness and unadorned simplicity. !mbrose ierce (;-?6/1-.-6) also wrote about the !merican $est. 3e ser"ed in the !merican %i"il war. 'n 0The oarded $indow2 he narrates what it was like in the area around %incinnatrti# 7hio in the early -?8Ds# where there is 0an inmense and almost unbroken forest. The whole reghion was sparsely settled by people of the frontier Lrstless souls[ (*tegner -.AB9 -A6).2 3enry Fames (- ?681-.-5) came from a rich family and was therefore able to tra"el a great deal and to study in 4ondon# +aris# and Nene"a. !s a young man he felt more at home among the &uropean upper class society and thus settled in &urope in -?BA. 3is writings are a blending of !merican and &uropean world "iews9 3is no"el 6aisy &iller is a mar"elous example of the impact of !merican "er"e on &uropean staidness. @aisy is an energetic and freespirited young !merican whom the narrator# an !merican who has spent most of his life li"ing on the %ontinent and# as such# is more &uropean than !merican# becomes attracted to. ut because he is inhibited by manners and con"ention# he cannot get close to her. @aisy scandali(es the members of Orespectable societyO with her uninhibited language and beha"iour. 7ther well1known no"els of his include "ashington %quare, ;he Bostonians, and .ortrait oflady. 7. 3enry (-?5/1-.-D)# pseudonym of $illiam *ydney# famous for his amusing short stories which he began writing when he was in prison. OThe ,ansom of ,ed %hiefP is about the kidnapping of a child who causes his kidnappers so much trouble that they are willing to throw away the ransom :ust to get rid of him. OThe Nift of the <agiO narrates how a woman sells her hair to buy her husband a watch chain and how he sells his watch to buy her a set of combs for %hristmas. OThe 4ast 4eaf relates how a young lady# bedridden with pneumonia# is con"inced that she will die when the lea"es fall from the trees. 3er neighbour paints lea"es on her window# thus keeping her ali"e. &dith $harton (- ?5/1-.8 B) was a close friend of 3enry Fames. !nd like him# she wrote about. !mericans in &urope. O,oman Fe"erO tells of two elderly !merican ladies in ,ome recalling an incident that happened to them in# that "ery city when they were young. *tephen %rane (- ?B-1-.DD) became famous at the age of twenty1four with his no"el ;he /ed Badge of #ourage about a young soldier in battle during the !merican %i"il $ar. 3e was a :ournalist and he wrote about the *panish1!merican $ar of -?... 3e had tremendously promising career ahead of him when# on "isit to Nermany# he died of tuberculosis. *herwood !nderson (-?B51-.6-) was famous for "ines!urg, ,hio, a collection of short stories about life in a small town. ;ar* ' &idwest #hildhood is semi1autobiographical. Fames Thurber (-?.61-.5-) his humorous short stories# written for the maga(ine ;he :ew 7orker of life in OmiddleO !merica were "ery popular. 3is short story OThe *ecret 4ife of $alter <ittyO is still customary reading. $illiam Faulker (-?.B1-.5/)# though a difficult no"elist for many# wrote a great deal from the perspecti"e of a boy9 ;he %ound and the )ury, 's I ay 6ying, and O$asO in -o 6own &oses. ! southerner from the state of <ississippi# he ser"ed with the %anadian !ir Force in the First $orld $ar because he was not accepted in the T* !ir Force. 3is books narrate life in the OdeepO south. 3e won the =oble +ri(e in -.AD. F. lotnerPs biography of him# as recently translated and published in *pain. ! reading of his childhood would gi"e the teacher a great deal of information about what growing up in the *outh was like. -o 6own &oses tells of a boyPs friendship with an indian and his hunting a bear for the first time. !nd O$asO narrates in humorous terms an incident that occurred when a sla"e runs off to "isit his girlfriend on a nearby plantation. 7ne of the main characters in 's I ay 6ying narrates how his dead mother is transported in a wagon to a family burial ground in another county. Fohn *teinbeck was from %alifornia. <ost of his no"els and stories deal with the state. ;he -rapes of "rath is about a family# the Fodes# which has been forced off its land during the depression and tries to get to reach *tate %alifomia is full of immigrants who had to lea"e their <idwestern homes as a result of the Nreat @epresion. There are children in the family and parts would certainly interest young people. , f&ice and &en is also useful for teahers# since one of the characters is a "ery large man who# in reality# is a big kid. OThe +earlO is a "ery good short story to consider for &F4. 3e won the =oble +ri(e in -.5/. &. 3emingway (- ?..1-.5 -) is particularly useful to the &F4 teacher for his close connection with *pain in the -.8Ds. ;he %un !lso /ises, )iesta, and )or "hom the Bell ;olls are directly about *pain. ;he ,ld &an and the %ea is about a %uban fiisherman who catches an enormous fish hePll ne"er manage to bring to port# and nobody belie"es him. 3e won toe =obel +ri(e in -.A6. F. @. *alinger (-.-.1) is still popular among young readers for his no"el ;he #atcher in the rye (-.A-) about an adolescent who runs from a boarding school in a small town to =ew >ork %ity. !nd )ranny and \ooey (-.5-) # who is also about two adolescents# a brother and a sister# members of an eccentric family. Two !fro1!merican writers in particular offer material that can be of interest. !lice $alkerPs no"el ;he #olor .urple was made into a film. 't is an excellent story about the life of an !fro1!merican woman in the *outh. 't is specially useful for the many parts it has that in"ol"e children. !nd Toni <orrison# who :ust recently won the =o"el +ri(e of 4iterature# writes excellent stories about !fro1!mericans. 3er no"el Beloved, which won the +ulit(er +ri(e in -.??# has some good scenes in"ol"ing adolescent girls. *.: 9I9LIOGRAP3Y !,!<*# <. 3.# ed.9 (-..8). ;he :orton anthology of 0nglish literature. 4ondon9 $. $. =orton. %T,,&=T1N!,%F!# &. and +. $!4T7=# ,.9 (- >@Q$. 'merican short stories. 6th ed. 4ondon9 *cott# Foresman and %ompany. @!K'=# F.9 (-.?B). %ongs and rhymes for the teaching of 0nglish. 3arlow9 4ongman. @,!4&# <. and *T,'=N&,# F. eds.9 (-..D). ;he #oncise ,+ford #ompanion to 0nglish literature. 7xford9 7xford Tni". +ress. *!<+*7=# N.9 (-.BD). ;he #oncise #am!ridge History of 0ngllish iterature. 8rd ed.# re". and enl. by ,. %. %ambridge9 %ambridge Tni"ersity +ress. $&44147V&@ T!4&* *&,'&*. (-.B6). 4oughborough. 4adybird ooks. PART T/O: PRACTICAL DEVELOPMENT 1. LEVEL 8rd cycle (5th grade) (. TIME OF SESSIONS 7ne week# in !pril# to be finished by the day dedicated to the childrenPs book. /. O9JECTIVES 8.-. G!n!2a1 1 To read and comprehend short texts (=arrati"e form) 1 To produce a short written text gi"ing information 8./. S-!)$#$) : ,ecogni(e the importance of reading habits : 'mpro"e reading skills in the foreign language 1 4earn about the literature written in the foreign language. 8. MET3ODOLOGY The methodology used should be suitable to a communicati"e approach to teaching &nglish as a foreign language. That is# taking into consideration the age# ability and needs of the students# as well as the criteria specified in the o"erall ob:ecti"es of the course# the &F4 teacher should apply learning strategies which are based on learning by doing# i.e.# task oriented strategies. The tasks required elicit a participati"e attitude on the part of the learners and a guiding role on the part of the teacher. !dditionally# the teacher should help the students to learn both to think and to do in the target language. I. T3E TEAC3ING UNIT: SPECIFIC CONTENTS #onceptual* 1 "ocabulary9 words related to literature (authorE different genres etc.) 1 phonological aspects9 the pronunciation of the names of the authors worked. 1 grammar structures9 M-ulliverMs ;ravels by[ E't is the story of[ EF. *wift was born in[ and died in [ .rocedural* 1 group work 1 note taking 1 in"estigation in the 4ibrary. %ociological aspects. 1 cross curricular acti"ities interactio"n L. ACTIVITIES AND TAS.S 5.-. The Teacher (T) brings se"eral graded books tc the class and checks# how many authors are known by students and starts the 8"eek of ;ravels around 0nglish iterature ] (ONulli"ers Tra"els2). L.(. (T) di"ides students in groups of four and gi"es each group an assignment9 a research pro:ect on an author and his or her books. L.*. &ach group decides on its own class pro:ect which is to be finished by the end of the week L. 4. (T) helps students with the# re.search# bringirig all the materials from the resource1 room need (books# maga(ines# slides# postcards# mo"ies# music# etc.) L.I. &ach group will be gi"en a big piece of butcher paper where they can stick their work. L.L ! class field trip to the local 4ibrary# to look for translations of the authors selected. L.G. Nuided readings of famous stories so the students will be able to write short sentences informing about some data (name of the author) place and date of birth) names of the most well known books9 what is the story about and famous characters). G. MATERIALS The materials ha"e already been mentioned. H. FINAL TAS. &ach group exposes its work to the rest of the class9 they may paste the information (texts# photocopies# drawings) on the wall paper and perform something about it9 ,ead aloud) sing a song) read a poem) perform a skit# etc. M. EVALUATION (!ccording to Theme =q -6.) TEMA-15 LTERARY PERODS, AUTHORS AND GENRES SUTABLE FOR DDACTC APPLCATONS N ENGLSH CLASS.TYPES OF TEXTS. 1. ntroduction Before analysing the literary periods,authors or genres more suitable for their application and use in English class its necessary to study the student bodys needs, their preferences and expectations in facing and English class first. The pupil of this age always desires inmediate results. t is possible that they will go out being able to speak something in this language ,being anxious to show what he has learnt ,without worring about mistakes and hell be prepared to use this language according to his needs,experimenting with sounds and words or using ,gestures.Therefore it is easier to acquire a language by being expposed to it than learning a series of rulers which involve a series of complicated mechanisms of the language. Other characteristic of this stage is restlessness We shoould desing activities: -Which can keep their attention - an overlong activity leads to boredoom -and understandable to the pupil .They should be near the reality of the pupil which will facilitate starting mechanisms of expression. Literature would suppose a good way of approaching these interests and it would give an inexhaustible soource of resources to satisfy the pupils needs of this stage. Before analysing periods,authors or genres we have thought about pupils underlying needds in the classroom .Now wwe have to decide the linguistic and extralinguistic characteristics of thr text which will allow us to use it to develop the basic aims. The emotional factor plays a main role in everything we do,read think or say , and literature transposes us to all kind of real or imaginative situations ,and it close us to all kinds of characteres -reallistic or fictional- and seeing ourselves reflected in situation bring us close to literature .f the literature is in a foreing language in a pleasant form. The vocabulary should be contextualise and should be a kind of language easy to imitate:by rhythm or by intonation, it has to have frequent repetitions ,and it also has to be composed of words which can be used in a natural form in the organitation of the class, in games ,...which suggests that it has to be presented in simple sintactic structures. Lastly , if pupils can anticipate what comes next,they will have more confidence, because their problems of comprehension will be reduced ,which helps them to learn with less effort. 2 .PERODS,AUTHORS AND GENRES.TYPES OF TEXTS. According to what has been stated above the traditional tales ,fairy tales,picture stories,nursery rhymes,jokes,modern or traditional songs and limericks are considered as Literary Genres more ssuitable to the pupilss of this stage. Normally ,we can take texts (oral or written )from popular tradition so the text is as important or more than the authors,especially in the case of the traditional tales,which are -in most cases-compilattions of tales and oral traditions which have been translated to the different european languages (Perrault,Andersen,Grimm,..). The tales The use of the tale offers an ideal system of introduction to foreing language and culture and it creates a possitive atmosphere so that the pupil wants to carry on learning. n the psychological field ,the tales exercise the imagination and they offer an inexhaustible source of experiences and emotions and if the tales are related by the teacher ,they offer a collective experience of feelings,laughter,sadness...,which makes the pupil feel integrated in the group ,develop self-confidence and mature emotionally and socially. One of the characteristics of tales is the natural repetition of certain elements of vocabulary, if they are narrated in class .the intonation ,the sense of the rhythm and the possibility that pupils want tohear the whole story again,this allows the teacher to use these resources to get a larger number of repetitions of certain elements of interest without the problem of saturation of the student body. Respecting the narration of the tales we have the dilemma of the teacher as narrator or the use of the cassette .The latter has some advantages such as music,however,the teacher can give to his narration the human factor ,and the pronuntiation and the intonation can be improved through recordings.Teacher as narrator facilitates the intervention of pupils with questions when they have not understood something ,the repetition of fragments which they have not understood or the slowing down of the narration when it is necessary. Respecting the suitability of adapting tales in class ,for children from eight years old, we should thinK of the techniques which are used when tales are narrated for the first time and howthe narration developes slowly.One of the characteristic of tales is that they can be narrated in a thousand different ways,which facilitates the adaptation of the same tale to different levels .The tale is a flexible tool in our hands. f we think of tales as reading instead of as narration ,there is a wide range of tales for English -speaking children of these ages,in addition to a series of simplified versions directed at children who are learninig Engllish as a Second Language. Normally ,we consider that the former are better than the latter ,especially because of the ilustrations done by drawers ,which gives a greater degree of satisfaccion in the reading .A careful selection of the texts for the E-class in relation to vocabulary ,structures and themes of interest could permit that the tales which are read in class are the same that Englissh children read at this age . As for the most suitable works ,there is a great varieety ,from the traditional tales (&ittle 'ed 'iding (ood) *uss in Boots or other tales from *errault+ to the most modern tales,in which their protagonistscan be animals -which are good for snowing the daily llife of children (The tale of *eter 'a""it,"y Beatrix *otter , and #hose contexts are as British as the language itself )-or the heroes can be personages of daily life (*ostman *at+ or familliar elements of our modern civilization (Thomas , the Tan- Engine+.Excepting the series by Beatrix Potter ,which needs be adapted ,either Thomas ,the tank Engine, or Postman Pat in original version,with a suitable guide woould be easily accesible to children from eight years old. We should not forget famous authors ,whose novels and short stories althought not intended for children ,can be adapted . -Gullivers Travels by Jonathan Swift -Huckleberry Finnby Mark Twain - A Christmas Carrol by Dickens -Alices adventures in Wonderland and Alice through the looking -glass by Lewis Carrol. And even authors who are not British ,such as -Julies Verne :Journey to they centre of the Earth -Fairy tales in which the conventions of the same are parodied .Ex. The 'ose and the 'ing "y Thomas Thac-eray . $.chool stories ,such a Tom Browns Schooldays by Thomas Hughes. -Family sagas ,such as &ittle /omen "y 0lcott. -Of animals : Blac- Beauty "y .e#ell. -Of adventures ,such as Treasure Island and King .alomon1s Mines"y (aggard or the 2ungle Boo-s "y Kiling . The concept of childrens Literature as fun wasnt a cultivated genre until the end of the XX century Childrens Literature before was Literature with didactic end.Books for adults, ex. Ae sops fables,were a resource to try to amuse children through Literature .n the XV century with Locke and Rousseau Books for the entertainment of children appear ,which begin to abandone the didactic intention . t is in 1883 when the first adventure book without dictatic intention appears :Treasure Island. n the first book of a series of ilustrated tales appears :&ittle Blac- .am"o "y (elen Banner,who next to Beatrix Potter was a milestone in reference to the importance of ilustrations in tales for children. n the beginning of our century there appear various authors and tittles which today are considered classics of modern childrens Literature and have been adapted for television, such as: The /ind in the /illo#s by Grahame ,The .ecret Garden by Burnett,Martin *iin in the 0le Orchard by Farjeon ,Winnie-The *ooh by Milne and finally in 1937 the fantastic genre emerges with the aparition of The (o""it by Tolkien. From the decade of the 50 s, the importance given to Childrens Literature foments the appaerance of a great industry and the clear definition of concepts such as Literature for Children and the distintion between Literature for boys and for girls. Childrens pleasures of today have changed ,however ,the tales of fantastic or ecologic themes like especially. Among the authors of oour days ,who have had special aceptation among the childs public because of the themes which they treat is ROALD DAHL,,an authentic master of the short story : -3harlie and the 3hocolate 4actory -The Magic finger -Charlie and the Great Glass Elevator -Matilda -The wonderful story of Henry Sugar and Sisx more. All these are stories of modernthemes .The narration is quick and attractive .The cultural variety that they show is atractive . n our hands is to do the adecquated adaptations for that their application is succesful. . .NURSERY RHYMES N.R.have some characteristics of the tales : -Use of exclamations and linguistic elements of dayly use ,which is a very rich resource in the class . -They have musicality , too. -Strong rhythm. -They introduce -the same as the tales-cultural elements ,such as foods,timetables ,animals ,.. -Repetitive use of words and structures .But N.R.have adifferent charactheristic:brevity ,which increases the proportion of repetition. Classic Examples:Twinkle, Twinkle,Little Star. The use of this genre in a language class gives the opportunity to learners to move in class ,because it can include activities such as jumping or dancing .When therere problems of space,those ones which involve playing with hands can be used:Two little monkeys fighting in bed (use two fingers),one fell out and hurt his head (the hand on the head),the other called the doctor (telephoning),and said the doctor (open and close the hand),thats what you get for fightingin bed(move a finger). Rhymes that accompany games can also be selected aand they can be used in the school: "Teddy Bear,touch the ground, tum around, walk upstairs, turn out the light, say goodnight. The reduced vocabulary that they use,the repetition,the rhythm and the intonation permit learners to learn them quickly. t is a popular genre ,although it has been cultivated by prestigious writters:in the early XV century Divine songs for children by Watts,was published.n this time ,the first collections of N.R were also published, and in18O4 appeared original Poems for nfant Minds by Ann and Jane Taylor ,which includes Twinkle ,Twinkle ,little star. n 1942 The Pied Piper of Hamelin by Robert Browing was published . n1846 A book of Nonsense by Edward Lear appears and in 1885 Stevenson publishes A Childs Garden of Verses. n our century A.A Milne,Robert Graves...stand out RDDLES Ridles are an universal genre too .Their characteristic are -as in N.R.- the following: -Brevity and intonation and rhythm very marked . Ex:m a very big animal you see at the zoo. ve a very nice trunk can squirt water through LMERCKS Limercks are funny five -line stanzas whose popular origin had place in the festive meetings , in which every fellow dinner had to recite or sing a poem ,which are called "nonsense verse following line :Will you come up to Limerick?. The first Limericks collected in a volume appear in the History of Sixteen Wonderful Women in 1820. n the book Book of Nonsense by Edward Lear appear examples too. n the compositions by Lear and Rossety, the first and last line usually use to finish with the same word ,hoewer ,in more modern examples a third word which rhymes is added : "There once was a man who said : god Must think it exceedingly odd f he finds that this tree continues to be when there is no-one about in the Quad. Most Limericks are anonyms, given their popular origen . This genre is very useful for the pronunciation of several sounds which present difficulties such asthe different tiation between/i:/and /i/. "There once was a man from Darjeeling who travelled from London t Ealing . When it said on the the door: "Please dont spit on the fllor " The carefully spat on the ceiling. VOCABULARY antes de - before analysing alumnado- student body expectativas-expectations analizar - previous to analyse enfrentarse a una clase de ingls por primera vez -n facing an english class first ansioso -anxious preocuparse- worry gestos-gestures por esto -there fore inquietud-restlessness actitud demasiado larga -an overlong act, conducir (llevar)-lead aburrimiento -boredoom comprensible -understanble puesta en marcha -starting acercar-approach inagotable-inexaustible subyacente-underlying emotividad-emotional papel-role transportar -transpose imaginarias-imaginative fictional realistas-reallstic acercar-bring close acceder-acces agradable-pleasant contextualizar-contextualise por ltimo -lastly a continuacin -finally,next confianza -confidence de acuerdo conlo expuesto anteriormente-accordingto what has been stated above compilaciones-compilations continuar -carry on ejercitar -exercise caudal -source relatar-relat colectiva-collective risa-laughter tristeza-sadness confianza en si mismo -self confidence madurar -mature narrar -narrate saturacin -saturation repecto a -respecting dilema -dilema el 1_...el 2_ -the former,the latter fidelidad -fidelity mejorar-improve grabacin-recording fragmentos -fragments ralentizacin-slowing down conveniencia-suitability pensar en -think of de mil maneras -in a thoousand different ways dirigir a -direct at satisfaccin-satisfactin en cuanto a -as for obras (novelas)-works obras(teatro)-plays cotidiana -daily hroe-hero/es civilizacin-civilization excepto-excepting accesible-accessible intencionar-intend incluso-even sagas familiares-family sagas literatura nfantil-Childrens Literature divertimento -fun divertir-amuse abandonar -abandone junto con-next to hito-milstone fbulas de Esopo-Aesops fables al principio-in the beginning surgir-aparecer-appear dcada-decade fomentar-foment aparicin -appearance gustos -pleasures pblico infantil -Childs Public maestro - master(no de escuela ,maestro en su gnero) narracin corta -short story musicalidad -musicality brevedad-brevity prestigiosos-prestigious coleccin-collection destacar-stand out quintillas -five line stanzas origen -origin reuniones festivas-festive meetings comensal -fellow diner recitar -to recite estribillo- refrain surgir -come up recoger-collect annimo-anonym paulatina-slowly parodiar-parody emerger-emerge ndice-proportion a principios de siglo-in the early century ? Cercano a -near acercarnos -bring us close ,close us tanto..como...-neither...or ni..........ni- -neither ...or %I! 05: <A"I#$., A%!/#". A$ *#.! .%I!A+CA BA"A. F#" !/AI" $I$A&!I& A<<CI&A!I# I !/A ABCI./ &CA."##*. !AK! !G<#C#BIA.. #%!CIA : ;. I!"#$%&!I# 0. <A"I#$., A%!/#". A$ BA"A. 2. !AK! !G<#C#BIA. 1. &#&C%.I# 4. +I+CI#B"A</G 68- ;. I!"#$%&!I#
!his unit will deal with the most popular works in different periods and differents authors and genres of children literature, and with different types of story books or children. We will finish with a conclusion and the bibliography used. +efore the 09th c. &hildren could read books like AesopQs Fables, romances, travel books, chapbooks, boardside balladsR, for e,ample, +unyanQs RpilgrimQs <rogress >0689 ? , $efoeQs "obinson &rusoe >080:? and .wiftQs BullivesrQs !ravels. !hey were books written for adults. It was not until the middle or the 09 th century !hat books were specially written for chiuldren . > Although in France it was a little better, children had books such as <erraultQs Fairy tales, so popular > or !he Arabian ights ? translated to Anglish in early 09th c. ? !here was a demand for childrenQs books and @ohn ewbery, a book seller of works illustrated by woodwoodcuts and engravings ?, reali7ed it and he published works such as A little <retty <ocket)+ook and the /istory of Cittle Boody two )shoes. > !here were some of whose books imitations ? but, it was in the letter half of the 09th c. When works in juvenile literature appeaared. Iwown works like !he /istory os sandford and *erton by !homas $ay, Fabolous /istories by .arah !rimment, Avenings at /ome by @ohn Aikin and *rs +arbauld, !he <arentsQs Assistant, by *aria Adgeworth > !he novelist ? And in the 0:thc. , &harles and *ary Camb wrote !ales from .hakespeare. !he history of verse written for children is =uite brief. !he first identifiable childrenQs poet was probably Watts, whose memorable jingles, $ivine .ongs for &hildren, were popular from the early 09th c >0805 ? . Also, at about this time, 68/ collections or nursery rhymes began to appear, highghiting Ann and @ane !aylor, whose first book, #riginal <oems for infant *inds > !winklem twinkle little star included ? was very successful . 0. <A"I#$., A%!/#". A$ BA"A. A? <A"I#$. A$ A%!/#". Including Citerature in the FC teaching contributes to the studentsQ general knowledge and their intellectual, social and moral development as well as of its appeal to the emotions. A,tensive reading provides the possibility of internali7ing the language and reinforcing points previously learned vocabulary and structures are registred and learned without conscious attention as well as concepts are reinforced by their discovery in a different conte,t, and motivation probably the most important, coming from the students enjoyment when reading > it gave pleasure by engaging the emotions? And Citerature is suitable for our pupils because they are familiari7ed with fairy tales, songs, rhymes, riddles...>mainly in their first language? !he students have certain characteristics that help them to ac=uire a C. +y the e,posure to it, like in the case of reading . !hese are the fact that short age pupils need demand immediate results to see their progress, so activities must be short and attractive changing often to another one. !hey e,press their feelings or ideas less inhibitidly than adults, they donQt mind mistakes, of what teachers must take advantages- and they always have e,pectations about the Anglish class, they like showing what they have learned. Foreign learners, to internali7e the grammar and work out the meaning of words from their conte,t, must have sufficient authentic and understandable material to work from > Irasen ) comprehensible input ?. "eading most suitable te,ts for our pupils. For this, we must bear in mind aspects such as the studentsQ needs and abilities, that is to say their interest, age, level, rhythm of learning and their previous e,pectations about the FC class- the linguistic and stylistic level of the te,t, that is vocabulary, about what we must try the language to be clear, graded and with repetitions and the te,t must allow the pupils to make predictions > about what comes ne,t ? using their background and e,pectations &ertain our attention on the most popular works and authors we will destinguish some periods. As well have said, in the 08th century literature was written for adults >although read by children as well ? being so known works like 688 "obison &rusoe, by $aniel $efoe and BulliverQs !ravels, by @ohnattan .wift. In the 09th century began to appear some works written for choldren, such as !he /istory of .andford and *arter by !homas $ay, or series or short and attractive books called Bigantic /istories by !homas +oreman, apart from rhymes and fairy tales. +ut it was the 0: th century when &hildren Qs Citerature appeared as a genre. %ntil then , it didntQs seen necessary to create a literature specially for children, and it wasnQt economically advisable. +ut, with mass education appearance a large market was created , permitting the possibility of distributing books for children.
In this period, we can highlight famous authors like +rothers Brimm, who wrote Berman <opular .tories or /.&andersen, who wrote "airy !ales and .tories. About adventures books for boys the first one, .teverson. !he most famous writers or childrenQs stories were Cewis &arroll, who wrote AliceQs Adventures in wonderland and It was the +est +utter and +eatri, <otter, who wrote !he !ales of <etter "abbit and !ailor of Bloucester. Also , we must mention #scar Wilde who, althoug h Irish wrote in Anglish his best works are some like the /appy <rince and the &anterville Bhost. And within non Anglish literature there are famous writers such as Couisa * Al cott and her Cittle Women , Adventures of !om .awyer and Adventures or /uckleberry Finn by *ark !wain, /eidi , by @ohanna .pry or Anne of Breen Bables by C.*.*ontgomery. Finally, in the 2Sth century we find different sorts of works. We can mention fairy tales that have become classic such as <eter <an by @.T* +arries, !he @ungle +ook by "udyard Iipling , !he Cord of the "ings, by @." !olkien. In this period many others authors have become popular. !hatQs the case of the previously named &... Cewis , who apart from his sciencies)fiction novels wrote the arnia series- "aymond +reggs who wrote @im and +eantalk , "ather &hristmas , and !he .nowman- "oald $ahl, who dealt with many interesting topics, specially for children in books like @ames and the Biant <each, &harlie and the chocolate Factory and many others. .ince the middle of 2;th c. Citerature, specially &hildrenQs literature has become a publishing industry And it has paid attention to aspects like racism apart from differentiating age groups or attending the se,. And different pri7e awards have been created, such as the ewbery *edal. !raditional books are still popular among children,however childrenUs likes have changed. !oday they prefer fantastic books, science fiction and ecological ones. Also, in this century comics have a great relevance. &omics appeared at the end of the 0: th century., like for e,ample 'Ally .loperUs /alf /oliday(. +? BA"A. 686 !here e,ist many types > genres ? of literature for children. We will describe some of them. <robably, one of the most relevant is tales. !hey provide the possibility of repeating words and structures, helping children reinforce aspects of the language and concepts. !hey give clues helping them to predict about the content of the te,t. !ales use argumentative techni=ues and language suitable for children. !hey normally transmit moral values and approach the pupils to the culture of the language speaking community. We can find different types: 1 Fairy tales . suitable for children in the age of : or 0; like "apun7el 1 AnimalUs stories and fables : in which the characters are animals 1 Fantanstic literature of !ravelUs and adventures : normally from legends A genre with some characteristic similar to tales, is nursery rhymes. !he main difference is that they are short, what avoid the pupils get bored because they donUt have to pay attention for a long time. "hymes introduce e,clamations, many repetitions of words and structures, helping children to establish vocabulary, intonation, stress, pronunciation, new structures and also cultural elements and concepts. !his genre of literature permit different ways of e,plotation. ItUs possible to introduce activities in which pupils move or play games. !hey are short and simple., so the pupils learn =uickly. As another genre, riddle is an ancient and universal form of literature, with a certain and common structure and intonation known by children. ItUs a kind of pu77le =uestion, an enigma. !he earliest known Anglish riddles were recorded in the A,eter book in the 09 th century. .hort or with many lines of verse, we find collections of riddles in many differents languages. !ogether to nursery rhymes, riddles are short and they have stressed intonation, what make them be useful to be used in the foreign language class. Another genre is constituted by limericks, a light verse and with a popular fi,ed verse form in Anglish. !hey are usually conformed by five lines. !he name comes from the old Anglish. !he majority of them are anonymous because they have a popular origin. !his form of verse is useful to practise pronunciation. As a last genre , we will comment on songs. It is an important resource to use in the foreign language class, because the pupils learn with enjoyment. .ongs help in the learning of vocabulary, pronunciation, structure and sentence patterns, 68A specially because of repetitions. Also they give clues about the target language community. .o, the didactic application of songs is very useful, but we must avoid overusing them. And we must select songs clear, well recorded and easy to sing. When selecting a work of literature we must bear in mind that we want our pupils to engage interactively with the te,t, the classmates, and with us, the teachers. !o reach this we must follow these guidelines: 0. !he te,t itself, and not the information about it , is of central importance. 2. #ur pupils must genuinely interact with the te,t, their classmates and the teacher and not be mere recipients 1. #ur activities must be design so as to enable our pupils to share their personal e,periences, perceptions and opinions. 4. #ur activities must be varied and interesting. $uff and *aley give a list of general procedures that we can use in our classrooms: 1 reconstruction 1 reduction 1 e,pansion 1 replacement 1 matching 1 media transfer 1 selection 1 ranking 1 comparison 1 analy7ing 5. !he selection of works of literature must be based on their potencial interest for our pupils and not in the literary =ualities of the works. 2.!AK! !G<#C#BIA.
We can find authentic books or non)authentic ones. Among non)authentic storybooks, we can distinguish between artificial, illustrating particular language points presentation and simulated authentic. #ur pupils arenUt able to handle authentic te,ts, so they must begin manipulating and practising with simulated authentic ones, developing the necessary skills to read authentic te,ts later. 685 According to Allis and +rewster, storybooks can be classified under three headings: )arrative features )&ontent )layout arrative features will allow us to distinguish between storybooks of the following types 0. rhyming words 2. repeating structures 1. cumulative content and language 4. interactive 5. humorous According to content they ca be divided into : 0. everyday life 2. animal stories 1. traditionalFfolkFfairy tales 4. fantasy From layout point of view we can distinguish between: 0. flab 2. cut)away pages 1. minimal te,t 4. no te,t 5. speech bubles When selecting foreign language te,ts, we must pay attention to vocabulary, structures and interesting topics. Apart from that, with this kind of books, the pupils get in tough with the cultural background of the country in which the target language is spoken. Allis and +"Awster anali7e the criteria for selecting storybooks: eeds and abilities: 0. &ontentFsubject matter: interesting amusing memorable relevant 2. Hisual: use of illustrations si7e target language attractiveFcolourful 68B 1. Ancourage participation repetition develop memory prediction build confidence 4. *otivating relate to their e,periences and characteristics 5. Arouse curiosity interest in to know more about Anglish language and culture 6. &reate positive attitudes target language language training target culture
!o introduce books in the foreign language classroom, a small library may be created. !he books would be classified according to difficulty level or other aspects. !he teacher or the pupils themselves would choose the same or different books according to the level, interests... Aven a listening corner could be created, to listen to stories by cassettes or told by the teacher. Also it is interesting teachers adapt tales for different purpose, giving way to many possibilities of e,plotation. +ut when adapting a story we canUt simplified too much because our pupils could lose the flavour of real stories, so Allis and +rewster give a guidelines to follow: Aspects to consider D Hocabulary and general meaning 0. &heck unfamiliar content or words 5. &heck idioms 6. &heck clarity D Brammar 0. &heck tenses 2. &heck use of structures 1. &heck word order D #rgani7ation of ideas 68? 0. &heck sentences length and comple,ity 2. &heck time references 1. &heck the way ideas are linked 4. &heck the way the ideas are e,plained D .tory length 0. &heck the number of ideas in the story. +y following the previous criteria of selection and use of storybooks we will intend to make the most of literature on the classroom 5. &#&C%.I# As we have seen, books and stories have e,isted for centuries. !he most characteristic aspect of them is their special way of enjoyment- also we can learn different sorts of concepts and knowledge though reading books. .o literature is a useful resource to learn a foreign language, to ac=uire it without paying conscious attention to the learning other the language. We can use different genres of literature in the foreign language class, since a nursery rhyme or a riddle to a song or books narrating longer stories. +ut, what is really important is to bear in mind aspects such as the vocabulary used, sentence pattern, the topic..., to select a book or story. !hey must be suitable for our pupils. 6. +I+CI#B"A</G /ICC: %sing literature in language teaching. *ac*illan .Condon. 0:96 Allis,B. And +rewster,@. : !he storytelling handbook for primary teachers.<enguin.Condon, 0::0 $uff,A. And *aley,A. : literature.#%<.#,ford, 0::;
UNIT 14 68. LA LITERATURA INFANTIL EN LENGUA INGLESA T=CNICAS DE APLICACI:N DIDRCTICA PARA ACCEDER A LA COMPRENSI:N ORAL, INICIAR ; POTENCIAR LOS HR>ITOS LECTORES ; SENSI>ILIZAR EN LA FUNCI:N PO=TICA DEL LENGUA9E. 1.- C/$,&!nF) ,$t!#t.! $n t/ En',$)/ ,#n'.#'. 1.1. L$%!2a)8 1angag!. 1.2. C/$,&!nF) ,$t!#t.! $n t/ En',$)/ ,#n'.#'. 1.3. An#,B)$) *+ ,$t!#!B ,#n'.#' t/!*.'/ !,%#nt @*!1). 2.- D$&#(t$( #"",$(#t$*n t(/n$M.) +*! ,$)tn$n' (*5"!/n)$*nT $nt!*&.($n' #n& n(*.!#'$n' !#&$n' /#3$t) #n& #""!($#t$n' t/ "*t$( +.n(t$*n *+ ,#n'.#'. INTRODUCTION Children's literature has certain particular features which, apart from the author's inspiration, are what make it more attractive and interesting for children, namely: it is a free and happy activity, contains imaginative elements, reflects inner grievances suffered by the child, uses argumentative techniques and language suited to children, has a most intuitive presentation, appeals to feelings, affectivity, transmits moral values, conveys serenity and balance on the part of the author, has expository clarity and is interesting. n children's literature, children's folklore can also be included, which is a form of literature that has been passed on by word of mouth. Carmen BravoVillasante states that an aesthetic education using folklore enhances sensitivity. Children who are not taught by means of songs, stories or poetry are children with poorness of spirit. Children's literature is an inexhaustible fountain of resources for programming all sorts of language activities. 1.- CHILDRENFS LITERATURE IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 66D 1.1.LITERAR; LANGUAGE. A) LTERARY AND FAMLAR LANGUAGE. The language used in literature differs from the language we ordinarily speak. By and large, literature and speech use the same language with identical sounds and grammatical procedures, and however, there is a clear separation between them, a difference in level. n writing there is always an urge to improve which makes the writer avoid words, sentences or turns of phrases that are used unscrupulously in informal speech. The difference begins from the moment that literature acquires enough development and prestige to impose a select taste for its language. n certain areas, the literary inflow raises the tone of average speech; in others, while literary language barely changes, common speech quickly changes, as it occurred with vulgar Latin. Literary language broadens and enriches vocabulary and refines subtleties of meaning with its incessant creative process. t chooses between certain forms of expression and others, thus contributing to the lastingness of a language; and it serves to halt tendencies that hasten the development of a language. B) QUALTES OF LTERARY LANGUAGE. $ 3larity is achieved by presenting an idea in such a way that it cannot be interpreted erroneously; it denotes exactly what the author means to say. The opposite of clarity is ambiguity or amphibology, a sentence, expression, etc., capable of double meaning. When amphibology is used intentionally, it is called an equivocation. - The %uality of roriety occurs when the words that are used are those that are suitable for what is being expressed. Words are not interchangeable, for there are no true synonyms. - &anguage has expressive vigour when it expresses with representative force what the writer or speaker means. f the expressive power is so great that what is stated appears in our imagination, with features of sensitive reality, it is said that language contains plasticity. - 5ecorum eliminates all that is deemed uncouth, impolite or indecent. - 3oncreteness requires complying with the language rules in force. The violation of syntactic rules is called a solecism. 66- - (armony is achieved by, when choosing words, attending to their sound quality and arranging sentences in such a way that the musical elements of the language are enhanced. The opposite of euphony or pleasant sound is cacophony. - 0"undance lies in the richness and variety of the vocabulary. - Language is ure when words and constructions are used in accordance with the particular nature of that language, without the use of unnecessary foreign elements. - Bar"arisms or superfluous foreignisms must be repudiated. The reaction against foreign influences may lead to the extremes of purism and correction# which insist upon absolute purity in language# based on the ser"ile imitation of the classics and on strict correctness# which often sacrifices naturalness and li"eliness. 1.2.CHILDRENFS LITERATURE IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Children's literature is a branch of the science of books which has been so useful and charming as any other type of literature. Children's literature includes many books that adults enjoy reading even when they do not read them to or with children. The most famous children's book is "Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, and it is read more by adults than children. The same occurs with "Peter Rabbit, one of the books best-known for its humanity. n the past years, the study of children's literature has regained popularity. #C FAIR; TALES. t is one of the most important divisions of children's literature. t contains a similar proportion of wishes and fears, which creates a balance that keeps the attention of readers and listeners. t can tell lots of meaningful stories in many different ways. E,,$*t says that fairy tales are best as bedtime stories for young children, but they are also valuable for older children. >*tt,/$5 specifies that they are good for children between the ages of nine and ten, which is when children are maturing in processes that they are afraid of. 3C ANIMALS They are the strongest bond between fairy tales and modern children's literature. 66/ Animals are creatures that speak and act like human beings. They are present in most old and modern children's stories and are the most important source of power in the best children's literature, a source which other types of literature had abandoned before the 19th century. Animals in fairy tales are enchanted and live in a world of human beings, and human beings play a minor role. Any animal can be used as the enchanted beast in a fairy tale: a bird in "The Juniper Tree, a fox in "The Golden Bird, a prince frog, a cat, a snake in "Countess d'Aulnoy. These animals do not wish to be animals and while they are under a spell, they are the kindest, most patient and civilized of beings. Modern children's literature contains animal fables and fairy tales. "The Three Little Pigs and "The Little Red Hen are examples of stories that young children read. English children's literature shows signs of persistence in writing and reading. n England, childhood was considered the only stage in life in which it was good to believe in a world of magic and imagination and talking animals. Children were seen as beings that were capable of enjoying instinctive sympathy for animals and of establishing an alliance with them against adult human beings. (C GREAT ENGLISH STOR; WRITERS. There are many famous English writers of children's stories, but the two most famous ones were Lewis Carroll and Beatrix Potter. L@$) C#!!*,,, an English writer, was born in 1832 and died in 1898. He is the best-known author of story books, which are read by children and adults. 3is main works are 0!lices ooks2 (the most famous one)# 0Theres Nlory for you2 and 0't was the best butter2. >#t!$- P*tt! wrote stories as popular as "Peter Rabbit, which everybody has heard of and which became a film. Others are "Taylor of Gloucester and "The little mice star: down to spin. n the latter, the mice were not humanized, although they did weave men's coats. Another popular story is "Jemina Puddle. O)(#! W$,& was an rish author who wrote all his works in English and became one of the best renowned writers in English literature. He is famous for his plays and his popular theory of beauty. His best collection of stories are "The Shellfish Giant and "The Canterville Ghost, which is one of the short stories included in his book "Lord Arthur Savile's Crime. 668 Knnt/ G!#/#5 understood children's tastes very well and invited them to the enchanted circus he created. His books "The Golden Age and "Dream Days were immensely popular among children. The ideal world of this writer seems more percectible and desirable than the world of Peter Pan. R.&B#!& K$",$n' is known as the writer from ndia, although he never was an ardent apologist of the presence of the English there. His main works are "The Jungle Book (1894-95) and "Stories (1902). "The Jungle Book and "Kim are blithe books about the world of ideas. His most important book is "The Jungle Book: it is the most accomplished expression of Kipling's quality of work. 9. F2an0 9a+# a Nerman1=orth !merican no"elist# was born in Vienna in -?.5 and died in -.5D. 3e wanted !merican childrens literature to be free of unpleasant incidents. 3e wrote many childrens books9 0! =ew $onderland2# 0The ook of the 3ambergs2# 03is ook2# etc. &C FANTASTIC LITERATURE OF TRAVELS AND ADVENTURES. The fantastic aspect lies within transcendence and imminence, in other word, between the truth of facts, the correspondence between discourse and reality, and internal evidence, which makes a story appeals in its own right to the receptive reader. The term "fantastic means more than reality; it means strangeness or admiration and it has replaced the terms "formidable and "sensational in common speech. The "fantastic aspect is not inferred by understanding, but perceived with sensibility in the same way as what is funny or tragic and is more similar to the cerebral notion of the supernatural, with affective notions of brightness and sacredness, and also appreciates what is rejected by science, moral, religion or good taste. n fantastic literature, any adventure story aims to plunge the reader into uncertainty; the most dramatic episode is generally saved for the end, thus giving the enigma its own charm. Fantastic works are usually stories: a ballad, novel, tale or short story. The short story is the literary form that is best adapted to fantastic literature, chiefly due to its origins; it deals with extremely interesting "extraordinary stories and their episodes predispose the reader to sense that fatality that is inherent in every fantastic adventure. These adventures do not occur at random and come to nothing, for the entire intrigue is conceived on the basis of the denouement; the victim-hero of a 666 fantastic adventure generally finds himself alone under some kind of spell of which he is very well aware. The classic fantastic story derives not from stories but from popular legends. The difference between a story and a legend is owed to the Grimm brothers; in their opinion, a story is more poetic and a legend is more historical. A story tells adventures that take place in an indefinite past, in an unspecified place; a legend relates notable events that took place on a given date, in a given place, to a given person. A difference in function determines these differences in structure: a story aims to amuse, a legend aims to express and transmit beliefs. The title of a story is often the hero's name; the presence of this character alone guarantees the unity of an account consisting of several episodes: the hero sets off on an adventure with an open mind and a light heart, facing all sorts of dangers without fear. L*.$) V#- states that "a fantastic story generally deals with men who are faced with the inexplicable. The story always begins with a stable situation and certain features remain intact throughout the de"elopment of the action. &"ery story# therefore# contains two types of episodes9 1 Those that describe a stage of balance or imbalance. 1 Those that describe the passage from one to another. The former are contrary to the latter. Sometimes the reader identifies with the character; then, in turn, he withdraws from reality. A misadventure of some kind is the main type of plot. These misadventures can be of different sorts; by and large, towards the end, evil is transformed into good. The hero continually feels the contradiction between both worlds: the world of reality and the world of fantasy; and he is overwhelmed by the extraordinary things that surround him. As a general rule, a new person is introduced and the action enters a new phase. Vladimir Propp sees it as an operation of relative rationalization of a myth and the struggle against it, and its deep unity and great appeal lie beyond its generalized use as children's stories. mportant writers, in the English language, of fantastic literature of travels and adventure: n the Tudor era: 66A S$! P/$,$" SB&nB. He was born in 1554 and died in 1586. He wrote "The Arcadia, a long fantastic story about aristocrats castaways on an island; it contains the grandest principles, the most chivalrous manners and the most beautiful ladies. N#)/, with his "The Unfortunate Traveller, tells a horrifying story full of dialogues, amazing descriptions and the strangest adventures. 'n the &li(abethan era9 D#n$, D+*. He is one of the most important authors of this era in English literature. His most famous book ("Robinson Crusoe) is known all around the world and has been translated into many languages. Many studies have been done on it: man's isolation, self-sufficiency, utopia,... T*3$#) S5*,,t was born in 1721 and died in 1771. His main adventure and fantastic stories are "Roderick Random and "Humphrey Clinker. L#.!n( St$n is a contemporary of the aforementioned author. He was born in 1713 and died in 1768; his most important adventure story is "Sentimental Journey. All the works of this era are not about fantastic stories but about adventures, save for the work of 9*n#t/#n S@$+t (with "Gulliver's Travels). This book hides satire in such a deft manner that children still read it as a fairy tale. The book starts off laughing about mankind; when Gulliver finds himself in Lilliput, he is a giant compared to inhabitants there. n the second part of the book, he goes to a land inhabited by giants and the author criticizes all men thinkers. He then goes to Laputa, which is a flying island, and Swift examines and criticizes human institutions. At the end there are horses with rational minds. This book still today is a masterpiece, a children's fairy tale and a serious book for adults, and it has never lost its attractive nor allusive value. 1.3.ANAL;SIS OF LITERAR; LANGUAGE THROUGH RELEVANT WORKS. The work of Walter de la Mare is one of the best works of short fantastic stories. "Out of the Deep is perhaps his most original and exciting short story. Here is a passage from it: 665 "All that have to say, he muttered, is just this: have Mrs. Thripps. haven't absolutely out of the wire. wish to be alone. But 'm not asking, do you see? n time may able to know what want. But what is important now is that no more than that accused Pig were your primrose "real, my dear. You see, things must be real. The title of the novel means a number of things: the depths of the house in which the servants live, the depths of memory, from which remembrances ascend, and the depths of the misfortunes of the wretch who is seeking help. The literary language of the above text is bright and eloquent, neither dull nor slow. The protagonist is Jimmie, who is characterized by his desire to surprise and his liking for black humour. This passage contains his regards for a girl. He is a timorous boy who shows Soame's cautious sadism and plays bad jokes on the lackeys. When he is talking to the girl, he realizes that he was forbidden to talk to the lackeys ("...you might pull real bells: to pull dubiously genuine pigtails seemed now a feele jest). The word "pigtail here may infer "pig, which corresponds to the beast that appears on the stairs. The gesture of pulling a rope is similar to that of pulling from a pig. The word "primrose (spring) naturally suggests the line from a famous verse by Wordsworth: "A primrose by a river's brimm. The thought of spring may have suggested Lord Beaconsfield, whom Jimmie refers to: "All of which is only to say, dear madam, as Beaconsfield remarked to Old Vic, that 'm thanking you now. n the text he refers to what the girl says, but then he gives it less importance and highlights what it is really important. The style is loose and clear, with lots of imagination. The vocabulary is simple, although some words have several meanings, like "primrose. The verb "to ask means to call on someone; the author uses it to mean "Do you understand?. The same occurs with "in time which means sooner or later. We will now look at some texts by the writer Beatrix Potter: "Peter was dreadfully frightened; he rushed all over the garden, for he had forgotten the way back to the gate. He lost one of his shoes among the cabbages, and the other shoes amongst the potatoes. This text is from the book "Peter Rabbit. 66B "As there was no money, Ginger and Pickles were obliged to eat their own goods. Pickles ate biscuits and Ginger ate a dried haddock. They ate them by candlelight after the shop was closed. This other text is from "Ginger Pickles. "Moppet and Pittens have found up into very good ratcatchers. They go out cat- catching in the village, and they find plenty of employment. They charge so much a dozen and earn their living very comfortably. This last text belongs to "The Poly-Poly Pudding. The style is clear and bright. Repetition is avoided, which es why in the first text, in the last line, "amongst is used instead of "among, which was used in the previous line. The language is simple, easy to read, so the words need not be explained. The author avoids allipsis, by writing "He had forgotten instead of "He'd forgotten, so that children can clearly understand the text. Another characteristic of this writer, which is more clearly seen in the first two texts, is her use of many verbs in the past tense. She does not use description very much. /.1 @'@!%T'% !++4'%!T'7= T&%3='XT&* F7, 4'*T&='=N %7<+,&3&=*'7=# '=T,7@T%'=N !=@ &=%7T,!N'=N ,&!@'=N 3!'T* !=@ !++,&%'!T'=N T3& +7&T'% FT=%T'7= 7F 4!=NT!N&. All of us need stories for our minds in the same way that we all need food for our bodies; we watch television, go to the theatre and the cinema, read books and exchange stories with our friends. Stories are especially important in the lives of our children; they help them to understand the world and to share it with others. Their craving for stories is constant. Every time children enter a classroom, they have a yearning for stories. #C WH; USE STORIES? 66? Stories that rely heavily on words are a constant and great source of experiences for the students. Stories are motivating, rich in language experiences. Stories should be the main part of the work of Primary teachers, when teaching a first and a second language. Reasons: Moti!ation. Children have a constant need for stories; that is why they are always willing to listen or read at the right moment. Meaning. Children want to find something in a story (meaning) and they listen for that purpose. f they find what they are looking for, it will be thanks to their ability to understand the foreign language. f they do not find that meaning, they are motivated to improve their listening comprehension ability and then find meaning. &istening and fluency #hen reading. n a conversation with native speakers, the most important ability is understanding a substantial flow of the foreign language which contains new words for the receiver. This ability is only achieved by constant and ample practice. The child must develop a positive attitude to comprehending everything and accomplish the ability to search for meaning, predict and "guess (they are experts at this in their native language). Kno#ledge of the language. Stories help children to become aware of the general knowledge and sounds of the foreign language. Stories also introduce students to several language models and sentence structures which they have not yet used in oral or written production. This makes up their language stockpile. When the time comes, those language models will flow within the productive language without any problems, because the language is not new to them. An obvious example of this is the use of the simple past. 0n incenti!e for sea-ing and #riting. Experiencing a story can give rise to the production of written or spoken answers. t is natural to express our likes and dislikes, exchange ideas and associations about the stories we have just heard. n this manner, stories should be a part of a set related activities. 3ommunication. Reading, writing and aswering questions about stories through writing, speaking, acting and making art develop certain feelings for listening, sharing and collaborating. Learning a language is useless if we are not able to communicate, in other words, to use language skills. A story serves to share the construction of a crucial sense of attention for others. 66. General curriculum. Most stories can be used to develop attention, analysis and expression, and to relate them to other subjects in the curriculum, such as geography, history, social and cultural aspects, mathematics and science. 3C COMPREHENSION TECHNIQUES. Helping children to predict the contents of a story by telling them beforehand in their native language, by showing them pictures, or by introducing key vocabulary from that story. While they are being told a story, show them pictures, draw on the board, act and mime, use words that are similar in meaning in both the first and second languages. Tell the story more than once. nterrupt the story often and repeat the idea in a differente manner to make sure that the children do not get lost. Study the story beforehand and simplify some of the vocabulary, if necessary: words, expressions, verb tenses, word order and complex sentences. (C HOW SHOULD READING HA>ITS >E INTRODUCED AND CHILDREN >E TAUGHT TO APPRECIATE THE POETIC FUNCTION OF LANGUAGE? First of all, the stories, in other words, the literary language at this level with children, must essentially be a source of joy and must meet their interests. f the teacher uses stories or literary texts merely to teach, the children may reject this and lose their good, natural disposition for stories, which is an enormous potential. Reading habits can be developed and the poetic function of language can be taught by telling and reading the children stories that are suitable for them. This implies a set of advantages: Advantages of reading stories to the children: 1. f the teacher's language foreign language competence is low. 2. Showing the children pictures that go with the stories. 3. Letting the children read what the teachers have read to them previously. 4. Allowing the children to realize that books are a source of pleasure and interest. Advantages of telling stories to the children: 1. t can help the children to understand by repeating the story, pointing out important features, miming, acting, drawing pictures on the board. 6AD 2. By having the children in front of him, the teacher can make any special adaptations at any time. 3. Allowing the children to discover through their experience the magic sense of listening to a story being told by someone. &C WHICH CHILDRENFS LITERATURE >OOKS TO CHOOSE? When choosing them, we must ask ourselves the following: 1. s the first impression about a book valid for us and for our pupils? 2. Does the book meet the pupil's interests and hold their attention? 3. Do we accept the values expressed in the book? 4. Can the children understand the story enough to gain something valuable outside of it? 5. s the story easy to understand irrespective of their knowledge of its vocabulary? 6. The story should be the source of activities, such as drama, story writing, letter writing from one protagonist to another, or activities relating to a theme. C WHERE CAN THESE >OOKS >E O>TAINED FOR OUR STUDENTS? There are many types of story books. Each one has its advantages and disadvantages. 1. Readers. Advantages: the language has been simplified to make the reading easier. Easily obtainable. Disadavantages: they are not authentic books, original works by their author. They do not introduce the language used by present-day native English-speaking children. 2. Books published by native English-speaking children. Advantages: the stories may be more interesting. The language is authentic. Disadvantages: the children might find it difficult to understand most of the language on their own. 3. Books in the pupil's native language. Advantages: within everybody's reach. Disadvantages: it is up to the teacher to translate them. 4. Traditional and personal stories in the native language. 6A- Advantages: the children are probably familiar with them and enjoy recognizing them when they are read to them in English. Disadvantages: the teacher may feel that his English is not good enough to translate them. 5. Stories invented by the teacher and the pupils. Advantages: the pupils identify with one of them. Disadvantages: incorrect English. +C ACTIVITIES THE TEACHER MUST PLAN. ACTIVITIES FOR CHILDREN >EFORE, DURING AND LISTENING COMPREHENSION OF >OOKS. 1. Activities prior to the story. Prepare the students to focus the theme of the book and the language that they will need to understand it. 2. Activities during the story. Above all, the children must enjoy the story. Ask them what they think is going to happen and how they feel about what has happened. They can join the teacher in repeating, miming or drama exercises, among others. They can be told to put sentences or pictures in the correct order. 3. Activities after the story. Traditional comprehension exercises; careful not to spoil the experience that the story has caused in the child. 4. Other more creative activities. Drawing a picture and writing a key sentence. Making a mural or writing a book with other children with illustrations and key sentences. Acting out the story. Writing a letter from one protagonist to another. Changing the end. Changing the characters. 9I9LIOGRAFWA ELLS AND BREWSTER: The .tory telling hand"oo- for *rimary Teachers. Penguin. 6A/ GARVE: .tory as a !ehicle. Multilingual matters. PERRY: Into "oo-s: 676 literature acti!ities for the classroom. Oxford University Press. Madrid. MORGAN and RNVOLUCR: Once uon a time. Cambridge University Press. ROSEN: .haers and *olishers. Teachers as .torytellers. Mary Glasgow. WRGHT: /hy stories. Oxford University Press. Madrid. T!+a 1L. La 1$%!2a%2a $n#an%$1 !n 1!nga $ng1!'a. TP)n$)a' "! a-1$)a)$<n "$"])%$)a -a2a a))!"!2 a 1a )&+-2!n'$<n &2a1, $n$)$a2 8 -&%!n)$a2 1&' 7]5$%&' 1!)%&2!' 8 '!n'$5$1$;a2 !n 1a #n)$<n -&P%$)a "!1 1!ngaE!. 1L. ENGLIS3 C3ILDRENKS LITERATURE. 1. In%2&")%$&n. There is literary work that has been created with the aim of being used by children and there are some works that# although they were not created with that aim# they ha"e been used for children for such a long time and ha"e become part of 0childrens literature2. &"en if it is childrens literature of not# we as teachers# should de"elop the interest in reading of our students. &ncourage them to read stories of any kind[ To help students to conquer the written kingdom is one of the most important aims of all the educati"e systems. The reading practice needs two requisites to be fully de"eloped9 1 To recogni(e many di"erse forms within the text (paragraphs# letters[) 1 To understand the meaning these forms ha"e. (. C7$1"2!nK' 1$%!2a%2! $n %7! U.. %hildrens literature in &nglish has been the first literature of this kind studied and classified. 't is a "ery important type of literature and it is included in the %ambridge 3istory of &nglish 4iterature. *ome famous authors of this kind of literature are9 1 @aniel @efoe (-55D;1-B8-)9 0,obinson %rusoe2 1 Fonathan *wift (-55B1-B6A)9 0Nuli"ers Tra"els2 1 %harles @ickens (-?-/1-?BD)9 0@a"id %opperfield2 1 4ewis %arroll (-?8/1-?.?)9 0!lices !d"entures in $onderland2 1 ,udyard Kipling (-?5A1-.85)9 0The Fungle ook2 1 <ary =orton9 0The orrowers2 1 +amela Tra"ers9 0<ary +oppins2 *. C7$1"2!nK' 1$%!2a%2! $n %7! USA. 4iterature for children in !merica is the result of the culture# the life and the belie"es of this country. *ome famous authors of this kind of literature are9 1 +eter +arley9 0Tales of +eter +arley about !merica2 1 F. Fennimore %ooper9 0The last of the <ohicans2 1 3erman <el"ille9 0<oby dick2 1 4ouise <. !lcott9 04ittle women2 6A8 1 %lement <oore9 0=ight before %hristmas2 1 <ark Twain9 0The ad"entures of Tom *awyer2 4. C7$1"2!nK' 1$%!2a%2! $n &%7!2 Eng1$'7:'-!a0$ng )&n%2$!'. oth in =ew \ealand and in !ustralia# literature for children has been recently created. They usually used the ritish and !merican work. *ome famous authors of this kind of literature are9 1 &thel Turner9 0*e"en 4ittle !ustralians2 1 =orman 4indsay9 0The <agic +udding2 1 =an %hauncy9 0Tangara2 1 '"an *outhhall9 0!sh ,oad2 I. R!a'&n' %& '! 1$%!2a%2! #&2 )7$1"2!n. %hildren en:oy listening to stories in their mother tongue. For this reason books pro"ide an ideal introduction to the foreign language presented in a context that is familiar to the child. 't is not the same to use a story for adults than a story for children. %hildren need books with a suitable language for them. The reasons to use literature in class may be summarised as follows9 a? <oti"ation9 *tories are moti"ating and fun and that de"elops positi"e attitudes towards the foreign language. b? 'magination9 *tories exercise the imagination. That in"ol"e children with the story# they try to interpret the narrati"e[ c? The meaning9 They also wish to find a meaning. 'f they find it# they know they are able to understand the foreign language. d? 4inking tool9 stories are useful in linking fantasy and the imagination with the childs real world. e? Vocabulary9 4istening to stories allows the teacher to introduce or re"ise new "ocabulary and sentence structures. f? 4inguistic accuracy9 @e"elop the ability of understanding new words from the context. g? 4inguistic knowledge9 %ontributes to introduce new linguistic structures. h? 7ne more time9 ,epetition allows certain language items to be acquired. i? %ommunication9 4istening# reading and gi"ing an answer to the stories are good ways to de"elop communication. j? %ross1%urricular sub:ects9 ,eading stories help to teach them other aspects as social or cultural aspects. L. T!)7n$@!' %& "!,!1&- 1$'%!n$ng )&+-2!7!n'$&n. a? Tse mother tongue with beginner pupils from time to time. b? +ro"ide a context for the story and introduce the main characters. c? +rediction of the contents. d? Tse the help of pictures# draws# cards# etc# while we are telling the story. e? Follow1up acti"ities. f? ,epetitions of the story9 we can tell the story more than once to a"oid that the children get lost. g? *implification of the story. h? ,hymes and songs to reinforce the language introduced. L.1. T!)7n$@!' %& n"!2'%an" %7! -&!%$) #n)%$&n &# 1angag!. 6A6 First of all# we need to bear in mind that literature must be a source of amusement and pleasure for the children. $e can encourage the reading habit of our students at the same time they understand the poetic function of language. 7ne of the best methods to achie"e these aims is to read and to tell stories in class. G. A)%$,$%$!' %& "& 6$%7 a L$%!2a28 %!=%. 1. P2!:2!a"$ng a)%$,$%$!'. These are the tasks to do before telling the story that helps students to predict what is going to happen# to predict the "ocabulary# the characters# etc. (. A)%$,$%$!' %& "& 67$1! %!11$ng %7! '%&28: 67$1! 2!a"$ng. The most important ob:ecti"e is that children en:oy the story. *ome acti"ities we can do are9 1 !sk them what they think is going to happen next or before. 1 Tse mime# performances# etc. 1 +ut some pictures we gi"e them in the correct order. 1 ,epeat words or sentences. 1 *ing a song# etc. *. P&'%:2!a"$ng a)%$,$%$!': a#%!2 %!11$ng %7! '%&28. These tasks are called 0follow1up acti"ities2. They allow children to use what they ha"e learned. *ome acti"ities we could do are9 1 @raw part of the story. 1 <ake mask# puppets[ 1 <ake a poster of the story. 1 'n"ent a similar story. 1 +erform the story# etc. H. C&n)1'$&n. There are many acti"ities that we can do with the children in our classes. They :ust should be creati"e and they should encourage comprehension and communication in the foreign language. 'f they fulfil all these requisites they would be moti"ating for our students and in a step1by1step process they would lo"e literature.
T='T -B9 T3& *7=N !* ! +7&T'% V&3'%4& !=@ !* ! 4'T&,!,> %,&!T'7= '= T3& &=N4'*3 %4!**. T'++747N> 7F *7=N*. T&%3='XT&* 7F T*'=N *7=N* '= T3& +37=&T'%# 4&U'%!4 !=@ %T4TT,!4 4&!,='=N. 1.INTRODUCTION 6AA n the pedagogy of second language acquisition, the introduction of authentic documents, such as songs, was introduced as a key to something alive, as the indication of a developing reality. The great advantage of songs is the possibility of "being remembered. But it is necessary the use of carefully selected songs or composed especially for the class, in order to avoid those containing lexical mistakes that students would fix irremediably in their minds. Advantages: 1 Apart from being a very relaxing activity for the vast majority of students, singing a song contributes to encourage their interest to study in depth that language. 1 The activity of singing establishes a warm atmosphere and a sense of Cupertino among students. The feeling of making a fool of themselves can be overcome easily if we succeed in enthusiasting them with the activity of singing songs in that language. On the whole, what completely justifies the use of songs in the foreign language classroom is the possibility of practices that language. 1.1 T/ )*n' #) # "*t$( %/$(, #n& #) # ,$t!#!B (!#t$*n $n t/ En',$)/ (,#)). The song constitutes an element that belongs to the daily environment of the students. Unlike the textbook or other resources means from which it is presumed that the student had a major knowledge, the song, the video and the television allow the creation, in the class, of a different pedagogic relation, egalitarian and constructive. Sometimes the song is transformed into a vehicle to transmit knowledge from the teacher to the student. 1.2 T/ )*($#,$)#t$*n *+ )*n'). Songs should respect these rules: 1 Accurate grammatical contents, and without going beyond the limitation of the knowledge already acquired for the students. 1 Lexical contents useful and easily memorise, without excess of new elements for the student. 1 Rhythmic guidelines, which need to be "normal so the musical rhythm matches the natural one of the lyrics: there should not be tonic stress on the syllables that would not normally have them. There are songs already graded. Socialisation is, without any doubt, the main function of songs in the English class.
6A5 From a psychological point of view, the song is a resource that should be used in any moment where we perceive a fall in the interest or attention of our students. Before introducing a song in the classroom, the teacher should introduce a brief explanation about the song in order to facilitate a better and general comprehension of what it will be heard. t is a mistake to expect students to understand perfectly the meaning of all the words and expressions appearing in the song. What it really appeals to them from a song is, not necessarily the lyrics, but the melody. Above all, children enjoy immensely singing songs, although in many cases they do not have a clear idea of he meaning of some words used in them. 1.3 T/ )*n' #) # )t#!t$n' "*$nt. An activity considered highly enriching from the human and linguistic point of view is the exploitation of play back, or the preparation of a show in which the students perform the vision of English music. This is an activity where the students, on one hand, have the possibility to work harmoniously the oral and non oral aspects (gestures) of communication and, therefore, the opportunity to choose singers or characters they want to represent, as well as the way adopted by this recreation. 1.3.1 The material, a problem The most serious problem in this field are, on one hand, the lack of information sources which could allow the teacher to be up to date in the evolution of he music in the country whose language s/he teaches; and on the other hand the need of sonorous and audio-visual materials such as cassettes, videos, etc. 2. AWARENESS OF ANOTHER CULTURE< THE IMMERSION n an "authentic listening situation, the person leaves the music flow through him/her. However, usually, when a song appeals to us, we feel the necessity to understand the message. Consequently, the access to the meaning constitutes an objective that the student will attempt to reach. To this "learning objective responds our pedagogical objective to provide an easy approach. 2.1 TB" *+ )*n'). From the point of view of the student's awareness, it is important to select: a- Songs that represent, either a rhythm in harmony with the one to which he student feels attracted (Bob Marley and his reggae music). b- A lyric able to involve the student, to make him react ("Lucka, by Susan Vega). From the point of view of the approach to meaning, it is interesting: a- To make good use of songs whose initial sound introduces elements capable of put the student in situation ("Back in he URSS, by The Beatles). 6AB b- Another type of approachable songs is he one in which he narrative structure is lineal ("The River, by Bruce Springsteen). 2.2 A(M.$)$t$*n *+ #n *!#, #n& @!$ttn (*5"tn(. We can arrange a range of different activities conducted to develop the oral and written comprehension competence. t is important to take into account a series of principles or basic strategies: Make the students to be aware of he importance of investing actively the linguistic elements stored so as to facilitate their memorisation. Propose activities integrating the creativity and the sensibility of he students. Prepare, taking the linguistic baggage from he songs, a range of linguistic patterns that allow the student to materialise what s/he wants to express through these activities. A. Base strategy: When the object is the acquisition of an oral comprehension competence, it is essential to consider a series of elements that determine if a listening situation is suitable or not. On one hand, the student. t is necessary that the song and the activities proposed raise a degree of motivation able to become the purpose of learning. On the other hand, the transmission. Material elements and psychological elements should be taking into account the action of the teacher. Another element to be considered is the assimilation. The treatment of the information is the following stage to perception. We have to avoid the requirement of an oral production immediately after the hearing. t is very important to diagnose the possible problems that impede the conclusion of the process in order to stabilise the suitable therapy. B. Specific strategies: Preparation of the listening. n case that he song presents elements that can interfere the approach to meaning from the students, we must start by undertaking those problems. We must make a previous inventory with the students about the subject of the song that will allow them recognise some elements at the time of listening. First listening, first contacts. n order to guide he students in he first listening, they will be asked to fill a chart in where there are places, characters and actions. Approximation to the text. Some activities allow us to help our students make a selective structure, guiding them to the important part of the message. 1 +ropose a series of staments and ask them to answer if the assertions included are true or false. 1 When the plot in the narration is linear and chronological, it will be used as a connecting theme. We can supply them with an incomplete text, asking them to discover the elements that are not included. n many of the current songs the author/singer proposes problems. The technique of brainstorming may be applied to the solution of these problems. 6A? Dramatising techniques such as the role-playing may also develop communicative situations elicited by the song. 8. T&%3='XT&* '= T3& T*& 7F T3& *7=N F7, +37=&T'%# 4&U'%!4 !=@ %T4TT,!4 4&!,='=N. 3.1 T(/n$M.) $n t/ .) *+ "/*nt$( ,#!n$n'.
The majority of teachers, when introduce a song in their English class, do it with he idea that students would try to imitate as closely as possible the melody and he lyrics they heard. He attainment of this purpose is, without any doubts, something very important for he learning of pronunciation (sound, stress and rhythm). Pronunciation must be he aspect in which we should insist on when we teach a song. The first contact of students with he song needs to be always oral, through he sense of hearing. n he first audition of a song he teacher indicates he rhythm of each sentence so that he students realise, from he beginning, of which words or syllables are bearing stress. t is only after this previous training that he class will be in condition to start singing a song they have listened to before. Nevertheless, it is clear that not all the songs are equally useful to practice pronunciation. The teacher should be sure that the students would not have many difficulties to catch the sounds and the rhythm of the song. There are songs composed to be accompanied with actions or movements of the body while they are sung. They are called action songs. These songs are particularly useful for small children as they allow practising orally different formal aspects of the language and, at the same time, they teach the meaning of the words or the sentences of the text used in the song through different gestures. (Head, and shoulders...). 3.2 T(/n$M.) +*! ,-$(#, #n& (.,t.!#, ,#!n$n'. a) Oral answer to questions about the text of the song . This is one of the easiest ways to check he comprehensive capacity of the student before any text. The teacher should prepare a number of questions about the text of the song. Before listening to the song, the teacher delivers a list with he questions s/the has prepared. After the students have analysed those questions during a couple of minutes, the teacher plays the cassette twice or three times. While they listen to he song, they should try to find out the answer to the questions delivered before. b) Arranging words . Before listening to certain song, we should deliver a sheet of paper with a list of words situated in a different order from where they appear in the song. 6A. The students have to arrange the words according to the order in the song. c) Complete the text of a song . The teacher hands a copy of the song to each student; there are gaps in some places that correspond to certain words or phrases. While the listening takes place, each student attempts to write the words or sentences that were omitted in he copy. They also practice the written expression. d) Reconstruction of a song. The teacher cuts off all the lines from a song and places them in an envelope. Then the groups open their envelopes with he corresponding lines from he song they are going to rebuild among the whole class. The different groups should place the sentences in the same order they appear in he song. t could be repeated twice or three times. e) Finding stress in the sentence . The teacher invites the students to listen carefully to certain song and pay attention to the words pronounced with major intensity. After that, he gives a copy of the song that has already listened to. While they listen to the song for he second time, they have to mark over the copy of the song those words or syllable which stand out before the others. f) Correction of an inaccurate version of a song . The teacher hands to each student a copy of a song where some of the original words or sentences have been changed for others that are not the ones appearing in the song but have some likeness. As they listen to the song, the students will have to find out where are the mistakes and correct them in he handed copy. g) dentifying phrases . The teacher delivers to each student from the class one, two or three lines that have been cut from the song. Each student when hearing the text corresponding to the lines s/he has should rise his/her hand. h) Classifications of words . While listening to a song, the students should make a list in which collect a certain kind of grammatical elements (verbs, prepositions, colours...) introduced in the song. i) Words with opposite meaning . Children have a list with some words; they will have to provide one or two antonyms for each word. After a few minutes of discussion in the groups, the teacher will play the cassette and encourage the students to guess if in the text of the song there are any of the antonym words they have found previously. 65D j) Searching words that rhyme . n this case the attention of the students is focused mainly on the phonetic element. Before listening to the song, a copy, with some blanks, is handed to the students. They have to fill them with words that rhyme with the corresponding verse. After that, the teacher plays the cassette so they can check if he words they have found are really in he song. k) Translating a song . Once the song is learned by heart, a song may be exploited through translation into the student's mother tongue. Even though this is difficult task for the students, the effort requires its compensation in a deep study of the meaning of the song. TEMA 1G. LA CANCIN COMO VE3ICULO PORTICO Y COMO CREACIN LITERARIA EN LA CLASSE DE INGLRS. TIPOLOGWA DE CANCIONES. TRCNICAS DEL USO DE LA CANCIN PARA EL APRENDISAJE FONRTICO, LEXICAL I CULTURAL. Un$% 1G. S&ng' a' L$%!2a28 an" P&!%$) )2!a%$&n'. 1. In%2&")%$&n. A' 6a8 &# $n%2&")%$&n 6! )an 'a8 %7a% )7$1"2!n !nE&8 '$ng$ng ,!28 +)7. S&ng' an" 278+!' -2&,$"! an !nE&8a51! )7ang! &# %7! 2&%$n! $n %7! )1a''2&&+. S&ng' an" R78+!' -2&,$"! 2!1a=a%$&n an" ,a2$!%8, 5% 6! 7a,! %& 5! )a2!#1 5!)a'! an !=)!''$,! '! &# %7!+ )an +a0! )7$1"2!n %& g!% 5&2!". Taking this fact into account# we can say that songs are a good resource to teach "ocabulary# practise the language orally# impro"e pronunciation and intonation and also help children to know the culture of the foreign language. (. S&ng' a' L$%!2a28 an" P&!%$) )2!a%$&n'. (.1. T7! $+-&2%an)! &# +'$) $n %7! 1angag! %!a)7$ng. <any of us know how quick students are at learning songs. For a "ariety of reasons# songs stick in our minds and become part of us. -. 't is easier to sing a language than to speak it. /. <usic is around us9 radio# tele"ision# theatre# etc. 8. *ongs work in our short and long1term memory. 6. *ongs use simple# con"ersational language and repetitions. A. %hildren en:oy hearing themsel"es (+iaget9 egocentric language). 5. *ongs are relaxing# fun# etc. B. 'n practical terms# for language teachers# songs are short# repetiti"e# and easily to handle in a lesson. (.(. C7a2a)%!2$'%$)' &# '&ng' an" 278+!'. Their main characteristics are9 -. They pro"ide a link with home and school life. /. 3elp children to de"elop positi"e attitude towards language learning. 8. They pro"ide an en:oyable alternati"e in presentation of the language. 6. They reinforce lexical items and structures. A. They play an important role in pronunciation# intonation and rhythm. 5. They are used to reinforce listening that leads to speaking# reading and writing tasks. B. They are used to reinforce other sub:ects. 65- ?. They reflect customs and traditions associated with !nglo1*axon culture. (.*. R!a'&n' %& '! '&ng' $n %7! )1a''2&&+. The main reasons to use songs are9 -. <oti"ation9 songs easily moti"ate children to use the foreign language. /. %hange in the routine. 8. %ultural importance9 they reflect the foreign culture. 6. ,einforcement9 they pro"ide a meaningful way to repeat different items in order to reinforce the learning (pronunciation# grammar# "ocabulary# etc.). *. T8-!' &# '&ng'. 't is essential to select carefully the songs we are going to work with in class. $hat we must bear in mind are the features of the students we are working with at that specific moment9 their age# interests# likes and dislikes# and of course# their knowledge of the foreign language. $e already know that the foreign language is introduced in the second cycle of +rimary &ducation# that is# children from ? years to -/. : ( n" C8)1! &# P2$+a28 BH %& 10C. 't is the first time the foreign language is introduced in class. 't is one of the best didactic moments because children are "ery recepti"e and interested in e"erything. : * 2" C8)1! &# P2$+a28 B10 %& 1(C. !t this age their interests begin to change. *o that# teachers ha"e to take these changes into account and ad:ust the teaching practice to the new needs and interests of the students. The ma:ority of the students think that songs are childish) they feel shy singing and so that# it is difficult to make them sing aloud in class. 3owe"er# they en:oy music "ery much but their interests are different. *o that# we ha"e to find songs that they en:oy and are suitable for our purposes too. $e as teachers must select the most suitable songs depending on the le"el of our students# on their interests and their needs. The following are some examples of types of songs we can use in class at these stages. *.1. S&ng' #&2 &))a'$&n'. *ongs that make reference to anything that happens to them in daily life9 >3a--8 5$2%7"a8? or >A1" Lang S8n!? (=ew >ears &"e). *.(. T&-$) '&ng'. *ongs that deal with a specific topic. $e must bear in mind that the topic the song deals with must be interesting for the children. For example9 %olours1 >T7! )&1&2'? or animals1 >O1" M) D&na1"? *.*. S&ng' 6$%7 a)%$&n'. *ongs that are related to the old technique of representing what we are saying9 8total physical response9 (Fames !sher)9 >I# 8&K2! 7a--82 or >T7!'! $' %7! 6a8?. *.4. R&n" '&ng'. ! round is a circular song. 7ne group begins singing# then the second group begins the song when the first group gets to the end of the first line. The third group begins when the second group gets to the end of the first line and so on. $hen the singers get to the end of the last line they continue singing from the beginning again# so the song becomes circular. For example9 >T72!! 51$n" +$)!? or >I 7!a2 %7n"!2?. *.I. D$a1&g!' '&ng'. This type of songs is "ery useful. They are "ery easy to sing and at the same time they require more attention on the part of the children. For example9 >I '-8? or >I a+ a +'$) +an?. 65/ *.L. T2a"$%$&na1 '&ng'. These songs will not probably known by the students# but they must learn them because they belong to the new culture they are studying. For example9 >O7, S'anna?, >L&n"&n 92$"g!? or >Yan0!! D&&"1!?. Furthermore# there are songs that we sing at a specific time of the year like C72$'%+a' Ca2&1': >M!228 C72$'%+a'? or >J$ng1! 9!11'?. *.G. O%7!2 '&ng'. There are other songs for children which are more difficult but which are also good to work with them in class. For example songs in all $alt @isneys films. ! good idea to de"elop them is to watch the film at the same time we sing the song. For example9 >3a0na Ma%a%a? or 0F18, #18? (+eter +ann). *.H. T2a"$%$&na1 278+!'. ,hymes can be used in the same way as songs. This could be easier for those students that are a bit shy. *ome traditional rhymes to be mentioned are9 >On! P&%a%&? or >S-2$ng, S++!2, A%+n, /$n%!2?. 4. T!)7n$@!': T8-!' &# a)%$,$%$!'. There are many different acti"ities that we can do working with songs# depending on what we want the students to practise and to learn. These can be summari(ed as follows9 1 !cti"ities to communicate new information. 1 !cti"ities to understand the social meaning of a song. 1 !cti"ities to learn the way language works without paying attention to the meaning. !s we ha"e mentioned before# the acti"ities with songs we can do in class are "ery "aried. The following are some examples of these acti"ities# which may be done with different songs# according to the interests and needs of our students9 a3 In,!n%$&n: the children in"ent a new song with some music they all know and with some "ocabulary that we may gi"e to them. =3 S%&2$!': the students tell the story of the song. #3 D$')''$&n': use songs to introduced a topic that may be discussed afterwards. *3 F$11 $n %7! Ga-': fill in the gaps they find in the lyrics of a song with the words pre"iously gi"en. e3 /2$%! $n O2"!2: write in the correct order the sentences of a song as they listen to it. ?3 S$ng$ng C&+-!%$%$&n': di"ide the class into groups. &ach group chooses a song or rhyme from the songs worked in pre"ious lessons and perform it to the rest. !fter all the performances# the class "otes their fa"ourite. )3 /7a%K' %7! +$''$ng 6&2": di"ide the class into groups. &ach group chooses a song and performs it for the rest of the class. 3owe"er they miss out the last word in each line. The rest of the class has to call out the missing word. ,3 R&n"': (point 8.6) "3 V$"!&': to watch musical "ideos. The images help the students to understand what the song is about. @3 S&ng "$)%a%$&n: to do what the song says. %olour# write# etc. <3 T7! P$)%2! '&ng: the children try to make up a new song# taking some pictures as the basis. &3 F$11 an" "2a6: two different sheets of paper. 7ne has some draws explaining what is happening in the song) the other has the lyrics. They must try to fill in. I. C&n)1'$&n. 658 There are many acti"ities that we can do in class with songs. 3owe"er# it is going to depend on our students interests# needs and# of course# linguistic le"el. 't is up to us to select the work and ht songs we are going to work with. The possibilities of the songs are directed to de"elop the four linguistic skills9 oral and written comprehension and oral and written expression. ut# we may say that the most basic ability to use songs in class is oral comprehension. TEMA 1H: FUNCIONES DEL JUEGO Y DE LA CREATIVIDAD EN EL APRENDISAJE DE LAS LENGUAS EXTRANJERAS. DEFINICIN Y TIPOLOGWA DE JUEGOS PARA EL APRENISAJE Y EL PERFECCIONAMIENTO LING_WSTICO. EL JUEGO COMO TRCNICA L`DICO:CREATIVA DE ACCESO A LA COMPETENCIA COMUNICATIVA EN LENGUA EXTRANJERA. 1. : FUNCIONES DEL JUEGO Y LA CREATIVIDAD EN EL APRENDISAJE DE LAS LENGUAS EXTRANJERAS. 1.1. : In%2&"))$<n. 1.(. : E1 -1an%!a+$!n%& "!1 E!g&. -./.-. 1 !cti"idad indi"idual. -./.-.-. 1 %ada alumno con el profesor. -./.-./. 1 %ada alumno con el resto del grupo. -././. 1 !cti"idades por pare:as. -./.8. 1 !cti"idad en grupos. 1.*. : E1 +a%!2$a1. 1.4. : E1 1!ngaE!. -.6.-. 1 +ara empe(ar el :uego. 656 -.6./. 1 +ara mantener el :uego. -.6.8. 1 +ara terminar el :uego. (. : DEFINICIN Y TIPOLOGWA DE JUEGOS PARA EL APRENDISAJE Y EL PERFECCIONAMIENTO LING_WSTICO. (.1. : J!g&' "! ,&)a51a2$&. /.-.-. 1 &l :uego de los nameros. /.-./. 1 &l bingo. /.-.8. 1 %adena de palabras. /.-.6. 1 &l alfabeto "i"iente. /.-.A. 1 usca la palabra. /.-.5. 1 +olicJas y ladrones. /.-.B. 1 &ncuentra la palabra que no corresponde. /.-.?. 1 Falta una palabra# _cuGl; /.-... 1 +alabras y dibu:os. (.(. : J!g&' "! !'%2)%2a' g2a+a%$)a1!'. /./.-. 1 Fuego de trotamundos. /././. 1 !di"ina mi oficio. /./.8. 1 Fuego del mimo. /./.6. 1 Fuego de las asociaciones. /./.A. 1 Fuego de las adi"inan(as. /./.5. 1 4a ruta de !na. (.*. : J!g&' "! )2!a%$,$"a". /.8.-. 1 4a historia tonta. /.8./. 1 Tn poco de memoria. 65A /.8.8. 1 _XuiKn debe sobre"i"ir; *. : EL JUEGO COMO TRCNICA L`DICO:CREATIVO DE ACCESO A LA COMPETENCIA COMUNICATIVA DE LA LENGUA. *.1. : D$5Ea 1a #2a'!. *.(. : Pa2!Ea' "! "$5E&'. *.*. : 3$'%&2$a "!'&2"!na"a. *.4. : Da2 "$2!))$&n!'. 655 1. : FUNCIONES DEL JUEGO Y LA CREATIVIDAD EN EL APRENDISAJE DE LAS LENGUAS EXTRANJERAS. 1.1. : In%2&"))$<n. 4a preocupaciHn de todo profesor es poder dar una clase atracti"a# que consiga captar la atenciHn y el interKs del alumno hacia su materia. ! los problemas que plantea la ense`an(a de cualquier asignatura "iene a sumarse el desconocimiento de la lengua en la clase de idioma moderno# cuya finalidad es conseguir que los alumnos alcancen un ni"el de comunicaciHn oral y escrita con personas de otros paJses. +ero esta moti"aciHn es prGcticamente nula en nuestros centros debido a las escasas posibilidades que existen de "isitar el paJs de origen para poner en prGctica lo aprendido en clase. Tna manera de paliar esta ausencia de moti"aciHn real y de interesar a los alumnos en el uso de lo aprendido es# sin duda# la prGctica de :uegos. &l :uego rela:a# desinhibe y fa"orece la participaciHn creati"a del alumno# ya que le presenta un contexto real y una ra(Hn inmediata para utili(ar el idioma# que se con"ierte en "ehJculo de comunicaciHn con un propHsito ladico. +ero para que este interKs se mantenga a tra"Ks del curso# tenemos que presentar los :uegos como autKnticas acti"idades dentro de la programaciHn de una lengua segunda. *i el alumno intuye que impro"isamos# que utili(amos el :uego para rellenar huecos de cinco minutos o para mantenerlos dentro de la clase# en "Jsperas de "acaciones# la funciHn pedagHgica de esta acti"idad quedarG rota. +ara e"itar su utili(aciHn indiscriminada de deben tener en cuenta los siguientes aspectos9 &l planteamiento del :uego. 65B &l material. &l lengua:e. 4as clases de :uegos# que describiremos en un epJgrafe aparte y que agruparemos de acuerdo con la finalidad a la que sir"en9 a) Fuegos de "ocabulario. b) Fuegos de estructuras gramaticales. c) Fuegos de creati"idad. d) Fuegos de comunicaciHn# que tambiKn "eremos# por su importancia# en otro epJgrafe aparte. 1.(. : E1 -1an%!a+$!n%& "!1 E!g&. %ada profesor en su clase debe saber cHmo agrupar a los alumnos para que Kstos se encuentren con posibilidades reales de comunicaciHn y con un material autKntico. !sJ# los :uegos pueden ser planteados como9 -./.-. 1 !cti"idad indi"idual. -./.-.-. 1 %ada alumno con el profesor. &sto sHlo es aconse:able en grupos reducidos. &l profesor dirige y controla la acti"idad. Tiene sus "enta:as# ya que Kste puede asegurarse de que cada alumno escucha lo que se dice# y recibe# en general# un buen modelo de lengua) pero en grupos numerosos# en los que la participaciHn serJa mGs espaciada# la mayorJa se quedarJa sin inter"enir por falta de tiempo y el aburrimiento harJa acto de presencia. -./.-./. 1 %ada alumno con el resto del grupo. *e necesita un gran espacio libre para que el grupo pueda mo"erse con facilidad. &l profesor actaa como monitor y el peso de la acti"idad recaen en los alumnos. +ueden ser acti"idades de comprensiHn yEo expresiHn oral. +or e:emplo# un alumno describe una situaciHn preparada de antemano en lengua extran:era# y el resto tiene que expresar a tra"Ks de la pantomima lo que "a diciendo. 65? +ueden ser historias in"entadas por los propios alumnos o sacadas de cuentos# de libros de a"enturas# etc. -././. 1 !cti"idades por pare:as. 4os alumnos traba:an de dos en dos formando un tGndem frente al resto de las otras pare:as# o haciKndose preguntas uno a otro sobre su "ida# traba:o# familia# acti"idad# descripciHn de un documento "isual# etc. 4a finalidad de esta acti"idad es obtener la informaciHn mGs completa en un tiempo fi:ado de antemano. &l profesor actaa de monitor y super"isa la expresiHn# pronunciaciHn# etc.# de las pare:as. -./.8. 1 !cti"idad en grupos. *e di"ide la clase en grupos de traba:o de cuatro o cinco alumnos. *uelen ser los :uegos mGs atracti"os# pues# al igual que en las pare:as# se incrementa el namero de alumnos hablando al mismo tiempo y dinami(an mucho mGs la clase# desarrollando el sentido de cooperaciHn entre ellos. *e corre el riesgo de que hablen espa`ol# si el profesor no super"isa todos los grupos# pero una forma de resol"erlo es nombrar un moderador en cada grupo que se encargue de e"itarlo. @entro de este apartado podemos incluir la di"isiHn de la clase en dos o mGs equipos contrincantes. &sto darJa mGs emociHn al :uego o acti"idad# al introducir el sentido de competiciHn. 1.*. : E1 +a%!2$a1. &ntramos en un campo interminable. Todo depende de la dedicaciHn# imaginaciHn o conocimiento prGctico de cada profesor. &xisten muchJsimos :uegos que no necesitan material especial para su puesta en prGctica. =o obstante# se suele aconse:ar# por ser muy socorrido# fabricarse :uegos de cartas plastificadas# con dibu:os alusi"os a "arios temas# tales como9 alimentos# bebidas# ropa# 65. animales# plantas# ob:etos# mobiliario# medios de comunicaciHn# dJas de la semana# meses del a`o# estaciones# las grandes ciudades (=ue"a >ork# 4ondres# *ydney#...)# los oficios y sus correspondientes herramientas# cartas con dibu:os y otras con los nombres que corresponden a cada dibu:o# etc. +ero no todos los profesores tienen la habilidad o el tiempo para hacerse sus propias cartas. +ara esto podemos recurrir a los alumnos# o solicitar la ayuda del profesor de dibu:o. 4as cartas serGn hechas en cartulina del mismo color y tendrGn todas el mismo tama`o. *i se cuenta con un retroproyector en clase# el profesor puede lle"ar dibu:os esquemGticos# tar:etas postales# fotografJas# etc. &ntonces la mitad de los alumnos se sientan mirando a la proyecciHn y la otra mitad de espaldas. *e :uega por pare:as9 un alumno describe lo que "e# mientras el otro "a dibu:ando a partir de la informaciHn que recibe. %uanto mGs rico sea el "ocabulario y las expresiones gramaticales del que describe# mGs completo serG el dibu:o del compa`ero. &n este caso un solo dibu:o sir"e para toda la clase. 'nsistimos# sin embargo# en que es muy prGctico contar con un buen namero de cartas plastificadas# pues sir"en para muchos :uegos. &n la formaciHn de familias puede haber muchas "ariantes. 1.4. : E1 1!ngaE!. !ntes de lan(arse a organi(ar :uegos# el profesor debe familiari(ar a los alumnos con una serie de estructuras bGsicas que permiten agili(ar el comien(o y el final de los :uegos. &stas estructuras pueden ser9 -.6.-. 1 +ara empe(ar el :uego. 4istenb These are the rules. e quiet. *tay on your seat. Form a circle E groups of four Epairs. 6BD *it down. *tand up. @o the same as myself. Ni"e the cards# one each. ,eady; No aheadb %lose your eyes. %ount up to four ... >ou win. >ou start. 4ook at your partner. -.6./. 1 +ara mantener el :uego. 'tPs myEyour turn. $hoPs going on; 4ook at your card. 'tPs your card. Take a card. 3ere are your cards. Take them. *how your cards. Tell them what to do. -.6.8. 1 +ara terminar el :uego. *top. 'tPs time to finish. 3a"e you finished; %ount your cards. 3ow many ha"e you got; >ouPre the winner. 3ere is the winner. $ho are the winners; $e are. ! point for your team. 'Pm sorry# >ouP"e lost a point. >ou canPt go on playing. (. : DEFINICIN Y TIPOLOGWA DE JUEGOS PARA EL APRENDISAJE Y EL PERFECCIONAMIENTO LING_WSTICO. 6B- !lgunos de los :uegos que "amos a presentar son una recopilaciHn de "arios autores citados en la bibliografJa. 7tros han sido recogidos de forma oral# entre los docentes# o son simples adaptaciones de :uegos infantiles tradicionales. &stos :uegos se pueden di"idir en cuatro categorJas9 1 Fuegos de "ocabulario. 1 Fuegos de estructuras gramaticales. 1 Fuegos de creati"idad. 1 Fuegos de comunicaciHn# que estudiaremos en un epJgrafe aparte. (.1. : J!g&' "! ,&)a51a2$&. +ara responder a estos :uegos casi siempre hay que buscar y encontrar la palabra que falta o la palabra :usta de acuerdo con una consigna dada. &l ob:eti"o de estos :uegos es desarrollar la escritura y la lectura# aunque muchos de ellos pueden ser orales. /.-.-. 1 &l :uego de los nameros. O5E!%$,&: +rGctica de los nameros. D!'%2!;a': @esarrollar la comprensiHn y expresiHn orales. N$,!1: &lemental e intermedio. Ma%!2$a1: Tna pelota# o una simple bola de papel# un cronHmetro (opcional). Ag2-a)$<n: @os grandes equipos. 9rgani7aciFn@ *e di"ide la clase en dos grandes grupos. &l profesor tira la bola a un alumno del equipo - diciendo un namero9 Otwel"eO. &l alumno debe encontrar rGpidamente un namero que empiece por la altima cifra del namero escuchado9 Otwenty1threeO. &ste alumno pasa la bola al equipo contrario diciendo Otwenty1threeO. ! su "e( el que recibe la bola tendrG que encontrar un namero que empiece por 8 y de"ol"er la bola de papel al equipo -# etc. *e trata de pasar la pelota lo mGs rGpidamente posible al equipo contrario# pues el que tenga la pelota en la mano cuando suene el timbre del cronHmetro pierde. *i un alumno elige un namero que termina en Q# por e:emplo# OtwentyO# el que recibe dirG O(eroO# y luego a`adirG 6B/ otro cualquiera9 OfifteenO. %uando alguien se equi"oca# su equipo pierde un punto. +uede :ugarse en tres partidas de dos minutos cada una. /.-./. 1 &l bingo. 7b:eti"o9 +rGctica de los nameros. @estre(a9 %omprensiHn oral. =i"el9 &lemental# intermedio y a"an(ado. <aterial9 %artones de bingo. !grupaciHn9 'ndi"idual o en pare:as. 9rgani7aciFn@ *e hacen cartones con nameros que "ayan del - al -DD# del -DD al ADD# del ADD al -DDD (dependiendo del ni"el de los alumnos). 4os nameros pueden estar escritos en cifras o en letras. +uede :ugarse indi"idualmente o en pare:as. &l profesor dice nameros de forma aleatoria) se premia la lJnea y el bingo. /.-.8. 1 %adena de palabras. O5E!%$,&: +rGctica del "ocabulario. D!'%2!;a': %omprensiHn y expresiHn orales. N$,!1: &lemental e intermedio. Ma%!2$a1: ola de papel# cronHmetro (opcional). Ag2-a)$<n: @os grandes equipos. 9rgani7aciFn@ *e procede de la misma forma que en el :uego de los nameros. *e di"ide la clase en dos equipos# el profesor dice una palabra y tira la bola a un alumno# que tendrG que decir otra que empiece por la altima letra o sonido de la palabra escuchada# y asJ sucesi"amente. %ualquier alumno que repita palabra ya dicha o que no pueda seguir con la cadena# pierde un punto. &l equipo que tenga la bola cuando suene el timbre pierde un punto. Nana el que mGs puntos tenga. 0lternativas@ *e puede :ugar con la altima sJlaba de cada palabra. @e esta forma resulta mGs difJcil. 7tra "ariante es :ugar con el "ocabulario especJfico de un tema y no sobre la altima letra. +or e:emplo# el profesor dice ObreadO y cada alumno tendrG que decir nombres 6B8 relacionados con la comida. &l que repita# diga mal una palabra o no siga# pierde. &sta "ariante es mGs adecuada para los primeros ni"eles. /.-.6. 1 &l alfabeto "i"iente. O5E!%$,&: +rGctica del alfabeto. D!'%2!;a': @esarrollo de la comprensiHn oral. N$,!1: &lemental e intermedio. Ma%!2$a1: =inguno. Ag2-a)$<n: 'ndi"idual o dos grandes equipos. 9rgani7aciFn@ 4os alumnos deben conocer pre"iamente el alfabeto del inglKs (hacer "arios e:ercicios para comprobarlo# haciKndoles deletrear sus nombres# por e:emplo). &l profesor asigna una letra a cada alumno. *i son peque`os# deberGn pintarla bien grande en una ho:a. &l profesor dice una palabra. ,Gpidamente# los alumnos deberGn le"antarse por orden diciendo la letra correspondiente hasta formar la palabra. *i una letra se repite# el representante de ella se le"antarG y dirG dicha letra cada "e( que Ksta apare(ca en la palabra. +or e:emplo# OwindowO9 el representante de la OwO se le"antarG en primer y altimo lugar# pronunciando el nombre de la letra. +uede :ugarse en dos equipos. *e reparte la primera mitad del alfabeto a un equipo y la segunda mitad al otro. 4os equipos parten con -D puntos. 4os alumnos se le"antarGn a medida que apare(ca su letra. *i alguno se equi"oca# resta un punto a su equipo# y asJ# el que menos puntos tenga al final# pierde. /.-.A. 1 usca la palabra. 9b4etivo@ +rGctica escrita de "ocabulario. (estre7a@ @esarrollo de la escritura de palabras. <ivel@ &lemental e intermedio. %aterial@ Tn dibu:o. 0grupaciFn* 'ndi"idual# pare:as o grupos. 6B6 7rgani(aciHn9 &l profesor reparte un mismo dibu:o de una habitaciHn con algunas personas y animales a toda la clase. 4os alumnos deben escribir nombres de ob:etos# de animales o de personas que empiecen por la misma letra. !l cabo de dos minutos el :uego se para y ganan los alumnos que hayan encontrado mGs nombres. /.-.5. 1 +olicJas y ladrones. 9b4etivos@ +rGctica del alfabeto y repaso de la ortografJa de las palabras. (estre7as@ %omprensiHn y expresiHn orales. <ivel@ &lemental e intermedio. 0grupaciFn@ Nrupos de cuatro o cinco alumnos. 7rgani(aciHn9 *e forman grupos de cuatro o cinco alumnos# que se sentarGn en cJrculos# bien separados unos de otros. %ada grupo escribe una lista de die( palabras. *e echa a suertes para "er quK grupo empie(a primero y se seguirG el orden de las agu:as del relo:. Tn representante de un equipo# el OpolicJaO# "isita cualquier otro grupo y pide a un alumno determinado que deletree una palabra. *i Kste no sabe o se equi"oca# pasa a ser su prisionero. /.-.B. 1 &ncuentra la palabra que no corresponde. 9b4etivo@ ,e"isiHn de "ocabulario. (estre7as@ %omprensiHn escrita# comprensiHn y expresiHn orales. <ivel@ &lemental. %aterial@ Fotocopias de series de palabras. 0grupaciFn@ 'ndi"idual o en pare:as. 6BA 7rgani(aciHn9 4os alumnos# de forma indi"idual o en pare:as# leen la primera de las series de palabras que aparecen en su ho:a. &l primero o la primera pare:a que encuentra la palabra que no pertenece a la serie le"anta la mano# lee la palabra en "o( alta y explica por quK ha elegido Ksa precisamente) si estG bien# gana) si no# se pasa el turno al otro. /.-.?. 1 Falta una palabra# _cuGl; 9b4etivo@ ,e"isiHn del "ocabulario. (estre7as@ %omprensiHn y expresiHn escritas. <ivel@ &lemental e intermedio (dependiendo de la cadena de oposiciones). %aterial@ &ncerado. 0grupaciFn@ 'ndi"idual o en pare:as. 7rgani(aciHn9 &l profesor escribe en la pi(arra una lista de cinco o siete palabras en la que existe una cadena de oposiciones. &l alumno# indi"idualmente o en pare:as# debe adi"inar la que falta y explicar por quK la ha elegido. &:emplos9 1 black# white) true# false) big...... 1 father# mother) man# woman) brother...... 1 on# off) upstairs# downstairs) in...... !lternati"a9 %ada pare:a puede hacer su propia lista y leerla en "o( alta# para que otra pare:a encuentre la oposiciHn. *i la palabra es adi"inada# el acertante gana un punto. *i la palabra no es adi"inada# o se da una respuesta incorrecta# el que ha hecho la lista# gana. 6B5 /.-... 1 +alabras y dibu:os. 9b4etivos@ ,e"isiHn y fi:aciHn de "ocabulario. (estre7as9 %omprensiHn y expresiHn escritas. <ivel@ &lemental. 0grupaciFn@ 'ndi"idual o en pare:as. 7rgani(aciHn9 el profesor reparte una fotocopia a cada alumno o pare:a donde aparece un dibu:o. &n un tiempo dado (tres minutos) los alumnos tienen que escribir los nombres de los dibu:os que estGn numerados. +or e:emplo9 =umber -9 ! hen. =umber /9 ! knife. =umber 89 ! fork. !sJ hasta que terminen. 4uego tendrGn que agruparlos por categorJas# de tres en tres. +or e:emplo9 The dog# the cat# the hen are animals. +odemos ayudar a los alumnos dGndoles las siguientes frases9 1 ............................................................... are things to eat. 1 .............................................................. are used to tra"el. 1 .............................................................. are clothes. 4a pare:a que termine antes y cuyas respuestas sean correctas# gana. 6BB (.(. : J!g&' "! !'%2)%2a' g2a+a%$)a1!'. &stos :uegos pueden ser orales o escritos y ayudan a fi:ar unas estructuras gramaticales especJficas# ya conocidas por el alumno. 3ay que tener la habilidad de presentGrselos como una acti"idad recreati"a# sin hacer alusiHn a la estructura. *i el alumno se equi"oca# debemos animarle a que encuentre la alternati"a correcta# sin corregirle formalmente# pues ya hemos indicado que lo mGs importante del :uego es la comunicaciHn. /./.-.1 Fuego de trotamundos. 9b4etivo@ +rGctica del presente. (estre7as@ %omprensiHn y expresiHn orales. <ivel@ &lemental e intermedio. %aterial@ Tar:etas postales# recortes de re"istas# banderas y un cronHmetro. 0grupaciFn@ Nrupos de cuatro o cinco alumnos. 7rgani(aciHn9 *e di"ide la clase en grupos de cuatro o cinco alumnos. Tn representante de cada grupo recibe un documento "isual (tar:eta# foto# recorte#...) de un paJs# de una ciudad o de un lugar conocido por la mayorJa# donde se supone se estG reali(ando un "ia:e. Ttili(ando el presente# tiene que explicar a sus compa`eros de equipo dHnde estG# pero no puede emplear nombres propios. 4os compa`eros tienen que adi"inar el lugar en que se encuentra9 1 ' am in a beautiful town. 1 't is the capital city of the country. 1 ' am "isiting a big palace where a famous queen li"es. *e cronometra el tiempo# y el equipo que haya tardado menos en adi"inar# gana. !lternati"a9 &ste mismo :uego se puede utili(ar para la prGctica del futuro si en la tar:eta o la foto que se entrega aparecen las caracterJsticas del paJs de donde procede# y se pide a los 6B? alumnos que imaginen que Kse es el lugar al que irGn de "acaciones ese "erano y lo que harGn allJ. /././. 1 !di"ina mi oficio. 9b4etivo@ +rGctica de las estructuras interrogati"as bGsicas. (estre7as@ %omprensiHn y expresiHn orales. <ivel@ &lemental e intermedio. %aterial@ %artas con dibu:os que representen una profesiHn# ocupaciHn u oficio# y el nombre escrito deba:o. &n su defecto# tro(os de papel con el nombre de una profesiHn. 0grupaciFn@ Nrupos de cuatro o cinco alumnos. 7rgani(aciHn9 *e di"ide la clase en grupos (cuatro o cinco alumnos) que traba:arGn independientemente. *e entrega una carta de una profesiHn a un alumno de cada grupo# que se dirigirG a sus compa`eros diciendo9 ONuess my :obO. 4os miembros del equipo le harGn un mGximo de die( preguntas hasta adi"inar quK hace. *i agotan las preguntas# el que presenta la profesiHn gana# y el profesor entrega otra carta a otro miembro del grupo. &l alumno responde siempre exclusi"amente O>esO o O=oO. !lternati"as9 *e pide un "oluntario y se le ordena salir de la clase. 4os demGs se ponen de acuerdo para elegir el nombre de un persona:e histHrico o actual# de un animal# de una planta# de un ob:eto... &ntra el "oluntario y se le coloca en la espalda un papel con el nombre elegido. TendrG que hacer a sus compa`eros un mGximo de die( preguntas con el fin de adi"inar su identidad. %uando lo consigue o ha agotado el namero de preguntas# cede el puesto a otro compa`ero. Nana el que lo haya adi"inado con menos preguntas. /./.8. 1 Fuego del mimo. 9b4etivos@ +rGctica del presente continuo. (estre7as@ %omprensiHn y expresiHn orales. <ivel@ &lemental e intermedio. 6B. %aterial@ =inguno. 0grupaciFn@ Tres grandes grupos. 7rgani(aciHn9 *e di"ide la clase en tres grupos9 !# y %. &l profesor propone al equipo ! que prepare cHmo representar mediante mJmica una acciHn9 comer un hue"o# "ender leche# .... ! una se`al del profesor# todo el equipo ! representa con mJmica la acciHn# y los equipos y % hacen preguntas a las que el equipo ! sHlo puede contestar O>esE=oO. *i al cabo de cinco preguntas la acciHn no ha sido adi"inada# el equipo ! gana un punto. &n caso contrario# no gana nada. %oge el turno el equipo que ha acertado# o en su defecto el # y asJ sucesi"amente. Nana el equipo que tenga mGs puntos al final del :uego. /./.6. 1 Fuego de las asociaciones. 9b4etivos@ +rGctica de Osome# any# an# aO con nombres contables e incontables. (estre7as@ %omprensiHn y expresiHn orales. <ivel@ &lemental e intermedio. %aterial@ %artas o recortes de re"istas con dibu:os de alimentos# ob:etos personales# ropas# etc. &n su defecto# tro(os de papel con el nombre de estas cosas. !grupaciHn9 Nran grupo. 7rgani(aciHn9 Formar un cJrculo con todos los alumnos y colocar un pupitre en el centro. *i el grupo es muy numeroso# puede :ugarse en dos turnos. @istribuir dos cartas (o dos tro(os de papel con los nombres) a cada alumno. <ostrando una a los demGs# el primer alumno dice9 O' ha"e got some flour# and you;O. &l alumno que tenga un nombre o dibu:o que pueda ser asociado con OharinaO saldrG corriendo del cJrculo y dirG# por e:emplo9 O' ha"enPt got any flour# but ' ha"e got some breadO. > coloca la carta al lado de OharinaO. 4uego a`ade (de:ando la carta en el pupitre)9 O!nd ' ha"e got some cigarrettes tooO# parque otro alumno "enga y diga9 O' ha"enPt got any cigarrettes# but ' ha"e got a lighter# and some milk# tooO. > asJ sucesi"amente. 4os alumnos deberGn reaccionar muy deprisa# porque puede haber "arias asociaciones. &l :ugador que se quede con las cartas en la mano# pierde. /./.A. 1 Fuego de las adi"inan(as. 9b4etivos@ +rGctica del presente simple# de la interrogaciHn y de los ad:eti"os. 6?D (estre7as@ %omprensiHn y expresiHn orales. <ivel@ 'ntermedio. %aterial@ %artas con dibu:os# o papel con el nombre de ob:etos fGciles de describir. 0grupaciFn@ @os grandes grupos. 7rgani(aciHn9 *e di"ide la clase en dos equipos# y el profesor designa el mismo namero de cartas para cada uno. &l tiempo de participaciHn de cada equipo es de dos minutos. Tn alumno del equipo ! sale a OescenaO. &l profesor le da una carta del montHn que le corresponde y el alumno tiene que describir el ob:eto para que sus compa`eros lo adi"inen. Tiene que haber una pausa entre frase y frase para que los compa`eros tengan tiempo de pensarlo. *i un grupo se OatascaO en un ob:eto# puede de:arlo y pasar a otro. &ntonces el que describe entrega la carta al profesor y otro compa`ero sale a intentar describir un ob:eto nue"o. Nana el equipo que en los dos minutos haya conseguido adi"inar mGs ob:etos. /./.5. 1 4a ruta de !na. 9b4etivos@ +rGctica de las instrucciones y la descripciHn de lugares. (estre7a@ %omprensiHn oral. <ivel@ 'ntermedio y a"an(ado. %aterial@ Tn dibu:o o plano. 0grupaciFn@ 'ndi"idual o en pare:as. 7rgani(aciHn9 &l profesor entrega un dibu:o a cada alumno o pare:a# representando un plano con una ruta que "a a coger !na. 4uego lee un texto y explica el "ocabulario desconocido# hasta estar seguro de que los alumnos lo han entendido. 4os alumnos han de marcar en el dibu:o el camino seguido por !na y hacer una cru( en los sitios donde se detiene. 6?- !lternati"a (sin dibu:o)9 +ara complicar el :uego# en ni"eles a"an(ados# el profesor lee un texto descripti"o de un lugar# y los alumnos tienen que imaginarlo y dibu:arlo. 4uego se comparan los dibu:os y se discuten las diferencias hasta conseguir e que pare(ca mGs correcto a todos. (.*. : J!g&' "! )2!a%$,$"a". *on mGs abiertos que los del apartado anterior. 4os llamamos asJ porque el alumno puede crear un lengua:e mGs imaginati"o# mGs amplio. *on eminentemente comunicati"os# por lo que el profesor deberG "igilar un uso OadecuadoO de la lengua sin insistir demasiado en la perfecciHn de la forma. /.8.-. 1 4a historia tonta. 9b4etivo@ P2])%$)a "!1 -a'a"&. (estre7as@ %omprensiHn y expresiHn escritas. <ivel@ E1!+!n%a1, $n%!2+!"$& 8 a,an;a"&. %aterial@ 3o:as de papel. 0grupaciFn@ Nrupos de ocho alumnos. 7rgani(aciHn9 &l profesor explica que la finalidad del :uego es encontrar las consecuencias de una serie de acciones. *e di"ide la clase en grupos de ocho alumnos. %ada grupo empie(a a escribir una historia respondiendo a las siguientes preguntas9 1 $ho; 9 el nombre de un hombre o de una mu:er cKlebres. 1 $here;9 se desarrolla la acciHn. 1 $hen; 9 fecha# Kpoca# estaciHn del a`o. 1 $hat are they wearing; 6?/ 1 $hat did they do; 1 $hat did U say; 1 $hat did \ say; 1 $hat happened later; &l primer alumno de cada grupo escribe el nombre de un hombre famoso o cKlebre y dobla la ho:a para que sus compa`eros no lo lean) el segundo alumno escribe el nombre de una mu:er cKlebre y dobla la ho:a) el tercero escribe dHnde se desarrolla la acciHn y dobla tambiKn la ho:a. !sJ hasta que hayan terminado todas las preguntas. *iempre que la contestaciHn lo permita# se harGn frases completas. 4uego un alumno de cada grupo lee en "o( alta la historia completa. Nana la historia mGs di"ertida y que tenga menos fallos gramaticales. /.8./. 1 Tn poco de memoria. 7b:eti"os9 %onstrucciHn de una frase muy larga y memori(aciHn. @estre(as9 %omprensiHn y expresiHn orales. =i"el9 'ntermedio y a"an(ado. <aterial. =inguno. !grupaciHn9 @os grandes grupos. 7rgani(aciHn9 &l profesor explica que se trata de hacer correctamente una frase muy larga# escucharla dos "eces y repetirla. *e di"ide la clase en dos equipos. %ada uno se encarga de hacer un par de frases largas# super"isadas por el profesor. Tn alumno de un equipo lee una de las frases para que la repitan alumnos del otro equipo. 4a lectura debe ser correcta y pausada. *i alguno duda o se equi"oca# hace perder un punto a su equipo. Nana el equipo que tenga menos puntos negati"os. /.8.8. 1 _XuiKn debe sobre"i"ir; 7b:eti"o9 +rGctica de las oraciones condicionales. @estre(as9 %omprensiHn y expresiHn orales. =i"el9 'ntermedio y a"an(ado. <aterial9 =inguno. !grupaciHn9 Nrupos de ocho alumnos. 6?8 7rgani(aciHn9 4os alumnos se di"iden en grupos de ocho. &l profesor explica la dramGtica situaciHn9 O&ight people tra"el in a globe which is relie"ing air "ery quickly. The pilot says that at least one of them must :ump out to make the globe lighter# or otherwise the globe will crash and e"erybody will dieO. 4os ocho persona:es# que son los me:ores en sus profesiones# tienen que :ustificar su derecho a la "ida. +ueden elegirse "arias profesiones9 mKdico# arquitecto# abogado# poeta# enfermero# policJa# polJtico# profesor#... 4os alumnos tendrGn que utili(ar las condicionales9 'f ' die# Othere wonPt be buildings any longerO. *. : EL JUEGO COMO TRCNICA L`DICO:CREATIVA DE ACCESO A LA COMPETENCIA COMUNICATIVA DE LA LENGUA. &l cuarto tipo de :uegos son aquellos conocidos como :uegos de comunicaciHn. &n ellos# el Knfasis no se pone en la correcciHn absoluta del lengua:e utili(ado por el alumno# sino en el mensa:e general que el alumno emite# en la eficacia comunicati"a del lengua:e. &llo no significa que esta clase de :uegos no me:ore la correcciHn y la competencia lingIJstica# pues un lengua:e que estK plagado de errores no podrG ser"ir de medio de comunicaciHn efecti"o y ademGs la gama lingIJstica que se usa en este tipo de :uegos es limitada y los alumnos repiten las mismas estructuras muchas "eces. *.1. : D$5Ea 1a #2a'!. 7b:eti"o9 +rGctica de formas interrogati"as. @estre(as9 &xpresiHn y comprensiHn orales. =i"el9 &lemental# intermedio y a"an(ado. <aterial9 &l encerado y papeles en los que "aya escrito el tJtulo de un libro# o de una pelJcula# o de un programa de TV o expresiones en la lengua extran:era# refranes# etc. !grupaciHn9 @os grandes grupos. 7rgani(aciHn9 *e di"ide la clase en dos grupos. &n sesiones anteriores se habrG estudiado el "ocabulario no conocido# relati"o a los tJtulos o expresiones en inglKs. +ara iniciar el :uego se bara:an los papeles y el profesor entrega uno# sin que lo "ean los demGs# a un alumno del grupo !# que deberG salir al encerado. &ste alumno tiene que representar a tra"Ks de los dibu:os en el encerado# o por medio de mJmica# la frase o tJtulo para que sus 6?6 compa`eros adi"inen de quK se trata. 4os compa`eros hacen preguntas a las que se contesta O>esE=oO. &l tiempo para cada frase es de un minuto. *i lo adi"inan# ganan un punto. ! continuaciHn participa el equipo . &l :uego se repite "arias "eces# y gana el equipo que tenga mGs puntos. *.(. : Pa2!Ea' "! "$5E&'. 7b:eti"o9 +rGctica de la descripciHn. @estre(as. %omprensiHn y expresiHn orales. =i"el9 &lemental# intermedio y a"an(ado (dependiendo del dibu:o). <aterial9 +are:as de dibu:os# fotos# etc.# con alguna diferencia. !grupaciHn9 +are:as. 7rgani(aciHn9 *e :uega en pare:as. %ada una recibe un par de dibu:os similares# pero con alguna diferencia. %ada alumno esconde su dibu:o para que no lo "ea su compa`ero. 4uego lo describen y se hacen preguntas para tratar de a"eriguar las diferencias. *.*. : 3$'%&2$a "!'&2"!na"a. 7b:eti"o9 +rGctica de la narraciHn. @estre(as9 %omprensiHn y expresiHn orales. =i"el9 &lemental# intermedio y a"an(ado. <aterial9 Fotocopia de una historia contada en "i`etas y otra igual recortada en tro(os. !grupaciHn9 +are:as. 7rgani(aciHn9 4os alumnos se sientan en pare:as. &l alumno ! recibe la fotocopia entera y el alumno la "ersiHn recortada en tro(os y en desorden. &l alumno tiene que rehacer la historia# colocando los tro(os en orden# a partir de las explicaciones del alumno !. *.4. : Da2 "$2!))$&n!'. 7b:eti"o9 +rGctica de las direcciones. @estre(as9 %omprensiHn y expresiHn orales. =i"el9 &lemental# intermedio y a"an(ado. 6?A <aterial9 Tna fotocopia de un plano completo y otra con el esquema de las calles sin ningan nombre o dato. !grupaciHn9 +are:as. 7rgani(aciHn9 *e distribuye toda la clase por pare:as. &l alumno ! recibe la fotocopia con toda la informaciHn. &l alumno recibe el plano sin nombres. &s nue"o en la ciudad# acaba de llegar a la estaciHn y tiene que ir9 primero a# por e:emplo Othe post officeO# despuKs a Othe town hallO# luego a Othe 3otel ,it(O# y finalmente a Othe 7pera theatreO. &l alumno ! tiene que dar las explicaciones suficientes para que el alumno localice en su plano los lugares a los cuales debe dirigirse# el nombre de las calles# etc. &ste :uego permite que los dos alumnos inter"engan acti"amente en la con"ersaciHn# pues deben preguntar# responder y clarificar instrucciones. 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'! &# %7! 1angag!. *.1.1 E=-1&2$ng %7! )1a''2&&+ T7! %!a)7!2 $n,$%!' %7! '%"!n%' %& -a8 a%%!n%$&n, "2$ng a )&-1! &# +$n%!', %& %7! %7$ng' $n %7! )1a''2&&+. On)! %7! %$+! $' -, %7! %!a)7!2 a'0' %7! --$1' %& )1&'! %7! !8!' an" 1$'%!n, 6$%7&% an'6!2$ng, %& a '!2$!' &# @!'%$&n' a5&% %7! 6a11, %7! "&&2, %7! 51a)05&a2"... Ma"! %7! @!'%$&n', %7! %!a)7!2 a'0' %7! '%"!n%' %& &-!n %7! !8!' an" )&++!n% 6$%7 %7! 2!'% &# %7! --$1' %7! %7$ng' %7a% a2! a51! %& 2!+!+5!2. T7! +&'% $+-&2%an% %7$ng a5&% %7$' !=!2)$'! $' %7! $n%!2!'% %7! '%"!n% 7a' %& "$')&,!2 7$'T7!2 n!a2!'% !n,$2&n+!n% an" %7$' $' %2an'#&2+!" $n%& a 2!a1 -2&")%$&n &# 1angag! %7a% $' n&% a16a8' !a'8 %& 2!a)7 $n %7! )1a''2&&+ an" $% $' a1'& $+-&2%an% %& g!% %7! '%"!n%' '!" %& &5'!2,! %7! "!%a$1'. *.1.( D$')&,!2$ng &5E!)%' 7$""!n &n %7! 7an" S%an"$ng - an" 6$%7 %7! 7an"' 5!7$n" %7!$2 5a)0', %7! '%"!n%' +a0! )$2)1!' &# #&2 &2 #$,!. T7! %!a)7!2, )&,!2%18, -1a)!' a '+a11 &5E!)% &n %7! 7an"' &# &n! --$1 #2&+ !a)7 g2&-, %28$ng n&% %& "$')1&'! $%, n&% !,!n %& %7! '%"!n% 67& 2!)!$,!' $%. T7$', '$ng %7! '!n'! &# %&)7, )an !a'$18 0n&6 %7! na+! &# %7! &5E!)%. T7! a)%$,$%8 &# %7! 2!'% &# %7! +!+5!2' #2&+ %7! %!a+ $n,&1,!' g!''$ng, 58 @!'%$&n$ng 7$+T7!2, 67$)7 %7! &5E!)% $'. T7! &n18 )1!' g$,!n a2! %7! @!'%$&n' +a"! 58 %7! "$##!2!n% +!+5!2' &# %7! g2&-. T7$' a)%$,$%8 2!@$2!' a g2!a% !##&2% &# )&n)!n%2a%$&n, $n 67$)7 $n%!11$g!n)! an" +!+&28 -1a8 an $+-&2%an% 2&1!. *.1.* T7! $n,$'$51! #2$% G2&-' &# #&2 &2 #$,! '%"!n%'. Ea)7 g2&- %7$n0' a5&% a #2$% an" "!)$"!' 67$)7 g!'%2!' a2! '$%a51! %& $+$%a%! %7! a)%$&n &# !a%$ng %7! #2$%. A% a '$gna1 g$,!n 58 %7! %!a)7!2, %7! g2&-' "$'-!2'! an" !a)7 --$1 g&!' %& a )1a''+a%! #2&+ an&%7!2 g2&- an" $n%!2)7ang!' %7! g!'%2!' ag2!!" $n %7!$2 2!'-!)%$,! g2&-' an" +a0!' '&+! )&++!n%' a5&% %7!$2 -!2#&2+an)!'. /7a% $% $' '&g7% 6$%7 %7$' a)%$,$%8 $' %7! &--&2%n$%8 %& !=!2)$'! )!2%a$n #n)%$&n' &# 1angag! ')7 a' -2a$'$ng &2 )2$%$)$'+ &%7!2K' -!&-1! -!2#&2+an)!. 8./ &xercises of creation and interpretation. T7!'! !=!2)$'!' a2! )2!a%!" %& 52$ng $n &-!2a%$&n %7! #an%a'8 &# %7! '%"!n% a' a +!an' %& )a228 7$+T7!2 #2&+ %7! '$%a%$&n &2 $++!"$a%! 2!a1$%8 &# %7! )1a''2&&+ %& $+ag$na28 '$%a%$&n' $n %7! n&n:a)a"!+$) 6&21". 9!'$"!' '%$+1a%$ng %7! )2!a%$,! an" $n%!2-2!%a%$,! )a-a)$%8 &# %7! '%"!n%', 6! $n%!n" %7! --$1' %& a)7$!,! a '$%a51! -2&")%$&n $n a))&2"an)! 6$%7 n!6 '$%a%$&n' )2!a%!" 58 %7!$2 $+ag$na%$&n. *.(.1 Un!=-!)%!" '! &# %7! &5E!)%' #2&+ %7! )1a''2&&+. 6?? In -a$2'. Ea)7 -a$2 +'% #$n" #&2 )!2%a$n &5E!)% #2&+ %7! )1a''2&&+ a "$##!2!n% '! #2&+ %7! &n! $% 'a118 7a'. BA )7a$2 +a8 5! '!" a' an +52!11aC. A#%!2 %7$', !a)7 -a$2 +'% 2!a)7 an ag2!!+!n% a5&% %7! 6a8 &# $+$%a%$ng %7! a)%$&n %7a% +a8 5! -!2#&2+!" 6$%7 %7a% &5E!)%. A#%!2 a 52$!# 52!a0, !a)7 -a$2 '7&6' %7! '%a5$1$'!" a)%$&n 5!#&2! %7! &%7!2 -a$2' &2 %7! 67&1! )1a''. F2&+ %7$' a)%$,$%8 $' !a'8 %& a)7$!,! a )2!a%$,! an" '-&n%an!&' '! &# %7! 1angag!: >I %7$n0 $% $' an +52!11a?. *.(.( C&++!n%a2$!' a5&% a -7&%&g2a-7. In &2"!2 %& )a228 &% %7$' a)%$,$%8, $% $' !''!n%$a1 %& 7a,! a '!% &# -7&%&g2a-7' &# "$##!2!n% )7a2a)%!2'. T7! --$1' a2! "$'%2$5%!" $n%& g2&-' &# %72!! &2 #&2. Ea)7 g2&- $' g$,!n a -7&%&g2a-7 &# a "$##!2!n% )7a2a)%!2, a1&ng 6$%7 a '7!!% )&n%a$n$ng %7! #&11&6$ng @!'%$&n': 3&6 &1" $' %7$' -!2'&nQ /7a% "&!' 'T7! "&Q, D& 8& 1$0! %7$' -!2'&nQ, /7a% $' 'T7! "&$ng n&6Q ... /$%7 %7! -7&%&g2a-7 $n #2&n% &# %7!+, %7! +!+5!2' &# !a)7 g2&- an'6!2 %7! "$##!2!n% @!'%$&n' an" %28 %& ag2!! $n %7! +&'% $n%!2!'%$ng $n%!2-2!%a%$&n'. I% $' a",$'a51! %7a% '&+!5&"8 #2&+ %7! g2&- %a0!' n&%!' &# %7! )&n)1'$&n'. On)! %7! %a'0 $' #$n$'7!", %7! g2&-' $n%!2)7ang! %7! -7&%&g2a-7' an" +a0! )&++!n%' a5&% %7! n!6 )7a2a)%!2. /7a% $' !=-!)%!" 6$%7 %7$' a)%$,$%8 $' !=-1&$%$ng 1$ng$'%$)a118 %7! #$2'% $+-2!''$&n %7a% $n'%$n)%$,!18 7a' an8 7+an 5!$ng 67!n -a8' a%%!n%$&n %& '&+!5&"8. *.(.* R!-2!'!n%a%$&n &# a E&0!. In -a$2'. Ea)7 -a$2 "!)$"!' %& 2!-2!'!n% a E&0! $n #2&n% &# %7! 2!'% &# %7! Eng1$'7 )1a''. In %7$' 6a8 6! #&'%!2 %7! )2!a%$,! '! &# %7! 1angag! 58 a11 %7! '%"!n%' 5!)a'! %7!8 '! $% $n a -!2'&na1 +ann!2 '& a' %& 2!-2!'!n% a )&+$)a1 '$%a%$&n $n #2&n% &# %7! &%7!2 --$1'. 98 %2n', a11 %7! -a$2' 2!-2!'!n% %7! E&0!' &2 #nn8 '$%a%$&n' -2!,$&'18 )7&'!n. T7! %!a)7!2 n"!2%a0!' %7! 2!'-&n'$5$1$%8 #&2 %7! E&0!' n&% 5!$ng 2!-!a%!". T7$' a)%$,$%8 +a8 5! )a22$!" &% 6$%7 %7! )7a2a)%!2' &# a %a1! 0n&6n 58 a11 %7! '%"!n%', a1%7&g7 %7$' 0$n" &# 2!-2!'!n%a%$&n +a8 2!@$2! a -2!,$&' 2!7!a2'a1. *.(.4 M8 #a,&2$%! &5E!)%. T7! %!a)7!2 a'0' %7! '%"!n%' %& 52$ng $n%& %7! )1a''2&&+ an8 &5E!)% #2&+ %7!$2 7&'! %7a% #!!1 -a2%$)1a218 0!!n &n. A% %7! 'a+! %$+!, 'T7! 6$11 a1'& $n"$)a%! %7! n!)!''$%8 &# 62a--$ng %7! &5E!)% '& %7! 2!'% &# %7! --$1' )ann&% '!! $% n%$1 %7! a)%$,$%8 '%a2%'. T7! %!a)7!2 a'0' %7! '%"!n%' %& "$'%2$5%! %7!+'!1,!' $n%& g2&-' &# #&2. T7!n, %7!8 a2! $n#&2+!" %7!8 7a,! a #!6 +$n%!' %&, 5!#&2! &-!n$ng %7!$2 2!'-!)%$,! -a2)!1' $n #2&n% &# %7! )1a''+a%!', g!'' %7! )&n%!n%. On)! %7! &5E!)%' a2! !=-&'!", !a)7 '%"!n% !=-1a$n' %& 7$'T7!2 g2&- '&+! "!%a$1' a5&% %7! &5E!)% B67& ga,! $% %& 7$+T7!2, 67!n, !%).C. M!an%$+!, %7! 2!'% &# %7! --$1' )an a'0 a5&% an8 "!%a$1 a5&% %7! &5E!)%. T7!8 a2! ,!28 $n%!2!'%!" $n %7! &5E!)%' %7!8 52$ng $n%& %7! )1a''2&&+, '& a11 %7! a)%$,$%$!' a5&% %7!+ 6$11 5! a))&+-1$'7!" 6$%7 !@a1 $n%!2!'%. 4. $7,K N,7T+ F7, %,&!T'V& !%T'V'T'&*. T3& ,74& 7F T3& T&!%3&,. A",an%ag!' &# 6&20$ng $n g2&-': T7! '%"!n%' 67& 6&20 $n:g2&-' a--a2!n%18 !=-!2$!n)! 1!'' >#!a2? $n )1a''. A' a 2!'1%, %7!8 6&1" 2a2!18 )&n#$n! $n%& %7!+'!1,!' an" +a$n%a$n a +&2! 2!)!-%$,! a%%$%"! %&6a2"' '%"8. 9!'$"!', %7! )&: &-!2a%$&n $n:g2&- a)%$,$%$!' -2&")!' a '!n'! &# '))!'' %7a% %7! '%"!n% "&!' n&% n&2+a118 !=-!2$!n)! 67!n 6&20$ng a1&n!. T7! '%"!n%' g!% '!" %& 1!a2n$ng a--18$ng %7! 0n&61!"g! $n'%!a" &# +!+&2$'$ng $%. T7! '0$11' a)@$2!" $n %7$' 6a8 5!)&+! !a'$18 -a2% &# %7! -!2+an!n% 1$ng$'%$) )&+-!%!n)!. 6?. T7! '%"!n%' 1!a2n '7a2$ng an" E&$n$ng %7!$2 !##&2%', )7!)0$ng %7!$2 6&20 2!)$-2&)a118 an" 7!1-$ng &n! an&%7!2 $n na%2a1, "8na+$) an" )&++n$)a%$,! '$%a%$&n'. T7! #a)% &# E&$n$ng %7!$2 !##&2%', -!2)!-%$&n' an" 0n&61!"g! 7!1-' %7! '%"!n% %& +a0! - #&2 %7! $n"$,$"a1 "!#$)$!n)$!'. /&20$ng $n:g2&-' +1%$-1$!' %7! &--&2%n$%$!' #&2 &2a1 )&++n$)a%$&n $n %7! )1a''2&&+. 6.- !d"antages for the teacher. /7!n %7! %!a)7!2 7a' '))!!" $n 7a,$ng !a)7 g2&- &# '%"!n%' 6&20$ng a' a %!a+, 'T7! a1'& a)7$!,!' %7!8 -a8 +&2! a%%!n%$&n %& %7! %a'0 n"!2%a0!n. I% $' n!)!''a28 %& !+-7a'$'! %7a% %7! 2!'-&n'$5$1$%8 &# %7! %!a)7!2 #&2 "$,$"$ng %7! )1a'' $n%& g2&-' )7ang!', an", a% %7! 'a+! %$+! %7! %2a"$%$&na1 2!1a%$&n %!a)7!2T'%"!n% $' %2an'#&2+!" $n%& a 2!'-&n'$5$1$%8 '7a2!" 6$%7 %7! '%"!n%' an" "!,!1&-!" $n "$##!2!n% +&"a1$%$!'. .!!-$ng a 1$,!18 2a%! $n %7! a)%$,$%$!' 'a118 7!1-' %& "$+$n$'7 %7! "$')$-1$n! -2&51!+', a' $% $' n1$0!18 %7a% '%"!n%' g!% 5&2!". 9!'$"!', %7! +$')7$!,&' '%"!n% )ann&% "$'2-% %7! )1a'' '& &#%!n $# !,!285&"8 $' 5'8. T7! %2a"$%$&na1 &--&'$%$&n %!a)7!2T'%"!n% $' 2!")!" 67!n %7! '%"!n%', $n'%!a" &# !'%a51$'7$ng an !=)1'$,! 2!1a%$&n 6$%7 %7! %!a)7!2, 2!1a%! %& %7!$2 )1a''+a%!'. 6./ %riteria for the classification of acti"ities. S!,!2a1 )2$%!2$a a2! '!#1 67!n )1a''$#8$ng g2&- a)%$,$%$!': T7! "!g2!! &# %7! '%"!n%'a' #a+$1$a2$%8 6$%7 %7! %a'0. T7! %a'0' a))&+-1$'7!" $n -2!,$&' 1!''&n' a2! )a22$!" &% 6$%7&% "$##$)1%$!' "! %& %7! 0n&61!"g! &# %7!$2 '%2)%2!. T7! )&+-1!=$%8 &# %7! %a'0. G!n!2a118 %7! +&2! '%!-' $% 7a', %7! +&2! )a-a)$%8 %& #&11&6 %7! $n'%2)%$&n' an" )&:&2"$na%$ng %7! $n%!2a)%$&n $' 2!@!'%!" #2&+ %7! '%"!n%'. T7! "!g2!! &# )2!a%$,$%8 2!@$2!". T7! %a'0' 5a'!" +a$n18 $n %7! +an$-1a%$&n &# 1$ng$'%$) !1!+!n%' a2! a--a2!n%18 !a'$!2 %7an %7! &n!' %7a% 2!@$2! %7! '! &# %7! 1angag! $n a )2!a%$,! 6a8. Ana18'$ng an a)%$,$%8 %a0$ng $n )&n'$"!2a%$&n %7!'! %72!! )2$%!2$a 7!1-' %& #&2!'!! %7! 2!a)%$&n &# %7! g2&-. P2&,$"!" %7a% !a)7 a)%$,$%8 n&2+a118 2!@$2!' +&2! %7an a '0$11, %7! )1a''$#$)a%$&n 58 '0$11' B&2a1, 62$%%!n, )&+-2!7!n'$&n,!%).C $n"$)a%!' $%' +a$n a--2&a)7. T7! a)%$,$%$!' +'% 5! '!1!)%!" "!-!n"$ng &n %7! &5E!)%$,!' &# %7! )1a'', %7! 1!,!1 &# 0n&61!"g! $n %7! %a2g!% 1angag!, %7! '%"!n%' an" %7!$2 $n%!2!'%. I% $' &5,$&' %7! #1!=$5$1$%8 &##!2!" 58 6&20$ng $n:g2&-' an" %7! %$1$%8 6$%7$n %7! 1angag! )1a''. 6.8 The role of the teacher. P!27a-', %7! 2&1! &# %7! %!a)7!2 $' "!)$"$ng 67!n 6&20 g2&- )an $+-2&,! %7! 1!a2n$ng &# a 1angag! 58 +!an' &# )2!a%$,! a)%$,$%$!'. /7$1! %7! 6&20 g2&- %a0!' -1a)!, %7! %!a)7!2 -!2#&2+' '!,!2a1 2&1!': O2gan$'!2: "!)$"!' %7! '$;! &# %7! g2&- an" %7! 6a8 %& '!1!)% $%' +!+5!2'. D!#$n!' %7! a)%$,$%8 an" $%' 2!'1%. Manag!2: &5'!2,!' %7! "8na+$) &# %7! g2&- an" 'gg!'%' $+-2&,!+!n%'. C&:&2"$na%!' %7! "$##!2!n% g2&-' %& a,&$" nn!)!''a28 2!-!%$%$&n'. C7!)0' %7a% %7! %a'0' a2! )a22$!" &% a))&2"$ng %& %7! g$,!n '-!)$#$)a%$&n'. R!'&2)!: g$,!' $n#&2+a%$&n &2 +a%!2$a1' 67!n a'0!". P2&-&'!' '!,!2a1 an" ,a2$a51! a1%!2na%$,!'. A''!''&2: g$,!' !=-1ana%$&n' "!-!n"$ng &n %7! n!)!''$%$!' &# !a)7 g2&-. C1a2$#$!' g2a++a%$)a1 "$##$)1%$!', &2gan$'!' '!''$&n' %& -2a)%$)! -2&nn)$a%$&n. P2&,$"!' -&'$%$,! #!!"5a)0 a5&% %7! "!,!1&-+!n% &# %7! a)%$,$%8. E,a1a%&2: !,a1a%!' %7! 6&20 &2 -!2#&2+an)! &# %7! g2&-D -2&-&'! )2$%!2$a '& %7! g2&-' )an !,a1a%! %7!+'!1,!'. 6.D P2&51!+ "!%!)%&2: &5'!2,!' %7! "$##$)1%$!' a--!a2!" $n %7! -!2#&2+an)! &# %7! g2&-, )1a2$#$!' %7! -2&51!+' an" 'gg!'%' '&1%$&n'. /7$1! %7! g2&- $' 6&20$ng, %7! %!a)7!2 )an -!2)!$,! a 6$"! ,a2$!%8 &# -2&51!+'. D2$ng an8 '!''$&n &# g2&- 6&20, %7! %!a)7!2 6$11 7a,! %& +&,! #2&+ a 2&1! %& &%7!2, a--18$ng %7! %!)7n$@!' 2!@$2!" $n !a)7 '$%a%$&n, an" 6$11 a"&-% %7! 2&1! &# -2&nn)$a%$&n )&nn!)%&2 $n a g2&-, '&2)! &# 2!'&2)!' &2 +anag!2 $n &%7!2'. In !a)7 )a'! %7! %!a)7!2 $n"$,$"a1$'!' 7$'T7!2 7!1- "!-!n"$ng &n %7! g2&-, &##!2$ng 7$'T7!2 -2!'!n)! $n a "$-1&+a%$) +ann!2, an" n&% $+-&'$ng $% %& %7! g2&-. T7an0' %& %7!'! 2&1!', %7! %!a)7!2 $' a51! %& +&n$%&2 %7! -2&g2!''$&n &# %7! '%"!n%', %& #&11&6 )1&'!18 %7! "$##$)1%$!' %7!8 !n)&n%!2, %7! -!2'&na1 2!1a%$&n' an" %7! "8na+$) &# %7! g2&- 67$)7 7!1- 7$+ %& '!1!)% '))!''#118 %7! a)%$,$%$!' $n %7! #%2!. T3&<& /D. T3& F7,&'N= 4!=NT!N& !,&! '= T3& %T,,'%T4T<. %,'T&,'! T7 & ,&F4&%T&@ '= T3& &@T%!T'7=!4 +,7F&%T !=@ T3& %T,,'%T4!, +,7F&%T. -. '=T,7@T%T'7=9 The 7rganic !ct -E-..D of Neneral 7rganisation of the &ducational *ystem introduced some important changes# aimed at impro"ing the quality of education in *pain. !mong these changes we can mention9 - The extension of compulsory education to the age of -5 years old - The establishment of new educational stages such as9 'nfant &ducation# +rimary &ducation# and %ompulsory *econdary &ducation. - These stages are organised in cycles# which is the period that should be considered for teaching programs and promotion. - The establishment of a curriculum which# in spite of ha"ing certain aspects which are compulsory for all the country# is also open and flexible# as the different autonomous educational ser"ices could adapt it to their real context. Then# each school should adapt the official curriculum to their real en"ironment by means of the design and de"elopment of the %urricular +ro:ect. - esides# the %entres ha"e the right to define their educational options# their ob:ecti"es and their organisational structure that will make possible the attainment of such ob:ecti"es. These aspects must be included in a document called the &ducational +ro:ect. Then# taking into account these basic aspects of the educational reform# we are going to deal with9 - The Foreign 4anguage area# as it is reflected in the official curriculum. - The criteria to be reflected in the &ducational +ro:ect and the %urricular +ro:ect# in relation to this area. /. T3& F7,&'N= 4!=NT!N& !,&! '= T3& 7FF'%'!4 %T,,'%T4T<9 6.-
The teaching of a foreign language is included among the areas of +rimary education# as we can see in the articles number -6 of the 7rganic !ct -E-..D# and also in the article number A of the ,oyal @ecree -866E.-# which established the national curriculum for +rimary &ducation. !ccording to these legal documents# the teaching of that foreign language starts in the second cycle. 3owe"er# in most autonomous regions of *pain# the teaching of a foreign language has been brought forward to the first cycle. 'n &xtremadura# this introduction came into force from the beginning of the last academic year# according to an 7rder of the 8D th of !ugust# /DDD. The importance gi"en to the learning of a foreign language in current society has to do with certain '&)$a1, !")a%$&na1 an" -'8)7&1&g$)a1 "!+an"'# which rewster# &llis and Nirard# in their book 0The +rimary &nglish teachers guide summarised as follows9 - S&)$a1 "!+an"'9 deri"e from the need of communicating with people from other countries in a world# which is becoming a Mglobal "illage. The success in business and international relations is closely linked to the learning of foreign languages# especially in the context of the &uropean Tnion# where goods and people can mo"e freely through the member states. esides# the ability of communicating in a foreign language (especially in &nglish) is quite useful to tra"el abroad# and for the transmission of news and knowledge. - T7! E")a%$&na1 "!+an"' ha"e to do with the de"elopment of cogniti"e and social abilities by means of the learning of a new language and its culture. This knowledge help children to o"ercome their natural egocentrism# as they realise that there are other ways of li"ing and seeing reality different from their own. !t the same time# this contact will help them to de"elop tolerance and respect as well as a better understanding and appreciation of their own language and culture. - Finally# the -'8)7&1&g$)a1 "!+an"' refer to the need of introducing them to the learning of a foreign language# as young as possible# because they are less distanced from the age in which they learn their first language than teenagers or adults# and they are still good at understanding and imitating what they hear. esides# they realise that the same functions and notions they ha"e :ust learn in their nati"e language# can be expressed# equally well# using a different language. 7nce we ha"e seen the importance of teaching a foreign language in +rimary education# we are going to see how the foreign language area is reflected in the official curriculum through the analysis of its different elements. $e are going to start with the analysis of the +!%7&"&1&g$)a1 -2$n)$-1!': -. First of all# we should consider that the foreign language area curricular purpose is not to teach a foreign language but rather to teach how to communicate using it. Therefore ,oyal 6./ @ecree -DD5E-..- of the -6th Fune# which establishes the teaching requirements for +rimary education# sees communicati"e competence as comprising fi"e sub1competencies9 - Nrammar competence9 the ability to implement rules and lexical items from the language system. - @iscourse competence9 which refers to the ability to produce different types of discourse organising them according to the communicati"e situation and the interlocutors. - *ociolinguistic competence9 refers to the ability to adapt statements to different contexts obser"ing the usage of a gi"en linguistic community. - *trategic competence9 implies being able to use "erbal and non1"erbal strategies to compensate for breakdowns in communication. - *ociocultural competence9 refers to the students knowledge of the cultural aspects of the countries where the foreign language is spoken. !ll these elements are part of the language# as language is not something abstract# but a tool for effecti"e communication. /. %ommunicati"e competence acquisition is seen as a creati"e construction process. 7ur pupils using their general cogniti"e strategies and linguistic input they recei"e establish hypothesis to form the new rules about the foreign language system. 8. This new system is gradually contrasted and impro"ed as new input is presented. Therefore error is seen as an integral part of the learning process# as it is the manifestation of the effort our pupils are making to acquire the new system. 6. This acquisition process may be fostered# especially at first# in ways that do not require a linguistic response by using Total +hysical ,esponse techniques. A. ,ecepti"e skills (listening and reading) are "ery important at this stage# specially listening# since oral communication is the most direct form of communication among human beings. 5. $e will try to familiarise the children not only with the target language from a functional point of "iew# but also as a means of cultural and social transmission. B. $e should organise contents around topics connected to the students interest. ?. The four linguistic skills (listening# speaking# reading and writing) should be integrated through meaningful communicati"e acti"ities. T7!n, %7! G!n!2a1 &5E!)%$,!' &# %7! #&2!$gn 1angag! a2!a a2! "!'$gn!" a))&2"$ng %& %7! -2$n)$-1!' 6! 7a,! E'% +!n%$&n!". A' 6! 6$11 '!!, %7!'! &5E!)%$,!' 2!#!2 %& %7! "!,!1&-+!n% &# %7! #&2 1$ng$'%$) '0$11' B1$'%!n$ng, '-!a0$ng, 2!a"$ng an" 62$%$ngC, an" a1'& %& %7! '! &# 1$ng$'%$) an" !=%2a1$ng$'%$) '%2a%!g$!' an" %7! 0n&61!"g! &# '&)$&)1%2a1 a'-!)%', $n &2"!2 %& g!% )&++n$)a%$,! )&+-!%!n)! $n %7! #&2!$gn 1angag!. 6.8 There are nine general ob:ecti"es# expressed in form of interrelated abilities9 =. ;o understand simple and oral written te+ts a!out known o!jects, situations and events, using general and specific information taken from those te+ts for specific purposes. Q. ;o use the foreign language orally to communicate with the teacher and students in common class activities and in communicative situations created for this purpose, o!serving the !asic rules of interpersonal communication, and adopting a respectful attitude towards the contri!ution of others. R. ;o produce short simple te+ts a!out topics that the students are familiar with o!serving the !asic writing rules. ^. ;o read and understand short simple te+ts related to class activities, to their knowledge of the world and to their e+periences and interests, with the purpose of o!taining general and specific information as desired. _. ;o recognise and appreciate the communicative value of foreign languages and their a!ility to learn them, showing understanding and respectful attitude towards other languages, their speakers and their culture. B. ;o understand and use the linguistic and non4linguistic conventions used !y the foreign language speakers in common situations Ggreetings, farewells, introductions, congratulations...$ in order to make communication easier. ?. ;o use in foreign language learning, previous knowledge and e+perience with other languages, developing autonomous learning strategies. @. ;o esta!lish relationships !etween meaning, pronunciation and graphic representation of simple words and sentences in the foreign language, as well as recognising the characteristic aspects of sound, rhythm and intonation in that foreign language. >. ;o use non4linguistic e+pressive resources Ggestures, !ody language, sounds, pictures$ to understand and !e understood when using a foreign language. In &2"!2 %& "!,!1&- %7! a5$1$%$!' !=-2!''!" $n %7!'! &5E!)%$,!', 6! '7&1" 6&20 &n CONTENTS %7a% $n our curriculum are classified into9 1 %oncepts - +rocedures - !ttitudes %onceptual contents refer to facts# e"ents# rules and principles. +rocedural contents refer to the strategies# abilities# techniques and skills necessary in the learning process. !ttitudinal contents are concerned with beha"iour and "alues. 6.6 These three kinds of contents are set in 51&)0': - 7ral communication uses and forms. - $ritten communication uses and forms. - *ociocultural aspects. The %7=T&=T* 7F T3& F7,&'N= 4!=NT!N& !,&! are also designed around communicati"e needs and situations. $e ha"e summarised the three blocks of contents# which appear in the ,@ -866E.- of the 5 th of *eptember# as follows9 !. 7,!4 %7<<T='%!T'7= T*&* !=@ F7,<*9 a.-) %oncepts 9 asic communicati"e needs and situations in the spoken form9 greeting# identifying oneself# gi"ing and asking for information expressing needs and requests... %haracteristics of communicati"e situations9 =umber and type of interlocutors. <oment and place. Formal or informal communication. Vocabulary and structures needed to express basic communicati"e needs in the spoken form. Topics related to the interests of the students and wide notions9 %olours# numbers# time# daily life# food# animals# time# sports[ a./) +rocedures .9 ,ecognising sounds# rhythm and intonation patterns of the foreign language. Neneral comprehension of spoken messages (face to face or recorded) about familiar topics. *pecific comprehension of spoken messages (face to face or recorded) in contextualised situations. +roducing oral messages to satisfy common communicati"e needs. +articipating in linguistic exchanges for specific play purposes (simulations# role1play). ,ecognising and using basic common strategies (linguistic and non1linguistic) to o"ercome communicati"e difficulties. ,ecognising grammatical forms to ask questions# state# deny# express possession# gender and number# quantify# express facts in present# past# future[ and using them effecti"ely for communication. a.8) !ttitudes 9 !wareness of the importance of oral communication in a foreign languages $illingness to speak a foreign language by participating in group acti"ities (games# group work# role# play[). . $,'TT&= %7<<T='%!T'7= T*&* !=@ F7,<*9 6.A b.-) %oncepts 9 asic communicati"e needs and situations in the written form. %haracteristics of communicati"e situations. Topics of general use and wide notions[ The names of the letters in the foreign language and their correspondence with their written form. ,elationship between meaning# of the "ocabulary studied its pronunciation and its graphic representation. b./) +rocedure s9 Neneral comprehension of written messages related to class acti"ities# and common communicati"e needs. *pecific comprehension of simple authentic material. ,ecognising in written texts grammatical structures used to request# state# deny# express possession# gender and number# state# deny[# using them effecti"ely for communication. +roducing short simple written texts in response to oral or written stimulus aimed at different readers. b.8) !ttitudes 9 !ppreciating the importance of knowing how to read and write in the foreign language. %. *7%'7%T4TT,!4 !*+&%T*9 c.-) % oncepts9 *ocial and cultural aspects of the countries where the foreign language is spoken which may be interesting for our pupils such as9 &xpression and gestures that go with speaking# such as9 polite gestures# tone of "oice# symbols[ !spects of e"ery1day life9 schedules# habits of children of this age# food. Names# popular songs# fa"ourite meeting places and sports in the countries whose language is studied[ +resence in *pain of the foreign language studied by means of9 products# labels# songs# films# TV programs... c./) +rocedures 9 Tsing rules of beha"iour and habits of the foreign language speakers in context. %omparing the most rele"ant aspects of e"eryday life in those countries with the corresponding aspects of the students nati"e country. Tsing authentic materials from different sources close to the learners in order to obtain specific information. c.8) !ttitudes 9 %uriosity and respect for the most rele"ant aspects of e"eryday life in theses countries. !ppreciation of the sociolinguistic beha"iour as a means to impro"e communication. 6.5 'nterest in getting to know people from other countries. !fter the contents which should be taken into account to de"elop the abilities expressed in the general ob:ecti"es# the ,oyal @ecree -866E-..-# presents nine ASSESSMENT CRITERIA, which should be understood as a tool to check if students ha"e got the abilities expressed in the Neneral 7b:ecti"es. These assessment criteria refer to abilities# but also make a little reference to contents as well as a brief explanation.
!ccording to the ,.@. -866E.-# the attainment of the general ob:ecti"es of the foreign language area# will be assessed in relation to the following )2$%!2$a: -.1 To recognise and reproduce characteristic phonemes of the foreign language as well as rhythm and intonation patterns in words and sentences used in real language situations. ;his criterion tries to check if students are familiar with the sounds, rhythm and intonation of the foreign language in listening and speaking. ;he te+ts they should listen to or produce must make sense and !e in conte+t. /.1 .1To grasp the o"erall meaning of oral texts emitted in face to face communicati"e situations supported by gestures# and miming and any necessary repetitions in which combinations of pre"iously studied elements appears and which deal with topics that the learners are familiar with. ;his criterion considers the a!ility of students to understand the glo!al meaning of oral te+t in the !est conditions, which imply* direct communication, conte+tual support and topics related to their previous knowledge. 8.1 To extract specific information# which has been pre"iously studied# from oral texts with a simple structure and "ocabulary# which deal with topics that# are interesting and familiar to the students. T7$' )2$%!2$&n )7!)0' %7! '%"!n%K' a5$1$%8 %& n"!2'%an", n&% &n18 %7! g1&5a1 +!''ag!, 5% a1'& '-!)$#$) "!%a$1' #2&+ '$+-1! &2a1 %!=%', 67$)7 "!a1 6$%7 %&-$)' %7a% a2! #a+$1$a2 %& %7!+. 6.1 To participate in short oral exchanges related to common classroom acti"ities# producing comprehensible discourse adapted to the characteristics of the situation and to the communicati"e aim. ;his criterion refers to the student\s a!ility to e+press !asic communicative needs in the conte+t of the class such as* asking something, asking for something, asking for permission to do something, asking for help, greeting... ;hese messages should !e e+pressed correctly enough to !e understood. Gfor e+ample, they should use the correct e+pression to ask for permission such as* 8#an I go to the toilet, please?, or #an I open the window1door?, #an I !orrow your pen, please? 6.B A.1 To participate in simulated communicati"e situations# which ha"e been pre"iously studied in class using common social formulas correctly in the foreign language. ;his criterion checks the student\s a!ility to communicate orally in the most !asic situations of daily life using social relation formulas, especially those which are typical of children of this age, such as* 8How are you? )ine, thanks9. 8Happy !irthday!9 . 8&any happy returns9... 8Hello!918Hi!8 A.1 To grasp the general meaning and extract specific information from short written texts# with a linear layout# and simple structures and "ocabulary# which deal with topics that are interesting and familiar to the student ;his criterion refers to the student\s a!ility to understand short written te+ts from the teacher or other students, such as* informal letters or instructions, pu!lic advertisements, charts and other written te+ts with visual support such as simple comics for children. . 5.1 To read# with the help of the teacher or a dictionary simple books for children with redundant "isual support and written in foreign language# and showing the le"el of comprehension attained by performing specific tasks. "ith this criterion, we assess if the student is a!le to read simple !ooks written in the foreign language, !ut with pictures that help them to understand. ;hen they have to show us what they have understood !y means of ver!al on non ver!al task, which could !e done even in the student\s native language, as we want to check comprehension, not e+pression. B.1 To produce short comprehensible written texts that are adapted to the characteristics of the situation and to the communicati"e aim and reflect to the sub:ect matter studied in class. ;his criterion means that students should !e a!le to write short simple messages, related to their interests and needs, such as* the list of things they need for an e+cursion, a short letter giving !asic personal information a!out themselves, or an invitation to a !irthday party. ?.1 To recognise some sociocultural features of the communities of foreign language speakers that are contained in the language samples studied in class. )inally, this criterion is designed to check if students are a!le to recognise some sociocultural elements of the countries where the foreign language is spoken, especially those related to the daily life of children such as* schedules, ha!its, su!jects at school, games, greetings, favourite meeting places, popular songs, festivals, food... 8.1%,'T&,'! T7 & ,&F4&%T&@ '= T3& &@T%!T'7=!4 !=@ '= T3& %T,,'%T4!, +,7F&%T9 6.? 7nce we ha"e analysed the elements of the official curriculum# which corresponds to the first le"el of concretion# we must deal with the documents that each center should design in order to9 - @efine their educational options and structure through the &ducational +ro:ect. - !dapt the different curricular elements to their context by means of the %urricular +ro:ect. 8.-.1 T7! E")a%$&na1 P2&E!)%:
First# we will deal with the &ducational +ro:ect# which is a document that must be designed and appro"ed by the entire *chool %ommunity# through their representati"es in the *chool oard. !ccording to the ,oyal @ecree ?/E-..5 of the /5 th Fanuary# which establishes the organic regulations of the 'nfant and +rimary *chools# the &ducational +ro:ect consist of9 -.1 The analysis of the sociocultural context of the center# which is the first step to establish the following elements.(identity signs and educational ob:ecti"es) /.1 The identity signs refer to those educational options that agree with the educational ideas of the school community. 8.1 Taking into account these identity signs# the school community should establish the educational ob:ecti"es as well as re"iewing the general ob:ecti"es of e"ery stage established in the official curriculum to adapt them to their context# and to the identity signs of the centre. 6.1 To get these aims# the school community has to define the organisational structure they are going to adopt including9 1 ! general guideline about the relations of collaboration among the different members of the school community# and also the relations with other institutions. 1The organisational structure of the school# that should be reflected in a document about the distribution of tasks among the different organs of the school community and also the internal rules of the center. 8.-.-.: C2$%!2$a %& 5! 2!#1!)%!" $n %7! E")a%$&na1 P2&E!)% $n 2!1a%$&n %& %7! #&2!$gn 1angag! a2!a: =ow# we are going to see how the foreign language area could be reflected in the design of the &ducational +ro:ect# by means of a practical example. 6.. -.1 ,egarding the school $"!n%$%8 '$gn' the teaching of a foreign language could be considered by the *chool community as a means to promote9 - ,espect for all the cultures - @e"elopment of democratical habits. 1 !utonomous learning. /.1 Taking into account the identity signs we ha"e expressed# we could include the following !")a%$&na1 &5E!)%$,!': - +romote the learning of a foreign language as a tool for social de"elopment. - 4earning a foreign language as a tool for social de"elopment. - 4earning a foreign language and its culture to increase tolerance and being open1minded. - &nlarging the psychological de"elopment of children learning a new language and its culture. 8.1 !fter establishing the identity signs and the educational ob:ecti"es# we ha"e to take some practical decisions about the &2gan$'a%$&na1 a'-!)%' that will make possible the attainment of our ob:ecti"es. Following with our example we can adopt the following decisions9 - &stablishment of interchanges with an &nglish speaking country - &stablishment of relations with different institutions# such as the ritish %ouncil in order to obtain material. - %ontact with parents or relati"es of students that ha"e "isited &nglish1speaking countries. - +articipation in official programs related to Foreign language learning# such as the experimental teaching of &nglish in +rimary &ducation. 8./.: T7! C22$)1a2 P2&E!)%: !ccording to the ,.@. ?/E-..5# the %urricular +ro:ect should include the following elements9 - The general ob:ecti"es of the stage adapted to the socio1cultural context of the school. ADD - The sequence of ob:ecti"es# contents and e"aluation criteria of the different areas per cycle. - Neneral methodological decisions that affect the following aspects9 <ethodological principles# groupings# space# time and materials. - Neneral decisions about the attention to pupils with special needs. 8./.-. 1 C2$%!2$a %& 5! 2!#1!)%!" $n %7! C22$)1a2 P2&E!)% $n 2!1a%$&n %& %7! #&2!$gn 1angag! a2!a: =ow# we are going to analyse how the foreign language area could be reflected in the %urricular +ro:ect of the *tage. $e are going to resort to an example# as we did when talking about the &ducational +ro:ect. 7nce the general ob:ecti"es of the stage ha"e been adapted to the socio1cultural context of the school# the teaching staff should take decisions about the sequence of ob:ecti"es# contents# and e"aluation criteria of each area along the different cycles. *ince the establishment of this sequence is a difficult task# the <inistry of &ducation published a ,esolution of the A th of <arch -../# that offered some criteria to establish such sequence. 'n relation to the foreign language area# this ,esolution says that9 -. $e must establish the sequence of ob:ecti"es# contents and assessment criteria# according to the principles of the communicati"e approach. This means# that we should de"elop the four linguistic skills in an interrelated way as they are in real communication.# and also connect the different skills with our students interests and needs. /.1 To establish the '!@!n)! &# &5E!)%$,!' #&2 %7! '!)&n" an" %7$2" )8)1!'# we should consider9 The psychological stage of de"elopment of children Their pre"ious knowledge Their communicati"e needs AD- The degree in which the abilities expressed in the general ob:ecti"es are going to be de"eloped in each cycle# For instance# starting from the ob:ecti"e number one of the foreign language area9 `;o understand simple and oral written te+ts a!out known o!jects, situations and events, using general and specific information taken from those te+ts for specific purposes.\ $e can sequence the abilities expressed in this ob:ecti"e# for the second cycle of +rimary education# as follows9 `'t the end of the second cycle pupils will !e a!le to understand the general meaning of simple oral te+ts emitted !y the teacher with a simple structure and voca!ulary, in familiar conte+ts, and with the help of gestures, mime and any necessary repetition\ -. ,egarding the *&XT&=%& 7F %7=T&=T*# the best way to promote the de"elopment of communicati"e abilities is organising them around procedures. 'f we decide to do it in this way# we should consider se"eral criteria# to follow a logical progression in the difficulty of such procedures. These criteria are defined according to9 - The type of oral or written texts - The channel - The type of comprehension - The interlocutor - The le"el of correction =ow# we are going to explain these criteria in detail.9 - The type of oral or written texts Here we must consider the length, voca!ulary, the linguistic structures, and organisation of the oral or written te+ts that we are going to use in class. ,!viously, we must go from short simple te+ts to more comple+ ones. - The channel AD/ 's far as channel is concerned we should consider if the oral or written messages that our students should understand or produce are going to !e transmitted in a face to face communicative situation, or !y means of a cassette recording or a written te+t. In this sense, we should start from face to face communication, !ecause mime, gestures and e+pressions help pupils to understand. - The type of comprehension ;he type of comprehension refers to the information we ask them to e+tract from an oral or written message. ;his comprehension may !e glo!al G if they should get the general sense of the message$ or specific Gif they have to e+tract specific details$. ;he most logical progression goes from glo!al to specific comprehension. - The interlocutor /egarding the interlocutor we should take into account if he1she is known or unknown for the student, if he1she !elongs to the school conte+t or not. 't the !eginning we should work with close interlocutors such as the teacher and the classmates. - The le"el of correction ;he level of correction deals with the demands a!out correction in the oral and written production of students. ,!viously such demands increase along the cycles. 't the !eginning, they should produce language correctly enough to !e understood. 8 .1 Then# if we ha"e decided to organise contents around procedures# we should not forget that the three types of contents (concepts# procedures and attitudes) must be considered in an interrelated way. Then we should relate them as in the following example9 8/ecognising the characteristic sounds, rhythm and intonation patterns of the foreign language, realising the importance of !eing a!le to communicate in a foreign language AD8 To see this relation more clear# the ,esolution of the A th of <arch suggests that we can display them in a chart# as follows &U!<+4& 7F *&XT&=%& 7F %7=T&=T* F7, T3& *&%7=@ %>%4& P2&)!"2!' C&n)!-%' A%%$%"!' ,ecognising 1%haracteristic sounds 1,hythm and intonation patterns. 1 ,ealising the importance of oral communication in a foreign language.
'dentifying 1$ords and sentences in texts related to the context of the classroom and daily life 1 *howing an optimistic attitude towards their own ability to understand the foreign language
Nlobal comprehension - of messages with the following )&++n$)a %$,! $n%!n%$&n': ]Nreeting (hello!,good morning...$ ]'dentifying oneself GI am. #&y name 1 *howing a recepti"e attitude towards people who speak a different language. AD6 is...) ]Ni"ing and asking for basic personal information Gusing e+pressions such as* "hat 5s your name, How old are you?...$ - These communicati "e functions should be related to topics of general use and wide notions# which are interesting for children# such as9 ]The school# family# friends# animals# body# home# numbers# colours...
ADA *pecific comprehension - 7f information pre"iously required in contextualis ed situations] 1 *howing a recepti"e attitude towards people who speak a foreign language. ]For instance# we ask children to fill a chart about the fa"ourite sports of different characters from the textbook. First# we tell them what they are going to listen to a con"ersation where the characters talk about things they like and dislike and what information they should pay attention to. Then# we play the cassette or read the text aloud and they should complete the chart# with the specific information we ha"e asked them for (sports# in this case) T&=='* !*K&T!44 F77T!44 *T&V'& yes yes no 4T%> yes no yes !=='& no yes no 's we can see this task ask them to e+tract specific information Ga!out favourite sports$, previously required !y the teacher, in a conte+tualised situation,G as they already recognise the characters voices, and know what they are talking a!out$. 'f we do this with all the general ob:ecti"es we will ha"e a list of the contents of each cycle including concepts procedures and attitudes. These orientations are quite useful to establish the sequence of ob:ecti"es# contents and assessment criteria# in the second and third cycle# but we must not forget that &nglish has been introduced in the - st cycle in our !utonomous %ommunity. Then the O2"!2 &# *0 %7 &# Ag'% published by the @epartment of &ducation# *cience and Technology of our !utonomous No"ernment says in its article number 8 that9 AD5 0;he centers must change and adapt their #urricular .roject partially as the o!jectives, contents and evaluation criteria of the foreign language area, should !e sequenced for three cycles, instead of two9 7b"iously# as we ha"ent got our own curriculum yet# we must take as reference the ob:ecti"es# contents and e"aluation criteria of the ,.@. -866E.- of the 5 th of *eptember# which establishes the national curriculum for primary &ducation. 3owe"er# the @epartment of &ducation# *cience and Technology of our !utonomous No"ernment# has published a document# made by foreign language teachers co1ordinated by the Technical 'nspection *er"ice called 0&nglish in the first cycle of +rimary &ducation2. This document is not a law# it has been published :ust to help teachers. ,egarding the abilities# skills and contents which should be worked in this cycle this document says that9 'n the F',*T %>%4&9 - The most important skill in the first cycle should be listening. - $e must not force children to speak until they are ready to do it. Then at the beginning they can show what they ha"e understood by means of non1"erbal actions such as mo"ements# gestures# drawing# cutting# pointing# colouring... ADB - Total +hysical ,esponse ( T+,) acti"ities and songs are a good way to help them link words and actions# and express themsel"es in &nglish in a funny and meaningful way. - $ritten language should be a"oided# especially in the first year of the cycle# because they are learning to read and write in their nati"e language and the complex &nglish spelling could be confusing for them. - %ontents should be taught by means of didactic units# organised around meaningful topics as9 Family# Friends# %hristmas# Things of the classroom# The house# Food# Toys# %lothes... - %hildren must be already familiar with such topics in their nati"e language. Then# the co1ordination with the tutor1 teacher is "ery important to establish the sequence of the different didactic units along the cycle. *&%7=@ %>%4&9 AD? !ccording to the ,esolution of the A th of <arch# which establishes some principles for the sequence of ob:ecti"es# contents and e"aluation criteria# during the ( n" )8)1! we must consider that9 L$'%!n$ng is still the most important skill# and we must help children to9 Tnderstand the global meaning of simple oral messages and extract specific information pre"iously required in contextualised situations. - The oral messages they ha"e to understand should present a simple structure and "ocabulary and deal with topics related to childrens interests and needs (such as school# home# family# games# sports...) !s far as the de"elopment of '-!a0$ng is concerned# pupils in the / nd cycle must learn simple linguistic structures# which can be applied to a great number of communicati"e situations. These situations could be9 ]3abitual communicati"e situations in the classroom such as9 greeting# identifying oneself# asking for permission# and asking for help. ] *ituations created by the teacher to promote learning# such as9 'dentifying and placing ob:ects# people or places# expressing quantity# expressing likes and dislikes# gi"ing simple instructions... 'n these situations teachers should promote pupils interest in oral communication by means of group acti"ities AD. (simulations# games# and role1plays) where language is used with a communicati"e aim
'n spite of the importance gi"en to oral language# the written code is also present in the / nd cycle from the first day. !s far as 2!a"$ng is concerned# we should help students to de"elop their reading abilities in the foreign language# working on words# short sentences# class instructions# simple descriptions and "ery short stories# supported by pictures. %hildren must start :ust identifying the written form of words and sentences that they already know in the oral form. Then# matching written words and sentences with pictures is the typical reading acti"ity at the beginning of the second cycle. !s far as 62$%$ng is concerned# we must consider that at this age ( ? to -D years old) the communicati"e needs related to writing are still "ery limited# e"en in their nati"e language. This implies that written texts in this cycle should consist of9 Very short descriptions 4ists to perform tasks ( such as the list of things they need for a party# or a shopping list)
*hort messages between classmates (for example short orders in games9 go to the door, dance, stand on your chair, go to the left1right...$ irthday cards# and in"itations# %hristmas cards... A-D Finally# '&)$&:)1%2a1 )&n%!n%' in the / nd cycle should refer to the daily life of children in the &nglish1speaking countries# including aspects such as9 schedules# celebrations and festi"als# shops# traditional tales and songs. IN T3E T3IRD CYCLE: $e must help students to go from comprehension to production. T7! "!,!1&-+!n% &# &2a1 1angag! $' '%$11 %7! +a$n &5E!)%$,!. The oral texts they must understand in this cycle will be more complex and longer than in the pre"ious one# as children are already familiar with the sounds of the foreign language# and they are able to use communicati"e strategies to understand such as9 listening for specific information or :ust to get the general meaning of an oral text# predicting what they think may come next# inferring opinion and attitude from the intonation of the speakers or deducing the meaning of new words from context The oral texts we must offer them must be also related to their interests and needs. For example9 @escriptions of places or people. %on"ersations between children about their daily life# hobbies# or opinions. Fantastic situations based on traditional tales. ,egarding the oral producti"e skill B'-!a0$ngC pupils in the third cycle are able to9 A-- Tse "erbal and non "erbal strategies to be understood (Verbal strategies could be9 using a word instead of another# replacing an specific word they donRt know for a more general one or explaining the meaning of a word they donRt know) =on "erbal strategies are9 making gestures or sounds# drawing# or pointing to ob:ects# to sol"e communicati"e problems) Tse social relation formulas and expressions# which are used to satisfy basic communicati"e needs such as greeting# congratulating# thanking# apologising# introducing oneself.... 'n this cycle most children know what expression they should use according to the communicati"e situation. Then# by means to these abilities# they are able to participate in oral exchanges to express their basic communicati"e needs in the context of the classroom or in real or simulated contexts related to their daily life (dealing with topics such as9 home# food# animals# sports# holidays...) correctly enough to be understood. ,egarding /RITTEN COMMUNICATION# in the third cycle we must consider9 The de"elopment of $n%!n'$,! an" !=%!n'$,! 2!a"$ng: In%!n'$,! reading refers to understand e"ery word of short texts (short descriptions or stories# personal letters# ad"ertisements or labels). E=%!n'$,! reading refers to get the global sense of longer texts# such as9 tales# comics or simple books for children with redundant "isual support. To read this kind of texts children can resort to the help of A-/ the teacher or the dictionary. The most important thing in extensi"e reading is en:oying the texts. /2$%$ng in this cycle will focus on the production of short simple texts in response to oral or written stimulus# aimed at different readers and adapted to the different communicati"e situations. These written texts will include9 short personal letters# descriptions and stories. Finally '&)$&: )1%2a1 )&n%!n%' in this cycle will deal with aspects related to daily life in the &nglish1speaking countries and also with other socio1cultural aspects of those countries related to the studentRs interests# for instance9 cars# sport# famous people on pop stars# cinema# en"ironment# cities# famous buildings# sports... A-8 =ow# we are going to deal with the last decisions we must take in the curricular pro:ect9 the '!@!n)! &# a''!''+!n% )2$%!2$a and the +!%7&"&1&g$)a1 &-%$&n'. /. 1 T7! '!@!n)! &# a''!''+!n% )2$%!2$a# depends on the sequence of ob:ecti"es and contents# since they establish the abilities that children should acquire at the end of the +rimary stage related to the contents they need to de"elop such abilities. Then# according to the principles established for the sequence of ob:ecti"es and contents# an example of sequence of an e"aluation criterion# taken from the curricular materials known as ,ed oxes ( 4enguas &xtran:eras. <ec. -../) *&%7=@ %>%4& T3',@ %>%4& R.4 ;o identify simple details, previously required from oral te+ts related to topics which have !een studied in class, and perform simple instructions gi"en by the teacher in the context of the classroom. R.44 ;o e+tract specific information previously required from oral te+ts, with a simple structure and voca!ulary, which deal with topics which are interesting and familiar for students ( daily life# likes and dislikes# A-6 opinions and personal experiences...) Finally# T3& 4!*T &4&<&=T 7F T3& %T,,'%T4!, +,7F&%T# that we are going to consider# is the definition of the G!n!2a1 M!%7&"&1&g$)a1 O-%$&n' we are going to take into account . To define such options we must follow the recommendations of the ,oyal decree -866E-..-# 5 th *eptember# which establishes the basic requirements for +rimary &ducation# and also the methodological principles established for the +rimary *tage in general# and particularly those principles established for the foreign language area . !s we ha"e seen when talking about the different curricular elements# the main aim of teaching a foreign language in +rimary &ducation will be getting students to communicate in such foreign language. Then# g2&-$ng, '-a)! an" %$+! must be understood in a flexible way to allow students to participate in real communicati"e interactions. !s far as +a%!2$a1' is concerned# they should promote acti"ity on the part of students as well as being "isual# attracti"e and as authentic as possible. $e also should pay a%%!n%$&n %& "$,!2'$%8# designing acti"ities in which e"eryone could participate according to hisEher abilities. !nd finally# according to this kind of methodology# a''!''+!n% should be used as a tool to impro"e the learningLteaching process. A-A '4'7N,!+3>. - 4ey 7rgGnica -E-..D# de 8 de octubre de 7rdenaciHn Neneral del *istema &ducati"o. - ,@ -866E-..- de 5 de septiembre# por el que se establece el currJculo de la &ducaciHn +rimaria. - ,@ ?/E-..5# de /5 de enero que establece el ,eglamento 7rgGnico de las &scuelas de &ducaciHn infantil y colegios de &ducaciHn primaria. - ,esoluciHn de A de mar(o de -../# de la *ecretaria de &stado para la &ducaciHn# que regula la elaboraciHn de proyectos curriculares y establece orientaciones para la distribuciHn de ob:eti"os# contenidos y criterios de e"aluaciHn. - 7rden del 8D de agosto de /DDD# por la que se establece y regula la imparticiHn de la lengua extran:era en el primer ciclo de &ducaciHn primaria# en el Gmbito de la %omunidad !utHnoma de &xtremadura. - <&%9 <ateriales para la ,eforma# area de lengua extran:era. <adrid. *er"icio de publicaciones del <&%. -..-. - <&%. +royecto %urricular. <ateriales para la reforma. <adrid. *er"icio de publicaciones del <&%# -..-. - rewster# &llis and Nirard. The primary &nglish Teachers Nuide. 4ondon. +enguin. -../. !A*A 2; EL RREA DE LENGUAS E8TRAN9ERAS EN EL CURR?CULO. CRITERIOS A REFLE9AR EN EL PRO;ECTO EDUCATIVO DEL CENTRO ; EN EL PRO;ECTO CURRICULAR O. INTRODUCTION 1. FOREIGN LANGUAGES AREA IN THE CURRICULUM A-5 1.1. GENERAL O>9ECTIVES 1.2. CONTENTS 1.3. EVALUATION CRITERIA 2. THE EDUCATIVE PRO9ECT OF THE CENTRE AND THE CURRICULAR PRO9ECT 2.1. THE CURRICULAR PRO9ECT 2.1.1. >ASES OF THE CURRICULAR PRO9ECT 2.2.2. O>9ECTIVES OF STAGE AND O>9ECTIVES OF C;CLE 2.2.3. EVALUATION 2.2.0. OTHER DECISIONS 3. >I>LIOGRAPH; O. INTRODUCTION +Language is a complex human activity that fulfils many functions,among them we can name two basic functions: communication and representation. These functions do not exclude each other, but they are interrelated within the linguistic activity. Representing , either linguistically or not , is the most important aim of communication. Communication at the same time contributes to represent the physical and social reality. Learning and education must serve this double function of communicating and representing. Human beings communicate through different means and systems: gestures, music , symbols , numbers , etc. Verbal language, the most universal means of communication , et us receive and transmit different types of information and influence other people , as wel as they may exert their influence on us. Therefore, communication plays an essential role within society. A-B +But language is not only an instrument of communication amongst persons. t is also a means to represent the world , although the representation of the world around us may be done through other non-linguistic means. +n this topic, we will analize the general objectives of the foreign language area, the contents and the evaluation criteria. Finally, we will analyze the School Educational Project and the School Curricular Project. 1. FOREIGN LANGUAGES AREA IN THE CURRICULUM +The ability to communicate in a foreign language is an actual need nowadays. t is something fundamental wtthin the frame of the European Union not only because of the comings and goings of people throughout Europe , either to work abroad or to visit different countries , but also because of the world of telecommunications and technique
etc. +However, the aims and functions of this area in compulsory education are not exclusvely determined by these social expectancies. There are also deeply educative reasons , derived from the importance of this area in the general educative objectives. +The ability to communicate in a foreign language and the knowledge of the same provide a great help to understand and control our own language and behaviour. To contact other cultures through the channel of the language favours comprehension and respect towards other ways of thinking and acting. n a multilingual country as Spain is, learning a foreign language is highly interesting since languages are not competitive amongst them , but they fulfil the same functions and contribute to the same cognitive development. Communicating and representing through language are simoultaneous and interrelated functions within the linguistic activity. n the social exchange , language helps us to transmit and receive information of very diverse nature , and therefore, to influence other people, controlling and directing their activity, at the same time they are influencing ours. +But , language is a priviledged instrument of communication , thanks to its capacity to represent reality in a way that is shared by all the members of the A-? community. Hence, when we learn a language we are learning a system of signs , but also the cultural meaning these signs have, that is, dlfferent ways to interpret reality. Together with these functional considerations , we must take into account the structural features of language. From this point of view , language is defined as a system of interrelated signs. When we describe the units of language we say that all of them have a meaning, because they are in relation to the whole system. For that reason , we must forget that the discourse is the concretion of language , since the use of the rules in the three levels (phonetic- phonological, morphosyntactic and semantic) depends on the communicative function we want to fulfill, and on the concrete situation of production and reception of the message. Therefore , a study of the language must comprise not only the sentence but the whole text and the context as well. +t is important to say tnat the aim of this curricular area is not to teach a language, but to teach how to communicate through the use of it. This requires an approach based upon communication and aimed to acquire communicative competence. At the same time, communicative competence comprises: $Grammatical cometence or ability to put into practice the units and rules of the system of the language. $5iscursi!e cometence , or ability to use different types of discourse and to organize them according to the communicative functions. $.ociolinguistic cometence or ability to make language suitable in a concrete context. $.trategic cometence or ability to define, correct, or make adjustments according to the communicative situation. $.ocio$cultural cometence or the ability to attain a certain degree of familiarity with the social and cultural context in which language is used. +Summarizing, the development of the communicative competence implies to be able to use a certain amount of "subcompetences " of different nature. "To say something" and "To use language for something" are key elements in the teaching of foreign languages. That is, communicative competence is taught through practice. A-. +The process of acquisition of a foreign language may be considered as a creative construction in which the student makes hypotheses to conform the rules, which constitute the new system. This process et him organize language comprehensively, with the aim of producing messages in the different communicative situations. Although this process is common to all languages , we must underline some special features in the case of a foreign language. +The learning of a foreign language is not linear, but global. The chid progressively enriches the global idea of the new system. Therefore, the mistakes he does, cannot be treated as mistakes, but as the evidence of the progressive control over this new communicative system that he is acquiring. We must say that the ways to process information also work when the student is not buiding messages. The usual periods of silence that exist , when the student is beginning to earn a foreign anguage, must not be understood as "sience", but as periods in which an intense activity that cannot be observed is being carried out. Through the receptive activities we may contribute to develop the concrete competences of comprehension, but also the general communicative competence. +The development of the linguistic skils (reading , writing , istening and speaking) must be understood as, a process of integration. n real life, the majority of activities contribute to develop different skis. Threfore, they must not be studied separately. However , students must be taught to create and consolidate these skis in order to be able to produce written and spoken messages. +But, the earning of a foreign language, must go beyond a functional approach. The members of a linguistic community share, by means of the language , some specific cultural meanings. Therefore, the teaching of a language must introduce, the students into the most relevant features of the social and cultural context. A/D n this way, the educative function of the foreign language becomes meaningful, because it allows students to understand reality, to enrich their cultural world and to favour the development of tolerant attitudes. +Athough the idea that children learn languages faster than adults cannot be proved, there is enough evidence to show that earning must be done as soon as possible, because, in no way this earning interferes the earning of the own mother tongue , but it consolidates it. Learning a foreign language in primary school contributes to overcome the typical egocentrism and localism of the children. +We must take into account that this stage is a period in which we make the student "feel" this foreign language. The first contact must be carefully done , because it is the warranty for a positive earning. t is important to use the most interesting fields for these children, as well as the games as the maximum expression of what they already control in their own mother tongue. n the second cycle of primary education the students already have a fundamental basis: the knowledge of their own language and of many expressions and words of the foreign one, especialy learnt from the mass media. Besides, they have a vague idea of the country where this language is spoken. +f , as we have already said, the earning of a foreign language is a process of creative construction from the received language, the receptive activities become considerably important in this stage. Messages will fundamentally refer to contents that are very close to the students to stimulate them. Besides, they must include the aspects of the new language that are subject to be used in a wide variety of situations. However , we must not forget written language. Students already know the importance of the written code and its graphic representation. The fact that they are earning to read and write at the same time is a good way of integrating the written and oral skills in primary education. 1.1. GENERAL O>9ECTIVES A/- +The teaching of the English language in Primary Education wi have as main objectives the following ones: 1. T* .n&!)t#n& *!#, #n& @!$ttn t-t). To understand simple oral and written texts related to known objects, situations and events close to the students, using the general and specific information transmitted by these texts with specific purposes. 2. T* .) t/ +*!$'n ,#n'.#' *!#,IB . To use the foreign language orally to communicate with the teacher and the other students in the usual classroom activities and in the communication situations created to lead to that aim, paying attention to the basic rules of interpersonal communication and adopting a respectful attitude towards the others' views. 3. T* "!*&.( )/*!t #n& )$5", @!$ttn t-t). To produce short and simple written texts about topics which are familiar to the students, respecting the basic rules of the written code. 4. T* !#& $n # (*5"!/n)$% @#B )/*!t #n& )$5", t-t). Read in a comprehensive way short and simple text related to classroom activities , using their knowledge of the world, and their experiences and interests with the aim of obtaining the necessary and specific information. 5. T* !(*'n$L t/ %#,. *+ +*!$'n ,#n'.#'). To recognize and to appreciate the communicative value of foreign languages and the ability to learn to use them, showing an understanding and respectful attitude towards other languages , their speakers , and their culture. 6. T* .n&!)t#n& #n& t* .) ,$n'.$)t$( #n& n*n-,$n'.$)t$( (*n%nt$*n). To understand and to use the linguistic and non-linguistic conventions used by the foreign language speakers in everyday situations (greetings , A// farewells , introductions, congratulations , etc.) with the aim of making conversation easier and more fluent. 7. T* .) t/ "!%$*.) 1n*@,&' #n& -"!$n() @$t/ *t/! ,#n'.#'). To use , in the foreign language learning process , the previous knowledge and experiences with other languages and to develop progressively learning strategies. 8. T* )t#3,$)/ !,#t$*n) #5*n' t/ 5#n$n', t/ "!*n.n($#t$*n, #n& t/ '!#"/$( !"!)nt#t$*n *+ @*!&) #n& )ntn(). To establish relations among the meaning, the pronunciation
and the graphic representation of some words and simple sentences in the foreign language , apart from recognizing phonetic , rhythm and intonation aspects of the foreign language. 9. T* .) n*n-,$n'.$)t$( #n& -"!))$% &%$() . To use the non-linguistic expressive devices (gestures, body position , diverse sounds, drawings, etc) to try to understand and be understood by using the foreign language. 1.2. CONTENTS #C USES AND FORMS OF THE ORAL LANGUAGE CONCEPTS - Most habitual needs and situations to use the spoken language. Communicative functions and characteristics of these situations: *Communicative intentions: Greetings , identifications , asking and giving information, identification and location of objects, descriptions, narrations , expressing needs and wishes , etc. A/8 *Characteristics of the communicative situation: number and type of listeners , moment and place of communication , more or less formal situation , etc. 1 Vocabulary and linguistic structures required to express, orally, the basic needs of communication *Communicative intentions: greetings, identification , giving and asking for information, identification and location of objects , descriptions, narrations , needs and wishes , etc. U General topics : Colours , numbers , weather, time, house , family , friends , class , food , likes and dislikes , daily routine , animals , human body, sports, spare time , holidays,
health , etc. PROCEDURES - To recognize and make familiar the sounds of the foreign language and its rythm and intonation. - To understand oral messages of different nature and from different sources (teacher , other students , video, tapes): *Global comprehension of oral messages about familiar topics. *Specific comprehension of concrete simple messages in contextualized situations. -To react either linguistically and non-linguistically to different oral messages and communicative situations: *Production of common expressions aimed to satisfy simple needs of communication (greetings , identification, asking and giving information , identification of objects , decriptions , etc). UUse of basic messages previously learnt (polite expressions , etc.) adjusting them to the specific features of the situation. A/6 *Active participation in oral exchanges in order to express the most immediate communicative needs within the class and in contexts closer to the student. UParticipation in the linguistic exchanges with the aim of having fun (simulations , performances , etc.). UNon-linguistic answers to oral messages (follow instructions , etc.). -To recognize the grammatical formulas that help them to make questions , to assert , to reject , to express possession, to quantify , to describe, to narrate, etc... and to use them in order to achieve efficient communication. -To recognize and use the basic strategies of communication, both linguistic (use one word instead of another , etc.) or extralinguistic (gestures, drawings, etc.) which help to overcome communicative problems. - To use the native language's strategies of communication, which let us take advantage of the limited knowledge of the foreign language. ATTITUDES -Awareness of the importance of oral communication in a foreign language. -Awareness of the reality of a different culture , reflected in the language. -Receptive and respectful attitude towards the persons who speak a foreign language - Wish to express themselves in a foreign language , participating in the activities (games, songs , etc.). -Awareness of the corrections done when they interprete or produce a text. - Positive and optimist attitude towards their own ability to speak in a foreign language. A/A -Tendency to use imaginatively and creatively, oral messages previously learnt , in different communicative situations. 3C USES AND FORMS OF THE WRITTEN LANGUAGE CONCEPTS - Most habitual needs and communicative situations to use the written language. Communicative intentions and characteristics of these situations. UCommunicative intentions: greetings , identification and location of objects , expressing needs and wishes, etc. UCharacteristics of the communicative situation: type of isteners , more or less formal situation, etc. - Vocabulary and inguistic structures required to express the basic communicative needs by writing. UCommunicative intentions: greetings, identification , giving and asking for information, identification and location of objects, descriptions, narrations , etc. UGeneral topics: colours , numbers, time, house , family, class, food, likes and dislikes, sports, etc. A/5 1 Na+!' &# %7! 1!%%!2' $n a #&2!$gn 1angag! an" %7!$2 )&22!'-&n"!n)! 6$%7$n %7! 62$%$ng '8'%!+. 1 R!1a%$&n' 5!%6!!n %7! +!an$ng &# %7! 6&2"' , %7!$2 -2&nn)$a%$&n an" g2a-7$)a1 2!-2!'!n%a%$&n. ./,#06A/0% 1 P2&")%$&n &# 62$%%!n %!=%' a"E'%!" %& %7! #!a%2!' &# %7! 2!a"!2 an" &# %7! )&++n$)a%$,! '$%a%$&n. : Un"!2'%an"$ng &# %7! 62$%%!n +!''ag!' &# "$##!2!n% na%2!. bG1&5a1 )&+-2!7!n'$&n &# 62$%%!n +!''ag!' 2!1a%!" %7! a)%$,$%$!' "&n! $n )1a''. bG1&5a1 )&+-2!7!n'$&n &# 52$!# 62$%%!n +!''ag!' 2!1a%!" %& %7! +&'% $++!"$a%! n!!"' &# )&++n$)a%$&n an" %& %7! $n%!2!'%' &# %7! '-!a0!2'. ] G1&5a1 )&+-2!7!n'$&n &# !a'8 a%7!n%$) +a%!2$a1' , 6$%7 ,$'a1 5a)0$ng a5&% "a$18:1$#! %&-$)'. A/B bA6a2!n!'' &# %7! '-!)$#$) !1!+!n%', -2!,$&'18 1!a2n%, $n %!=%' 67$)7 7a,! n0&6n 6&2"' an" !=-2!''$&n', ')7 a' $n,$%a%$&n' #&2 a 5$2%7"a8 -a2%8, )a2"', +aga;$n!', !%). : U'! &# %7! g2a-7&:-7&n$) )&22!'-&n"!n)!' %& '-!11, #&2 $n'%an)!, %7! na+! an" %7! '2na+!, !%). : P2&")%$&n &# 62$%%!n %!=%' "$2!)%!" %& "$##!2!n% 2!a"!2', an'6!2$ng &2a1 an" 62$%%!n '%$+1$. : S&1%$&n &# ga+!' 67$)7 2!@$2! %7! 0n&61!"g! &# %7! ,&)a51a28 an" %7! &2%&g2a-78 '!" $n )1a''. : A6a2!n!'' &# g2a++a%$)a1 '%2)%2!' $n 62$%%!n %!=%'. : A6a2!n!'' &# '&+! '&)$&)1%2a1 a'-!)%' 67$)7 "$##!2!n%$a%! %7! #&2!$gn 1angag! #2&+ %7! +&%7!2 %&ng!. ';;I;A60% : 1n%!2!'% an" )2$&'$%8 %&6a2"' %7! 62$%%!n %!=%' an" a--2a$'a1 &# %7! 2&1! %7!8 -1a8 $n &2"!2 %& 'a%$'#8 )&++n$)a%1,! n!!"'. A/? :A6a2!n!'' an" a--2a$'a1 &# %7! $+-&2%an)! &# 2!a"$ng an" 62$%$ng $n a #&2!$gn 1angag!. : A--2a$'a1 #&2 %7! )&22!)% $n%!2-2!%a%$&n &# !a'8 62$%%!n %!=%'. : In%!2!'% %& 0n&6 %7! ,&)a51a28 an" %7! 5a'$) 1$ng$'%$) '%2)%2!' 2!@$2!" %& !=-2!'' %7! !''!n%$a1 )&++n$)a%$,! n!!"' $n "$##!2!n% '$%a%$&n'. 1 D$'-&'$%$&n %& &,!2)&+! %7! "$##$)1%$!' %7a% %7! '! &# a #&2!$gn 1angag! )2!a%!', 58 -a8$ng a%%!n%$&n %& %7! )&++n$)a%$,! '%2a%!g$!' &# %7! +&%7!2 %&ng!. c) *7%'7%T4TT,!4 !*+&%T* #,:#0.;% : S&)$a1 an" )1%2a1 a'-!)%' &# %7! )&n%2$!' 67!2! %7! #&2!$gn 1angag! '%"$!" $' '-&0!n. bE=-2!''$&n' an" g!'%2!' 67$)7 g& %&g!%7!2 6$%7 %7! &2a1 !=-2!''$&n': %&n! , g!'%2!', !%). ] Da$18:1$#! a'-!)%': T$+!%a51!' , 7a5$%' , $+ag!' &# %7a% )1%2!, !%). A/. bS-a2! %$+!: ga+!', '&ng' , '-&2%', -1a)!', !%). "CP2!'!n)! $n S-a$n &# %7! #&2!$gn 1angag! 1!a2n%: 1a5!1', '&ng', #$1+', !%). ./,#06A/0% :A6a2!n!'' &# '&+! a'-!)%' &# %7! )&n%2$!' 67!2! %7! #&2!$gn 1angag! $' '-&0!n. : C&n%!=%a1$;!" '! $n 7a5$%a1 '$%a%$&n' &# '&+! 21!' an" 7a5$%' &# %7! )&n%2$!' 67!2! %7$' 1angag! $' '-&0!n. : C&+-a2$'&n &# %7! +&'% 2!1!,an% a'-!)%' &# "a$18 1$#! $n %7! )&n%2$!' 67!2! %7! #&2!$gn 1angag! $' '-&0!n, an" &2 &6n )&n%28. : U'! &# a%7!n%$) +a%!2$a1' 6$%7 %7! a$+ &# g!%%$ng %7! "!'$2!" $n#&2+a%$&n. ' ;;I;A60% : C2$&'$%8 an" 2!'-!)% #&2 %7! +&'% 2!1!,an% a'-!)%' &# "a$18 1$#! an" #&2 &%7!2 '&)$&)1%2a1 a'-!)%' &# %7! )&n%2$!' 67!2! %7$' 1angag! $' '-&0!n. : A--2a$'a1 &# %7! '&)$&1$ng$'%$) 5!7a,$&2' 67$)7 7!1- )&7a5$%a%$&n. A8D - nterest to know people from other countries. A8- -.8. &V!4T!T'7= %,'T&,'! -. To recogni(e and reproduce the characteristic phonemes of the foreign language. T& 2!)&gn$;! an" 2!-2&")! %7! )7a2a)%!2$'%$) -7&n!+!' &# %7! #&2!$gn 1angag! a' 6!11 a' %7! 5a'$) +&"!1' &# 278%7+ an" $n%&na%$&n, $n 6&2"' an" '!n%!n)!' 67$)7 a--!a2 $n %7! )&n%!=% &# 2!a1 '! &# %7! 1angag!. /. To grasp the general meaning of oral texts . T& g2a'- %7! g!n!2a1 +!an$ng &# &2a1 %!=%' %%!2!" $n #a)! %& #a)! )&++n$)a%$&n '$%a%$&n', 6$%7 %7! 7!1- &# g!'%2!' an" +$+! an" %7! n!)!''a28 2!-!%$%$&n', $n 67$)7 %7!2! 6$11 a--!a2 )&+5$na%$&n' &# !1!+!n%' -2!,$&'18 1!a2n% an" 67$)7 "!a1 6$%7 #a+$1$a2 %&-$)', 0n&6n 58 %7! '%"!n%. A8/ 8. To extract specific information . T& !=%2a)% '-!)$#$) $n#&2+a%$&n, -2!,$&' 2!@$2!", #2&+ &2a1 %!=%' 6$%7 a '$+-1! '%2)%2! an" ,&)a51a28 67$)7 "!a1 6$%7 #a+$1$a2 %&-$)' %7a% $n%!2!'% %7! '%"!n% B"a$18 1$#!, 1$0!', -2!#!2!n)!' , &-$n$&n' an" -!2'&na1 !=-!2$!n)!'C. 6. To participate in short oral exchanges . T& -a2%$)$-a%! $n '7&2% &2a1 !=)7ang!' 2!1a%!" %& 'a1 )1a''2&&+ a)%$,$%$!' -2&")$ng an n"!2'%an"a51! "$')&2'! a"a-%!" %& %7! )7a2a)%!2$'%$)' &# %7! '$%a%$&n an" %7! )&++n$)a%$,! -2-&'!. A.To participate in simulated communication situations . T& -a2%$)$-a%! $n '$+1a%!" )&++n$)a%$&n '$%a%$&n' 67$)7 7a,! 5!!n -2!,$&'18 -2a)%$'!" $n %7! )1a''2&&+, '$ng -2&-!218 %7! +&'% 'a1 '&)$a1 $n%!2a)%$&n #&2+1a! $n %7! #&2!$gn 1angag!. A88 5.To extract the general meaning and some specific information. T& !=%2a)% %7! g!n!2a1 +!an$ng an" '&+! '-!)$#$) $n#&2+a%$&n #2&+ '7&2% 62$%%!n %!=%' 6$%7 a 1$n!a1 "!,!1&-+!n% , '$+-1! '%2)%2!' an" ,&)a51a28 , 67$)7 "!a1 6$%7 #a+$1$a2 %&-$)' %7a% $n%!2!'% %7! '%"!n%. B.To read simple childrenPs books . T& 2!a" 6$%7 %7! 7!1- &# %7! %!a)7!2 &2, %7! "$)%$&na28 '$+-1! )7$1"2!nc' 5&&0' 62$%%!n $n %7! #&2!$gn 1angag! 6$%7 ,$'a1 5a)0- an" '7&6 )&+-2!7!n'$&n 58 +!an' &# a '-!)$#$) %a'0. ?.To produce short written texts . T& -2&")! '7&2% 62$%%!n %!=%' , )&+-2!7!n'$51! an" a"a-%!" %& %7! )7a2a)%!2$'%$)' &# %7! '$%a%$&n an" %7! )&++n$)a%$,! -2-&'!, $n 67$)7 %7&'! )&n%!n%' %7a% 7a,! 5!!n 6&20!" $n %7! )1a'' )an 5! '!!n. A86 ..To recogni(e# some sociocultural aspects . T& 2!)&gn$;!, '&+! '&)$&)1%2a1 a'-!)%' %8-$)a1 &# %7! #&2!$gn 1angag! '-!a0$ng )&++n$%8 67$)7 a2! $+-1$)$% $n %7! 1$ng$'%$) 'a+-1!' 6&20!" &n $n %7! )1a''2&&+. 2. THE EDUCATIVE PRO9ECT OF THE CENTRE AND THE CURRICULAR PRO9ECT +One of the aspects that the Educative Reform has put more emphasis on, is the need to give more independence to the centres, since they are the key of the educative system. This autonomy is extremely necessary, because the educative process cannot be the same in all the centres, since it has to answer the cultural and socioeconomic context in which centres are placed, as well as students and their families. The reflection about all these specific needs must give the lines to establish the specific features that make the centre have its own educative style. t is good that all the centres have their own choices. +The LODE ("Ley Orgnica del Derecho a a Educacin
) provides that the
centres will have autonomy to establish the optional subjects, to adapt the programmes and to adopt the teaching methods they wish, whenever they do not discriminate any member of the educative community, and always under the law. +The E&.(#t$% P!*D(t of a Centre is the document that comprises the decisions or ideas taken by the whole educative community with respect to the basic educative options and to the general organization of the centre. n the Educative Project of a Centre and according to the sociocultural and economic context of the same, we must establish the decisions taken regarding questions such as who we are, what we want, etc., for instance: A8A $ The signs of identity. $ The o"8ecti!es or aims of the centre in #hich these signs are concreted. $ The re!ision of the general o"8ecti!es of the 3urriculum. $ The relations of cooeration amongst all the ersons in charge of utting the o"8ecti!es into ractice. 1 The organi9ation that #ill ma-e these o"8ecti!es ossi"le, #hich is secified in the :'eglamento de ';gimen Interior:. 2.1. THE CURRICULAR PRO9ECT +The decisions established in the Educative Project must be specified in the C.!!$(.,#! P!*D(t where these principles are explained in order to answer questions like @/#t, @/n #n& /*@ t* %#,.#t #n& t#(/ . +The most important idea of the Curricular project is that is a process and therefore, it is never ended and it has to be revised very often, because the quality of the teaching can always be improved. +There are some steps that must be followed to elaborate the Curricular Project: $ Ela"oration: Body of teachers of the .ta%e $ 3oordination: 3ommittee of *edagogic 3oordination $ 0ro!al: Teaching .taff of the centre $ 'eort: Educati!e 3ouncil $ .uer!ision: Technical insection +The aims of the curricular project are: 6. To increase the coherence of the educati!e ractice through the decisions ta-en "y the #hole "ody of teachers of a stage. A85 <. To increase the cometence of the teachers through the e!aluation of their #or-. =. To ad8ust the ideas of the M.E.3. to the context . +n order to achieve these aims, the Reform has created a more opened curricular model. This model is characterized by the fact that the educative administrators, that is, the M.E.C., establish a lower level of prescription, and therefore they favour the autonomy of the teaching bodies. +n the curricular project the prescriptions of the M.E.C. are specified according to the peculiarities of the 3omunidades 0ut>nomas and , then, of every centre. The objectives that the educative process tries to achieve in every stage, are explained in the :'eales 5ecretos de 3urr?culo:. The internal decisions taken for every stage are specified in the Curricular Project. Therefore, a centre in which there are students from 3 to 12 years old, will have a single educative project, but two curricular projects: one for the first stage (nfantil) and another for the second (Primaria). +Once the curricular project has been established, the *rogrammes of 3lass will be made. This third level of concretion will comprise the decisions taken for every specific group of students. 2.1.1. >ASES OF THE CURRICULAR PRO9ECT +We have four great sources to elaborate the Curricular project: $ The educati!e ro8ect. $ The analysis of the "ac-ground. 1 The "asic curriculum that the M.E.3. and the 3omunidades 0ut>nomas ha!e esta"lished. $ The exerience deri!ed from the teaching ractice of the centre. A8B +The Educative Project will be a guide as long as the identity signs of the centre and its aims are specified in it. +The analysis of the context is fundamental, since the aim of the curricular project is to concrete and adapt the decisions that the M.E.C. has taken regarding education in all schools, to the specific needs of every centre. +n the curricular project, the context is analyzed according to the students of every stage, which usually have very difterent features. t also comprises the methodological options, the evaluation or the best way to organize the sequence of the abilities and contents in the cycle. +Another source from which the curricular project is specified, and one of the most important, is the previous experience of the centre that will be more or ess explicitly explained in its programmes. 2.2.2. O>9ECTIVES OF STAGE AND O>9ECTIVES OF C;CLE + As we have seen in the first section, the general objectives of stage have the following characteristics: $ They are defined in terms of a"ilities and not of "eha!iours. $ These a"ilities must regard all the fields of de!eloment @motility, intellectuality, ersonal "alance, interersonal relations, social attitude and relations+. $ They must try to comrise the a"ilities #ithin the different fields, #ith the aim of underlining the relations that they ha!e amongst them. + But apart from these objectives, The 'eal 5ecreto de 3urriculo provides that: :The cycle is the temoral curricular unit of rogramme and e!aluation in the *rimary Education@...+.:0ccording to #hat has "een re!iously esta"lished, the same teachers #iII #or- #ith the same grou of students throughout the #hole cycle, if they are #or-ing in the same centre:@...+.:The ro8ects #ilI comrise at least, the contents ro!ided for an educati!e cycle, and they #ilI ha!e to "e related to the general lan of the corresonding stage:. A8? +t is necessary to establish some previsions about the internal sequences of the cycle, according to the following criteria: $ 3oherence of the e!oluti!e de!eloment and the re!ious learning of the student. $ 3oherence of the learning. $ 3ontents as the "asis of the se%uence. $ &imited "asic ideas. $ 3ontinuity and roggression. $ Balance @the a"ilities de!eloed in the o"8ecti!es must "e "alanced+. $ Interrelation @the different tyes of contents, concets, rocedures and attitudes must "e con!eniently related amongst them+. $ 3ross$curricularATrans!ersal themes @!ery imortant in *rimary education+. $ 5idactic strategies that #ill "e used throughout the stage 2.2.3.EVALUATION +We wi evaluate. 1 The studentsB Iearning, 1 The rocess of teaching and our o#n teaching ractice , #ith relation to the achie!ement of the educati!e o"8ecti!es of the curriculum. 1 /e #ill also e!aluate the curricular ro8ect itself , the teaching rogramme and the actual de!eloment of the curriculum. +n order to evaluate the earning process we have to take some decisions regarding the situations, strategies and instruments of evaluation. The requisites that the procedures of evaluation must fulfill are: $ To "e !aried. $ To gi!e concrete information. $ To use different codes. $ To "e alica"le to more or Iess structured situations of the learning acti!ity. $ To e!aluale the transference of the Iearning to different contexts. A8. +The evaluation is determined in the Curricular Project and, therefore, it must also be decided how to communicate its contents to parents, students, and the rest of the teachers. +n conclusion ,in the Curricular Project we must also concrete when, how and what we have to evaluate.These aspects must follow three basic lines: $Initial evaluation : Through this, the teacher -no#s the actual and re!ious -no#ledge his students ha!e in order to de!elo the didactic unit #ith the "est results. *re!ious -no#ledge is #hat the students already -no# "oth regarding the concetual asects, and the rocedures and the attitudes that are going to "e in!ol!ed in the de!eloment of the unit. (o#e!er, through the acti!ities, the -no#ledge of the students in these three asects must "e chec-ed. This hels the teacher to read8ust his teaching to the reality of his students in order to ma-e them caa"le to relate the ne# information #ith that they already ha!e and therefore, to achie!e a significant learning. $Formative evaluation : The different acti!ities the unit has, constitute "y themsel!es a rocedure of formati!e e!aluation. Throughout the #hole didactic unit the students ha!e the chance of analy9ing their o#n rogress , since e!ery acti!ity includes a moment to reflect, comment or contrast, their achie!ements and learning ro"lems. The teacher also read8usts the follo#ing settings deending on the results they get. $Summative evaluation : It is the e!aluation of the learning that the students ha!e achie!ed throughout the unit. The acti!ities designed to e!aluate, follo# the same atterns of the acti!ities done throughout the #hole unit. This ma-e ossi"le that the teacher 8udges their #or- according to the same criteria esta"lished to achie!e the o"8ecti!es roosed in the de!eloment of the unit. +n the Curricular Project, we must as wel include the criteria to promote the students to the next cycle: A6D "In the context of the rocess of continuous e!aluation #hen the rogress of a student does not glo"ally resond to the rogrammed o"8ecti!es, the teachers #iIl adot the suita"le measures of educati!e reinforcement and of curricular ad8ustment ". 2.2.0. OTHER DECISIONS +n addition we have to take many other decisions: 1. G!*.")< $ &e!el of learning. $ Grous #hich fa!our a "etter interaction. $Grous #ith different or secial needs 2. T$5 #n& )"#()< - Use of the common saces. $ 5istri"ution of the sace #ithin the class. $ General timeta"le of the centre. 1 Excursions and common acti!ities of the #hole centre or of the grous. +That is to say, the distribution of time within the class must be organized according to the Project. There must be enough time to develop global units, to make some activities that require a specific sequence of time to be done, time to make activities with other groups outside the class, etc. 3. M#t!$#,) #n& &$&#(t$( !(*.!)) +The materials and didactic recourses are another fundamental factor of the educative practice. For that reason, it is important to select those that are going to be used and to establish the criteria for their use in the curricular project since they are decisions that the whole teaching body must share. A6- +Regarding the latter , that is, the materials directed to the students, we must identify the kind of materials we need: texts, workbooks, exercises, tapes , plastic materials, etc. We must also differentiate which materials will be used in every cycle. +The selection of materials the centres do , must take into account the following criteria: - They must not "e discriminatory. $ They must "e used "y all the students. $ They must not soil the en!ironment . $ They must not "e excesi!ely sohisticated. $ They must "e suita"le for the age of the students , #hom they are directed to. $ They must include the norms for the security that their use re%uires, as #ell as their comonents and other features @si9e,
#eight , etc.+. +n the case of printed curricular materials, we must take into account the following criteria for their selection: 6+ To -no# the educati!e o"8ecti!es that these texts ha!e and to chec- to #hat extent they are corresonding to those esta"lished in the centre for a certain grou. <+ To analy9e the contents #or-ed in order to chec- if there is a corresondence "et#een the o"8ecti!es and the contents. /e must de!elo the different tyes of contents @concets , rocedures and attitudes+, as #ell as the trans!ersal themes. =+ To re!ise the se%uences of learning that are roosed for the different contents. It is imortant to analy9e the rogression that the o"8ecti!es and the contents follo# , "oth in their distri"ution throughout the different cycles and in their internal organi9ation. C+ To analy9e the suita"ility of the criteria of e!aluation roosed "y the curricular ro8ect of stage. A6/ D+ To analy9e the acti!ities roosed in order to see if they fulfil the conditions for a significant learning. In this oint , it is secially imortant to ay attention to the acti!ities that must "e done in the different moments of the rocess of learning and teaching. E+ To adat these materials and didactic recourses to the educati!e context in #hich they are used. +From a communicative point of view, in our area, language teaching sees materials as a way of influencing the quality of classroom interaction. The primary role of materials is therefore to promote communicative language use. 0. Mt/*&*,*'$(#, "!$n($",)< +n the case of our area, as explained in the first part of this theme we will have to take into account the guidelines given in the introduction of our Primary Curriculum, Royal Decree 14/9/ 91, which establishes the minimum teaching requirements in Primary Education. 1.English teaching does not involve teaching a language , but teaching to communicate in English. This means that we will adopt a communicative approach which aims at the acquisition of a communicative competence. 2.We should favour functional learning. This means that the students should be able to use the language in communicative situations. 3.We should promote meaningful learning. This entails that the learners will build up their own linguistic competence by using learning strategies and by making hypotheses about me way in which language works starting from the linguistic input. 4.English teaching should provide students with both a new linguistic experience A68 and a human/social experience. n this light, we will develop attitudes such as cooperation and respect to the others and contribute to develop the learners' socialization skills by promoting social relations through pair work and group work.
5.The four linguistic skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing) must be developed in an interrelated way ,, since in real life we cope with communicative situations which require different skills. However, at this stage receptive skills (especially listening) are more important than productive skills. 6.Variety.Variety involves using a wide range of materials and activities n the classroom. We should introduce variety for three reasons: The students
moti!ation #ill "e "etter . Our uilsF
attention san is short and they thus need to do different things. &essons #ill "e more en8oya"le. 7.The language items should be presented in context. Give that any language is a system of interrelated signs, the linguistic elements should appear in discourse where their meaning depends on the communicative function and communicative situation. Besides, the new language must be sensitive to being used in a wide range of communicative situations. 8.Foreign language teaching must introduce the most relevant sociocultural features of the foreign culture, since any language reflects a way of understanding and constructing reality. 9.t is important to teach contents and plan activities which meet the students' interests and needs in order to develop a positive attitude towards English learning. n this way the pupils will be more likely to succeed. A66 10.We should take into account the students' previous knowledge about the foreign language (foreign sounds and words) and the foreign culture (famous people, films, songs,...).This will reinforce the meaningful character of learning contents, since the pupils will be able to link what they already know with what they are learning, thus increasing their motivation to learn English. 3. >I>LIOGRAPH; Materiales para la Reforma. Primaria. MEC. Madrid, 1992. M.E.C. : L.O.G.S.E. Madrid. 1991. Pozuelo, M.L. & Rodriguez, M.A. Proyecto curricular del rea de ingles. Escuela Espaola. Madrid. 1994. Propuesta de Secuencia. Lenguas Extranjeras. MEC-Escuela Espaola. Madrid, 1992. EVALUATION +We wi evaluate. 1 The studentsB Iearning, 1 The rocess of teaching and our o#n teaching ractice, #ith relation to the achie!ement of the educati!e o"8ecti!es of the curriculum. A6A 1 /e #ill also e!aluate the curricular ro8ect itself, the teaching rogramme and the actual de!eloment of the curriculum. +n order to evaluate the earning process we have to take some decisions regarding the situations, strategies and instruments of evaluation. The requisites that the procedures of evaluation must fulfill are: $ To "e !aried. $ To gi!e concrete information. $ To use different codes. $ To "e alica"le to more or Iess structured situations of the learning acti!ity. $ To e!aluale the transference of the Iearning to different contexts. +The evaluation is determined in the Curricular Project and, therefore, it must also be decided how to communicate its contents to parents, students, and the rest of he teachers. Finally, it is convenient to use the Curricular Project to establish the function of the tutor, as the last responsible of the evaluation. The role of the psychopedagogic counsellor of the centre must also be determined here. From the resuls of he evaluation, he teachers wiil adop he necessary measures, as indicated in he Real Decreto de Currculo: 1 'A he end of every cycle and as a consecuence of he process of evaluation, he tutor of he studens wi decde if lhey can promote lo he next cycle laking mo account he other teachers' repors". 'When he evaluation 5 continuous, and he progress of a studen does nol globaly respond lo he programmed objectives, he teachers wil ado pl he necessary measures of educative reinforcemen or of curricular adjustment". A65 n conclusion ,in the Curricular Project we must also concrete when, how and what we have to evaluate: $Initial evaluation : Trough this, the teacher -no#s the actual and re!ious -no#ledge his students ha!e in order to de!elo the didactic unit #ith the "est results. *re!ious -no#ledge is #hat the students already -no# "oth regarding the concetual asects, and the rocedures and the attitudes that are going to "e in!ol!ed in the de!eloment of the unit. (o#e!er, through the acti!ities, the -no#ledge of the students in these three asects must "e chec-ed. This hels the teacher to read8ust his teaching to the reality of his students in order to ma-e them caa"le to relate the ne# information #ith that they already ha!e and therefore, to achie!e a significant learning. $Formative evaluation : The different acti!ities the unit has, constitute "y themsel!es a rocedure of formati!e e!aluation. Throughout the #hole didactic unit the students ha!e the chance of analy9ing their o#n rogress , since e!ery acti!ity includes a moment to reflect, comment or contrast, their achie!ements and learning ro"lems. The teacher also read8usts the follo#ing settings deending on the results they get. $Summative evaluation : It is the e!aluation of the learning that the students ha!e achie!ed throughout the unit. The acti!ities designed to e!aluate, follo# the same atterns of the acti!ities done throughout the #hole unit. This ma-e ossi"le that the teacher 8udges their #or- according to the same criteria esta"lished to achie!e the o"8ecti!es roosed in the de!eloment of the unit. +n the Curricular Project, we must as wel include the criteria to promote the students to the next cycle: A6B "In the context of the rocess of continuous e!aluation #hen the rogress of a student does not glo"ally resond to the rogrammed o"8ecti!es, the teachers #iIl adot the suita"le measures of educati!e reinforcement and of curricular ad8ustment ". (initial, formalive and summative evalualion). of course, initial evalualion mus be done al he beginning of every cyc;le in order lo determine he level of he students. However, lis also very profitable lo do his evaluation al he beginning of eve~ unit, in order lo specifv he previous knowiedge of he students about he contenis. We mus also evaluale the teaching process lhroughout he academic vcar. The bes momen lo do so~ 5 al he end of a cycle, and s~ecialy, he momen in which a group finishes a sage, because he leachers may evaluale he Curricular Projecl.qlobally, as 1 s provided in he "Real Decreto de Rgimen Orgnico de los Centros de nfantil y Primaria". +n the Curricular Project, we must as wel include the criteria to promote the students to the next cycle: "In the context of the rocess of continuous e!aluation #hen the rogress of a student does not glo"ally resond to the rogrammed o"8ecti!es, the teachers #iIl adot the suita"le measures of educati!e reinforcement and of curricular ad8ustment ". T .THE EDUCATVE PROJECT OF THE CENTRE AND TH-E A6? CURRCULAR PROJECT 2.1. THE EDUCATVE PROJECT OF THE CENTRE @ One of-the aspects that the Educative Reform has put more emphasis on, is the need - - . ...... -- .-- to give more independent S, Since they are the key Of the educative system. This autonomy is ktremely necessary, because the educ-liL--lve process cannot be the same in all the centres, since it has to answer the cultural and socioeconomic context in which centres are placed, as well as students and their families. The reflection about all these specific Meeds must give the lines to establish the species features that make the centre have its own educative style. t is good that all the centres have their own choices. * The LODE (''Le-v Oronica del Derecho a a Educacin'') provides that the centres will have autono ' e o tional sub'ects, to adapt the programmes and to adopt the teaching methods th ye wish. whenever they do not discriminate any member of the educative community, and always under the law. * The Educative Pro'ect of a Centre is the documentthat comprises the decisions or ideas taken b the whole educative commune with respect to the basic educative options and to the general organi/qtion of the centre. n-the Ed-ucative Project of a Centre and according to the sociocultural and economic context of the same, Fe must es-tablish the decisions taken regarding questions such as w-ho we are, what we want, etc., for instance: + A6. - The signs of identity. - The objectives or aims of the centre in which these signs are concreted. - The revision of the general objectives of the Curriculum. - The relations of-cooperation amen st all the arsons in charge of putting the objectives into practice. - The organization that will make these objectives possible, which is specified in the ''Reglamento de Regimen nterior''. * The decisions establishe ' - 've Pro'ect must be s edified in the Curricular Project inci les are explained in order to answer questions like what, how, when C and how to evalua and-leach. -7L- . :.2. THE GENERAL PROGRAMME OF THE CENTRE * The General Pro-gramme of the centre is done according to two types of information: - -- - - . . ' a) The decisions that due to their nature, will change every ear. b) The decisions taken from the revision of the educative project nd of the curricular . ''- . - . - - - . . . . - - . .- - . project. k n this sense, the general annual programme will include the following elements: - The complementafy-ac-tivities that the centre is going to develop. - T% of the centre. - The administrative records. . - The new decisionsthat must be included in the educative project and in the curricular Vr j e c t . - - ln this way, the centres will not have to do these projects every year, and they will only be those aspects of the same that the evaluation of the centre requires. Z..A THE CURRCULAR PROJECT OF THE CENTRE . - -0 %:h ) AAD e,1A tone 7.3.1. Aims of the curricular project (e-,i 1. To increase the coherence of the educative tactile throw h the decisions taken by the whole body of te-achers o-f a stage. 2. To increase the competence of the teachers through the evaluation of their work. 3. To adjust the ideas of the M.E.C. to the context. k- C6 n order to achieve these aims, th-a -Reform has-created-a more ope-nod curricular model. This model is characterized by the fact that the educative administrators, that is, the M.E.C., establish a lower qvel of prescription, and therefore they favour the autonomy of the teaching bodies. 1 n the curricular project the prescriptions of the M.E.C. are specified according to the e peculiarities of eve centre. The ob'ectives that the educative recess tries to achieve in every sta e are ex gained in the ''Reales Decretos de Currfculo''. The internal decisions taken for e!e stage are specified in the Curricular Project. Therefore, a centre in which there are students from 3 to 12 years old, will have a sing e educative project, but two curricular projects: one for t e AA- first stage (lnfantil) and another for the second (Primaria). a/ Once the curricular reject has been established, the Pro ramies of Class will be made. This third level of concretion will comprise the decisions taken for every specific group Uf Qf students. -'v.... 2.3.t7.Bases of the curricular Project: -.- . - w ... j s 8yyyy.... . Wxm xxx. We have four great sources to elaborate the Curricular p Jro'ect: -' , ' - The educative proles. - The analysis of the background. - The basic curriculum that the M.E.C. has established. - The experience derived from the teaching practice of the centre. The Educative Pro-ect will be a uide as long as the identity signs of the centre and its aims are specified in it. T-he analysis of the context is fundamental, s-ince the aim of the curricular project is to concrete and adapt the decisions that the M.E.C. has taken regarding education in all schools, to the specific needs of every centre. ' n the curricular project, the context is analyzed according to the students of every stage, which usually have very different features. t also comprises the methodological options, the evaluation or the best way to organize the sequence of the abilities and contents in the cycle. A-nother-source-from which the curricular project is specified, and one of the most AA/ important, is the precious experience o-f the centre that will be more or less explicitly explained . - . -.- -- .. .. . . ... . - irl its ;rOQ rzrlll'l'l OS . - * '- .> ,2 3..7:: objectives of stage: * - They are defined in terms of abilities and not of behaviours. - These' abilities must regard all the fiends of development (motility, intellectuality, ersonal balance, interpersonal relations, social attitude and relations). P i the abilities within the different fiends, with the aim of - They must try to comer se underlining the relations that they have amongst them. a. Sequences of objectives according to the cycles: The Real Decreto de Curricula provides that: ''The cycle is the temporal curricular unit of programme and evaluation in the Primary Educat--.qpi ''(...).''According to what has been previously established, the same teachers will work with me same group of students throughout the whole cycle, if they are working in the same centre''(...).''The projects will comprise at least, the contents provided for an educative cycle, and they will have to be related to the general plan of the corresponding stage''. B t is necessa to establish some revisions about the internal sequences of the cycle, according to the follow-i-ng oriterig-.- - Co-herence of-the evolutve development and the previous learning of the student. AA8 - - - - Coherence Of the learning. $$ - Contents as the basis of the sequence. - Limited basic ideas. - Contin'uity and progrqAnnm. - Balance. (the abilities developed in the objectives must be balanced). - r-trf-.l--?t el ti n (the different types of contents, concepts, procedures and attitudes must be conveniently related amongst them). - Transversal themes (very important in Primary education). b. Didactic strategies that will be used throughout the stage, must be determined ..... '''' '' ..... -M when we elaborate the Curricular Project. T.3. .%. M-eth-o-dologjca-l de-cisions:--- .G 1 . Methodological principles. 2. Groups. 3. Time. 4. Spaces. 5. Materials. 1. Metho-dological prin-ciplestto achie-ve a significant earning:lg-yAdwt//xoy Cc .t - To start from the level of development of the students and, therefore, according to their previous learning. - To make sure that they achieve a significant learning, using their previous knowledge and a comprehensive memorization. - To make possible that the students significantly learn by themselves. - To create situations in which they must put their knowledge up-to-date. - To motivate l-p>tr l-e-a-r-rl.-i..-nq.. - .. ... . . .... . ...- .. . . - To create learning situations that require an intense mental activity from the student. - To encourage interaction within the class as the basis of the learning. 2. Criteria to group the students-: - Level of learn-ing. AA6 - G- roues which -favour a better.interac-tio-n-. e? - Groups with different needs must be separated. . ..-.--- m#. N..x 3. & 4. Organization of span.-es and .times: '--w... Nu. . X'X' - Use of the common spaces. - Distribution of the space within the class. - Ge-ne-ral timetable --of the centre. - Excursions and common activities of the whole centre or of the groups. The distribution of time within the class must be organized according to the Project. There must be enough time to develop global units, to make some activities that require a specific sequence of time to be done, time to make activities with other groups outside the class, etc. 5. Materials and didactic recourses: . The materials and identic recourses are another fundamental factor of edu ' e practice. For that reason, it is important to select-those that are going to be used and ' to establish the criteria for their use in the curricular pro'ect since the are decisio s that the whole teacher bod must share. ' ' We must distinguish between the curricular materials and those materials directed to the students. The former must serve to guide the teaching process. Thy may be used in two main situations: in the elaboration and realization of the curricular project of AAA stage, and' in the elaboration of the programmes, because they will concrete the didactic objectives, the activities, etc. . Regarding the latter, that is, the materials directed to--sludents- we must identify thy kind of materials we need'. te-'- s, wor-kb-ooks, exercises, tapes, plastic materials, etc. We must also differentiate which materials will be used in every cycle. ''< . z ' 'NNN. .. . The selection of materials the centres do, must take into account the following criteria: - They must no-! be discriminatory. - They must be used by all the students. . ' - They must not s oil the environment. - The.y must not be excesively sophisticated. - T e must be suitable for the age of the students, whom they are directed to. - They must include the norms for the security that their use re wires, as Well as their components and other features (sipe, weight, etc.). xx-a . ''W . .= G n the case of printed curricular material we must take into account the following AA5 i - ctibn- criteria or . To know the educative objectives that these texts have and to check to what extent they are corresponding to those established in the centre for a certain group. z To analyze the contents worked in order to check if there is a correspondenc-e between the objectives and the contents. We must develop the different types of contents (concepts, procedures and attitudes), as well as the transversal themes. p To revise the sequences of learning that are proposed for the different contents. t is important to analyze the progression that the objectives and the contents follow, b0th in their distribution throughout the different cycles and in their internal organization. &6 To anal ze the suitabili of the criteria of evaluation ro used b the curricular ro'ect of stage. S T-o analyze the activities proposed. in -order to see if they fulfill the conditions for a significant learning.. n this point, it is specially important to pay attention to the activities that must be done in the different moments of the process of learning and teaching. The same activity may help the student to learn and the teacher to have information about the previous knowledge. The following activities must appear in every didactic unit: . Activities-of introdu-ction-motivatio--n: They must motivate the students to learn the reality they are going to be taught. . Activities of previous knowledge: They are done in order to know the ideas and opinions of the students about the contents they are studying. wActivities of development: They help to know the concepts, the procedures or the new attitudes. 1 -w- ..-.. eActivities of synthesis-summary: They are those which make the relation between the different contents already learnt easier. . Activities of consolidation: They are programmed for the students who have not achieved a significant knowledge. AAB . Activities of extension: They let the students go on learning! after doing the activities of development and those which are not essential for the learning process. . Activities of evaluation: They will include the activities directed to the initial, formative and summating evaluation, which were not covered by the previous . . activities. 6 To adapt these materials and didactic recourses to the educative context in which they . . .. . .. . . -----. . ... AA? . Evaluation within the curricular project a 9 H Teachers will evaluate be-th the s-tud-ents' learning, th-a process of teaching and their own teaching practice, with relation to the achievement-of the educative objectives of the cu. rriculum. *---*--- .. . ----.----.. . --' .. .- ---. ---. AA. The will also evaluate the curricular ro'ect itself, the teaching programme and the actual development of the curriculum. 3 There are two main aspects, to be considered to establish the criteria of evaluation: - The peculia-rities of the pwn context of the centre. - The criteria of evaluation of every centre. The function of the criteria is mainly formative. t is essential to have criteria of evaluation for every cycle. * n order to evaluate the learning process we have to take some decisions regarding: the situations, strategies and instruments of evaluation. The req-uisites that the procedures of evaluation must fulfill are: - To be varied.. - To give concrete information. - To apse diff. event codes. - To be a likable to more or caused situated s of the learning activity. - To evaluate the transference of the learning to different contexts. A5D ''xx. The evaluation is determined in the Curricular Project and, therefore, it must also be decided how to communicate its conte agents students, and the rest of the teachers. Finally, it is convenient to use the Curricular Project to establish the function of the tutor, as the last responsible of the evaluation. The role of the psychopedagogic counsellor of the centre must also be determined here. From the results of the evaluation, the teachers will adopt the necessary measures, as indicated in the Real Decreto de Currfculo: ''At the end of eve? cycle and as a consequence of the process of evaluation, the tutor of the students will decide if they can promote io the next cycle, taking into account the other teachers' reports'' 'When the evaluation is continuous, and the progress of a student does not globally respond to the programmed objedives, the teachers will adopt the necessary measures of educative reinforcement or of curricular adjustment''. l articular Pro'ed we must also concrete when we have to evaluate (initial, formative and summarize evaluation). Of course, initial evaluation must be done at the beginning . - -. A5- of every cycle in order to determine the level of the students. However, it is also very profitable to do this evaluation at the beginning of every unit, in order to specify the previous knowledge of the students about the contents. C> @ We must also evaluate the teaching grocer. s thro-u-ghout the a-cademic year. The best moment to do s-ot is at the end of a cycle, and s eciall , the moment in which a roup knishes a stage! because the teachers may evaluate the Curricular Pro'ed. oball , as it is provided in the ''Real Decreto be Regimen Organics de os Centros de nfantry y Primaria''. n the Curricular Project,.we must as well include the criteria to promo-te-the students to the next cycle. As it is provided in Section 1 1.4 of the ''Real Decreto de Currfculol', a student can only re et the same stage once during the Primary Education'. ''lo the context of the process of continuous evaluation. When the progress of a student does not globally respond to the programmed objectives, the teachers will adopt the suitable measures of educative reinforcement and of curricular adjustment''. A5/ ''Within the framework of these measures, at the end of the cycle, they will decide if the student is promoted or not''. (...) ''These decisions require the previous audience of the parents or legal tutors of the student, in case he does not promote to the next c ole''. o3miElabor#lipn of th: curricplarprolvp.t There are some steps that must be followed to elaborate the Curricular Project: - Elaboration . . . . . - Coordination - Approval - Report . . . . . . . . . - Supervision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Body of teache-rs of the Stan-a- Committee of Pedagogic Coordinati-on Teaching Sta-! of the centre lenitive Council- e . . . . Technical inspection The most im octant idea of the Curricular pro'ect is that it is a recess and therefore, it is never ended d it has to vised ve often, because the quality of the teaching can always be improved. t is also very important to analyze the different Curricular Projects that have been done A58 before, in order to see the changes produced in them. Therefore, the Curricular Project must be written, in order to be able to analyse the necessary changes and the ones that have been already done. n this sense the project is the ''report of the centre''. eve t can be elaborated ''upside-down'' (from the pedagogic committee to the cycles) or ''downside-up'' (the pedagogic committee will revise it), but whichever the strategy, it will have ' to be done in both senses. I<D The second strategy of elaboration is inductive-dedudivek 7.8.A Decisions taken in the curricular project - What to teach? . Suitability with the context of the general objectives of stage of the official curriculum, taking into account the educative reality and the choices established in the educative Project of the centre. . Suitability of the general objectives and the contents of every area of the optical curriculum, taking into account the educative reality of the centre. - When to teach? A56 . Sequence per cycles of the objectives and contents of every area (intercycle sequence), according to the adjustment of the general objectives and the contents. . General precisions about the organization and the temporalization of the greatest focus of contents of every area selected for every cycle (intercycle sequence). - How to teach? . Criteria and basic options of didactic methodology that may affect either all the areas of the cycle or some of them. . Decisions about the groups of students. . Decisions about the organization of .times and spaces. . Curricular criteria and basic didactic recourses that are going to be used to teach the contents of every area in the different cycles. - What, when and how to evaluate? - - - . ElaboratiUn of the criteria of evaluation per cycle according to the criteria of evaluation of the stage that are explained in the official curriculum and to the decisions taken about every cycle in the rest of sections of the Project. . Procedures, instruments and dates of the evaluation of the learning throughout the cycle. . Example of a report of evaluation throughout the cycle, specifying the procedure for its elaboration, the dates and the wqy to communicate the results to parents and students. . Procedures, instruments and dates to evaluate the teaching practice, to revise the programmes and to introduce the suitable corrections. . Criteria to decide the promotion of the students from a cycle to another (or from a stage to another). A5A . Pedagogic actions taken in the case of students that do not achieve the level established in the criteria of evaluation per cycles, either if they promote or not. @9" Measures of attention to diversity: Tutors-a-es: Organization-and function-inn. @ - '' (culture'' Whenever this is a distinctive feature of the . Specific treatment of the mutt centre. v --- - diustment: for stMdents With special educatiye..-q#.#--.-Fd u Organization Of times, . A materials and backings. k l.g.tstages of elaboration of the curricular project To elaborate all these elements is a work which re i e s to be done and it must A55 be understood lke that the whole teaching body. For-that reason it is a work which must be divided ' ' . eve centre are res onsible of or anilin this work. However, the M.E.C. must also determine when the basic decisions must be taken. From this point of view, the following stages of elaboration are established, for instance: - n Se temper 199 e teaching bodies elaborate, at least, the basic aspects of the following elements of the Curricular Project: 1 . The objectives of the cycle within the general objectives of stage, adjusting them to the context. 2. The distribution of the contents per cycle, with special attention to those referring to the first cycle. . 3. Curricular materials and didactic recourses that are going to be used in the areas of the first cycle. 4. Procedures to evaluate the progress of the learning of the students during the first cycle. 5. Criteria of evaluation and promotion of the students. 6. Organization and functioning of the tutorages with special attention to the treatment of the ''multiculture'' (whenever it is a distinctive feature of the centre). - n - - the teaching bodies' develop these elements, completing the following aspects: A5B 1. Pedagogic actions for the students who do not achieve the level established in the criteria of evaluation. 2. Adjustments for the students with special educative needs. 3. Procedures to evaluate the teaching practice. - September 19+ 1. To incorporate the elements worked and developed during the year as well as the modifications derived from the evaluation done. k1C z 2. To establish for the rest of the cycles the elements that were elaborated for the / /' first cycle in September 1992. . , / A5? - e end of the ntroduction of Primary Education: After the evaluation of the different cycles, and at the end of the introduction of the Primary Education, the Curricular Project will be completed including all the aspects explained before, paying special attention to those referring to the whole stage, with the aim of securing the general coherence of the established agreements, with themselves and with the educative project of the centre. - N'xx. www-.- . vp..x . -- U a-xx .- y gjgkjggggyy X '.5. 6=CC66JJ6 'dei 6 de Septiembre por el que se establece el curricula de a Education Primaria. B.O.E. Suplemento namers 220. M.&3. PRMARA. PROYECTO CURRCULAR. LBROS MULES, 1992. 'E.O&U3IGN D,=.J< POR 1-A QUE SE REGULA LA EMBOMCUN DE PROYECTOS CURRCU- LARES PARA LA EDUCACUN PRMARA Y SE ESTABLECEN ORENTA- CONES PARA LA DSTRBUCUN DE OBJETVOS, CONTENDOS Y CRTEROS DE EVALUACUN PAM CADA UNO DE LOS CCLOS (B.O.E., B A5. 24 de Marzo de 1992). &TJ ABD 2.1.3.1.2. procedures: - To recognize and make familiar the sounds of the foreign language and its rythm and intonation. - To understand oral messages of different nature and from different sources (teacher , other students , video, tapes): *Global comprehension of oral messages about familiar topics. *Specific comprehension of concrete simple messages in contextualized situations. -To react either linguistically and non-linguistically to different oral messages ana communicative situations: *Production of oommon expressions aimed to satisfy simple needs of communication (greetings , identification, asking and giving information , identification of objects , decriptions , etc). UUse of basic messages previously learnt (polite expressions , etc.) adjusting them to the specific features of the situation. *Active participation in oral exchanges in order to express the most immediate communicative needs within the class and in contexts closer to the student. UParticipation in the linguistic exchanges with the aim of having fun (simulations , performances , etc.). UNon-linguistic answers to oral messages (follow instructions , etc.). - To recognize the grammatical formulas that help them to make questions , to assert , to reject , to express possession. to quantify , to describe, to narrate, etc... and to use them in order to achieve efficient communication. -To recognize and use the basic strategies of communication, both linguistic (use one word instead of another , etc.) or extralinguistic (gestures, drawings, etc.) which help to overcome communicative problems. - To use the native language's strategies of communication, which let us take advantage of the limited knowledge of the foreign language. Att$t.&)< AB- -Awareness of the importance of oral communication in a foreign language. -Awareness of the reality of a different culture , reflected in the language. -Receptive and respectful attitude towards the persons who speak a foreign language - Wish to express themselves in a foreign language , participating in the activities (games, songs , etc.). -Awareness of the corrections done when they interprete or produce a text. - Positive and optimist attitude towards their own ability to speak in a foreign language. -Tendency to use imaginatively and creatively, oral messages previously learnt , in different communicative situations. 2.1.3.2. Uses and fomis of the wrltten language: 2.1.3.2.1. C*n("t)< - Most habitual needs and communicative situations to use the written language. Communicative intentions and characteristics of these situations. UCommunicative intentions: greetings , identificaton and location of objects , expressing needs and wishes, etc. UCharacteristics of the communicative situation: type of isteners , more or less formal situation, etc. - Vocabulary and inguistic structures required to express the basic communicative needs by writing. UCommunlcative intentions: greetings, identification , giving and asking for information, identification and location of objects, descriptions, narrations , etc. UGeneral topics: colours , numbers, time, house , family, class, food, likes and dislikes, sports, etc. AB/ !C Na+!' &# %7! 1!%%!2' $n a #&2!$gn 1angag! an" %7!$2 )&22!'-&n"!n)! 6$%7$n %7! 62$%$ng '8'%!+. #C R!1a%$&n' 5!%6!!n %7! +!an$ng &# %7! 6&2"' , %7!$2 -2&nn)$a%$&n an" g2a-7$)a1 2!-2!'!n%a%$&n. (.1.*.(.(. P2&)!"2!': : P2&")%$&n &# 62$%%!n %!=%' a"E'%!" %& %7! #!a%2!' &# %7! 2!a"!2 an" &# %7! )&++n$)a%$,! '1%a%$&n. : Un"!2'%an"$ng &# %7! 62$%%!n +!''ag!' &# "$##!2!n% na%2!. bG1&5a1 )&+-2!7!n'$&n &# 62$%%!n +!''ag!' 2!1a%!" %7! a)%$,$%$!' "&n! $n )1a''. bG1&5a1 )&+-2!7!n'$&n &# 52$!# 62$%%!n +!''ag!' 2!1a%!" %& %7! +&'% $++!"$a%! n!!"' &# )&++n$)a%$&n an" %& %7! $n%!2!'%' &# %7! '-!a0!2'. ] G1&5a1 )&+-2!7!n'$&n &# !a'8 a%7!n%$) +a%!2$a1' , 6$%7 ,$'a1 5a)0$ng a5&% "a$18:1$#! %&-$)'. AB8 :A6a2!n!'' &# %7! '-!)$#$) !1!+!n%', -2!,$&'18 1!a2n%, $n %!=%' 67$)7 7a,! n0&6n 6&2"' an" !=-2!''$&n', ')7 a' $n,%a%$&n' #&2 a 5$2%7"a8 -a2%8, )a2"', +aga;$n!', !%). : U'! &# %7! g2a-7&:-7&n$) )&22!'-&n"!n)!' %& '-!11, #&2 $n'%an)!, %7! na+! an" %7! '2na+!, !%). : P2&")%$&n &# 62$%%!n %!=%' "$2!)%!" %& "$##!2!n% 2!a"!2', an'6!2$ng &2a1 an" 62$%%!n '%$+1$. : S&1%$&n &# ga+!' 67$)7 2!@$2! %7! 0n&61!"g! &# %7! ,&)a51a28 an" %7! &2%&g2a-78 '!" $n )1a''. : A6a2!n!'' &# g2a++a%$)a1 '%2)%2!' $n 62$%%!n %!=%'. : A6a2!n!'' &# '&+! '&)$&)1%2a1 a'-!)%' 67$)7 "$##!2!n%$a%! %7! #&2!$gn 1angag! #2&+ %7! +&%7!2 %&ng!. (.1.*.(.*. A%%1%"!': : 1n%!2!'% an" )2$&'$%8 %&6a2"' %7! 62$%%!n %!=%' an" a--2a$'a1 &# %7! 2&1! %7!8 -1a8 $n &2"!2 %& 'a%$'#8 )&++n$)a%1,! n!!"'. AB6 :A6a2!n!'' an" a--2a$'a1 &# %7! $+-&2%an)! &# 2!a"$ng an" 62$%$ng $n a #&2!$gn 1angag!. : A--2a$'a1 #&2 %7! )&22!)% $n%!2-2!%a%$&n &# !a'8 62$%%!n %!=%'. gCIn%!2!'% %& 0n&6 %7! ,&)a51a28 an" %7! 5a'$) 1$ng$'%$) '%2)%2!' 2!@$2!" %& !=-2!'' %7! !''!n%$a1 )&++n$)a%1,! n!!"' $n "$##!2!n% '$%a%$&n'. 7CD$'-&'$%$&n %& &,!2)&+! %7! "$##$)1%$!' %7a% %7! '! &# a #&2!$gn 1angag! )2!a%!', 58 -a8$ng a%%!n%$&n %& %7! )&++n$)a%$,! '%2a%!g$!' #& %7! +&%7!2 %&ng!. (.1.*.*. S&)I& )1%2aZ a'-!)%': C&n)!-%': : S&)$a1 an" )1%2a1 a'-!)%' &# %7! )&n%2$!' 67!2! %7! #&2!$gn 1angag! '%"$!" $' '-&0!n. b!=-2!''$&n' an" g!'%2!' 67$)7 g& %&g!%7!2 6$%7 %7! &2a1 !=-2!''$&n': %&n! , g!'%2!', !%). ABA ] Da$18:1$#! a'-!)%': T$+!%a51!' , 7a5$%' , $+ag!' &# %7a% )1%2!, !%). bS-a2! %$+!: ga+!', '&ng' , '-&2%', -1a)!', !%). $C P2!'!n)! $n S-a$n &# %7! #&2!$gn 1angag! 1!a2n%: 1a5!1', '&ng', #$1+', !%). EC (.1.*.*.(. P2&)!"2!': :A6a2!n!'' &# '&+! a'-!)%' &# %7! )&n%2$!' 67!2! %7! #&2!$gn 1angag! $' '-&0!n. : C&n%!=%a1$;!" '! $n 7a5$%a1 '$%a%$&n' &# '&+! 21!' an" 7a5$%' &# %7! )&n%21!' 67!2! %7$' 1angag! $' '-&0!n. : C&+-a2$'&n &# %7! +&'% 2!1!,an% a'-!)%' &# "a$18 1$#! $n %7! )&n%2$!' 67!2! %7! #&2!$gn 1angag! $' '-&0!n, an" &2 &6n )&n%28. : U'! &# a%7!n%$) +a%!2$a1' 6$%7 %7! a$+ &# g!%%$ng %7! "!'$2!" $n#&2+a%$&n. (.1.*.*.*. A%%1%"!': AB5 : C2$&'$%8 an" 2!'-!)% #&2 %7! +&'% 2!1!,an% a'-!)%' &# "a$18 1$#! an" #&2 &%7!2 '&)$&)1%2a1 a'-!)%' &# %7! )&n%2$!' 67!2! %7$' 1angag! $' '-&0!n. : A--2a$'a1 &# %7! '&)$&1$ng$'%$) 5!7a,$&2' 67$)7 7!1- )&7a5$%a%$&n. - lnterest to know people from other countries. ABB : A--2a$'a1 &# %7! '&)$&1$ng$'%$) 5!7a,$&2' 67$)7 7!1- )&7a5$%a%$&n. : 1n%!2!'% %& 0n&6 -!&-1! #2&+ &%7!2 )&n%2$!'. (.* E,a1a%$&n )2$%!2$a. 1.T& 2!)&gn$;! an" 2!-2&")! %7! )7a2a)%!2$'%$) -7&n!+!' &# %7! #&2!$gn 1angag!. T& 2!)&gn$;! an" 2!-2&")! %7! )7a2a)%!2$'%$) -7&n!+!' &# %7! #&2!$gn 1angag! a' 6!11 a' %7! 5a'$) +&"!1' &# 278%7+ an" $n%&na%$&n, $n 6&2"' an" '!n%!n)!' 67$)7 a--!a2 $n %7! )&n%!=% &# 2!a1 '! &# %7! 1angag!. (. T& g2a'- %7! g!n!2a1 +!an$ng &# &2a1 %!=%'. T& g2a'- %7! g!n!2a1 +!an$ng &# &2a1 %!=%' %%!2!" $n #a)! %& #a)! )&++n$)a%$&n '$%a%$&n', 6$%7 %7! 7!1- &# g!'%2!' an" +$+! an" %7! n!)!''a28 2!-!%$%$&n', $n 67$)7 %7!2! 6$11 a--!a2 )&+5$na%$&n' &# !1!+!n%' -2!,$&'18 1!a2n% an" 67$)7 "!a1 6$%7 #a+$1$a2 %&-$)', 0n&6n 58 %7! '%"!n%. AB? *.T& !=%2a)% '-!)$#$) $n#&2+a%$&n. T& !=%2a)% '-!)$#$) $n#&2+a%$&n, -2!,$&' 2!@$2!", #2&+ &2a1 %!=%' 6$%7 a '$+-1! '%2)%2! an" ,&)a51a28 67$)7 "!a1 6$%7 #a+$1$a2 %&-$)' %7a% $n%!2!'% %7! '%"!n% B"a$18 1$#!, 1$0!', -2!#!2!n)!' , &-$n$&n' an" -!2'&na1 !=-!2$!n)!'C. 4. T& -a2%$)$-a%! $n '7&2% &2a1 !=)7ang!'. T& -a2%$)$-a%! $n '7&2% &2a1 !=)7ang!' 2!1a%!" %& 'a1 )1a''2&&+ a)%$,$%$!' -2&")$ng an n"!2'%an"a51! "$')&2'! a"a-%!" %& %7! )7a2a)%!2$'%$)' &# %7! '$%a%$&n an" %7! )&++n$)a%$,! -2-&'!. I.T& -a2%$)$-a%! $n '$+1a%!" )&++n$)a%1&n '$%a%$&n'. T& -a2%$)$-a%! $n '$+1a%!" )&++n$)a%$&n '$%a%$&n' 67$)7 7a,! 5!!n -2!,$&'18 -2a)%$'!" $n %7! )1a''2&&+, '$ng -2&-!218 %7! +&'% 'a1 '&)$a1 $n%!2a)%$&n #&2+1a! $n %7! #&2!$gn 1angag!. AB. L.T& !=%2a)% %7! g!n!2a1 +!an$ng an" '&+! '-!)$#1) $n#&2+a%$&n. T& !=%2a)% %7! g!n!2a1 +!an$ng an" '&+! '-!)$#$) $n#&2+a%$&n #2&+ '7&2% 62$%%!n %!=%' 6$%7 a 1$n!a1 "!,!1&-+!n% , '$+-1! '%2)%2!' an" ,&)a51a28 , 67$)7 "!a1 6$%7 #a+$1$a2 %&-$)' %7a% $n%!2!'% %7! '%"!n%. G.T& 2!a" '$+-1! )7$1"2!nc' 5&&0'. T& 2!a" 6$%7 %7! 7!1- &# %7! %!a)7!2 &2, %7! "$)%$&na28 '$+-1! )7$1"2!nc' 5&&0' 62$%%!n $n %7! #&2!$gn 1angag! 6$%7 ,$'a1 5a)0- an" '7&6 )&+-2!7!n'$&n 58 +!an' &# a '-!)$#$) %a'0. H.T& -2&")! '7&2% 62$%%!n %!=%'. T& -2&")! '7&2% 62$%%!n %!=%' , )&+-2!7!n'$51! an" a"a-%!" %& %7! )7a2a)%!2$'%$)' &# %7! '$%a%$&n an" %7! )&++n$)a%$,! -2-&'!, $n 67$)7 %7&'! )&n%!n%' %7a% 7a,! 5!!n 6&20!" $n %7! )1a'' )an 5! '!!n. A?D M.T& 2!)&gn$;!, '&2n! '&)$&)1%2a1 a'-!)%'. T& 2!)&gn$;!, '&+! '&)$&)1%2a1 a'-!)%' %8-$)a1 &# %7! #&2!$gn 1angag! '-!a0$ng )&++n$%8 67$)7 a2! $+-1$)$%. $n %7! 1$ng$'%$) 'a+-1!' 6&20!" &n $n %7! )1a''2&&+. A?- (.* E,a1a%$&n )2$%!2$a. 1.T& 2!)&gn$;! an" 2!-2&")! %7! )7a2a)%!2$'%$) -7&n!+!' &# %7! #&2!$gn 1angag!. T& 2!)&gn$;! an" 2!-2&")! %7! )7a2a)%!2$'%$) -7&n!+!' &# %7! #&2!$gn 1angag! a' 6!11 a' %7! 5a'$) +&"!1' &# 278%7+ an" $n%&na%$&n, $n 6&2"' an" '!n%!n)!' 67$)7 a--!a2 $n %7! )&n%!=% &# 2!a1 '! &# %7! 1angag!. (. T& g2a'- %7! g!n!2a1 +!an$ng &# &2a1 %!=%'. T& g2a'- %7! g!n!2a1 +!an$ng &# &2a1 %!=%' %%!2!" $n #a)! %& #a)! )&++n$)a%$&n '$%a%$&n', 6$%7 %7! 7!1- &# g!'%2!' an" +$+! an" %7! n!)!''a28 2!-!%$%$&n', $n 67$)7 %7!2! 6$11 a--!a2 )&+5$na%$&n' &# !1!+!n%' -2!,$&'18 1!a2n% an" 67$)7 "!a1 6$%7 #a+$1$a2 %&-$)', 0n&6n 58 %7! '%"!n%. A?/ *.T& !=%2a)% '-!)$#$) $n#&2+a%$&n. T& !=%2a)% '-!)$#$) $n#&2+a%$&n, -2!,$&' 2!@$2!", #2&+ &2a1 %!=%' 6$%7 a '$+-1! '%2)%2! an" ,&)a51a28 67$)7 "!a1 6$%7 #a+$1$a2 %&-$)' %7a% $n%!2!'% %7! '%"!n% B"a$18 1$#!, 1$0!', -2!#!2!n)!' , &-$n$&n' an" -!2'&na1 !=-!2$!n)!'C. 4. T& -a2%$)$-a%! $n '7&2% &2a1 !=)7ang!'. T& -a2%$)$-a%! $n '7&2% &2a1 !=)7ang!' 2!1a%!" %& 'a1 )1a''2&&+ a)%$,$%$!' -2&")$ng an n"!2'%an"a51! "$')&2'! a"a-%!" %& %7! )7a2a)%!2$'%$)' &# %7! '$%a%$&n an" %7! )&++n$)a%$,! -2-&'!. I.T& -a2%$)$-a%! $n '$+1a%!" )&++n$)a%1&n '$%a%$&n'. T& -a2%$)$-a%! $n '$+1a%!" )&++n$)a%$&n '$%a%$&n' 67$)7 7a,! 5!!n -2!,$&'18 -2a)%$'!" $n %7! )1a''2&&+, '$ng -2&-!218 %7! +&'% 'a1 '&)$a1 $n%!2a)%$&n #&2+1a! $n %7! #&2!$gn 1angag!. A?8 L.T& !=%2a)% %7! g!n!2a1 +!an$ng an" '&+! '-!)$#1) $n#&2+a%$&n. T& !=%2a)% %7! g!n!2a1 +!an$ng an" '&+! '-!)$#$) $n#&2+a%$&n #2&+ '7&2% 62$%%!n %!=%' 6$%7 a 1$n!a1 "!,!1&-+!n% , '$+-1! '%2)%2!' an" ,&)a51a28 , 67$)7 "!a1 6$%7 #a+$1$a2 %&-$)' %7a% $n%!2!'% %7! '%"!n%. G.T& 2!a" '$+-1! )7$1"2!nc' 5&&0'. T& 2!a" 6$%7 %7! 7!1- &# %7! %!a)7!2 &2, %7! "$)%$&na28 '$+-1! )7$1"2!nc' 5&&0' 62$%%!n $n %7! #&2!$gn 1angag! 6$%7 ,$'a1 5a)0- an" '7&6 )&+-2!7!n'$&n 58 +!an' &# a '-!)$#$) %a'0. H.T& -2&")! '7&2% 62$%%!n %!=%'. T& -2&")! '7&2% 62$%%!n %!=%' , )&+-2!7!n'$51! an" a"a-%!" %& %7! )7a2a)%!2$'%$)' &# %7! '$%a%$&n an" %7! )&++n$)a%$,! -2-&'!, $n 67$)7 %7&'! )&n%!n%' %7a% 7a,! 5!!n 6&20!" $n %7! )1a'' )an 5! '!!n. A?6 M.T& 2!)&gn$;!, '&2n! '&)$&)1%2a1 a'-!)%'. T& 2!)&gn$;!, '&+! '&)$&)1%2a1 a'-!)%' %8-$)a1 &# %7! #&2!$gn 1angag! '-!a0$ng )&++n$%8 67$)7 a2! $+-1$)$%. $n %7! 1$ng$'%$) 'a+-1!' 6&20!" &n $n %7! )1a''2&&+. A?A 2.1.3.1.2. procedures: - To recognize and make familiar the sounds of the foreign language and its rythm and intonation. - To understand oral messages of different nature and from different sources (teacher , other students , video, tapes): *Global comprehension of oral messages about familiar topics. *Specific comprehension of concrete simple messages in contextualized situations. -To react either linguistically and non-linguistically to different oral messages ana communicative situations: *Production of oommon expressions aimed to satisfy simple needs of communication (greetings , identification, asking and giving information , identification of objects , decriptions , etc). UUse of basic messages previously learnt (polite expressions , etc.) adjusting them to the specific features of the situation. *Active participation in oral exchanges in order to express the most immediate communicative needs within the class and in contexts closer to the student. UParticipation in the linguistic exchanges with the aim of having fun (simulations , performances , etc.). UNon-linguistic answers to oral messages (follow instructions , etc.). - To recognize the grammatical formulas that help them to make questions , to assert , to reject , to express possession. to quantify , to describe, to narrate, etc... and to use them in order to achieve efficient communication. -To recognize and use the basic strategies of communication, both linguistic (use one word instead of another , etc.) or extralinguistic (gestures, drawings, etc.) which help to overcome communicative problems. - To use the native language's strategies of communication, which let us take advantage of the limited knowledge of the foreign language. Att$t.&)< A?5 -Awareness of the importance of oral communication in a foreign language. -Awareness of the reality of a different culture , reflected in the language. -Receptive and respectful attitude towards the persons who speak a foreign language - Wish to express themselves in a foreign language , participating in the activities (games, songs , etc.). -Awareness of the corrections done when they interprete or produce a text. - Positive and optimist attitude towards their own ability to speak in a foreign language. -Tendency to use imaginatively and creatively, oral messages previously learnt , in different communicative situations. 2.1.3.2. Uses and fomis of the wrltten language: 2.1.3.2.1. C*n("t)< - Most habitual needs and communicative situations to use the written language. Communicative intentions and characteristics of these situations. UCommunicative intentions: greetings , identificaton and location of objects , expressing needs and wishes, etc. UCharacteristics of the communicative situation: type of isteners , more or less formal situation, etc. - Vocabulary and inguistic structures required to express the basic communicative needs by writing. UCommunlcative intentions: greetings, identification , giving and asking for information, identification and location of objects, descriptions, narrations , etc. UGeneral topics: colours , numbers, time, house , family, class, food, likes and dislikes, sports, etc. A?B 0CNa+!' &# %7! 1!%%!2' $n a #&2!$gn 1angag! an" %7!$2 )&22!'-&n"!n)! 6$%7$n %7! 62$%$ng '8'%!+. 1C R!1a%$&n' 5!%6!!n %7! +!an$ng &# %7! 6&2"' , %7!$2 -2&nn)$a%$&n an" g2a-7$)a1 2!-2!'!n%a%$&n. (.1.*.(.(. P2&)!"2!': : P2&")%$&n &# 62$%%!n %!=%' a"E'%!" %& %7! #!a%2!' &# %7! 2!a"!2 an" &# %7! )&++n$)a%$,! '1%a%$&n. : Un"!2'%an"$ng &# %7! 62$%%!n +!''ag!' &# "$##!2!n% na%2!. bG1&5a1 )&+-2!7!n'$&n &# 62$%%!n +!''ag!' 2!1a%!" %7! a)%$,$%$!' "&n! $n )1a''. bG1&5a1 )&+-2!7!n'$&n &# 52$!# 62$%%!n +!''ag!' 2!1a%!" %& %7! +&'% $++!"$a%! n!!"' &# )&++n$)a%$&n an" %& %7! $n%!2!'%' &# %7! '-!a0!2'. ] G1&5a1 )&+-2!7!n'$&n &# !a'8 a%7!n%$) +a%!2$a1' , 6$%7 ,$'a1 5a)0$ng a5&% "a$18:1$#! %&-$)'. A?? :A6a2!n!'' &# %7! '-!)$#$) !1!+!n%', -2!,$&'18 1!a2n%, $n %!=%' 67$)7 7a,! n0&6n 6&2"' an" !=-2!''$&n', ')7 a' $n,%a%$&n' #&2 a 5$2%7"a8 -a2%8, )a2"', +aga;$n!', !%). : U'! &# %7! g2a-7&:-7&n$) )&22!'-&n"!n)!' %& '-!11, #&2 $n'%an)!, %7! na+! an" %7! '2na+!, !%). : P2&")%$&n &# 62$%%!n %!=%' "$2!)%!" %& "$##!2!n% 2!a"!2', an'6!2$ng &2a1 an" 62$%%!n '%$+1$. : S&1%$&n &# ga+!' 67$)7 2!@$2! %7! 0n&61!"g! &# %7! ,&)a51a28 an" %7! &2%&g2a-78 '!" $n )1a''. : A6a2!n!'' &# g2a++a%$)a1 '%2)%2!' $n 62$%%!n %!=%'. : A6a2!n!'' &# '&+! '&)$&)1%2a1 a'-!)%' 67$)7 "$##!2!n%$a%! %7! #&2!$gn 1angag! #2&+ %7! +&%7!2 %&ng!. (.1.*.(.*. A%%1%"!': : 1n%!2!'% an" )2$&'$%8 %&6a2"' %7! 62$%%!n %!=%' an" a--2a$'a1 &# %7! 2&1! %7!8 -1a8 $n &2"!2 %& 'a%$'#8 )&++n$)a%1,! n!!"'. A?. :A6a2!n!'' an" a--2a$'a1 &# %7! $+-&2%an)! &# 2!a"$ng an" 62$%$ng $n a #&2!$gn 1angag!. : A--2a$'a1 #&2 %7! )&22!)% $n%!2-2!%a%$&n &# !a'8 62$%%!n %!=%'. +C In%!2!'% %& 0n&6 %7! ,&)a51a28 an" %7! 5a'$) 1$ng$'%$) '%2)%2!' 2!@$2!" %& !=-2!'' %7! !''!n%$a1 )&++n$)a%1,! n!!"' $n "$##!2!n% '$%a%$&n'. nCD$'-&'$%$&n %& &,!2)&+! %7! "$##$)1%$!' %7a% %7! '! &# a #&2!$gn 1angag! )2!a%!', 58 -a8$ng a%%!n%$&n %& %7! )&++n$)a%$,! '%2a%!g$!' #& %7! +&%7!2 %&ng!. (.1.*.*. S&)I& )1%2aZ a'-!)%': C&n)!-%': : S&)$a1 an" )1%2a1 a'-!)%' &# %7! )&n%2$!' 67!2! %7! #&2!$gn 1angag! '%"$!" $' '-&0!n. b!=-2!''$&n' an" g!'%2!' 67$)7 g& %&g!%7!2 6$%7 %7! &2a1 !=-2!''$&n': %&n! , g!'%2!', !%). A.D ] Da$18:1$#! a'-!)%': T$+!%a51!' , 7a5$%' , $+ag!' &# %7a% )1%2!, !%). bS-a2! %$+!: ga+!', '&ng' , '-&2%', -1a)!', !%). &CP2!'!n)! $n S-a$n &# %7! #&2!$gn 1angag! 1!a2n%: 1a5!1', '&ng', #$1+', !%). -C (.1.*.*.(. P2&)!"2!': :A6a2!n!'' &# '&+! a'-!)%' &# %7! )&n%2$!' 67!2! %7! #&2!$gn 1angag! $' '-&0!n. : C&n%!=%a1$;!" '! $n 7a5$%a1 '$%a%$&n' &# '&+! 21!' an" 7a5$%' &# %7! )&n%21!' 67!2! %7$' 1angag! $' '-&0!n. : C&+-a2$'&n &# %7! +&'% 2!1!,an% a'-!)%' &# "a$18 1$#! $n %7! )&n%2$!' 67!2! %7! #&2!$gn 1angag! $' '-&0!n, an" &2 &6n )&n%28. : U'! &# a%7!n%$) +a%!2$a1' 6$%7 %7! a$+ &# g!%%$ng %7! "!'$2!" $n#&2+a%$&n. (.1.*.*.*. A%%1%"!': A.- : C2$&'$%8 an" 2!'-!)% #&2 %7! +&'% 2!1!,an% a'-!)%' &# "a$18 1$#! an" #&2 &%7!2 '&)$&)1%2a1 a'-!)%' &# %7! )&n%2$!' 67!2! %7$' 1angag! $' '-&0!n. : A--2a$'a1 &# %7! '&)$&1$ng$'%$) 5!7a,$&2' 67$)7 7!1- )&7a5$%a%$&n. - lnterest to know people from other countries. A./ : A--2a$'a1 &# %7! '&)$&1$ng$'%$) 5!7a,$&2' 67$)7 7!1- )&7a5$%a%$&n. : 1n%!2!'% %& 0n&6 -!&-1! #2&+ &%7!2 )&n%2$!'. A.8 (.* E,a1a%$&n )2$%!2$a. 1.T& 2!)&gn$;! an" 2!-2&")! %7! )7a2a)%!2$'%$) -7&n!+!' &# %7! #&2!$gn 1angag!. T& 2!)&gn$;! an" 2!-2&")! %7! )7a2a)%!2$'%$) -7&n!+!' &# %7! #&2!$gn 1angag! a' 6!11 a' %7! 5a'$) +&"!1' &# 278%7+ an" $n%&na%$&n, $n 6&2"' an" '!n%!n)!' 67$)7 a--!a2 $n %7! )&n%!=% &# 2!a1 '! &# %7! 1angag!. (. T& g2a'- %7! g!n!2a1 +!an$ng &# &2a1 %!=%'. T& g2a'- %7! g!n!2a1 +!an$ng &# &2a1 %!=%' %%!2!" $n #a)! %& #a)! )&++n$)a%$&n '$%a%$&n', 6$%7 %7! 7!1- &# g!'%2!' an" +$+! an" %7! n!)!''a28 2!-!%$%$&n', $n 67$)7 %7!2! 6$11 a--!a2 )&+5$na%$&n' &# !1!+!n%' -2!,$&'18 1!a2n% an" 67$)7 "!a1 6$%7 #a+$1$a2 %&-$)', 0n&6n 58 %7! '%"!n%. A.6 *.T& !=%2a)% '-!)$#$) $n#&2+a%$&n. T& !=%2a)% '-!)$#$) $n#&2+a%$&n, -2!,$&' 2!@$2!", #2&+ &2a1 %!=%' 6$%7 a '$+-1! '%2)%2! an" ,&)a51a28 67$)7 "!a1 6$%7 #a+$1$a2 %&-$)' %7a% $n%!2!'% %7! '%"!n% B"a$18 1$#!, 1$0!', -2!#!2!n)!' , &-$n$&n' an" -!2'&na1 !=-!2$!n)!'C. 4. T& -a2%$)$-a%! $n '7&2% &2a1 !=)7ang!'. T& -a2%$)$-a%! $n '7&2% &2a1 !=)7ang!' 2!1a%!" %& 'a1 )1a''2&&+ a)%$,$%$!' -2&")$ng an n"!2'%an"a51! "$')&2'! a"a-%!" %& %7! )7a2a)%!2$'%$)' &# %7! '$%a%$&n an" %7! )&++n$)a%$,! -2-&'!. I.T& -a2%$)$-a%! $n '$+1a%!" )&++n$)a%1&n '$%a%$&n'. T& -a2%$)$-a%! $n '$+1a%!" )&++n$)a%$&n '$%a%$&n' 67$)7 7a,! 5!!n -2!,$&'18 -2a)%$'!" $n %7! )1a''2&&+, '$ng -2&-!218 %7! +&'% 'a1 '&)$a1 $n%!2a)%$&n #&2+1a! $n %7! #&2!$gn 1angag!. A.A L.T& !=%2a)% %7! g!n!2a1 +!an$ng an" '&+! '-!)$#1) $n#&2+a%$&n. T& !=%2a)% %7! g!n!2a1 +!an$ng an" '&+! '-!)$#$) $n#&2+a%$&n #2&+ '7&2% 62$%%!n %!=%' 6$%7 a 1$n!a1 "!,!1&-+!n% , '$+-1! '%2)%2!' an" ,&)a51a28 , 67$)7 "!a1 6$%7 #a+$1$a2 %&-$)' %7a% $n%!2!'% %7! '%"!n%. G.T& 2!a" '$+-1! )7$1"2!nc' 5&&0'. T& 2!a" 6$%7 %7! 7!1- &# %7! %!a)7!2 &2, %7! "$)%$&na28 '$+-1! )7$1"2!nc' 5&&0' 62$%%!n $n %7! #&2!$gn 1angag! 6$%7 ,$'a1 5a)0- an" '7&6 )&+-2!7!n'$&n 58 +!an' &# a '-!)$#$) %a'0. H.T& -2&")! '7&2% 62$%%!n %!=%'. T& -2&")! '7&2% 62$%%!n %!=%' , )&+-2!7!n'$51! an" a"a-%!" %& %7! )7a2a)%!2$'%$)' &# %7! '$%a%$&n an" %7! )&++n$)a%$,! -2-&'!, $n 67$)7 %7&'! )&n%!n%' %7a% 7a,! 5!!n 6&20!" $n %7! )1a'' )an 5! '!!n. A.5 M.T& 2!)&gn$;!, '&2n! '&)$&)1%2a1 a'-!)%'. T& 2!)&gn$;!, '&+! '&)$&)1%2a1 a'-!)%' %8-$)a1 &# %7! #&2!$gn 1angag! '-!a0$ng )&++n$%8 67$)7 a2! $+-1$)$%. $n %7! 1$ng$'%$) 'a+-1!' 6&20!" &n $n %7! )1a''2&&+. A.B A.? (.* E,a1a%$&n )2$%!2$a. 1.T& 2!)&gn$;! an" 2!-2&")! %7! )7a2a)%!2$'%$) -7&n!+!' &# %7! #&2!$gn 1angag!. T& 2!)&gn$;! an" 2!-2&")! %7! )7a2a)%!2$'%$) -7&n!+!' &# %7! #&2!$gn 1angag! a' 6!11 a' %7! 5a'$) +&"!1' &# 278%7+ an" $n%&na%$&n, $n 6&2"' an" '!n%!n)!' 67$)7 a--!a2 $n %7! )&n%!=% &# 2!a1 '! &# %7! 1angag!. (. T& g2a'- %7! g!n!2a1 +!an$ng &# &2a1 %!=%'. T& g2a'- %7! g!n!2a1 +!an$ng &# &2a1 %!=%' %%!2!" $n #a)! %& #a)! )&++n$)a%$&n '$%a%$&n', 6$%7 %7! 7!1- &# g!'%2!' an" +$+! an" %7! n!)!''a28 2!-!%$%$&n', $n 67$)7 %7!2! 6$11 a--!a2 )&+5$na%$&n' &# !1!+!n%' -2!,$&'18 1!a2n% an" 67$)7 "!a1 6$%7 #a+$1$a2 %&-$)', 0n&6n 58 %7! '%"!n%. A.. *.T& !=%2a)% '-!)$#$) $n#&2+a%$&n. T& !=%2a)% '-!)$#$) $n#&2+a%$&n, -2!,$&' 2!@$2!", #2&+ &2a1 %!=%' 6$%7 a '$+-1! '%2)%2! an" ,&)a51a28 67$)7 "!a1 6$%7 #a+$1$a2 %&-$)' %7a% $n%!2!'% %7! '%"!n% B"a$18 1$#!, 1$0!', -2!#!2!n)!' , &-$n$&n' an" -!2'&na1 !=-!2$!n)!'C. 4. T& -a2%$)$-a%! $n '7&2% &2a1 !=)7ang!'. T& -a2%$)$-a%! $n '7&2% &2a1 !=)7ang!' 2!1a%!" %& 'a1 )1a''2&&+ a)%$,$%$!' -2&")$ng an n"!2'%an"a51! "$')&2'! a"a-%!" %& %7! )7a2a)%!2$'%$)' &# %7! '$%a%$&n an" %7! )&++n$)a%$,! -2-&'!. I.T& -a2%$)$-a%! $n '$+1a%!" )&++n$)a%1&n '$%a%$&n'. T& -a2%$)$-a%! $n '$+1a%!" )&++n$)a%$&n '$%a%$&n' 67$)7 7a,! 5!!n -2!,$&'18 -2a)%$'!" $n %7! )1a''2&&+, '$ng -2&-!218 %7! +&'% 'a1 '&)$a1 $n%!2a)%$&n #&2+1a! $n %7! #&2!$gn 1angag!. 5DD L.T& !=%2a)% %7! g!n!2a1 +!an$ng an" '&+! '-!)$#1) $n#&2+a%$&n. T& !=%2a)% %7! g!n!2a1 +!an$ng an" '&+! '-!)$#$) $n#&2+a%$&n #2&+ '7&2% 62$%%!n %!=%' 6$%7 a 1$n!a1 "!,!1&-+!n% , '$+-1! '%2)%2!' an" ,&)a51a28 , 67$)7 "!a1 6$%7 #a+$1$a2 %&-$)' %7a% $n%!2!'% %7! '%"!n%. G.T& 2!a" '$+-1! )7$1"2!nc' 5&&0'. T& 2!a" 6$%7 %7! 7!1- &# %7! %!a)7!2 &2, %7! "$)%$&na28 '$+-1! )7$1"2!nc' 5&&0' 62$%%!n $n %7! #&2!$gn 1angag! 6$%7 ,$'a1 5a)0- an" '7&6 )&+-2!7!n'$&n 58 +!an' &# a '-!)$#$) %a'0. H.T& -2&")! '7&2% 62$%%!n %!=%'. T& -2&")! '7&2% 62$%%!n %!=%' , )&+-2!7!n'$51! an" a"a-%!" %& %7! )7a2a)%!2$'%$)' &# %7! '$%a%$&n an" %7! )&++n$)a%$,! -2-&'!, $n 67$)7 %7&'! )&n%!n%' %7a% 7a,! 5!!n 6&20!" $n %7! )1a'' )an 5! '!!n. 5D- M.T& 2!)&gn$;!, '&2n! '&)$&)1%2a1 a'-!)%'. T& 2!)&gn$;!, '&+! '&)$&)1%2a1 a'-!)%' %8-$)a1 &# %7! #&2!$gn 1angag! '-!a0$ng )&++n$%8 67$)7 a2! $+-1$)$%. $n %7! 1$ng$'%$) 'a+-1!' 6&20!" &n $n %7! )1a''2&&+. 5D/ 2.1.3.1.2. procedures: - To recognize and make familiar the sounds of the foreign language and its rythm and intonation. - To understand oral messages of different nature and from different sources (teacher , other students , video, tapes): *Global comprehension of oral messages about familiar topics. *Specific comprehension of concrete simple messages in contextualized situations. -To react either linguistically and non-linguistically to different oral messages ana communicative situations: *Production of oommon expressions aimed to satisfy simple needs of communication (greetings , identification, asking and giving information , identification of objects , decriptions , etc). UUse of basic messages previously learnt (polite expressions , etc.) adjusting them to the specific features of the situation. *Active participation in oral exchanges in order to express the most immediate communicative needs within the class and in contexts closer to the student. UParticipation in the linguistic exchanges with the aim of having fun (simulations , performances , etc.). UNon-linguistic answers to oral messages (follow instructions , etc.). - To recognize the grammatical formulas that help them to make questions , to assert , to reject , to express possession. to quantify , to describe, to narrate, etc... and to use them in order to achieve efficient communication. -To recognize and use the basic strategies of communication, both linguistic (use one word instead of another , etc.) or extralinguistic (gestures, drawings, etc.) which help to overcome communicative problems. - To use the native language's strategies of communication, which let us take advantage of the limited knowledge of the foreign language. Att$t.&)< 5D8 -Awareness of the importance of oral communication in a foreign language. -Awareness of the reality of a different culture , reflected in the language. -Receptive and respectful attitude towards the persons who speak a foreign language - Wish to express themselves in a foreign language , participating in the activities (games, songs , etc.). -Awareness of the corrections done when they interprete or produce a text. - Positive and optimist attitude towards their own ability to speak in a foreign language. -Tendency to use imaginatively and creatively, oral messages previously learnt , in different communicative situations. 2.1.3.2. Uses and fomis of the wrltten language: 2.1.3.2.1. C*n("t)< - Most habitual needs and communicative situations to use the written language. Communicative intentions and characteristics of these situations. UCommunicative intentions: greetings , identificaton and location of objects , expressing needs and wishes, etc. UCharacteristics of the communicative situation: type of isteners , more or less formal situation, etc. - Vocabulary and inguistic structures required to express the basic communicative needs by writing. UCommunlcative intentions: greetings, identification , giving and asking for information, identification and location of objects, descriptions, narrations , etc. UGeneral topics: colours , numbers, time, house , family, class, food, likes and dislikes, sports, etc. 5D6 @CNa+!' &# %7! 1!%%!2' $n a #&2!$gn 1angag! an" %7!$2 )&22!'-&n"!n)! 6$%7$n %7! 62$%$ng '8'%!+. 2C R!1a%$&n' 5!%6!!n %7! +!an$ng &# %7! 6&2"' , %7!$2 -2&nn)$a%$&n an" g2a-7$)a1 2!-2!'!n%a%$&n. (.1.*.(.(. P2&)!"2!': : P2&")%$&n &# 62$%%!n %!=%' a"E'%!" %& %7! #!a%2!' &# %7! 2!a"!2 an" &# %7! )&++n$)a%$,! '1%a%$&n. : Un"!2'%an"$ng &# %7! 62$%%!n +!''ag!' &# "$##!2!n% na%2!. bG1&5a1 )&+-2!7!n'$&n &# 62$%%!n +!''ag!' 2!1a%!" %7! a)%$,$%$!' "&n! $n )1a''. bG1&5a1 )&+-2!7!n'$&n &# 52$!# 62$%%!n +!''ag!' 2!1a%!" %& %7! +&'% $++!"$a%! n!!"' &# )&++n$)a%$&n an" %& %7! $n%!2!'%' &# %7! '-!a0!2'. ] G1&5a1 )&+-2!7!n'$&n &# !a'8 a%7!n%$) +a%!2$a1' , 6$%7 ,$'a1 5a)0$ng a5&% "a$18:1$#! %&-$)'. 5DA :A6a2!n!'' &# %7! '-!)$#$) !1!+!n%', -2!,$&'18 1!a2n%, $n %!=%' 67$)7 7a,! n0&6n 6&2"' an" !=-2!''$&n', ')7 a' $n,%a%$&n' #&2 a 5$2%7"a8 -a2%8, )a2"', +aga;$n!', !%). : U'! &# %7! g2a-7&:-7&n$) )&22!'-&n"!n)!' %& '-!11, #&2 $n'%an)!, %7! na+! an" %7! '2na+!, !%). : P2&")%$&n &# 62$%%!n %!=%' "$2!)%!" %& "$##!2!n% 2!a"!2', an'6!2$ng &2a1 an" 62$%%!n '%$+1$. : S&1%$&n &# ga+!' 67$)7 2!@$2! %7! 0n&61!"g! &# %7! ,&)a51a28 an" %7! &2%&g2a-78 '!" $n )1a''. : A6a2!n!'' &# g2a++a%$)a1 '%2)%2!' $n 62$%%!n %!=%'. : A6a2!n!'' &# '&+! '&)$&)1%2a1 a'-!)%' 67$)7 "$##!2!n%$a%! %7! #&2!$gn 1angag! #2&+ %7! +&%7!2 %&ng!. (.1.*.(.*. A%%1%"!': : 1n%!2!'% an" )2$&'$%8 %&6a2"' %7! 62$%%!n %!=%' an" a--2a$'a1 &# %7! 2&1! %7!8 -1a8 $n &2"!2 %& 'a%$'#8 )&++n$)a%1,! n!!"'. 5D5 :A6a2!n!'' an" a--2a$'a1 &# %7! $+-&2%an)! &# 2!a"$ng an" 62$%$ng $n a #&2!$gn 1angag!. : A--2a$'a1 #&2 %7! )&22!)% $n%!2-2!%a%$&n &# !a'8 62$%%!n %!=%'. 'C In%!2!'% %& 0n&6 %7! ,&)a51a28 an" %7! 5a'$) 1$ng$'%$) '%2)%2!' 2!@$2!" %& !=-2!'' %7! !''!n%$a1 )&++n$)a%1,! n!!"' $n "$##!2!n% '$%a%$&n'. %C D$'-&'$%$&n %& &,!2)&+! %7! "$##$)1%$!' %7a% %7! '! &# a #&2!$gn 1angag! )2!a%!', 58 -a8$ng a%%!n%$&n %& %7! )&++n$)a%$,! '%2a%!g$!' #& %7! +&%7!2 %&ng!. (.1.*.*. S&)I& )1%2aZ a'-!)%': C&n)!-%': : S&)$a1 an" )1%2a1 a'-!)%' &# %7! )&n%2$!' 67!2! %7! #&2!$gn 1angag! '%"$!" $' '-&0!n. b!=-2!''$&n' an" g!'%2!' 67$)7 g& %&g!%7!2 6$%7 %7! &2a1 !=-2!''$&n': %&n! , g!'%2!', !%). 5DB ] Da$18:1$#! a'-!)%': T$+!%a51!' , 7a5$%' , $+ag!' &# %7a% )1%2!, !%). bS-a2! %$+!: ga+!', '&ng' , '-&2%', -1a)!', !%). CP2!'!n)! $n S-a$n &# %7! #&2!$gn 1angag! 1!a2n%: 1a5!1', '&ng', #$1+', !%). ,C (.1.*.*.(. P2&)!"2!': :A6a2!n!'' &# '&+! a'-!)%' &# %7! )&n%2$!' 67!2! %7! #&2!$gn 1angag! $' '-&0!n. : C&n%!=%a1$;!" '! $n 7a5$%a1 '$%a%$&n' &# '&+! 21!' an" 7a5$%' &# %7! )&n%21!' 67!2! %7$' 1angag! $' '-&0!n. : C&+-a2$'&n &# %7! +&'% 2!1!,an% a'-!)%' &# "a$18 1$#! $n %7! )&n%2$!' 67!2! %7! #&2!$gn 1angag! $' '-&0!n, an" &2 &6n )&n%28. : U'! &# a%7!n%$) +a%!2$a1' 6$%7 %7! a$+ &# g!%%$ng %7! "!'$2!" $n#&2+a%$&n. (.1.*.*.*. A%%1%"!': 5D? : C2$&'$%8 an" 2!'-!)% #&2 %7! +&'% 2!1!,an% a'-!)%' &# "a$18 1$#! an" #&2 &%7!2 '&)$&)1%2a1 a'-!)%' &# %7! )&n%2$!' 67!2! %7$' 1angag! $' '-&0!n. : A--2a$'a1 &# %7! '&)$&1$ng$'%$) 5!7a,$&2' 67$)7 7!1- )&7a5$%a%$&n. - lnterest to know people from other countries. 5D. : A--2a$'a1 &# %7! 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"$)%$&na28 '$+-1! )7$1"2!nc' 5&&0' 62$%%!n $n %7! #&2!$gn 1angag! 6$%7 ,$'a1 5a)0- an" '7&6 )&+-2!7!n'$&n 58 +!an' &# a '-!)$#$) %a'0. 5-8 H.T& -2&")! '7&2% 62$%%!n %!=%'. T& -2&")! '7&2% 62$%%!n %!=%' , )&+-2!7!n'$51! an" a"a-%!" %& %7! )7a2a)%!2$'%$)' &# %7! '$%a%$&n an" %7! )&++n$)a%$,! -2-&'!, $n 67$)7 %7&'! )&n%!n%' %7a% 7a,! 5!!n 6&20!" $n %7! )1a'' )an 5! '!!n. M.T& 2!)&gn$;!, '&2n! '&)$&)1%2a1 a'-!)%'. T& 2!)&gn$;!, '&+! '&)$&)1%2a1 a'-!)%' %8-$)a1 &# %7! #&2!$gn 1angag! '-!a0$ng )&++n$%8 67$)7 a2! $+-1$)$%. $n %7! 1$ng$'%$) 'a+-1!' 6&20!" &n $n %7! )1a''2&&+. TEMA (1.: LA PROGRAMACIN DEL XREA DE LENGUAS EXTRANJERAS: UNIDADES DE PROGRAMACIN. CRITERIOS PARA LA SECUENCIACIN Y TEMPORALISACIN DE CONTENIDOS Y O9JETIVOS. SELECCIN DE LA METODOLOGWA A EMPLEAR EN LAS ACTIVIDADES DE APRENDISAJE Y DE EVALUACIN -. '=T,7@T%%'W= -.-. &4 +,7>&%T7 %T,,'%T4!, @& %&=T,7 ............................................................................................................................................. / -./ &4 +,7>&%T7 %T,,'%T4!, @& &T!+! > @& %'%47. ............................................................................................................................................. 8 5-6 /. 4! +,7N,!<!%'W= @&4 j,&! @& 4&=NT!* &UT,!=F&,!*9 T='@!@&* @& +,7N,!<!%'W=. ............................................................................................................................................. 8 /.-. 4a programaciHn anual ............................................................................................................................................. 8 /./ 4a programaciHn de unidades didGcticas. ............................................................................................................................................. 6 /.8 4a programaciHn de las sesiones de clase. ............................................................................................................................................. 5 8 %,'T&,'7* +!,! 4! *&%T&=%'!%'W= > T&<+7,!4'\!%'W= @& %7=T&='@7* > 7F&T'V7* ............................................................................................................................................. . 8.- 4os ob:eti"os ............................................................................................................................................. . 8./ 4os contenidos ............................................................................................................................................. -/ 6. *&4&%%'W= @& 4! <&T7@747Ni! ! &<+4&!, &= 4!* !%T'V'@!@&* @& !+,&=@'\!F& > @& &V!4T!%'W= ............................................................................................................................................. -? 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INTRODUCCIN &l artJculo -8 del @ecreto de &ducaciHn +rimaria establece que 0los profesores programarUn su actividad docente de acuerdo con el currLculum de la 0ducaciVn .rimaria y en consonancia con los respectivos proyectos curriculares de etapa y ciclo2. +or 0currJculum de la &ducaciHn +rimaria2 se entiende el con:unto de ob:eti"os# contenidos# orientaciones metodolHgicas y criterios de e"aluaciHn que regulan la prGctica docente en dicha etapa. *e encuentra en los !nexos del citado @ecreto. 04os proyectos curriculares de etapa y ciclo2 estGn incluidos en el +royecto %urricular de %entro y Kste# a su "e(# en el +royecto de %entro. O0l .royecto de #entro es el instrumento para la planificaciFn que enumera y define las notas de identidad del centro, esta!lece el marco de referencia glo!al y los planteamientos educativos de carUcter general que definen y distinguen al centro, formula las finalidades educativas que pretende conseguir, adapta el currGculo esta!lecido en propuestas glo!ales de intervenciVn didUctica, adecuadas a su conte+to especLfico, y e+presa la estructura organi7ativa del centro. %u finalidad es dotar de coherencia y personalidad propia a los centros.] (7F! de /AE5E-../# punto '''# / de /8 de :ulio de -../). &l +royecto de %entro debe ser una exposiciHn clara# concisa y bre"e de las intenciones educati"as# estructuras# reglamentos y dise`o curricular de una comunidad escolar. @ebe adaptar aquellos principios y estructuras educati"as que se consideran adecuados para una comunidad. @ebe ser un documento dinGmico y modificable en funciHn de la prGctica educati"a# a la cual debe ser"ir como guJa. &s necesario que sea una creaciHn colecti"a de la comunidad educati"a# que expresa equilibradamente sus intenciones# sir"iendo como marco de las acti"idades educati"as y# por lo tanto# como facilitador del traba:o docente. &l +royecto de %entro consta de "arios instrumentos para la planificaciHn a medio pla(o# que garanti(an la estabilidad de la acciHn educati"a9 finalidades educati"as# proyecto curricular y reglamento de organi(aciHn y funcionamiento. ! corto pla(o# en el transcurso de un curso escolar# incluye otros instrumentos que concretan la acciHn educati"a9 plan anual de centro y la memoria final. ' P?9H&-9 &B??,&B'0? ( &<-?9 +or (+%%) se entiende un con:unto de a)%a)$&n!' a2%$)1a"a' entre sJ y compartidas por un equipo docente de un centro educati"o mediante el cual se )&n)2!%an 8 "!'a22&11an las intenciones y prescripciones generales contenidas en los decretos de ense`an(a para las distintas etapas educati"as de !ndalucJa. %onstituye el instrumento que hace explJcito el proyecto educati"o de un centro docente de una realidad concreta# dGndole )&7!2!n)$a 8 )&n%$n$"a" (-uLa para la ela!oraciVn del .##. %onse:erJa de &ducaciHn y %iencia de la Funta de !ndalucJa). +or lo tanto# el +%% tiene en cuenta no sHlo los @ecretos de &nse`an(a para !ndalucJa# sino tambiKn las Finalidades &ducati"as del %entro# el otro elemento del +royecto de %entro# que recoge el contexto al que hay que adaptar los citados @ecretos9 perfil del alumnado# caracterJsticas del %entro# la comunidad en la que se inserta. &l +%% no debe ser un mero trGmite burocrGtico desconocido por la comunidad escolar# sino que debe ser un instrumento colecti"o que exprese los criterios compartidos 5-B por el profesorado de un centro y fa"ore(ca la me:ora de la calidad educati"a del centro# mediante la reflexiHn y la reno"aciHn pedagHgica de la prGctica docente. &l +royecto %urricular de %entro consta fundamentalmente de los +royectos %urriculares de &tapa o &tapas y sus correspondientes ciclos# que contextuali(an el @ecreto de &nse`an(a a la realidad del centro# sir"iendo de guJa para reali(ar la programaciHn de aula. *in embargo# el +%% quedarJa incompleto si no contara con otros elementos o planes9 ] P1an "! O2gan$;a)$<n del +%%# que contextuali(a la legislaciHn general a las caracterJsticas de la comunidad escolar. ] P1an "! O2$!n%a)$<n para lograr una mayor adaptaciHn de los procesos de ense`an(a a las caracterJsticas del alumnado. ] P1an "! F&2+a)$<n "!1 P2&#!'&2a"& o relaciHn organi(ada de necesidades de autoperfeccionamiento detectado por el profesorado a partir del anGlisis crJtico sobre su prGctica docente. ] P1an "! E,a1a)$<n del +%%9 anGlisis de los aspectos prioritarios para introducir cambios y a:ustes en orden a conseguir un +royecto de %entro mGs coherente. ' P?9H&-9 &B??,&B'0? ( -0P0 H ( &,&'9 Tno de los elementos del +%% es el +royecto %urricular de &tapa# que Oconstituye un con:unto de "!)$'$&n!' )22$)1a2!' articuladas entre sJ y )&+-a2%$"a' -&2 !1 !@$-& "&)!n%! de una etapa educati"a. *u ob:eti"o principal es )&n)2!%a2 1a' $n%!n)$&n!' y prescripciones generales contenidas en los !nexos correspondientes a los dise`os curriculares de cada una de las etapas educati"a contenidos en los @ecretos de &nse`an(a de !ndalucJa y expresar# asJ# el +royecto %urricular de un determinado equipo docente. 4a principal finalidad es dotar de coherencia la actuaciHn didGctica en cada uno de los ciclos. +ara elaborarlo hay que responder a una serie de preguntas9 ]_XuK ense`ar; %oncreciHn e interrelaciHn de los ob:eti"os generales de la etapa con los de cada Grea. @istribuciHn por ciclos. +riori(aciHn y secuenciaciHn de los ob:eti"os. ]_%uGndo ense`ar; 7rientaciones para la selecciHn# organi(aciHn y secuenciaciHn de los contenidos de la etapa# distribuyKndolos por ciclos y cursos. ]_%Hmo ense`ar; %oncreciHn de los principios metodolHgicos de la etapa y de las Greas curriculares. ]_XuK# cuGndo# cHmo e"aluar; %oncreciHn de los criterios de e"aluaciHn por ciclos y criterios de promociHn. (. LA PROGRAMACIN DEL XREA DE LENGUAS EXTRANJERAS: UNIDADES DE PROGRAMACIN &l +royecto %urricular de &tapa es un instrumento de planificaciHn a medio pla(o# en el que estG implicado el equipo docente. ! corto pla(o# el equipo docente reali(arG una programaciHn de cada uno de los ciclos y cursos de la etapa en el Grea de 4engua 'nglesa# que partirG del estudio de la situaciHn en que se encuentra el alumnado# teniendo en cuenta que 8la unidad de programaciVn y evaluaciVn de la 0ducaciVn .rimaria es el ciclo9 GartJculo 8#6 del @ecreto). !ntes de continuar# es necesario decir que en el Grea anglosa:ona se hace una distinciHn entre sylla!us design# que se refiere a los criterios para decidir la selecciHn y 5-? secuenciaciHn de los contenidos# y course design o language program design# que dice cHmo se lle"arG a cabo el sylla!us teniendo en cuenta los ob:eti"os# la metodologJa# las acti"idades# los recursos y la e"aluaciHn. PROGRAMACIN ANUAL 4a programaciHn anual de un curso# llamada 0larga2# constarG de todos los elementos de la planificaciHn9 -. %abecera con el nombre del centro# del profesor responsable# el ciclo# Grea y curso acadKmico. /. *elecciHn de los contenidos estructurados unidades didGcticas quincenales que contemplen todos los contenidos9 conceptuales (funciones# "ocabulario# gramGtica# pronunciaciHn# aspectos socioculturales)# procedimentales (las habilidades comunicati"as) y actitudinales. 4os temas de las unidades didGcticas tendrGn en cuenta los intereses y necesidades del alumnado# una "e( anali(ados en el diagnHstico inicial. 8. !cti"idades generales como diagnHstico inicial# repaso# e"aluaciHn final... 6. 7b:eti"os generales del Grea teniendo en cuenta el +royecto %urricular del %iclo. A. ,epertorio de recursos didGcticos cuya utili(aciHn se pre"K a lo largo del curso. +re"iamente se habrG estudiado la operati"idad del material existente en el centro. 5. Temporali(aciHn9 fechas de comien(o y fin de las unidades didGcticas# teniendo en cuenta los dJas hGbiles y las festi"idades. B. %onsideraciones generales sobre el alumnado y metodologJa mGs adecuada. =ormalmente# en la prGctica docente# las programaciones largas se limitan al punto 5# es decir# a la temporali(aciHn de las unidades didGcticas# dando por entendido que los otros elementos estGn incluidos en el +royecto %urricular de %iclo. PROGRAMACIN DE LAS UNIDADES DIDXCTICAS *e pueden hacer otras programaciones intermedias# por e:emplo# trimestrales# aunque lo normal es pasar de la anual a las unidades didGcticas (lesson plan$ con una duraciHn aproximada de una quincena. !ntes de planificar la n$"a" "$"])%$)a hay tener en cuenta algunas consideraciones9 -. 4a mGs importante es el 1$52& "! %!=%& y el 0sylla!us2 (organi(aciHn de los contenidos) que propone. 4os libros de texto son atiles# ya que ofrecen materiales "i"os e interesantes# progresiHn sensata de los contenidos lingIJsticos. 4os buenos libros aportan resamenes# especialmente los gramaticales# que permiten re"isar fGcilmente) son sistemGticos en cuanto a la cantidad de "ocabulario y permiten al alumno aprender por sJ mismo. *in embargo# el profesor no debe ser un escla"o del libro# sino que debe omitir# recombinar o complementarlo. +ara ello debe conocer todo el libro muy bien. +or otra parte hay que tener presente que los libros pueden producir efectos contrarios (aburrimiento del alumnado) cuando se utili(an abusi"amente. =ormalmente los libros suelen concentrarse en acti"idades para presentar el nue"o lengua:e y en la prGctica controlada del mismo. &n cada unidad nos encontramos con el mismo esquema y formato# por lo que no se adaptan a las caracterJsticas de cada clase# que son anicas. !lgunos libros incluso no estGn equilibrados en cuanto a las habilidades que desarrollan o a las acti"idades# que suelen carecer de "ariedad. -. &n otro orden# los -2&#!'&2!' "!5!n )&n&)!2 ' &#$)$&9 el idioma que quieren ense`ar# las estrategias didGcticas especJficas para el ni"el# las ayudas de las que puede disponer# 5-. el amplio repertorio de acti"idades para lle"ar a cabo# que deben estar interrelacionadas de modo que unas refuercen a otras. &s importante conocer las fases de una unidad (presentaciHn# prGctica y producciHn)# asJ como las tKcnicas adecuadas en cada fase. @ebe dominar las habilidades para dirigir la clase9 agrupamientos# disciplina... /. +ara que la programaciHn sea realista# es importante que el profesorado cono(ca la $n'%$%)$<n o el )!n%2& en que traba:a9 horarios# condiciones fJsicas de la clase y del centro# material disponible# el proyecto curricular de etapa y ciclo# restricciones... 8. +or supuesto debe conocer a sus a1+n&'9 edad# sexo# clase social# ocupaciHn de los padres# asJ como los factores sociales# polJticos y religiosos que puedan influir en las relaciones personales. &s necesario que cono(ca sus antecedentes acadKmicos (moti"aciHn# intereses# conocimientos pre"ios...) y especialmente sus necesidades lingIJsticas. 6. &l profesor debe reali(ar una preparaciHn cuidadosa de la unidad didGctica. +or e:emplo# debe tener en cuenta si el material es autHnomo respecto a aspectos pre"ios o posteriores o si debe corregir los deberes de casa. &s fundamental tener -2!-a2a"& %&"& an%!' de comen(ar las clases# haciendo especial hincapiK en los materiales9 libros de texto# fotocopias# reproductor de cintas# etc.# asJ como en los e:ercicios y acti"idades# que deben ser "ariados y moti"adores# especialmente para los die( altimos minutos9 :uegos# crucigramas# adi"inan(as... &s aconse:able que el profesor ensaye en casa y anticipe los posibles problemas de conceptos# formas o pronunciaciHn que puedan surgir. TambiKn hay que tener en cuenta que hay muchos factores que influyen en la planificaciHn y# por lo tanto# imponen 2!'%2$))$&n!' al profesor al elegir unas determinadas tKcnicas o materiales. ,estricciones prGcticas9 duraciHn de la unidad didGctica# namero de clases a la semana# momento del dJa (por la ma`ana# por la tarde# a primera hora# a altima hora...)# el namero de alumnos# el mobiliario# disponibilidad de materiales. 4a personalidad del profesor# entrenamiento pre"io# actitud... &l alumnado9 las diferentes necesidades de cada uno de ellos# su ni"el de inglKs (a "eces hay enormes diferencias en cuanto al dominio de las destre(as# por lo se recomienda el aprendi(a:e autHnomo con materiales adecuados)# sus intereses# su edad# antecedentes educati"os (_estGn acostumbrados a traba:ar en grupo;)# actitudes# personalidad. <oti"aciHn y mantenimiento del interKs. !umentarG en la medida que el alumnado conoce los ob:eti"os y su importancia para aprender inglKs. &s fundamentar organi(ar acti"idades significati"as# rele"antes y "ariadas. 4a programaciHn de la unidad didGctica debe contener los siguientes !1!+!n%&'9 -. @atos del "$agn<'%$)& $n$)$a1 o de los resultados de la e"aluaciHn en las anteriores unidades didGcticas. 'dentificaciHn de los intereses y conocimientos pre"ios del alumnado. @escripciHn de la clase (ni"el o curso# condiciones fJsicas de la clase# tiempo disponible...). /. @eterminaciHn del %!+a y los consiguientes contenidos. ,elaciHn con los temas trans"ersales. 8. FormulaciHn de los &5E!%$,&' didGcticos o de aprendi(a:e. 5/D 6. *elecciHn y organi(aciHn de los )&n%!n$"&'# distinguiendo conceptos# procedimientos y actitudes y relacionGndolos con los ob:eti"os. %onexiHn con otras Greas de conocimiento. A. *ecuenciaciHn y organi(aciHn de las a)%$,$"a"!' del alumnado9 de introducciHnEmoti"aciHn# sobre los conocimientos pre"ios# de desarrollo# de re"isiHnEampliaciHn y de e"aluaciHn. ValoraciHn de la autonomJa. 5. T!+-&2a1$;a)$<n en sesiones. B. M!%&"&1&gYa9 enfoque y teorJas de aprendi(a:e# estrategias de ense`an(a y aprendi(a:e# agrupamientos# espacios. +apel del profesor. ?. R!)2'&' y apoyos .. Tipo de !,a1a)$<n (inicial# formati"a o sumati"a# autoe"aluaciHn y heteroe"aluaciHn)# instrumentos y tKcnicas. %riterios de e"aluaciHn. -D. 7rientaciHn y tutorJa. --. <edidas de atenciHn a la di"ersidad. 7ptati"idad. @i"ersificaciHn curricular. 7rgani(aciHn de los recursos personales y materiales dirigidos a los alumnos con necesidades educati"as especiales. +rogramas especJficos. -/. R!)-!2a)$<n. P2&a))$<n. -8. ValoraciHn de la e:ecuciHn de la unidad didGctica. PROGRAMACIN DE LAS SESIONES O CLASES &n cada sesiHn o )1a'!# hay que concretar estos elementos. &l namero de sesiones "ariarG en ra(Hn de las horas semanales asignadas (dos horas para el ciclo segundo y tres para el tercero) y la duraciHn de las mismas# que normalmente son de una hora# de tres cuartos de hora o de media hora. *on posibles sesiones de menos de /D minutos. &s con"eniente escribir la planificaciHn en una tar:eta o bien lle"ar un diario de clase# indicando el tiempo dedicado a cada fase. +or detrGs se incluirGn notas y comentarios que puedan ser"ir para futuras clases. &n )un Boatb de la colecciHn materiales curriculares para la &ducaciHn +rimaria# hay "arios e:emplos de programaciHn de unidades didGcticas especificando la temporali(aciHn de las sesiones. 3emos extraJdo la correspondiente a &7 :0" H,A%0. 1d '!'$<n. &l profesor o la profesora presenta la unidad# haciendo un traba:o de Nran Nrupo donde se comente la historia del cHmic ;HI% I% &7 :0" H,A%0 (%heet -). %omo siempre la lectura se harG al final de la unidad. *e reparten re"istas a los diferentes grupos y se les pide que busquen habitaciones de casas y que las peguen en cartulinas. %ada grupo ense`a sus cartulinas y el profesor o la profesora presenta las partes de la casa9 0;his is the !athroom2) en los grupos mGs ale:ados usa9 0;hat is the kitchen2. 4uego este mismo e:ercicio se hace por los miembros de cada grupo. %on el mural de la casa 5 se repasa y afian(a de una forma directa el "ocabulario (sHlo habitaciones). (d '!'$<n. *e comien(a con la canciHn -D de la unidad mientras la clase se acomoda. %on el mural 5# se repasan las partes de la casa y se muestra la grafJa correspondiente. *e reparte la %heet / donde se deben recortar las habitaciones de la casa y pegarlas en donde corresponde. Tna "e( corregida# hacemos la %heet 8# que es un crossword con las 5/- habitaciones de la casa. %uando se cono(can las partes de la casa# se presentarGn la mitad de las palabras del "ocabulario# haciendo hincapiK en las de uso mGs coman. *d '!'$<n. *e comien(a con la canciHn -D y un repaso oral de lo aprendido. *e hacen dibu:os de las partes de la casa con sus grafJas y conforme "ayan aprendiendo muebles se "an colocando los carteles en la clase. *e pasa a hacer la %heet 6. &n ella se deben colocar los nombres correctos en cada casillero. &l profesor o la profesora se`ala un dibu:o y pregunta9 0"hat is this;2# para contestar seguidamente9 0;his is...2. ,epite el e:ercicio en grupa e indi"idualmente hasta cerciorarse de que ha sido comprendido. *e hace la %heet A# los alumnos y alumnas deben completar las palabras contestando a las preguntas. Tna "e( terminada la ficha se pregunta indi"idualmente de forma oral. 4d '!'$<n. *e comien(a la clase con la canciHn -D. *e repasa el "ocabulario dado con preguntas de 0"hat\s this?2 para que la clase responda 0;his is...2. *e presenta de modo directo y usando el mural 5 el resto de los muebles y cosas de la casa. %uando se aprendan# se presenta la grafJa. *e pasa la %heet 5# que tiene dos partes9 la primera los ni`os y ni`as deben poner el nombre de cada habitaciHn en el dibu:o) la segunda# deben mirar el dibu:o y completar las cosas que hay en Kl. *e reparte el material de explotaciHn de la canciHn y se comien(a a traba:ar por partes# intentando a"eriguar quK palabras faltan. Id '!'$<n. *e comien(a traba:ando con la canciHn -D. =o importa que muchas estructuras no se comprendan# lo importante es que identifiquen palabras. *e hace la %heet B# siguiendo las lJneas y escribiendo el nombre de cada cosa. +asamos a hacer la %heet ?# donde se debe seguir a la pista por toda la casa para a"eriguar dHnde se encuentra el chocolate. *e canta la canciHn -D. Ld '!'$<n. *e comien(a cantando la canciHn -D. *e repasa preguntando9 0"here is the ;C?2# para que los alumnos y las alumnas contesten9 0It\s in the sitting4room2 o 0In the sitting4 room2. +asa a hacer la %heet .# donde tienen que elegir entre He, %he o It. *e repasa aquellos aspectos de la programaciHn que hayan quedado 0flo:os2. Gd '!'$<n. *e comien(a con la canciHn -D. *e repasa todo el "ocabulario. *e pasan la %heets -Da y -Db para hacer un pair work. Tn alumno o alumna de cada pare:a sHlo pueden "er la casa ! o la . @espuKs# el alumno o alumna ! dice9 0;his room is num!er =2) y enumera %&"&' los muebles de la habitaciHn. &l debe colocar en su ficha y en el lugar correcto el nombre de la habitaciHn. &l proceso se continaa hasta que la alumna o el alumno tiene los cuatro nombres puestos# y se repite al re"Ks. @espuKs la pare:a comprueba si todo estG correcto. Hd '!'$<n. 3emos llegado casi al final de la unidad# es la hora de reali(ar y explotar la lectura del cHmic ;HI% I% &7 :0" H,A%0. *e comien(a presentando el :uego ;he House -ame (+uedes fotocopiar la %heet -- en transparencia de acetato para el retroproyector). +or pare:as se coge una copia de ;he House -ame (%heet --). *e comien(a en %;'/; H0/0 y sale la persona que saque la mayor puntuaciHn en el dado. *iguiendo las flechas debe decir correctamente el nombre de los muebles que aparecen en cada casilla) si acierta# "uel"e a tirar) si falla le toca a la otra. &l decir alguna puntuaciHn del dado en espa`ol equi"ale a perder el turno. %uando se dK la "uelta completa a su secciHn y llegue de nue"o a %;'/; H0/0# debe decir al menos 6 muebles de la habitaciHn que eli:a el compa`ero o la 5// compa`era. *i acierta la habitaciHn# pasa a su propiedad. &l :uego lo gana quien consiga las cuatro habitaciones. *e puede arrebatar una habitaciHn diciendo mGs muebles que los que el compa`ero o compa`era di:o (So:ob es con"eniente apuntar el namero de muebles que cada uno dice). *i caes en un %;,.# pierdes el turno. *i caes en un -,,6 A#<!# a"an(as dos puestos. Md '!'$<n. &n esta sesiHn se reali(arGn las autoe"aluaciones &4 &*+&F'T7 y >7 7+'=7. *e presenta la F'%3! @& V7%!T4!,'7# para repasar y colorear. &ste modelo de programaciHn propuesto por la %onse:erJa de &ducaciHn y %iencia de la Funta de !ndalucJa tiene el incon"eniente de que los ob:eti"os# contenidos y criterios de e"aluaciHn sHlo se hacen explJcitos una "e( para toda la unidad didGctica. *in embargo# consideramos necesario tenerlos en cuenta# aunque sea mentalmente para no perderse. 3ammer ofrece un modelo de programaciHn por sesiones (no es necesario refle:ar por escrito)# que incluye una descripciHn de la clase (alumnado# condiciones fJsicas...) y el traba:o reali(ado recientemente9 el tema# el contenido# destre(as desarrolladas...!demGs se explicitan9 7F&T'V7*9 especificaremos los ob:eti"os de la clase# las capacidades que intentamos desarrollar9 identificar# usar# entender# expresar... (to read to confirm e+pectations$. %7=T&='@7*9 es la parte de la programaciHn que mGs tiempo le dedicaremos9 conceptos (funciones# estructuras# situaciones# "ocabulario# pronunciaciHn y cultura)# procedimientos (destre(as) y actitudes. &n la medida de lo posible todos ellos deben aprenderse integradamente# pero en las distintas clases se puede dar prioridad a uno de ellos9 lectura# con"ersaciHn# aspectos culturales# pronunciaciHn... @&*!,,7447 @& 4! %4!*& - +,&%!4&=T!<'&=T7 L moti"aciHn (D$!,<1T+)9 el ob:eti"o es contextuali(ar la escena cultural situacional# lingIJstica y semGnticamente. D,e"isiHn de los contenidos de las lecciones anteriores. - +,&*&=T!%'W= de los contenidos y de las acti"idades siguiendo el libro o no. @eterminaremos el contexto o situaciHn (en casa# en la tienda...). 'ndicaremos la posible utili(aciHn de apoyos didGcticos y con cursos superiores utili(aremos la explicaciHn gramatical# si fuera necesario. %ada sesiHn suele desarrollar mGs intensamente alguna destre(a comunicati"a o contenido9 "ocabulario# funciHn# reading# listening# pronunciaciHn... - +,j%T'%! mediante e:ercicios y acti"idades en grupo# por pare:as e indi"idualmente. &n los primeros ni"eles estarG muy controlada# de:ando libertad progresi"amente. 3ay que determinar cHmo# cuGndo y dHnde hacer las correcciones de los errores. 3ay que pre"er los posibles problemas que puedan surgir y las acti"idades alternati"as. - D+,7@T%%'W= (acti"idades 0follow4up2) en clase y en casa# si fuera necesario. 5/8 *. CRITERIOS PARA LA SECUENCIACIN Y TEMPORALISACIN DE CONTENIDOS Y O9JETIVOS 4os contenidos y los ob:eti"os estGn tan interrelacionados que es imposible definir o explicitar uno sin mencionar el otro. 4a diferencia estriba en que el ob:eti"o enfati(a la capacidad que hay que desarrollar (captar informaciHn# comprender)# mientras que el contenido especifica el ob:eto sobre el que se e:erce la capacidad (un cuento)9 O5E!%$,&* captar informaciVn general y especLfica en un cuento. C&n%!n$"& -2!)!"$+!n%a19 comprensiVn de un cuento. %asi todos los ob:eti"os "ienen expresados mediante un "erbo y un complemento directo. &l "erbo se refiere a la destre(a o habilidad intelectual (reconocer# comprender# aplicar# anali(ar# sinteti(ar# "alorar). &s el aspecto formal. &l complemento directo es el contenido propiamente. &stos dos ob:eti"os del Grea de 4engua 'nglesa tratan de desarrollar la misma habilidad# pero difieren en cuanto a los contenidos# destacando en el primer caso el significado o el mensa:e de un texto# mientras en el segundo los elementos comunicati"os que se utili(an para transmitir la informaciHn (funciones# "ocabulario# gramGtica# pronunciaciHn...). =.4 #omprender informaciones generales y especLficas en te+tos orales y escritos sencillos... _.4 #omprender G y usar$ los elementos lingYLsticos y no lingYLsticos... @e ahJ que se incluyan en el mismo epJgrafe ambos elementos de la programaciHn. =o obstante# para un me:or estudio los trataremos aisladamente. '9" 9EI-,V9" &n el @ecreto de &ducaciHn +rimaria# lo importante es lograr los ob:eti"os# con"irtiKndose los contenidos en instrumentos para alcan(arlos. +ero _cHmo se entienden estos ob:eti"os; 3ay dos clases de ob:eti"os9 los propios de procesos formati"os finali(ados que se oponen a los de procesos abiertos# como los experienciales o expresi"os# en los que las metas no estGn claramente definidas. &n el primer grupo se incluyen los denostados ob:eti"os operati"os# pero tambiKn los ob:eti"os por capacidades tal como lo plantearon NagnK1riggs en -.B6# quienes distinguen la acciHn que hay que reali(ar# el ob:eto o producto final# las circunstancias o condiciones en que se considera alcan(ado el ob:eti"o# asJ como los instrumentos y limitaciones. *in embargo# lo mGs importante es determinar la capacidad o habilidad mental que se "a a desarrollar con la acciHn. &n este sentido se entienden los ob:eti"os del @ecreto de &nse`an(as# que se diferencian claramente de los ob:eti"os operati"os en el sentido clGsico y de los expresi"os. *e trata de desarrollar una capacidad# que consideraremos desarrollada si se alcan(an los criterios de e"aluaciHn establecidos pre"iamente. !sJ los ob:eti"os &-!2a%$,&' utili(an "erbos que indican acciones obser"ables ob:eti"amente como escribir# recitar# hacer# comparar9 mientras que los ob:eti"os !=-2!'$,&' usan "erbos de acciHn como Oreali(ar e:ercicios# traba:ar# in"estigar# descubrir# practicar. &stos altimos "erbos indican mGs la acti"idad que se "a a reali(ar que los 5/6 ob:eti"os que se "an a conseguir# pues los que realmente se consigan al final diferirGn de un alumno a otro. 4os "erbos de los ob:eti"os por )a-a)$"a"!' del @ecreto aluden# como hemos mencionados anteriormente# a las habilidades que hay que desarrollar (cogniti"as# actitudinales e incluso psicomotrices)9 comprender# producir# leer comprensi"amente# establecer relaciones# mostrar actitudes abiertas# transferir conocimientos y experiencias... &n este sentido# los ob:eti"os son considerados como intenciones que sustentan el dise`o y la reali(aciHn de las acti"idades necesarias para la consecuciHn de las grandes finalidades educati"as# promo"er el desarrollo integral del indi"iduo y facilitar la construcciHn de una sociedad mGs :usta y solidaria. *on metas que guJan los procesos de ense`an(a y aprendi(a:e ayudando al profesorado en la organi(aciHn de su labor. %onstituyen un marco para decidir las posibles direcciones a seguir. &n funciHn de los contextos y necesidades particulares de los indi"iduos# los equipos de profesores podrGn establecer criterios de ordenaciHn de los ob:eti"os a desarrollar en cada etapa educati"a. TambiKn es importante anali(ar las relaciones entre distintas capacidades# mati(ar algunos ob:eti"os# priori(ar unos respecto a otros e incluso incorporar algunos nue"os teniendo en cuenta la realidad a la que se "an a adaptar. +or su carGcter referencial y orientador# los ob:eti"os tienen "arios ni"eles de concreciHn en el centro# yendo desde las Finalidades &ducati"as# los mGs generales# hasta la programaciHn en unidades didGcticas# la mGs cercana al alumnado. 4os ob:eti"os generales de etapa del @ecreto de +rimaria se concretan en los de Grea en los diferentes ciclos# en un intento de adecuarse a cada realidad escolar# con las condiciones propias de cada contexto y de cada persona. %ada ob:eti"o general de la etapa estG muy directamente relacionado con los ob:eti"os generales de un Grea. &n el caso del Grea de 4engua 'nglesa# 7F&T'V7 N&=&,!4 @& 4! &T!+! ,&4!%'7=!@7 %7= 4! 4&=NT! '=N4&*! i$ #omprender y e+presar mensajes orales y escritos sencillos y conte+tuali3ados en una lengua e+tranjera. 7F&T'V7* N&=&,!4&* @&4 j,&! @& 4&=NT! '=N4&*! ,&4!%'7=!@7* @',&%T!<&=T& %7= &4 7F&T'V7 N&=&,!4 @& 4! &T!+!. =.4 #omprender informaciones generales y especLficas en te+tos orales y escritos sencillos producidos en situaciones de comunicaciVn conocidas y ha!ituales, con una intenciVn de comunicaciVn concreta. Q.4 .roducir te+tos orales y escritos en lengua e+tranjera que sean !reves y sencillos, en situaciones de comunicaciVn reales o simuladas y que conecten con el mundo e+periencial de los alumnos. 7tros ob:eti"os generales de la etapa tambiKn tienen relaciHn con esta Grea o# de otra forma# el Grea de 4engua &xtran:era puede contribuir a conseguir los otros ob:eti"os generales. *ir"a como e:emplo el siguiente ob:eti"o general de etapa9 j$ #omunicarse a travFs de medios de e+presiVn ver!al, corporal, visual, plUstica, musical y matemUtica, desarrollando la sensi!ilidad estFtica, la creatividad y la capacidad para disfrutar de las o!ras y manifestaciones artLsticas. 5/A &ste ob:eti"o estG relacionado con el siguiente ob:eti"o general del Grea# al menos en lo que respecta a la comunicaciHn no lingIJstica. _.4 #omprender y usar los elementos lingYLsticos y no lingYLsticos que intervienen en situaciones ha!ituales de interacciVn social y comunicaciVn para conseguir que Fsta sea mUs fUcil y fluida. 4os ob:eti"os generales de Grea se distribuyen en los dos ciclos# teniendo en cuenta que los resultados concretos y los pla(os de tiempo que necesita cada alumno para conseguirlos son diferentes. +or este moti"o# los ob:eti"os de ciclo no deben con"ertirse en barreras que seleccione al alumnado. +or otra parte# hay que tener en cuenta que el grado de desarrollo de un ob:eti"o en un determinado ciclo estG determinado por la comple:idad o dificultad del contenido al que se aplique mGs que a la capacidad en sJ. +uesto que los nue"os ob:eti"os pretenden desarrollar las habilidades humanas# serG necesario conocerlas bien. 4as taxonomJas de ob:eti"os como las de loom# Nuildford# NagnK# *ulli"an# <erril y @e lock# entre otros# pretenden se`alar todas las habilidades y graduarlas desde las mGs simples (saber un dato que hay que recordar# reconocer o repetir) hasta las mGs comple:as (la sJntesis creati"a o "alorati"a de una producciHn literaria). &l fin de las taxonomJas es conseguir una educaciHn integral de forma que se incida en todas las habilidades# graduando la dificultad segan el proceso madurati"o del educando. ! continuaciHn relacionamos las habilidades intelectuales (indicadas en negrita) propuestas en las taxonomJas citadas# especialmente la de loom# :unto con los "erbos usados habitualmente# asJ como los contenidos con los que traba:an. 5/5 !. %7=%&+T7* -. RECONOCIMIENTO (reconocer, conocer, definir tFrminos, dar el significado, identificar, dominar el voca!ulario$. -.-. @atos9 terminologJa y hechos -./. <etodologJa9 con"encionalismos# tendencias diacrHnicas# clasificaciones# criterios# mKtodos. -.8. %onceptos uni"ersales. . +,7%&@'<'&=T7* -. COMPRENSIN: -.-. T2a"))$<n & %2a'1a)$<n (decir con pala!ras propias, dar ejemplos, e+plicar, representar$ -./. In%!2-2!%a)$<n (resumir, e+plicar, dar ejemplos, ela!orar una interpretaciVn cientLfica, comprender mensajes$ -.8. E=%2a-&1a)$<n Gdeducir, comparar, concluir$ /. APLICACIN: /.-. S!1!))$<n de principios# mKtodos# criterios (aplicar reglas de conversiVn, aplicar estrategias$ /./. U%$1$;a)$<n de con"encionalismos y normas ( aplicar reglas correctamente, utili3ar conceptos !Usicos o informaciVn, hacer un uso refle+ivo, incorporar$ /.8. P2&"))$<n de textos especJficos Gescri!ir, redactar, e+presar$ 8. ANXLISIS: 8.-. S!1!))$<n 8 )1a'$#$)a)$<n de elementos aislados (clasificar, distinguir clases, anali3ar, diferenciar$ 8./. An]1$'$' Ganali3ar, relacionar sus partes, refle+ionar, procesar$ 6. SWNTESIS: 6.-. D$'!^& de un proyecto (diseWar, planificar) 6./. P2&"))$<n de textos creati"os (escri!ir, producir, construir, modificar, e+presar, transmitir, comentar) 6.8. F&2+1a)$<n de mKtodos# principios y teorJa (formular) A. VALORACIN ob:eti"a y sub:eti"a (valorar, comparar, apreciar, ju3gar, descu!rir la importancia) %. !%T'TT@&* -. ACEPTACIN Y APRECIACIN Gapreciar, valorar, aceptar la necesidad, tomar conciencia, desarrollar actitudes crLticas) /. PARTICIPACIN: $n%!2P', g'%& 8 "$'#2%! (disfrutar, generar el gusto, profundi3ar). &n esta taxonomJa se puede apreciar aan mGs la interrelaciHn de ob:eti"os y contenidos. +or ello# algunos (3alliwell# -..8) distinguen entre ob:eti"os de conceptos# ob:eti"os de procedimiento y ob:eti"os de actitud. +ara esta autora# en +rimaria debe haber un equilibrio entre los de conceptos y de actitud# que se tienen que estudiar con mGs profundidad. '9" &9<-<,(9" 5/B *on ob:etos de ense`an(a atiles y necesarios para desarrollar los ob:eti"os de cada Grea. *on instrumentos que permiten anali(ar la realidad de una manera ob:eti"a# rigurosa y contrastada para posteriormente interactuar con ella llegando a predecir fenHmenos naturales o sociales e inter"enir# si es preciso. &n toda tarea didGctica hay un contenido# aquello sobre lo que se traba:a# y un aspecto formal# el traba:o u operaciHn que se reali(a sobre ese contenido para desarrollar una capacidad y lograr el ob:eti"o propuesto. ! la hora de programar# se con"ierten en el centro alrededor de los cuales giran las acti"idades y los ob:eti"os. &studios reali(ados en &stados Tnidos por +eterson# <arx y %lark (citados por \abal(a) sostienen que los profesores dedican mGs tiempo a los contenidos que a la programaciHn de las acti"idades o a la formulaciHn de los ob:eti"os. 4a #n)$<n que tengan los contenidos da lugar a distintos +&"!1&' "! e!')!1ae. 3ay que optar entre dos extremos9 los contenidos como representaciHn de la 2!a1$"a" &5E!%$,a tal como la "en los cientJficos deben ser conocidos por el alumno para insertarse con Kxito en la sociedad) o por el contrario# el alumnado debe estudiar aquellos contenidos que tengan en cuenta sus !=$g!n)$a'# su forma de aprender# sus condicionantes psicopedagHgicos# sus intereses# sus necesidades. +or otra parte# los contenidos pueden con"ertirse en un #$n !n 'Y +$'+&' o# por el contrario# deben ser un $n'%2+!n%& para alcan(ar unos ob:eti"os# para desarrollar unas capacidades y para conocer la realidad. &ntre ambos extremos hay posturas intermedias mGs moderadas. &l @ecreto de +rimaria y la 47N*& en general han optado por un modelo en que los contenidos son un instrumento# sin que esto quiera decir que no tengan ningan "alor. @e hecho se prescriben unos determinados bloques temGticos. &n cuanto a la otra decisiHn# interesan los contenidos que sean significati"os y que tengan en cuenta las necesidades e intereses del alumnado. &'0"" ( &9<-<,(9" ,especto a las )1a'!' de contenidos# los desarrollos legales de la 47N*& han reducido las "arias clases de contenidos a tres tipos9 conceptos (incluyen datos# definiciones# hechos# principios)# procedimientos y actitudes. -) 4os )&n)!-%&' son los contenidos mGs elementales que los alumnos deben saber. @esignan a un con:unto de ob:etos# sucesos# situaciones o sJmbolos que tienen ciertas caracterJsticas comunes# asJ como los principios o reglas que relacionan sus cambios. +ara explicitarlos se pueden utili(ar "erbos como9 conocer, definir tFrminos, dar el significado, identificar, dominar el voca!ulario... &stas palabras estGn relacionadas con los ob:eti"os y las operaciones formales mGs elementales de las taxonomJas. =ormalmente se suelen omitir los "erbos (conocer) o sustanti"os "erbales (conocimiento) de:ando sHlo el ob:eto directo# por e:emplo9 O0l conocimiento del voca!ulario y las estructuras !Usicas de la lengua e+tranjera9. *on contenidos conceptuales9 a) 4as situaciones de comunicaciHn en lengua inglesa. b) Funciones habituales de comunicaciHn (entablar relaciones# dar y pedir informaciHn...) c) Vocabulario relati"o al tema de la unidad didGctica9 la casa# los alimentos# el cuerpo... d) &structuras gramaticales e) ,utinas (expresiones idiomGticas) y fHrmulas bGsicas (mostrar acuerdo). 5/? f) ,eglas que rigen la comprensiHn y la producciHn de un discurso coherente. /) 4os -2&)!"$+$!n%&' son aquellos contenidos que nuestros alumnos 'a52]n 7a)!2. *on un con:unto de acciones ordenadas y finali(adas dirigidas a la consecuciHn de un ob:eti"o. %ada disciplina y Grea de conocimientos incluye un cuerpo propio de procedimientos. *on muy rentables# porque ahorran tiempo y e"itan almacenamiento excesi"o de datos. +or otra parte# pueden dar significati"idad a los conceptos. *e aprenden por repeticiHn# imitaciHn (las tKcnicas son fGciles de adquirir y memori(ables) o por descubrimiento (las estrategias son mGs comple:as# permitiendo resol"er di"ersos problemas). @eben ser funcionales y transferibles a otras situaciones. *on procedimientos la comprensiHn global de historias sencillas# la producciHn de mensa:es# el uso de estrategias no lingIJsticas# reali(aciHn de murales# la participaciHn en intercambios "erbales# la resoluciHn de pasatiempos# la locali(aciHn en un plano# las simulaciones...4os "erbos mGs frecuentes son9 manejar, manipular, utili3ar, construir, aplicar, o!servar, e+perimentar, ela!orar, simular, demostrar, confeccionar, ordenar, coleccionar, formular...) aunque es mGs frecuente el uso de los sustanti"os "erbales correspondientes9 manipulaciVn, utili3aciVn, construcciVn... 8) 4as a)%$%"!' pro"ocan que el alumno sepa -a2a @P 7a)!2 las cosas. =o ol"idemos que la actitud estG constituida por tres componentes9 el cogniti"o (lo que el su:eto sabe sobre el ob:eto de la actitud)# el emoti"o (sentimientos agradables o desagradables que despierta el ob:eto) y el reacti"o o conductual (inclinaciHn a actuar de una manera determinada). +or lo tanto# no podemos limitarnos a informar sobre el respeto a las diferencias culturales) sino que hay que pre"er acti"idades# basadas en la dinGmica de grupos# que incidan sobre los componentes emoti"os y conductuales. 4os "erbos son del siguiente tipo9 respetar, tolerar, aceptar, sentir, valorar, apreciar, interesarse, cola!orar, participar, cooperar, inclinarse por... !lternati"amente# al igual que los procedimientos# se utili(an los sustanti"os "erbales correspondientes9 actitud, respeto, aceptaciVn, valoraciVn, aprecio, interFs... &:emplos9 reconocimiento de la importancia de ser capa( de comunicarse en inglKs# atenciHn y respeto a los mensa:es en inglKs# reconocimiento del error como normal en el proceso de aprendi(a:e... 4os tres tipos de contenidos estGn relacionados con las "$+!n'$&n!' "!1 'E!%& sobre las que se puede inter"enir. +or poner un e:emplo# NagnK establece cinco dimensiones9 los contenidos conceptuales estGn relacionados con la dimensiHn de la informaciHn) los procedimentales con las dimensiones de las habilidades intelectuales# las estrategias cogniti"as y las habilidades psicomotrices) los actitudinales# con la dimensiHn de las actitudes. 4as !'%2a%!g$a' )&gn$%$,a' son la forma en que los su:etos utili(an las habilidades que poseen y se refieren a las tKcnicas de traba:o y a los modos de pensamiento (inducti"o# deducti"o# cientJfico# fantGstico...). 4as 7a5$1$"a"!' -'$)&+&%2$)!' tienen especial incidencia en las destre(as o conductas en su aspecto motor del alumnado de primer ciclo. &n cuanto a las 7a5$1$"a"!' $n%!1!)%a1!', estGn muy relacionadas con los ob:eti"os o capacidades# a las que hicimos referencia al hablar de los ob:eti"os. 4a enorme cantidad de ellos dificulta su '!1!))$<n# por lo que se hace necesario reali(ar un esfuer(o importante de sJntesis y contar con criterios racionales y ob:eti"os para elegir los mGs rele"antes y con mayor incidencia en la "ida diaria# teniendo en cuenta que un contenido interesante para el alumnado no garanti(a su rele"ancia desde el punto de "ista educati"o (@el %armen# -..B). 5/. LA SELECCIN 4a '!1!))$<n de los contenidos que realice el profesor debe tener en cuenta el @ecreto de &ducaciHn +rimaria asJ como la literatura especiali(ada del Grea e incluso de las programaciones que han sido implementadas en el centro. +osteriormente se identificarGn sus contenidos axiales o nudos. &n esta fase puede ser necesaria la ayuda del experto en el Grea que dK una "isiHn amplia y clarificadora de la misma. &n cada ciclo el profesorado tendrG que seleccionar# adaptar# priori(ar aquellos que permitan alcan(ar los ob:eti"os mGs fGcilmente e incluso incluir aquellos contenidos que consideren necesarios teniendo en cuenta el contexto de su centro y las Finalidades &ducati"as. *erG importante delimitar quK contenidos se incluyen en cada uno de los ciclos con el fin de e"itar lagunas importantes o por el contrario repeticiones innecesarias. &n cualquier caso# es necesario contar con unos )2$%!2$&' que nos ayuden a '!1!))$&na2 los contenidos9 ] R!-2!'!n%a%$,$"a": los contenidos deben ser seleccionados por procedimientos de muestreo# que refle:en bien el con:unto o poblaciHn de donde han sido extraJdos. ] EE!+-1a2$"a": aquellos considerados fundamentales# bGsicos o elementales y las ideas estratKgicas con gran alcance lHgico dentro de una disciplina. &s lo que denominados ideas1e:e o conceptos bGsicos que adquieren gran rele"ancia por su sentido instrumental o por su sentido lHgico. ] S$gn$#$)a)$<n desde el punto de "ista de la !-$'%!+&1&gYa# es decir# los contenidos deben respetar la estructura de cada disciplina. *on los conceptos cla"e o OnudosO estructurales que actaan de conexiHn de la estructura temGtica. ] T2an'#!2$5$1$"a": son aplicables a otras situaciones distintas a aquella en la que se aprendieron. ] D2a5$1$"a". ] C&n'!n'&9 contenidos sobre cuya importancia y "alide( hay acuerdo en la comunidad escolar. ] A"!)a)$<n al desarrollo cogniti"o y a otras caracterJsticas de los alumnos como la afecti"idad o el estilo cogniti"o. SECUENCIACIN ,especto a la '!)!n)$a)$<n "! 1&' )&n%!n$"&', estG claro que no hay una anica secuenciaciHn con "alide( general# sino que "ariarG atendiendo a las distintas realidades. +or otra parte# hay que tener en cuenta dos criterios que hemos mencionado anteriormente9 la lHgica de cada disciplina y las caracterJsticas psicosociolHgicas del alumnado. &l primer criterio serG preferente al elaborar el +royecto %urricular# aunque no debe ser absoluto# ya que si sometemos la secuenciaciHn de los contenidos de muchos manuales a un mJnimo anGlisis# podremos comprobar que en algunos casos el orden establecido tradicionalmente no tiene una fundamentaciHn suficientemente :ustificada. &l criterio psicolHgico serG prioritario al elaborar la programaciHn de la unidad didGctica. &s importante porque permite una mGs fGcil asimilaciHn por parte del alumno. 4as teorJas de +iaget plantearon la necesidad de secuenciar de acuerdo con el ni"el de desarrollo operatorio de los educandos. *egan el aprendi(a:e significati"o de !usubel los contenidos deben ordenarse teniendo en cuenta simultGneamente su significati"idad lHgica (la presentaciHn de los contenidos debe facilitar la comprensiHn de sus relaciones y 58D rele"ancia) y psicolHgica (relacionar los nue"os contenidos con los que el educando tiene pre"iamente). 4as 7rientaciones para la *ecuenciaciHn de los %ontenidos en lenguas extran:eras de la %olecciHn de <ateriales %urriculares para la &ducaciHn +rimaria# plantea los siguientes -2!'-!'%&' pedagHgicos y lingIJsticos en los que se fundamentarGn los criterios de selecciHn y secuenciaciHn de contenidos9 6esde una perspectiva constructivista, se destaca la nociVn de aprendi7a4e significativo, creando situaciones de comunicaciVn que impliquen cone+iones con los conocimientos previos de los alumnos y con el entorno en el que se desenvuelven. 0n el campo concreto de la enseWan3a de lenguas e+tranjeras, el concepto de aprendi3aje significativo se traduce en las sugerencias so!re actividades previas a la introducciVn de nuevos contenidos, que funcionen como puente entre los conocimientos previos y los nuevos, en las alusiones a la necesidad de transferir estrategias de comunicaciFn entre lengua materna y lengua e+tranjera, y finalmente en la necesidad de conectar las actividades con el entorno prFximo de los alumnos o con sus centros de interFs. 0n esta etapa, los procesos de adJuisiciFn tendrUn gran importancia y, por lo tanto, la interacciFn con otras personas resultarU indispensa!le. a cooperaciFn, como requisito necesario para aprender hace que el profesor1a y los compaWeros1as sean imprescindi!les como mediadores entre las informaciones puestas en juego y los o!jetos, personas o acciones cuyos significados los alumnos1 as han de perci!ir. 6esde la perspectiva lingKGstica, para esta selecciVn y secuenciaciVn de contenidos se han e+traLdo criterios !asados en el enfoJue funcional y en las investigaciones reali3adas so!re adJuisiciFn de segundas lenguas. Ana consecuencia de este planteamiento es el respeto y aceptaciVn de los errores que cometen los alumnos1as y su consideraciVn como elementos necesarios e inevita!les en los procesos de adquisiciVn4aprendi3aje de una lengua e+tranjera. ;odas las investigaciones en adquisiciVn de segundas lenguas inciden en la importancia de los factores afectivos en el proceso de enseWan3a4aprendi3aje de la lengua e+tranjera. 0sto supone que factores tan diversos como la motivaciVn, la ansiedad o la autoestima han de tenerse en cuenta y ser tratados en consecuencia. 0sta propuesta se !asa en la necesidad de combinar procesos de aprendi3aje organi3ados y procesos donde se fomente el uso de la lengua e+tranjera de manera natural y significativa, aprovechando la naturalidad y realismo de las situaciones que se creen dentro del aula. os factores psico!cognoscitivos y socioafectivos que caracteri3an a los alumnos de este ciclo. 0n general, los alumnos en la etapa de .rimaria se caracteri3an por un gran desarrollo de la memoria a corto pla7o y de la capacidad de perci!ir. 0sto hace necesario volver de forma sistemUtica y cLclica a contenidos tratados previamente con el fin de incorporarlos a la memoria a largo pla3o. os alumnos1as en esta etapa no son aZn capaces de a!straer, sin em!argo han de propiciarse procesos que faciliten la refle+iVn posterior en la etapa siguiente. 0l hecho de que el alumno en esta etapa tenga deseos de integrarse socialmente en un grupo y de imitar modelos adultos tendrU repercusiVn en la selecciVn de temas y actividades. 0l aprendi3aje se considera como una ha!ilidad cognoscitiva compleja caracteri3ada por la automati3aciVn de las ha!ilidades y su incorporaciVn en la memoria a largo pla3o. l enfoJue didLctico mLs asociado con la teorGa cognoscitiva en esta etapa es el basado en la actividad, segZn el 58- cual, el aprendi3aje de la lengua es un proceso activo, producto de su utili3aciVn para dotar de significado a los o!jetos, personas, acciones, etc. 0n una planificaciVn !asada en las actividades, Fstas constituyen el eje central y generan el lenguaje necesario para su reali3aciVn. 0l punto de partida para la propuesta de contenidos serU la determinaciFn de temas o centros de interMs para los alumnos, que conecten glo!almente con los campos de tra!ajo en otras Ureas. 4os criterios utili(ados para la organi(aciHn y secuenciaciHn de contenidos se pueden concretar en los siguientes puntos9 =.4 Partir siempre de lo Jue el alumno$a ya conoce en el Um!ito conceptual, procedimental y actitudinal con el fin de que pueda comprender las informaciones nuevas y enla3ar los nuevos contenidos con los conocimientos adquiridos previamente. 0s importante en esta 0tapa tra!ajar conceptos nuevos, aunque los contenidos prioritarios serUn los procedimientos. Q.4 os procedimientos son el nZcleo alrededor del cual se articulan todos los demUs contenidos. R.4 os contenidos propuestos e+igen la presencia de ob4etos, personas o acciones con el fin de facilitar que el alumno esta!le3ca relaciones entre significantes y significados para apropiarse asL de los valores sim!Vlicos transmitidos por la lengua e+tranjera. ^.4 a exposiciFn del alumno a datos es previa a cualquier adquisiciVn de nuevos conocimientos. .or ello, los procesos receptivos tendrUn gran importancia, aunque tam!iFn serU necesaria la producciVn con el fin de poder compro!ar la valide3 de los aprendi3ajes reali3ados. _.4 os elementos contextuales puestos en juego en las situaciones de aprendi3aje serUn claves para la interpretaciVn y e+presiVn de mensajes y significados. 0n esta 0tapa tendrUn prioridad los de tipo no lingYLstico, tales como mLmica, imUgenes, gestos, etc. B.4 0l lenguaje que se utili3a dentro del aula proporciona permanentemente informaciones cargadas de contenidos. ?.4 #ualquiera de los contenidos presentados de!e ser tratado de forma sistemUtica en conte+tos diferentes con el fin de garanti3ar que los nuevos conocimientos se incorporen en la memoria a largo pla3o. *i tenemos en cuenta la distinciHn de los tres tipos de contenidos# la secuenciaciHn "ariarG ligeramente9 ]L&' )&n)!-%os9 se presentarGn primero los mGs representati"os progresando hacia un mayor detalle. 4os principios deben ser inicialmente muy simples y explicati"os# haciKndose mGs comple:os progresi"amente. 4os )&n)!-%&'# en el Gmbito lKxico# funcional y fonolHgico# "endrGn determinados# pues# -&2 1&' %!+a' 8 1&' %$-&' "! a)%$,$"a"!'. 4as '$%a)$&n!' de comunicaciHn fa"orecerGn usos del lengua:e organi(ados en torno a funciones y sus correspondientes exponentes lingIJsticos. 4os contenidos 1P=$)&' se agruparGn en tres grandes secciones9 fHrmulas y expresiones rutinarias# centros de interKs y lengua:e de aula. 4os conceptos #&n&1<g$)&' atenderGn a los aspectos de entonaciHn# ritmo# acentuaciHn y sonidos. ]L&' -2&)!"$+$!n%&' son en este modelo el nacleo organi(ati"o predominante. &starGn estrechamente "inculados a las acti"idades y los tipos de textos. @eben empe(ar por los mGs simples segan el namero de pasos a seguir# namero de decisiones que hay 58/ que tomar# grado de no"edad... 3ay que iniciarse con las tKcnicas ya conocidas y con las estrategias1e:e de carGcter general. ]La' a)%$%"!' no presentan grandes problemas en cuanto a su secuenciaciHn. *in embargo# partimos de aquellas actitudes# "alores y normas mGs generales y elementales para ir progresando hacia las que ofrecen particularidades o se conectan con procesos afecti"os y de sociali(aciHn mGs especJficos. &"olucionar desde la aceptaciHn y cumplimiento de normas hasta la comprensiHn de su necesidad y la participaciHn en su elaboraciHn. !ctualmente# nos encontramos con tres formas de secuenciar los contenidos (sylla!us)9 &l g2a+a%$)a19 esta secuenciaciHn se preocupa de )<+& se !=-2!'an los hablantes. 4a lengua es un sistema que hay que aprender gradualmente desde los elementos lingIJsticos mGs fGciles a los mGs difJciles# excluyendo otros elementos de la lengua. &l '$%a)$&na1 se preocupa de )]n"& y "<n"! el estudiante 'a2] el inglKs. +or lo tanto se ordenan los elementos lingIJsticos independientemente del lugar que ocupan en la gramGtica# atendiendo a la probabilidad de que se necesiten usar en unas determinadas situaciones sociales. &n realidad# no existe ninguna secuenciaciHn situacional# sino gramatical# que usa las situaciones sociales para presentar y practicar las formas lingIJsticas. &l n&)$&na1 intenta a"eriguar @P significados (funciones) necesita )&+n$)a2 el alumnado. &ntiende la lengua como un sistema semGntico. &n realidad los tres traba:an con #&2+a', '$gn$#$)a"&' 8 '&'. 4a diferencia es el orden y la prioridad9 el gramatical se mue"e desde la forma hacia el significado y el uso# el situacional se mo"erJa desde el uso hasta el significado y la forma# el nocional desde el significado hacia la forma y el uso. 4o ideal serJa combinar lo me:or de los tres# pero aan estG por hacer. !ctualmente en +rimaria# las unidades didGcticas se organi(an alrededor de tHpicos o situaciones cercanas a los intereses y necesidades de los alumnos# pero los contenidos gramaticales se gradaan segan su dificultad# relacionGndolos con las funciones. &n cuanto a la &2gan$;a)$<n de los contenidos# los equipos de profesores tendrGn en cuenta dos aspectos importantes9 la necesidad de mantener una continuidad coherente en el proceso de aprendi(a:e a lo largo de los ciclos y cursos y# por otra parte# la atenciHn a los planteamientos globali(ados. 3ay que considerar las posibilidades globali(adoras de los contenidos trans"ersales9 &ducaciHn para la +a( y la %on"i"encia# &ducaciHn <oral y %J"ica# &ducaciHn para la *alud# &ducaciHn del %onsumidor y Tsuario# &ducaciHn <edioambiental# &ducaciHn Vial y &ducaciHn para la igualdad de sexos. ,especto a la temporali(aciHn# ya se ha hablado en el apartado anterior al hablar de las distintas unidades de programaciHn. 4. SELECCIN DE LA METODOLOGWA A EMPLEAR EN LAS ACTIVIDADES DE APRENDISAJE Y DE EVALUACIN. 4as a)%$,$"a"!' son las unidades estructurales bGsicas de programaciHn y acciHn dentro de la clase. !sJ lo reconoce el @ecreto de +rimaria al hablar de las 7rientaciones <etodolHgicas9 588 as actividades o tareas a reali3ar constituyen el centro de la planificaciFn didLctica, integrUndose en ellas los o!jetivos, contenidos y evaluaciVn. as actividades y tareas se generarLn a partir de temas o centros de interMs pertenecientes al mundo e+periencial de los alumnos y alumnas y se adaptarUn a los intereses y edades de los mismos. %e trata de usar la lengua para hacer cosas con ella y, por lo tanto serUn las actividades y situaciones de comunicaciVn diseWadas las que generen la lengua a usar y no al contrario. 3ay un enfoque basado en las tareas# que surgiH en 'ndia con el proyecto angalore# que se basa en el supuesto de que se aprende me:or el idioma extran:ero cuando el alumno se centra en el significado o en la tarea# lo que conlle"a su deseo de comunicarse. 4as formas no se aprenden# sino que se adquieren a partir del input lingIJstico. &l sylla!us, llamado procedimental# consiste en unas secuencias de tareas. &n toda acti"idad didGctica (segan >inger# citado por \abal(a) podemos distinguir los siguientes )&+-&n!n%!'9 a) 4ocali(aciHn o lugar fJsico donde se reali(arGn. b) &structura o fases secuenciales de la acti"idad. c) @uraciHn. d) +articipantes9 namero y agrupamientos e) %ondiciones o conductas aceptables de los su:etos f) !cciones instructi"as o pasos dados por el profesor para lle"ar a cabo la acti"idad. g) %ontenidos y materiales. a) 4as acti"idades se reali(arGn normalmente en el a1a. &xcepcionalmente# se podrGn reali(ar en el laboratorio de idiomas# en el aula de informGtica# en el salHn de medios audio"isuales o en el patio. %e considera que el aula es el conte+to general, comZn y autFntico en el que se esta!lecen las relaciones de comunicaciVn en lengua e+tranjera. &n el aula se deben simular situaciones reales con la ayuda de materiales audio"isuales# pHsters# realia... 4as diferentes acti"idades elegidas (:uegos "ariados# representaciones# cuentos# canciones# etc.) determinarGn los )&n%!=%&'# que contribuyen a dar significado a los datos lingIJsticos. a construcciVn de los nuevos significados en lengua e+tranjera requiere que los alumnos tengan e+periencias lingYLsticas y no lingYLsticas en las que estFn presentes simultLneamente las acciones, personas u ob4etos, junto con las unidades lingYLsticas y los significados. a ela!oraciVn de significados sim!Vlicos, es decir, que no dependa su comprensiVn del conte+to en el que aparecen, se producirU posteriormente a partir de la ampliaciVn y diversificaciVn de los conte+tos. b) 4as acti"idades 0de!en tener una estructura de funcionamiento accesi!le a los alumnos y alumnas, o con la que ya estFn familiari3ados9. c) 4a "2a)$<n de las acti"idades serG "ariable y dependerG de muchos factores# siendo el mGs destacable el tipo de acti"idad. =o se debe mantener demasiado tiempo en una acti"idad# incluso cuando parece que los alumnos estGn a gusto para pre"enir el cansancio y el aburrimiento. Tampoco es con"eniente estar "ariando continuamente. ,elacionado con la duraciHn de las acti"idades estG la de las clases9 podemos optar en el segundo ciclo de +rimaria entre dos clases de una hora# cuatro de media hora o cualquier otro periodo de tiempo. Todas las opciones tienen sus "enta:as e incon"enientes. 586 d) ! la hora de reali(ar una acti"idad hay que determinar el namero de -a2%$)$-an%!' y la forma de agrupamiento. 4os !'-a)$&' donde tengan lugar se organi(arGn de forma flexible para facilitar di"ersos ag2-a+$!n%&' y 0para que el tra!ajo cooperativo sea prUctica ha!itual en el aula9. 80l aprendi7a4e cooperativo y el lengua4e interactivo entre los compaWeros favorecerUn la ampliaciVn de situaciones de comunicaciVn y de relaciones sociales dentro del aula9. e) &l profesor determinarG las )&n")%a' -!2+$'$51!' o apropiadas para reali(ar las acti"idades (libertad de mo"imientos# ni"el de "o(...) f) ,especto al -2&#!'&2Ea# debe planificar las acciones instructi"as o pasos para lle"ar a cabo la acti"idad. Tna acti"idad muy frecuente es la prGctica de los nue"os contenidos repitiendo un diGlogo en coro. @e esta forma los errores no son apreciables y el alumno tiene la oportunidad de practicar la pronunciaciHn# el "ocabulario o la estructura gramatical sin miedo a equi"ocarse o a hacer el ridJculo# al mismo tiempo que se "a autocorrigiendo y ganando confian(a en sJ mismo. <Gs tarde# traba:arG en grupo o por pare:as para la prGctica oral y asumiendo diferentes papeles en el role play. Finalmente traba:arG indi"idualmente en acti"idades escritas. &l papel del profesor es esencial en el aspecto afecti"o y para dar9 autenticidad a las situaciones de comunicaciVn, usando la lengua e+tranjera como vehLculo de comunicaciVn en las interacciones que ocurran en el aula2. %u lengua4e de!e resultar comprensi!le a los alumnosO para ello harU uso de recursos variados que faciliten el procesamiento de informaciVn y plantearU la reali3aciVn de tareas con suficiente apoyo conte+tual para facilitar que sean los propios alumnos quienes las interpreten y resuelvan de forma autVnoma. 0n el proceso didUctico e interactivo con los alumnos, el profesor1a incorporarU de forma intencionada ciertas estrategias comunicativas semejantes a las que se utili3an en los procesos naturales de adquisiciVn de lenguas y que los alumnos y alumnas ya han e+perimentado en su lengua materna parafrasear, usar elementos redundantes, repetir de forma natural, etc. %in em!argo, no de!e ser o!jetivo primordial el que los alumnos y alumnas asimilen todos los datos que se les ofrecen. g) &n cuanto a los )&n%!n$"&'# debemos distinguir por una parte a los datos comunicati"os que integran el mensa:e y las unidades lingIJsticas ("ocabulario# funciones# estructuras gramaticales# pronunciaciHn...) y por otra parte a las destre(as comunicati"as. &l @ecreto de +rimaria se decanta por las teorJas de Krashen y del enfoque natural en cuanto a la recepciHn de datos. 0n esta etapa educativa el o!jetivo fundamental serU potenciar los mecanismos de adJuisiciFn, como proceso inconsciente y espontUneo que lleva a la construcciVn interna de conocimientos, junto con los mecanismos de aprendi7a4e, que tiene una finalidad educativa adicional y que requiere un esfuer3o consciente. %erU necesario poner en contacto al alumnado con datos comunicativos que les resulten significativos y comprensibles, con las siguientes caracterLsticas* a los intereses del alumno, aplica!les a un amplio nZmero de situaciones, con un nivel de complejidad sVlo un poco mUs avan3ado del conocimiento que poseen los alumnos, y con apoyo conte+tual suficiente para facilitar su comprensiVn. 0n el aula se de!en de proporcionar datos comunicativos variados, con el fin de estimular el proceso de aprendi3aje natural en los alumnos y alumnasO datos tales 58A como* el lenguaje del profesor u otras personas, el lenguaje de los compaWeros, gra!aciones conte+tuali3adas tipo audio o vLdeo, informaciVn escrita, etc. as destre7as de comprensiVn y e+presiVn, tanto oral como escrita, se tra!ajarUn de forma integrada desde el principioO sin em!argo, la comprensiVn de informaciones no de!e implicar la producciVn inmediata de las mismas, ya que es necesario propiciar perLodos que permitan la interiori3aciVn de la nueva lengua. 'sL pues, se de!e respetar lo que se conoce como perGodos silenciosos, sin for3ar la producciVn oral o escrita mUs allU de lo que la competencia comunicativa de los alumnos permite. as destre7as receptivas y orales son muy importantes en los primeros momentos, en que la competencia lingYLstica y comunicativa de los alumnos es !aja, y se pueden acompaWar de tareas que demanden respuestas no ver!ales, tales como di!ujar, construir, asociar, seWalar, secuenciar, responder fLsicamente, etc. 0l e+ceso de producciVn ver!al puede suponer una limitaciVn del tiempo dedicado a que los alumnos y alumnos reci!an informaciones y datos enriquecedores para desarrollar su competencia comunicativa. :o o!stante, en esta etapa tam!iFn es necesario utili3ar la lengua e+tranjera de forma productiva, como condiciVn indispensa!le para su adquisiciVn y aprendi3aje. a producciFn es posi!le gracias al conte+to cooperativo de las actividades que se desarrollen Gentre compaWeros, entre profesor y alumnos, etc.$ , y permite contrastar la valide3 de los mensajes ela!orados dentro del conte+to de la actividad. 0specialmente en esta etapa, es importante desarrollar estrategias de comunicaciFn que compensen los niveles de competencia de los alumnos y alumnas en lengua e+tranjera, que serUn aZn !ajos. 'lgunas de estas estrategias pueden aparecer de forma natural* decir sVlo lo que es necesario o relevante, ser !reve y claro, utili3ar gestos o mLmica, etc. %in em!argo, hay otras estrategias que formarUn parte de la actuaciVn didUctica* hacer predicciones, inferir significados, anticipar contenidos, etc. 4os contenidos del Grea de 4engua 'nglesa se pueden relacionar con los de otras Greas y con los temas trans"ersales con una -!2'-!)%$,a g1&5a1$;a"&2a. 6esde la perspectiva del conocimiento glo!al que el alumno tiene en esta etapa, es importante la iniciaciVn de tareas o proyectos de tra!ajo centrados fundamentalmente en el aula y el entorno prV+imo. 0sto posi!ilitarU la relaciFn entre la lengua extran4era y otras Lreas de conocimiento e implicando a los alumnos y alumnas en tareas de bNsJueda y participaciFn personal, en parejas, pequeWo grupo o de toda la clase. 0l carUcter globali7ador que tiene el proceso de enseWan3a aprendi3aje en esta etapa implica que necesariamente el profesor1a especialista en lengua e+tranjera organice el tra!ajo junto con los profesores tutores con el fin de garanti3ar un enfoque glo!ali3ado. 4a integraciHn de la ense`an(a del inglKs con otras Greas estG empe(ando a tener sus adeptos# pero sigue siendo una experiencia muy minoritaria. *in embargo# es muy positi"a porque el alumnado percibe el inglKs como algo natural# que adquiere# mGs que aprende) por lo que es un aprendi(a:e mGs significati"o y duradero. 585 4a integraciHn se puede reali(ar casi con todas las Greas y de muy "ariadas formas. 4a mGs conocida en &spa`a es la integraciHn total con el Grea de %iencias de la =aturale(a# que se imparte totalmente en inglKs. &sto implica un buen dominio del inglKs oral por parte del profesor. *in embargo# hay otras alternati"as menos ambiciosas9 podemos repasar operaciones matemGticas en inglKs# utili(ar tablas de doble entrada para resumir los datos de una in"estigaciHn (How many students come to school !y !us, !y car or on foot?) o tomar las medidas (my foot is =@ centimeters, I\m =B[ centimeters tall$) se puede hacer un experimento de %iencias de la =aturale(a# diciendo en inglKs los pasos que se "an dando (here\s a jar, I\m going to open it, I can\t open it...$) se puede responder con acciones en clase de educaciHn fJsica (throw the !all, stop, pass me the !all, jump, turn around...). *egan $heeler# citado por \abal(a# hay que establecer unos )2$%!2$&' para que el profesor pueda decidir a la hora de '!1!))$&na2 1a' a)%$,$"a"!'9 Va1$"!;9 la acti"idad debe posibilitar me:orar el aprendi(a:e# el cambio de conducta# la me:ora del alumnado# en definiti"a# la consecuciHn del ob:eti"o propuesto. C&+-2!n'$,$"a"9 se trata de seleccionar acti"idades que consigan desarrollar el mGximo de habilidades de todo tipo9 intelectuales# sociales# motoras# actitudinales... Va2$!"a" para satisfacer los distintos estilos cogniti"os del alumnado y para lograr la comprensi"idad mencionada anteriormente. C&n,!n$!n)$a a la edad y ni"el madurati"o del alumnado. E'%2)%2a# es decir# que las acti"idades tengan un carGcter organi(ado. R!1!,an)$a para la "ida9 las acti"idades debe ser significati"as y atiles. Pa2%$)$-a)$<n acti"a del alumno en la planificaciHn de las acti"idades. 7tros criterios pueden ser que las acti"idades sean interesantes y moti"adoras# asJ como que el alumnado use el mGximo de lengua:e# en una situaciHn que le suponga un reto dentro de las posibilidades del ni"el. !l final de la acti"idad debe quedar la sensaciHn de tener algan producto o de haber finali(ado. %ada clase debe ser anica# impredecible. =o se debe seguir siempre el mismo esquema o pro"ocarG aburrimiento. &l profesor debe pre"er reali(ar en clase acti"idades que no se puedan reali(ar fuera de la clase9 comunicaciHn oral. !simismo# debe conocer de antemano quK acti"idades son estimulantes y cuGles son tranquili(antes. *on estimulantes los concursos# el traba:o por pare:as y el traba:o oral en general# porque 0despiertan2 al alumnado# pero en grado extremo pueden excitar# lo cual es negati"o. @el mismo modo# las acti"idades tranquili(antes como las auditi"as# el copiar o el colorear son buenas en sJ# pero pueden llegar a producir aburrimiento. TambiKn podemos di"idirlas en acti"idades que implican al alumnado mental o fJsicamente. &n el primer apartado# se pueden incluir los :uegos# los pu((les o los concursos. &l alumnado tiene que recordar# reflexionar# deducir# inducir... 'mplican acti"idad fJsica los T+,# dibu:ar# escribir# leer en "o( alta... 4as acti"idades se pueden clasificar segan otro criterio9 el %$-& "! )a-a)$"a" que desarrollan9 orales o escritas# recepti"as o producti"as. =ormalmente se suelen y se deben integrar "arias destre(as# pero tomando como central una de ellas. E'))7a2 8 7a)!2. *e trata de refor(ar la comprensiHn auditi"a mediante una respuesta acti"a que sir"e para mantener atentos y moti"ados a los alumnos# al 58B mismo tiempo que se consigue memori(aciHn a mGs largo pla(o9 T+,# sym!ol dictation, escribe lo que oigas# escucha y busca# escucha y ordena# escucha y adi"ina el orden# representar el cuento narrado por el profesor. A"$,$na. *ir"en para practicar el hacer preguntas9 quK tengo en mi tar:eta# cuGntas cartas puedes acertar# :ugar a los barcos. L!,]n%a%! 8 a,!2$ga. 'mplican una interacciHn acti"a y real entre alumnos que se tienen que despla(ar para reali(ar la acti"idad9 cuadro de entre"istas# pon a prueba a tus compa`eros# descubre quiKn tiene la misma tar:eta# busca informaciHn en el mural. OR!)!2"a'Q *e utili(a la memoria par pro"ocar comunicaciHn oral9 tar:etas que desaparecen# encontrar la carta pare:a# dictado silencioso recordando. P$!n'a -&2 %$ +$'+&. *e le da oportunidad al alumnado para que genere y organice sus ideas9 confecciona una lista por categorJas# imagina y busca las palabras correspondientes# escribe un minilibro# dise`a tu propia pegatina. 7tras clases de acti"idades son9 3acer grGficas en clase sobre la altura# el peso# la edad# el cumplea`os# el tiempo# la comida# etc. %anciones y rimas. 3istorias y cuentos. ,ompecabe(as y problemas9 matemGticos# econHmicos# se`alar diferencias# adi"inar el mGs largo# adi"inan(as# tests de memoria# crucigramas# etc. Fuegos9 se pueden adaptar a nuestros propHsitos :uegos que habitualmente :uegan como la silla. *on muy adecuados los :uegos de tablero y de cartas. 7tros :uegos9 bingo# dominH de imGgenes# :uegos de patio# etc. !ctuar diGlogos cortos con escenas o situaciones de la "ida diaria. 3acer cosas siguiendo instrucciones orales o escritas. @ar o seguir las instrucciones dadas a partir de un mapa para llegar a algan lugar. Tsar horarios y otras grGficas. !cti"idades artJsticas9 dibu:ar# pintar... Teniendo estas clasificaciones# es mGs fGcil planificar segan los condicionantes que sur:an. ! "eces el alumnado estG inquieto despuKs de una clase de educaciHn fJsica o del recreo. 7tras estGn aparentemente muy tranquilos# pero realmente inquietos despuKs de traba:ar con un profesor# normalmente el tutor# que los ha mantenido en sumo silencio casi todo el tiempo. =o es igual dar la clase al principio de la :ornada lecti"a que al final o por la tarde. =o se puede seguir el mismo esquema en todos los casos. ,especto a las gYa' 8 a8"a' que debe prestar el profesor# el alumnado debe saber exactamente quK y cHmo hacer la acti"idad. 4a cantidad de ayuda prestada tiene un componente tKcnico1ob:eti"o y otro actitudinal1afecti"o. &n procesos por descubrimiento es bueno que el alumno tenga poca ayuda para que 0se busque la "ida2. *e intenta promo"er la creati"idad y la tenacidad hasta encontrar la soluciHn. &l problema del profesor es saber hasta quK punto el alumno concreto es capa( de soportar la presiHn y la no1ayuda. &n caso de decaimiento o frustraciHn# es necesario ayudar. *iempre serG "Glido el principio de dar la mJnima ayuda# aunque nunca menos de la necesaria. +or otra parte el profesor dispone de tres tipos de !'%2a%!g$a' -a2a a8"a2 al alumnado9 58? +or "!')52$+$!n%& (discovery) procediendo inducti"amente a partir de e:emplos o de un problema# a partir del cual se genera una hipHtesis de traba:o que se intenta comprobar mediante unas acti"idades in"estigati"as. +or &2gan$;a)$<n '-!2$&2 (advanced4organi3ed)# se reali(a deducti"amente anali(ando un modelo o regla. +or )&n)!-%&' #n"a+!n%a1!' B!asic concept) me(clando lo inducti"o y lo inducti"o. ,especto a la e"aluaciHn# a parte del @ecreto de +rimaria# disponemos de las normas que lo desarrollan: r 7rden de - de febrero de -..8# sobre &"aluaciHn en &ducaciHn +rimaria en la %omunidad !utHnoma de !ndalucJa. r 7rden de -? de no"iembre de -..5# por la que se complementan y modifican las Wrdenes de la %onse:erJa de &ducaciHn y %iencia sobre &"aluaciHn en las &nse`an(as de ,Kgimen Neneral establecidas por la 4ey 7rgGnica -E-..D# de 8 de octubre# de 7rdenaciHn Neneral del *istema &ducati"o en la %omunidad !utHnoma de !ndalucJa. &n la primera 7rden# se establece en su artJculo dos que la e"aluaciHn debe ser9 - %ontinua# es decir# de manera permanente acerca del proceso de ense`an(a y aprendi(a:e. - Nlobal por cuanto deberG referirse al con:unto de capacidades expresadas en los ob:eti"os generales de la etapa y a los criterios de e"aluaciHn de las diferentes Greas. - Formati"a - %ualitati"a - %ontextuali(ada (referida a su entorno y a un proceso concreto de ense`an(a y aprendi(a:e). &stablecer unos controles de comprobaciHn para que el alumno sepa si estG en el buen camino es imprescindible. &sto tiene un componente cogniti"o y otro afecti"o. +or una parte# el alumnado necesita conocer el resultado que se pretende lograr) por otra# si el alumno sabe que estG aprendiendo y haciendo realmente lo que se le pide# consigue aumentar la seguridad en sJ mismo. &l profesor puede reali(ar estos controles mediante preguntas al alumno e incluso con gestos o con la mirada. 7tra forma es la autoe"aluaciHn de una forma sencilla e intuiti"a# que permita al alumnado reflexionar sobre la adecuaciHn del proceso seguido para alcan(ar los ob:eti"os. 4os controles se enmarcan en la !,a1a)$<n #&2+a%$,a# que permite tomar conciencia del error# pudiendo el profesor proporcionar la ayuda necesaria para reali(ar bien la tarea. @e esa forma la retroalimentaciHn que recibe el profesor le permite rectificar a tiempo y reconducir el proceso. 4a e"aluaciHn formati"a no sHlo controla el proceso del aprendi(a:e# sino tambiKn los resultados esperados. TambiKn estG relacionado con la a%&!,a1a)$<n# que permite al alumnado tomar parte acti"a en el proceso de aprendi(a:e# reflexionando y rectificando# si es necesario. 4a reconducciHn "ariarG segan las dimensiones afectadas. *i los aspectos deficitarios son las capacidades (anGlisis# sJntesis# aplicaciHn# "aloraciHn...)# no es necesario "ol"er atrGs en el proceso# sino prestar mGs atenciHn a tales habilidades en las siguientes unidades# ya que estas habilidades se "ol"erGn a e:ercitar con otros contenidos diferentes. <Gs 58. problemGtico resulta solucionar la carencia de algunos contenidos. =ormalmente hay que "ol"er atrGs y "ol"er a traba:arlos# ya que las lagunas# especialmente en contenidos bGsicos# que actaan como prerrequisitos# pueden dificultar el proceso de aprendi(a:e. L. RELACIN DEL TEMA CON LOS DISE\OS CURRICULARES DE LA JUNTA DE ANDALUCWA &l tema estG totalmente relacionado con el @ecreto de &ducaciHn +rimaria y con las guJas de la colecciHn de <ateriales %urriculares para esta etapa. 4a programaciHn es la concreciHn del !nexo del @ecreto para el Grea de 4engua 'nglesa a un determinado momento y a un determinado grupo de alumnos9 ob:eti"os# contenidos# metodologJa de las acti"idades...!l haberse mencionado y citado expresamente en muchas ocasiones# no consideramos necesario "ol"er a incidir en ello. G. PROPUESTA DIDXCTICA +ueden plantearse "arias propuestas didGcticas9 programaciHn larga o de una unidad didGctica. +ara la primera# podemos encontrar muchos e:emplos en los libros de texto para esta etapa. +ara la unidad didGctica# creemos que el me:or e:emplo es uno de los modelos presentados por la %onse:erJa de &ducaciHn y %iencia en la %olecciHn de <ateriales %urriculares para la &ducaciHn +rimaria# concretamente el planificado para el tercer curso. UNIDAD DIDXCTICA DE INGLRS 'ARA TERCER CURSO DE EDUCACIAN 'RIMARIA %olecciHn de <ateriales %urriculares para la &ducaciHn +rimaria CARACTERWSTICAS DEL CENTRO &s importante se`alar que la unidad que se presenta ha sido desarrollada en un %olegio +ublico del centro de la ciudad# en el que se ha lle"ado a la prGctica la experimentaciHn de la reforma. &sta experiencia ha contado con la colaboraciHn de las profesoras tutoras. @esde el inicio se mantu"ieron con ellas reuniones para determinar cuGles eran las ideas1e:e que iban a dar sentido al primer curso del segundo ciclo de primaria. =uestro ob:eti"o era aproximamos al mGximo# a tra"Ks del Grea de lengua extran:era# a las finalidades educati"as refle:adas en su proyecto curricular de centro. 4os alumnosEas que asisten a este centro pertenecen a una clase media y sus familias estGn preocupadas por el hecho de que la educaciHn de sus hi:os sea lo mGs completa posible. +or todo ello# fue muy bien recibida la idea de iniciar la ense`an(a de la lengua extran:era a la edad de ocho a`os. &ste centro dispone de los medios con los que habitualmente cuentan todos los colegios9 cassette# "Jdeo# fotocopiadora# etc. @urante el desarrollo de esta unidad se ha utili(ado material fotocopiado# 0wallpictures2# un cuento# la pi(arra# cassette# materiales que sir"en de apoyo a las tareas propuestas. 4as clases se han reali(ado en las mismas aulas en las que los alumnosEas se encuentran en el resto de la :ornada escolar. &n cada una de estas aulas se ha destinado un 56D espacio para ir creando un ambiente relacionado con la lengua extran:era y en el que los alumnos puedan contemplar sus propios traba:os. &l tiempo dedicado a su desarrollo ha sido de perJodos de treinta minutos diarios. *e considera que estos perJodos de tiempo han sido adecuados y# en cualquier caso# no se recomienda que sean superiores a cuarenta y cinco minutos. &n cada una de las sesiones ha habido tiempo suficiente para terminar acti"idades con sentido en sJ mismas sin pro"ocar falta de moti"aciHn o cansancio traba:ando en lengua extran:era. O9JETIVOS n %aptar informaciHn general y especJfica en un cuento. n %omprender instrucciones para reali(ar una casa y diferenciar sus partes. n 4eer de forma comprensi"a palabras e instrucciones cortas sobre la casa y elementos que en ella puedes encontrar. n &stablecer relaciones entre los significados# la pronunciaciHn y representaciHn grGfica de las palabras relacionadas con las partes de la casa y los mueblas que puedes encontrar en ella. n <ostrar actitudes abiertas de comprensiHn hacia las diferencias culturales que se manifiestan en la concepciHn de las "i"iendas. n Transferir a la lengua extran:era los conocimientos que los alumnosEas tengan sobre la organi(aciHn de su propio hogar. CONOCIMIENTOS PREVIOS &n el tercer ni"el de la etapa de &ducaciHn +rimaria# los alumnosEas tienen por primera "e( contacto institucional con la lengua extran:era. +or ello# los conocimientos pre"ios en los que se basan las primeras unidades del curso se relacionan fundamentalmente con las experiencias y aprendi(a:es ya reali(ados en lengua materna. &sta unidad# que se traba:H en el aula despuKs de que los alumnosE as hubiesen estado durante A meses en contacto con el inglKs# incluye por lo tanto contenidos pre"ios propios de la lengua extran:era asJ como de la lengua materna. 4os conocimientos pre"ios se explicitan en la unidad por dos ra(ones9 a) !clarar cHmo se organi(an los datos que ayudan a crear situaciones de aprendi(a:e significati"o. b) +resentar los elementos que se reciclan y han formado parte de aprendi(a:es anteriores. 4os conocimientos pre"ios en los que se basa esta Tnidad son los siguientes9 loque de %omunicaciHn 7ral y &scrita9 n +articipaciHn en situaciones de comunicaciHn relati"as a9 colours, animals, o!jects. n &:ecuciHn de instrucciones simples# deri"adas del uso del inglKs en el aula9 close1open the door1 window. isten. ook., etc. n 'nferencias de significados de sustanti"os a partir de la informaciHn no "erbal. n ,elaciones entre significados de palabras y su forma oral y escrita. n 'mitaciHn de modelos de entonaciHn y ritmo. n +articipaciHn en intercambios comunicati"os muy sencillos. n %ontestaciHn a preguntas de siEno. n Tso del inglKs como medio de comunicaciHn en el aula# sobre todo en la compresiHn de mensa:es emitidos por el profesorEa. 56- loque de !spectos *ocioculturales9 n 7bser"aciHn de diferencias entre nuestra forma de "ida y las de otros paJses. n ,econocimiento de fHrmulas bGsicas de cortesJa9 please. n 'dentificaciHn de persona:es de los cuentos en inglKs que tienen equi"alentes en lengua materna9 ;he ;hree Bears, -oldilocks, #inderella. n ,espeto e interKs por las personas que hablan otra lengua. CONTENIDOS 4os contenidos nue"os que se introducen en esta unidad didGctica se agrupan en torno a los mismos bloques mencionados anteriormente en el apartado de %onocimientos +re"ios. =o se especifican por separado los conceptos# procedimientos y actitudes ya que se producen interrelaciones entre los mismos en las situaciones de ense`an(a1aprendi(a:e. &l punto de partida para la propuesta de contenidos es el tema o centro de interKs# del cual se desprende una serie de situaciones de comunicaciHn que se concretan en las acti"idades que# a su "e(# generan el lengua:e a utili(ar. +or todo ello# los procedimientos constituyen el e:e alrededor del cual se organi(an los demGs contenidos. +uesto que se parte de un 0&nfoque asado en la !cti"idad2# es necesario hacer una lectura paralela del !nexo ' en el que se clasifican todas las acti"idades para comprender me:or la programaciHn de esta unidad. &sta Tnidad @idGctica incluye los siguientes contenidos9 1C C!n%2& "! $n%!2P'9 House and Home# que incluye lo siguiente9 1 &aking a house. 4 /ooms in a house. 4 )urniture. 4 .laying in a house. -.a. Funciones9 Following instructions9 1 6raw the door1the windows. 4 #ut out the !edroom1!athroom1ta!le... 4 %how me the armchair1wardro!e. 4 %tick them up. 4 .oint to the !athroom1kitchen... Tnderstanding a sequence of instructions9 4 )irst..., now..., then..., finally... FindingElocating people9 4 "here am I? 4 're you in the !athroom1 kitchen? 7es, I am1:o, I\m not 4 "here\s %pot? 4 Is he under the !ed? :o 4 Is he in the wardro!e? :o. 4ocating rooms9 4 It\s up1down on the left1right -.b. 4Kxico9 1 house, fridge, flat, ta!le, home, chair, door, sofa, window, rug, !athroom, armchair, !edroom, televisiVn, kitchen, !ed, living room, wardro!e, !ath 1.). A'-!)%&' #&n&1<g$)&' 1 ,esaltar el acento de palabra# sobre todo cuando se trata de palabras similares en la lengua extran:era y en la lengua materna9 sofG# tele"isiHn. <arcar el acento con palmadas. 56/ 1 &ntonaciHn de frases interrogati"as9 Is he in the wardro!e? Is he under the !ed? "here am I? /) loque de %omunicaciHn 7ral y escrita. 1 ,econocimiento en un contexto distinto de elementos de "ocabulario ya conocidos a tra"Ks del lengua:e del aula. 1 %aptaciHn del orden en que se da una secuencia de informaciones y mostrarlo a tra"Ks de respuestas no "erbales. 1 'mitaciHn de aspectos entonati"os y rJtmicos a partir de los modelos emitidos por el profesorEa otros medios. 1 'nterpretaciHn de mensa:es a partir de gestos y acciones9 "here am I? I\m not in the !athroom, etc. 1 %olocaciHn de dibu:os a partir de los mensa:es orales percibidos. 1 !sociaciHn de significados nue"os con sus formas orales y escritas9 rooms, furniture. 1 'dentificaciHn de elementos de un cuento manipulati"o# apoyGndose en las ilustraciones# tJtulo# formato# etc. 1 %omprensiHn de un cuento# participando en la construcciHn del mismo con respuestas de >esE =o. 1 !sociaciHn de dibu:os con las palabras inglesas correspondientes. 1 @esarrollo de actitudes y habilidades creati"as como formas de expresiHn. 1 +articipaciHn en :uegos y traba:os de grupo# aceptando las reglas y colaborando con los demGs. 8) loque de !spectos *ocioculturales. 1 ,econocimiento de palabras similares en nuestra lengua y cultura y las transmitidas por la lengua extran:era9 sofG# tele"isiHn. 1 7bser"aciHn de las diferencias existentes entre nuestras "i"iendas comunes y las mGs caracterJsticas del ,eino Tnido# "alorando lo que hay en coman y lo distinti"o. 1 'dentificaciHn de relaciones entre los tipos de "i"ienda y la forma de "ida9 clima# horarios# etc. 1 @iferenciaciHn de los significados de palabras que se relacionan9 house, flat, home. 1 'dentificaciHn del persona:e del cuento 1*pot1 en los conocidos por los alumnosEas# buscando su equi"alente. 1 ValoraciHn de rasgos lingIJsticos y de cortesJa propios de la lengua extran:era. MATERIAL DEL ALUMNOTA: 3OUSE AND 3OME = . 4 &'<0 ' H,A%0* )ollow the instructions Q. 4 6/'" ':6 #,,A/* )inish the house. R. 4 ,,< ':6 I%;0:* ook at the plan and listen to the teacher. ^. 4 I%;0: ':6 %I:-* %ing a song. _. 4 .'7 ' -'&0* Hide in a room and guess. B. 4 I%;0: ':6 6,* #ut out the rooms in the right order. ?. 4 I%;0: ':6 %0;* %et the rooms in the right order. @. S 6/'"* 6raw a plan of your house. >. 4 I%;0: ;, ;H0 %;,/7* %ay 7es or :o. =[. 4 .'7 ' -'&0* isten and take the picture. ==. 4 #A; ,A; ':6 %H,"* isten and follow the instructions. =Q. 4 .'7 6,&I:,0%* &atch the pictures and the words. 568 =R. 4 ,,< ':6 6,* .lace the furniture in the right room... =^. 4 ",/< I: -/,A.%* 6raw a room and make a house with your group. GUWA DIDXCTICA: 3OUSE AND 3OME $!,<1T+*9 &stas acti"idades tienen como finalidad centrar la atenciHn de los alumnosEas en la lengua extran:era al comien(o de cada sesiHn de traba:o# por lo tanto# su duraciHn no tiene que ser superior o dos o tres minutos. 4a selecciHn de una de estas acti"idades para cada sesiHn queda a criterio del profesorE a# considerando que debe relacionarse con algo que se haya traba:ado pre"iamente en el aula o con la sesiHn del momento. *e dan a continuaciHn sugerencias sobre los $arm1ups que se pueden reali(ar en esta unidad didGctica9 1 %antar la canciHn 8"here am I?9 1 3acer el :uego 0Hide and seek9. 1 %ontar el cuento 0"here\s %pot?9, escondiKndolo cada "e( en un sitio diferente. 4os alumnos muestran los carteles 7es1:o# segan crean. 1. MA.E A 3OUSE +edir a los alumnosEas que miren atentamente el dibu:o que corresponde a esta primera acti"idad y que piensen de quK se puede tratar. &l profesorEa pregunta9 "hat is it? "hy; 4os alumnosEas dan respuestas en lengua materna y el profesorEa parafrasea en inglKs las respuestas dadas9 1 7es, it\s a house. 4 ;his is the door. 4 ;hese are the windows. 4 ;his is the roof. &l profesor muestra sobre un plano cada una de las instrucciones que "a dando a los alumnosEas y hace una casa :unto con ellos. &s con"eniente ayudarse de ob:etos reales (scissors)# de mJmica y acciones (#ut the line, 6on\t cut the dotted line# etc.) y se`alar las partes necesarias del dibu:o para aclarar el significado de las instrucciones. 4as instrucciones son las siguientes9 1 ;ake the scissors. #ut the line... 6on\t cut the dotted line. Doin these two squares. :ow, join the other two parts in this way. 6o the same in the other side. %tick like this. "rite your name on the house. *i en esta sesiHn no se hacen mGs acti"idades# es con"eniente que todas las casas se queden guardadas :untas en algan armario o rincHn del aula. C1a''2&&+ 1angag! 4 ook at the picture. "hat is it? :o, it isn\t a !o+. 7es, it\s a house. ;his is a door1roof... ;hese are the windows. ook at me. In this way. ;ry again. /ight. Cery good. .ut the houses over there. (. DRA/ AND COLOUR %ada alumnoEa traba:a de nue"o con la casa que ha hecho para terminar de dibu:arla y colorearla. *i esta acti"idad se reali(a en la sesiHn siguiente# el profesor puede ir cogiendo las casas que estarGn colocadas todas :untas en algan lugar de la clase y preguntar a los alumnosEas9 "hose is this house? .a!lo1ola, this is yours. ;his is your house. ! continuaciHn# el profesorEa "a indicando las partes de la casa que deben dibu:ar9 4 6raw the door1the four windows. )ollow the dotted lines. !l mismo tiempo que da las instrucciones# el profesorEa debe ir se`alando la parte correspondiente en la casa que ha hecho y terminar de dibu:arla. Todo ello ayudarG a aclarar el significado de cada instrucciHn# aunque los alumnosEas pueden estar ya 566 familiari(ados con el "ocabulario bGsico por el uso pre"io del inglKs en el aula en expresiones tales como9 ,pen1close the door1the window. Finalmente# cada alumnoEa colorea su casa# despuKs de escuchar la instrucciHn9 #olour your house. %uando todosEas han terminado# contestan indi"idualmente a las preguntas que hace el profesorEa9 1 "hat colour is the door1roof? "hat colour are the windows? C1a''2&&+ 1angag! 4 #an you take your house, please. "hose is this? .a!lo1&arLa, this is your house. 6raw the door1the four windows. #olour the house. "hat colour is the door1roof? "hat colour are the windows? %how me your house, please. Cery nice. *. LOO. AND LISTEN &l profesorEa muestra una ampliaciHn del mismo plano que tienen los alumnosEas y que presenta un corte de una casa. *e`alando cada una de las habitaciones# "a diciendo los nombres9 ;his is the !edroom1 !athroom kitchen1 living room... ! continuaciHn el profesorEa "a se`alando las diferentes habitaciones# diciendo el nombre unas "eces correctamente y otras no. ! la pregunta9 Is it right? 4os alumnosEas contestan 7es1:o, segan sea adecuado. +or e:emplo# el profesor se`ala el dormitorio y dice9 ;his is the !athroom. Is it right? 4os alumnosEas responden9 =o. Finalmente# los alumnosEas se`alan sobre su plano las habitaciones que "a indicando el profesorEa# atendiendo al orden en que se nombran. C1a''2&&+ 1angag! 1 ook at the plan. ;his is the !edroom1!athroom1kitchen1living room... ;his is the !athroom1!edroom... Is it right? .oint to the !edroom1!athroom... 4. LISTEN AND SING &sta canciHn incluye frases que "an a ser de utilidad para el :uego de la acti"idad siguiente. +rimero el profesorEa pone la grabaciHn o canta la canciHn una "e(# al mismo tiempo que representa con gestos y acciones los significados fundamentales# que se relacionan a continuaciHn9 "here am I? 4 gesto indicando la pregunta# se`alGndose a sJ mismoEa. I\m not in the kitchen 4 acciHn negati"a que se indica con mo"imiento de la cabe(a o del dedo. 'gual para el resto de las frases negati"as. *i es necesario# se puede utili(ar la fotocopia ampliada del plano para indicar la habitaciHn que corresponde a cada pregunta. 4os alumnosEas escuchan de nue"o la canciHn y esta "e( imitan las acciones y gestos del profesorEa en el momento adecuado. Finalmente todos intentan cantar la canciHn acompa`Gndola de nue"o con acciones y gestos y repitiendo cada frase despuKs del profesorEa de la grabaciHn si es necesario. *e puede di"idir la clase en dos grandes grupos# de forma que un grupo cante la primera parte y el segundo grupo sHlo la parte que dice9 7es. 7es. 7ou\re in the living room. 7es. 7es. 7ou\re in the living4room. @espuKs se cambian los papeles entre los dos grupos. C1a''2&&+ 1angag! 4 isten to the song. ook at me. &ime the actions. et\s sing the song. /epeat after me. et\s sing in groups. :ew, change over. I. PLAY A GAME 56A *e trata de un :uego de adi"inaciHn con el que los alumnosEas ya estGn familiari(ados en lengua materna1 0el escondite2 GHide and %eek$. 3acer esta aclaraciHn a los alumnosEas les ayudarG a entender la mecGnica del :uego y a entender el significado de las expresiones bGsicas. &n primer lugar es el profesorEa quien se esconde imaginariamente en una de las habitaciones del plano (living room.$ y pregunta a los alumnos9 "here am I? 4os alumnosEas le hacen preguntas indi"idualmente o en grupo# para ello pueden practicar preguntas# que incluso pueden cantar pre"iamente siguiendo el orden de la canciHn que ya conocen9 're you in the kitchen1 the !athroom1 the !edroom? ! estas preguntas# "a contestando9 :,, I\m not y finalmente 7es, I am. ! continuaciHn sale un alumnoEa delante de la clase y decide en quK habitaciHn se "a a esconder sin decJrselo a los demGs. 4a clase le hace preguntas del mismo tipo9 're you in the !athroom1 kitchen...? hasta que lo adi"inan. *e puede repetir lo mismo con "ariosEas alumnosEas hasta que se compruebe que han captado la dinGmica del :uego y las expresiones a utili(ar. Finalmente# pueden hacer el mismo :uego en pare:as# cambiando los papeles en cada partida. C1a''2&&+ 1angag! 4 et\s play 8Hide and %eek9. .a!lo, come here please. 'na, hide in a room. 'sk questions. .lay in pairs. L. LISTEN AND DO &l profesorEa comien(a presentando el mobiliario fundamental que corresponde a cada habitaciHn para que los alumnosEas se empiecen a familiari(ar con el mismo9 ;his is the !edroom. ;here is a !ed1 a chair1 a picture... in the !edroom. ;his is the !athroom. ;here is a !ath1... etc. &l profesorEa "a dando instrucciones para recortar cada una de las habitaciones en orden9 4 #ut the rooms in the right order. 4 )irst, cut out the !athroom. .ut it on the ta!le. 4 :ow, cut out the kitchen. .ut it on the ta!le. 4 ;hen, cut out the !edroom. .ut it on the ta!le. 4 )inally, cut out the living room. .ut it on the ta!le. +ara comprobar si los alumnosEas son capaces de reconocer los nombres de las distintas habitaciones# se pueden dar las siguientes instrucciones9 #an you show me the !athroom1 kitchen....please? &stos recortes hay que guardarlos para la acti"idad siguiente. *i se reali(a en otra sesiHn# es con"eniente que se queden todos recogidos en sobres indi"iduales C1a''2&&+ 1angag! 4 isten to my instructions. #ut out the pictures of the rooms. ;hat\s not the !athroom. It\s the kitchen. ;hat\s right. <eep them in an envelope. G. LISTEN AND SET *i esta acti"idad se hace en otra sesiHn# los alumnosEas deben sacar los dibu:os recortados que estarGn guardados9 ;ake the envelope. ;ake the pictures out. &l ob:eti"o de esta acti"idad es colocar cada habitaciHn en la parte correspondiente de la casa. +ara ello# se traba:a con los conceptos de Ap16own y /ight1eft. &n unidades anteriores ya se ha practicado con left1right en relaciHn con partes del cuerpo. 565 &s con"eniente hacer alguna acti"idad pre"ia de ,espuesta FJsica Total o algan :uego corno 0%imon says... 0 con el fin de que los alumnosEas recuerden lo que ya saben# por e:emplo9 %tand up, sit down, show me your left1right hand1leg, etc. &l profesorEa se`ala el plano y "a indicando9 Ap, down, left, right, up on the left, up on the right, down on the left, down on the right. ! continuaciHn los alumnosEas se`alan la parte que "a nombrando el profesorEa. Finalmente# el profesorEa "a dando las indicaciones para colocar cada habitaciHn en su sitio9 4 ;he !edroom is up on the left. ;he !athroom is up on the right. ;he living room is down on the left. ;he kitchen is down on the right. *e pueden ir combinando las instrucciones para practicar mGs. %uando se haga la distribuciHn definiti"a# los alumnosEas pueden comprobar el resultado con su compa`eroEa y pegan cada habitaciHn en su lugar. ! continuaciHn recortan las palabras correspondientes a los nombres de las habitaciones y las pegan deba:o de la habitaciHn adecuada. C1a''2&&+ 1angag! 4 %et the rooms in the right order. isten to the instructions. #heck with your partner. Ase glue to stick up the rooms. #ut out the words. ;hrow the papers to the !in! &atch the words with the rooms. -ood. H. DRA/ 4os alumnosEas deben dibu:ar un plano sencillo de su casa# en el que figuren las habitaciones principales9 6raw a plan of your house1flat. &s especialmente importante que dibu:en su habitaciHn9 6raw your !edroom. TambiKn deben dibu:ar algunos muebles en cada una de las habitaciones. Finalmente deben escribir en inglKs el nombre de las habitaciones principales# mirando la acti"idad anterior si necesitan ayuda. <ientras los alumnosEas reali(an la acti"idad# el profesorEa circula por la clase y "a haciendo algunas preguntas indi"idualmente9 "hat is it? o "a diciendo en inglKs los nombres de algunos de los muebles dibu:ados al mismo tiempo que los "a se`alando9 ;his is a sofa1!ed1 !ath... Tna "e( que hayan terminado todos los planos# se fomentarG un diGlogo que permita contrastar en tKrminos generales la "i"ienda tJpica britGnica con las nuestras# diferenciando flatEhouse# la "ida en el interior de la casa mGs que en la calle (por el clima)# los rasgos de una casa tJpica britGnica# el ni"el de confort# el :ardJn# etc. C1a''2&&+ 1angag! 4 6raw a plan of your house1flat. "rite the names of the rooms. 6raw the furniture. 6o you live in a house1 in a flat? "ho lives in a house1a flat? .ut your hands up. M. LISTEN TO T3E STORY &l cuento se titula 0"here\s %pot?2 (!utor9 &ric 3ill). *e trata de un cuento interacti"o que exige la participaciHn de los alumnosEas mientras se cuenta. !rgumento9 *ally no encuentra a su cachorro# *pot# y lo estG buscando por toda la casa. 4as ilustraciones son manipulati"as de forma que ante todas las preguntas es posible mirar en un lugar y comprobar si *pot se encuentra allJ. T!=%& "!1 )!n%& :aughty %pot! It\s dinner time. "here can he !e? Is he !ehind the door? :o. Is he inside the clock? :o. 56B Is he in the piano? :o. Is he under the stairs? :o. Is he in the wardro!e? :o. Is he under the !ed? :o. Is he in the !o+? :o. ;here\s %pot! He\s under the rug. ;ry the !asket. -ood !oy, %pot. 0at up your dinner! &l profesorEa explica bre"emente el contexto en el que se desarrolla esta historia. 4os alumnosEas recortan las dos indicaciones con las palabras 7es1:o y muestran indi"idualmente una de ellas cada "e( que en el cuento se hace una pregunta. &l cuento se puede contar en otras ocasiones# escondiendo a *pot en sitios diferentes y haciendo las mismas preguntas# aunque se puede alterar el orden de las mismas. A)%$,$"a" C&+-1!+!n%a2$a: 4os alumnosEas pueden confeccionar un cuento basGndose en imGgenes manipulables# para poder utili(arlo con el "ocabulario que ya conocen (por e:emplo# nombres de habitaciones). !l final de esta unidad# tambiKn podrJan utili(ar nombres de muebles y ob:etos de la casa. C1a''2&&+ 1angag! 4 isten to the story. %ally is trying to find %pot. #ut out the sings. "here\s %pot? 7es or :o? 10. PLAY A GAME &l profesorEa prepara flashcards utili(ando fotocopias ampliadas de las ilustraciones de mobiliario y las coloca al a(ar en la pi(arra. %ada flashcard debe ir acompa`ada del nombre del ob:eto correspondiente para que los alumnosEas se familiaricen con la forma escrita de las palabras. !ntes de empe(ar el :uego# el profesorEa "a presentando el nombre de cada ob:eto al tiempo que lo muestra a la clase y lo coloca en la pi(arra. @espuKs el profesorEa "a nombrando cada uno y los alumnosEas los se`alan en sus dibu:os. *e forman dos equipos en la clase# que se colocan en fila en la parte de atrGs. 4os alumnosEas que quedan en cabe(a son los encargados de coger la flashcard que nombra el profesorEa en cada ocasiHn. @e esta forma# en cada ocasiHn le toca el turno a dos alumnosEas diferentes. Nana el equipo que consigue mGs flashcards. C1a''2&&+ 1angag! 4 %plit in two teams. %tand at the !ack of the class. %tand on two lines. #ome and take the pictures. isten. 're you ready? #ome on. It\s your turn. 11. CUT OUT AND S3O/ &l profesorEa da instrucciones para que los alumnosE as recorten cada uno de los dibu:os en el orden adecuado9 #ut out the armchair1fridge1ta!le... ! continuaciHn los "an mostrando en el orden indicado por el profesorEa9 #an you show me the armchair1the sofa1the chair...; ,epartir a los alumnosEas etiquetas en blanco para que copien en cada una el nombre de cada ob:eto o mueble. +ara ello# pueden mirar las palabras de la acti"idad anterior. +or pare:as# deben intentar asociar cada palabra con el dibu:o correspondiente. %uando terminen# guardan los recortes en un sobre para utili(arlos en la acti"idad =s -8. C1a''2&&+ 1angag! 4 ook at the pictures. #ut out the ta!le1sofa... %how me the armchair1!ed... #heck with your partner. 1(. PLAY DOMINOES 56? 4os ni`osEas ya estGn familiari(ados con este :uego en lengua materna. &l ob:eti"o es asociar dibu:os con las palabras correspondientes# formando cadenas. 7rgani(ar la clase en peque`os grupos y repartir un :uego de dominH a cada alumnoEa de manera que siempre tengan algunas pie(as diferentes a los demGs compa`erosEas. *egan el namero de :ugadores# se puede fotocopiar y recortar el namero de cartas que sea necesario. 4os alumnosEas se "an turnando para intentar asociar sus cartas. Nana el alumnoEa que antes consigue colocar correctamente todas las que le han correspondido. &l profesorEa circula por la clase y presta ayuda cuando sea necesario. C1a''2&&+ 1angag! 4 et\s play dominoes. .lay in small groups Gof four$. &atch the words and the pictures. %tart. "ho is the winner? et\s try again. It\s your turn. 1*. LOO. AND DO 4os alumnosEas traba:an en grupos de cuatro y utili(an los recortes que guardaron en la acti"idad =s --. %ada alumnoEa se encarga de colocar el mobiliario y ob:etos que corresponden a una habitaciHn# disponiKndolos de la me:or forma posible y coloreGndolos. +ara que les resulte mGs fGcil y el resultado final sea me:or# el profesorE a puede fotocopiar el recuadro de la habitaciHn y repartJrselo a los alumnosEa. @espuKs pegan cada habitaciHn en una parte de la casa. %on el fin de repasar las instrucciones9 up1 down1on the left1on the right# el profesorEa puede dar las instrucciones a toda la clase. %ada grupo dedica un tiempo a preparar una bre"e descripciHn oral de su casa y a continuaciHn cada grupo informa al resto de la clase. +or e:emplo9 ;here is a... in the !edroom1!athroom... A)%$,$"a"!' C&+-1!+!n%a2$a'9 4os alumnosEas pueden terminar de adornar la casa# a`adiendo detalles tales como plantas# cuadros# lGmparas# etc. &l profesorEa circula por la clase y "a diciendo en inglKs lo que los alumnosEas "an dibu:ando9 "hat\s this? It\s a... C1a''2&&+ 1angag! 1 .lay in groups of four. %tick the furniture in the right room. ;he kitchen is finished. Cery nice. %tick the rug where you want. isten. .lace the rooms in the plan. 6raw what you like. #olour it. 14. /OR. IN GROUPS 4os alumnosEas traba:an en grupos de cuatro. *e reparte a cada alumnoEa una de las indicaciones de la acti"idad. %ada alumnoEa# segan su indicaciHn# debe dibu:ar una habitaciHn con todos los detalles que quiera y despuKs deben de confeccionar la casa ideal entre todos los componentes del grupo. %uando hayan terminado# todas las casas se colocan en un rincHn de la clase# con un cartel en cada una de ellas que diga9 Home, sweet home. @ialogar con los alumnosEas sobre las diferencias correspondientes a los conceptos de House1Home. C1a''2&&+ 1angag! 4 "ork in groups. &ake your ideal house. 6raw a room. "rite your names. .ut it on the notice!oard. INSTRUMENTOS DE EVALUACIN *e muestran a continuaciHn algunos instrumentos de e"aluaciHn para utili(ar en esta Tnidad @idGctica9 -) @iario de %lase. 56. *e recomienda que los alumnos completen el diario de clase durante tres o cuatro "eces al menos a lo largo de toda la Tnidad. 4as frases a completar en el diario son las siguientes9 4 I\m good at... 4 I like... 4os datos aportados por los alumnosEas nos darGn sugerencias en torno a los tipos de acti"idades que les gustan y las que han podido resultar difJciles o fGciles para la mayorJa. (C P!2#$1 "!1 A1+n&Ta &s interesante empe(ar a configurar el perfil del alumnoEa en lengua extran:era desde la iniciaciHn a la misma en el segundo ciclo de la &tapa de &ducaciHn +rimaria. &l perfil se puede ir elaborando en un cuaderno destinado a tal fin# en el que se "ayan recogiendo muestras representati"as del traba:o del alumnoEa y de su ni"el de progresiHn. TambiKn se podrJan a`adir otros materiales de otras Greas o de acti"idades fuera del aula que el alumnoEa considere que son representati"os de su esfuer(o. Tna "e( finali(ada esta Tnidad# se puede pedir a cada alumnoEa indi"idualmente que selecciones dos traba:os representati"os de su esfuer(o y que los incorpore a su perfil# pegGndolos en un cuaderno. =o incluiremos en el perfil ningan traba:o que el alumnoEa considere que no es muestra de su esfuer(o o progresiHn. *C A)%$,$"a"!' #$na1!' *e sugieren a continuaciHn dos acti"idades que pueden ser"ir a los alumnosEas para mantener un fichero de aspectos fundamentales tratados en la Tnidad. *obre todo estGn encaminadas a consolidar "ocabulario y a ser"ir de instrumento de referencia y recuerdo fGcil para el alumnoEa. !) @ar a los alumnosEas tar:etas con los nombres en inglKs del "ocabulario bGsico de la Tnidad. 4os alumnosEas hacen los dibu:os correspondientes en folios y pegan cada palabra :unto al dibu:o adecuado. *e puede incluir el siguiente "ocabulario bGsico9 4 !athroom, fridge, armchair, !edroom, ta!le, television, kitchen, chair, !ed, living room, sofa, wardro!e, rug, !ath. ) ,elacionar con flechas los nombres de muebles y ob:etos de la casa con las habitaciones donde se pueden encontrar. 5AD H. 9I9LIOGRAFWA !4%!,!\# &. > <77@># . (-.?/). 6idUctica del inglFs* metodologLa y programaciVn. <adrid9 !lhambra. j4V!,&\# 4.# &. *74&, > F. 3&,=j=@&\ (-..A). .royecto educativo, proyecto curricular, prograciVn de aula. <adrid9 *.<. !,&,j# V. (-..8). .royecto #urricular del tercer ciclo de 0ducaciVn .rimaria. <adrid9 &scuela &spa`ola. &44# ,.T. (-.?-). 'n Introduction to 'pplied inguistics. 'pproaches and ðods in anguage ;eaching. 4ondon9 atsford !cademic and &ducational 4td. &*T!,@ <7=,7'N# F. (-.?8). .reparaciVn y desarrollo de las clases de inglFs. <adrid9 &di15. 477<# .*. (-.B/). ;a+onomy of 0ducational ,!jectives* the #lassification of 0ducational -oals. =ew >ork9 @a"id <ckay %o. ,7$=# 3. @. (-.?B). .rinciples of )oreign anguage earning and ;eaching. =ew Fersey9 +rentice 3all. ,T<F'T# %.F. (ed.) (-.?6). -eneral 0nglish %ylla!us 6esign. 7xford9 +ergamon +ress and the ritish %ouncil. @!=N&,F'&4@# 4. (-.?A). 04esson planning2 en <!TT3&$*# !. et al. (eds.) (-.?A). @!V'&*# '. (-.B5). ,!jectives in #urriculum 6esign. 4ondon9 <cNraw13ill. @T'=# F.Y &. 74*3T!'= (-.?5). #ourse 6esign. 6eveloping .rograms and &aterials for anguage earning. %ambridge9 %.T.+. F,'&@177T3 (-.?5). .roject work. 7.T.+. N'<&=7 *!%,'*Tj=# F. (-.?A). ;eorLa de la enseWan3a y desarrollo del currLculo. *alamanca9 !naya. N,&&=$77@# F. (-.?-). 0+lanning your teaching2 en !7TT# N.Y +.$'=N!,@ (eds.) (-.?-). ;he ;eaching of 0nglish as an International anguage. ' .ractical -uide. Nlasgow Y 4ondon9 %ollins. 3!44'$&44# *. (-..8). a enseWan3a del inglFs en la 0ducaciVn .rimaria. 4ongman. 3!<<&,# F. (-.?B). ;eaching and earning 0nglish. 4ondon9 4ongman. <!TT3&$*# !. et al. (eds.) (-.?A). 't the #halkface. &dward !rnold. =T4!=# @. (-.??). %ylla!us 6esign. 7.T.+. =T4!=# @. (-.?.). 6esigning tasks for the #ommunicative 'pproach. %.T.+. +!4<&,#@. (-.?A). 0! re"ision lesson plan using information transfer# a discourse chain and role play2 en <!TT3&$*# !. &t al. (eds.) (-.?A). *&N7V'! !NT'4!,# F. y otros (-../). )un Boat! .royecto para la 0nseWan3a del InglFs en 0ducaciVn .rimaria. %olecciHn de <ateriales %urriculares para la &ducaciHn +rimaria. *e"illa9 Funta de !ndalucJa *+,!TT# <. (-.?A). 0! reading skills lesson2 en <!TT3&$*# !. &t al. (eds.) (-.?A). V!,'7* (-../). 6ecreto de 0ducaciVn .rimaria. 'ne+o* Urea de engua 0+tranjera. %olecciHn de <ateriales %urriculares para la &ducaciHn +rimaria. *e"illa9 Funta de !ndalucJa. V!,'7* (-../). &Vdulos didUcticos. R. enguas e+tranjeras. %olecciHn de <ateriales %urriculares para la &ducaciHn +rimaria. *e"illa9 Funta de !ndalucJa. 5A- V!,'7* (-../). ,rientaciones para la secuenciaciVn de contenidos. =. area de engua 0+tranjera. %olecciHn de <ateriales %urriculares para la &ducaciHn +rimaria. *e"illa9 Funta de !ndalucJa. $'4K'=*#@.!. (-.B5). :otional %ylla!uses. 7xford9 7.T.+. >!4@&=#F. (-.?8). ;he #ommunicative %ylla!us* 0volution, 6esign and Implementation. 7xford9 +ergamon +ress. >!4@&=#F. (-.?B). .rinciples of #ourse 6esign for anguage ;eaching* %ambridge9 %.T.+. \!!4\!# <.!. (-.??). 6iseWo y desarrollo curricular. <adrid9 =arcea. T&<! /-.1 4! +,7N,!<!%'W= @&4 !,&! @& 4&=NT!* &UT,!=F&,!*9 T='@!@&* @& +,7N,!<!%'W=. %,'T&,'7* +!,! 4! *&%T&=%'! > T&<+7,!4'\!%'W= @& %7=T&='@7* > 7F&T'V7*. *&4&%%'W= @& 4! <&T7@747Ni! ! &<+4&!, &= 4!* !%T'V'@!@&* @& !+,&=@'\!F& > &V!4T!%'W=9 -) '=T,7@T%T'7= /) F7,&'N= 4!=NT!N& !,&! +4!=='=N9 @'@!%T'% T='T* 8) %,'T&,'! T7 &*T!4'*3 T3& *&XT&=%& 7F 7F&%T'V&* !=@ %7=T&=T* 6) *&4&%T'7= 7F T3& <&T37@747N> T7 T*& '= 4&!,='=N !=@ !**&**<&=T !%T'V'T'&* IC 9I9LIOGRAP3Y 5A/ -.1 '=T,7@T%T'7=9 The 7rganic !ct -E-..D of Neneral !rrangement of the &ducational *ystem introduced some important changes# aimed at impro"ing the quality of education in *pain. !mong these changes we can mention9 - The extension of compulsory education to the age of -5 years old - The establishment of new educational stages such as9 'nfant# +rimary and %ompulsory *econdary &ducation. - These stages are organised in cycles# which is the period that should be considered for teaching programs and promotion. - The establishment of a curriculum which# in spite of ha"ing certain aspects which are compulsory for all the country# is also open and flexible# as the different autonomous educational ser"ices could adapt it to their real context. Then# each school should adapt the official curriculum to their real en"ironment by means of the design and de"elopment of the %urricular +ro:ect. - &"ery teacher should design hisEher particular teaching planning according to the decisions taken in the %urricular pro:ect.
5A8 Then# taking into account these basic aspects of the &ducational ,eform# we are going to deal with9 - The elements and specific characteristics of foreing language teaching planning. - The criteria we must take into account for the sequence of ob:ecti"es and contents - The methodological principles we should bear in mind to design the learning and assessment acti"ities. /.1F7,&'N= 4!=NT!N& !,&! +4!=='=N9 !s we ha"e said before# our educational system establishes and open and flexible curriculum which must be adapted to the particular needs of students through different le"els9 The F$2'% 1!,!1# refers to the official curriculum which contains the general ob:ecti"es of each stage for the different areas# their blocks of contents and assessment criteria. The S!)&n" 1!,!1# includes the %urricular +ro:ect of each stage# where each school adapts the elements of the official curriculum to its particular context. !ccording to the ,.@. ?/E-..5# the %urricular +ro:ect should include the following elements9 - The general ob:ecti"es of the stage adapted to the socio1cultural context of the school. - The sequence of ob:ecti"es# contents and e"aluation criteria of the different areas per cycle. - Neneral methodological decisions that affect the following aspects9 <ethodological principles# groupings# space# time and materials. - Neneral decisions about the attention to pupils with special needs. !nd finally in %7! %7$2" 1!,!1 of curricular de"elopment# each teacher should design hisEher teaching planning which consist of a set of didactic units# taking into account the decisions made by the teaching staff in the %urricular +ro:ect. Then the teaching planning is defined in the curricular material known as ,ed oxes as9 Mthe process where!y, starting from the official curriculum and the decisions taken in the #urricular .roject, teachers plan the work that is going to !e developed in the class. 's a result, we have a set of sequenced didactic units for a given cycle\. ;eaching planning should !e* 5A6 'dapted to the conte+t and pupil\s needs )le+i!le , which implies that we must !e ready to change any of it elements if we feel that they are not appropriate for a particular group of students. #oncrete , as it should give clear information a!out the teaching1 learning process which is going to !e developed in the classroom. /ealistic , as the teacher should have the space, time and materials to carry out the activities he1she has designed and this activities should !e adapted to the student\s level. Teaching planning co"ers two aspects9 -. First# it includes se"eral general decisions to ensure the coherence of the teaching process and the link between the different didactic units throughout the cycle. These decisions# which are taken by the teaching staff of the cycle# deal with 9 1 !rrangement and sequence of contents throughout the cycle 1 Neneral guidelines about9 space# time# materials# pupils groupings and e"aluation /. 'n the second place# the teaching planning includes the design of the didactic units. 'n relation to the design of didactic units the teaching staff of the cycle should9 Find topics which meet the students interests and needs @ecide the ob:ecti"es and contents to be worked on in each unit. @esign acti"ities according to these ob:ecti"es and contents. %hoose the materials suitable for each unit. @ecide about the strategies to assess the students performance and the teaching practice. =ow# we are going to deal with the first aspect we ha"e mention# the general decisions to ensure the coherence of the teaching process throughout the cycle# which include9 T3& *&XT&=%& !=@ T'<'=N 7F 7F&%T'V&* !=@ %7=T&=T*. 5AA /.-.1 %,'T&,'! T7 &*T!4'*3 T3& *&XT&=%& !=@ T'<'=N 7F 7F&%T'V&* !=@ %7=T&=T*9 !s we ha"e seen when talking about the %urricular pro:ect# one of the decisions made in such document is the sequence of ob:ecti"es# contents# and assessment criteria of each area along the different cycles. Then# once the teaching staff has decided the ob:ecti"es and contents programme per cycle# in the %urricular +ro:ect# the cycle teacher or teachers ha"e to decide about the sequence and timing of these ob:ecti"es and contents within the cycle. The term sequence refers to the order in which we are going to present the contents while the term timing refers to the amount of time we will need to achie"e the ob:ecti"es and teach the contents. 5A5
*ince the establishment of this sequence is a difficult task# the <inistry of &ducation published a ,esolution of the A th of <arch -../ # that offered some criteria to establish such sequence9 -. The ob:ecti"es and contents should be related to the global aim of Foreign language learning # which is the acquisition of communicati"e competence. 5AB /. The ob:ecti"es and contents should be arranged in a meaningful way 8. The arrangement of ob:ecti"es and contents should ensure the coherence of the learning process ,egarding contents this ,esolution says that9 -. $e must go from the general and simple to the particular and complex. This applies to the arrangement of concepts and procedures# since it is difficult to arrange attitudinal contents into cycles. /. There must be a balance between the three types of contents (concepts# procedures and attitudes). 8. !s far as the procedures are concerned# the four skills should be de"eloped in an interrelated way as they are in real communication. 6. 3owe"er we must remember that in the Foreign 4anguage !rea curriculum for +rimary &ducation# oral skills are stressed o"er written skills# and recepti"e skills are gi"en the priority o"er producti"e skills. A. %ontents must be adapted to the students le"el of de"elopment9 !ccording to +'!N&T and '=3&4@&, (-.?6) children are at the concrete operational stage (between B and -- years old) The characteristics of this stage are as follows9 %hildren start to de"elop rational thinking starting from concrete ob:ects# classes or relations. %hildren make progress in percepti"e and motor aspects. %hildren begin to de"elop socialisation skills. !ccording to these characteristics we must remember the following guidelines9 5A? 'f children mental operations are based on their concrete experiences# we# as foreign language teachers# should select topics and acti"ities connected to the pupils real experiences. 'f children de"elop their percepti"e and motor abilities# we should contribute to this de"elopment by means of contents and acti"ities which in"ol"e body mo"ement or the use of their percepti"e and creati"e abilities. $e should also foster the de"elopment of socialisation skills. 'n this sense we should promote the de"elopment of positi"e attitudes such as co1operation and respect towards the contribution of others. 5. The contents should be presented in context. The new grammatical structures and "ocabulary must be learnt in connection with the communicati"e functions that children need to express themsel"es in situations related to their needs and experiences. $hen planning the sequence of ob:ecti"es and contents we must take the following steps9 -. $e must decide the degree in which the abilities expressed in the general ob:ecti"es are going to be de"eloped in each cycle# and choose the contents we need to reach them. For instance# starting from the ob:ecti"e number one of the foreign language area9 5A. `;o understand simple and oral written te+ts a!out known o!jects, situations and events, using general and specific information taken from those te+ts for specific purposes.\ $e can sequence the abilities expressed in this ob:ecti"e# for the second cycle of +rimary education# as follows9 `'t the end of the second cycle pupils will !e a!le to understand the general meaning of simple oral te+ts emitted !y the teacher with a simple structure and voca!ulary, in familiar conte+ts, and with the help of gestures, mime and any necessary repetition\ /. !s we must teach the three types of contents in an interrelated way# we must choose any of them to organise the sequence. The best way to promote the de"elopment of communicati"e abilities is organising them around procedures. 'f we decide to do it in this way# we should consider the factors which determine the sequence and the degree of complexity of the communicati"e functions# since these will be the factors to be taken into account to 55D set the sequence of contents. These factors# which are defined in the ,esolution of the A th of <arch# are9 - The type of oral or written texts - The channel - The type of comprehension - The interlocutor - The le"el of correction =ow# we are going to explain these criteria in detail.9 - The type of oral or written texts Here we must consider the length, voca!ulary, the linguistic structures, and organisation of the oral or written te+ts that we are going to use in class. ,!viously, we must go from short simple te+ts to more comple+ ones. - The channel 's far as channel is concerned we should consider if the oral or written messages that our students should understand or produce are going to !e transmitted in a face to face communicative situation, or !y means of a cassette recording or a written te+t. In this sense, we should start from face to face communication, !ecause mime, gestures and e+pressions help pupils to understand. - The type of comprehension ;he type of comprehension refers to the information we ask them to e+tract from an oral or written message. ;his comprehension may !e glo!al G if they should get the general sense of the message$ or specific Gif they have to e+tract specific details$. ;he most logical progression goes from glo!al to specific comprehension. - The interlocutor /egarding the interlocutor we should take into account if he1she is known or unknown for the student, if he1she !elongs to the school conte+t or not. 't the !eginning we should work with close interlocutors such as the teacher and the classmates. 55- - The le"el of correction ;he level of correction deals with the demands a!out correction in the oral and written production of students. ,!viously such demands increase along the cycles. 't the !eginning, they should produce language correctly enough to !e understood. 8 .1 Then# if we ha"e decided to organise contents around procedures# we should not forget that the three types of contents (concepts# procedures and attitudes) must be considered in an interrelated way. Then we should relate them as in the following example9 8/ecognising the characteristic sounds, rhythm and intonation patterns of the foreign language, realising the importance of !eing a!le to communicate in a foreign language To see this relation more clear# the ,esolution of the A th of <arch suggests that we can display them in a chart# as follows &U!<+4& 7F *&XT&=%& 7F %7=T&=T* F7, T3& *&%7=@ %>%4& P2&)!"2!' C&n)!-%' A%%$%"!' 1%haracteristic sounds 1 ,ealising the importance of oral 55/ ,ecognising 1,hythm and intonation patterns. communication in a foreign language.
'dentifying 1$ords and sentences in texts related to the context of the classroom and daily life 1 *howing an optimistic attitude towards their own ability to understand the foreign language
Nlobal comprehension - of messages with the following )&++n$)a %$,! $n%!n%$&n': ]Nreeting (hello!,good morning...$ ]'dentifying oneself GI am. #&y name is...) ]Ni"ing and asking for basic personal information Gusing e+pressions such as* "hat 1 *howing a recepti"e attitude towards people who speak a different language. 558 5s your name, How old are you?...$ - These communicati "e functions should be related to topics of general use and wide notions# which are interesting for children# such as9 ]The school# family# friends# animals# body# home# numbers# colours... *pecific comprehension
- 7f information pre"iously required in contextualis ed 1 *howing a recepti"e attitude towards people who speak a foreign language. 556 situations] ]For instance# we ask children to fill a chart about the fa"ourite sports of different characters from the textbook. First# we tell them what they are going to listen to a con"ersation where the characters talk about things they like and dislike and what information they should pay attention to. Then# we play the cassette or read the text aloud and they should complete the chart# with the specific information we ha"e asked them for (sports# in this case) T&=='* !*K&T!44 F77T!44 *T&V'& yes yes no 4T%> yes no yes !=='& no yes no 's we can see this task ask them to e+tract specific information Ga!out favourite sports$, previously required !y the teacher, in a conte+tualised situation,G as they already recognise the characters voices, and know what they are talking a!out$. 'f we do this with all the general ob:ecti"es we will ha"e a list of the contents of each cycle including concepts procedures and attitudes. These orientations are quite useful to establish the sequence of ob:ecti"es# contents and assessment criteria# in the second and third cycle# but we must not forget that &nglish has been introduced in the - st cycle in our !utonomous %ommunity. Then the O2"!2 &# *0 %7 &# Ag'% published by the @epartment of &ducation# *cience and Technology of our !utonomous No"ernment says in its article number 8 that9 0;he centres must change and adapt their #urricular .rojects to this change as the o!jectives, contents and evaluation criteria of the foreign language area, should !e sequenced for three cycles, instead of two9 55A 7b"iously# as we ha"ent got our own curriculum yet# we must take as reference the ob:ecti"es# contents and e"aluation criteria of the ,.@. -866E.- of the 5 th of *eptember# which establishes the national curriculum for primary &ducation. 3owe"er# the @epartment of &ducation# *cience and Technology of our !utonomous No"ernment# has published a document# made by foreign language teachers co1ordinated by the Technical 'nspection *er"ice called 0&nglish in the first cycle of +rimary &ducation2. This document is not a law# it has been published :ust to help teachers. ,egarding the abilities# skills and contents which should be worked in this cycle this document says that9 'n the F',*T %>%4&9 - The most important skill in the first cycle should be listening. - $e must not force children to speak until they are ready to do it. Then at the beginning they can show what they ha"e understood by means of non1"erbal actions such as mo"ements# gestures# drawing# cutting# pointing# colouring... - Total +hysical ,esponse ( T+,) acti"ities and songs are a good way to help them link words and actions# and 555 express themsel"es in &nglish in a funny and meaningful way. - $ritten language should be a"oided# especially in the first year of the cycle# because they are learning to read and write in their nati"e language and the complex &nglish spelling could be confusing for them. - %ontents should be taught by means of didactic units# organised around meaningful topics such as9# Family# Friends# %hristmas# Things of the classroom# The house# Food# Toys# %lothes... - %hildren must be already familiar with such topics in their nati"e language. Then# the co1ordination with the class1 teacher is "ery important to establish the sequence of the different didactic units along the cycle. 55B /./.1 @'@!%T'% T='T*9 =ow we are going to talk about the second moment of the teaching planning9 the design and de"elopment of didactic units. @idactic units are defined in the curricular material known as /ed Bo+es published by the *panish <inistry of &ducation (-..-) as9 ' unit of educational action formed !y a set of activities that are developed in an specific time, to reach a set of didactic o!jectives. ! didactic unit is the answer to all the curricular questions9 - $hat to teach; 'n the form of 7b:ecti"es and contents - $hen; Through the sequence of ob:ecti"es and contents. - 3ow; y means of the learning acti"ities# space and time organisation# didactic resources and materials. - !nd what# when and how to e"aluate# by means of the assessment criteria# and the different acti"ities to carry out the initial# formati"e and final e"aluation ! didactic unit should ha"e the following elements9 -.1 @escription /.1 @idactic ob:ecti"es 8.1 4earning contents 6.1 !cti"ities A.1 <aterials 5.1 *pace and time arrangement. B.1 &"aluation criteria and techniques used to carry out this process. $e are going to analyse this elements in detail9 55? -.1 The @escription is a kind of introduction which includes 9 The topic of the didactic unit ! brief reference about pupilsR pre"ious knowledge %ycleE le"el and term =umber of sessions %onnection with the pre"ious didactic units /.1The didactic ob:ecti"es are more specific than those designed for the cycle as they express the abilities that we want pupils acquire as a result of the work de"eloped in a gi"en didactic unit. The didactic ob:ecti"es must meet all the students needs. This means that the teacher should include some basic ob:ecti"es as well as more difficult ones designed to reinforce the acquisition process. 'n this way e"eryone could progress according to his E her possibilities. 8.1 4earning contents9 The didactic unit must include the three types of contents ( concepts# procedures and attitudes) taking into account that9 There must be a balance between them They should be interrelated and connected to the students experience and needs. The teacher should include contents related to cross1curricular topics ( health# peace# en"ironment protection...) 6.1 !cti"ities or learning experiences9
55. 7nce we ha"e explained the main criteria to design the learning acti"ities# we will focus on e"aluation acti"ities 9 The general methodological principles for +rimary education# included in the ,.@. -866E -..- of the -6 th of Fune# e"aluation is considered as a global and continuous process# which must be used as a tool to impro"e the teachingElearning process. !ccording to the document 0Keys for the teaching of a foreign language(<&%#-..-) the main aim of e"aluation in the foreign language area is 0to check if students are a!le to use the language in communicative situations9 Then# e"aluation acti"ities should not be different from learning ones. @irect obser"ation of the students work is the main e"aluation technique# howe"er in order to make this obser"ation in a systematic way the document 0Keys for the teaching of a foreign language2 suggests that we should use an e"aluation form containing the aspects to be obser"ed on each kind of acti"ity. 5BD For example for the e"aluation of oral acti"ities this document suggest teachers to consider the following questions9 3as heEshe completed the acti"ity; @oes heEshe understand the acti"ity; %an heEshe make herEhimself understood by means of words and gestures; 's hisEher pronunciation good enough to be understood; @oes heEshe need help from the teacher or other students; '4'7N,!+3>. - 4ey 7rgGnica -E-..D# de 8 de octubre de 7rdenaciHn Neneral del *istema &ducati"o. - ,@ -866E-..- de 5 de septiembre# por el que se establece el currJculo de la &ducaciHn +rimaria. - ,@ ?/E-..5# de /5 de enero que establece el ,eglamento 7rgGnico de las &scuelas de &ducaciHn infantil y colegios de &ducaciHn primaria. - ,esoluciHn de A de mar(o de -../# de la *ecretaria de &stado para la &ducaciHn# que regula la elaboraciHn de proyectos curriculares y establece orientaciones para la distribuciHn de ob:eti"os# contenidos y criterios de e"aluaciHn. - 7rden del 8D de agosto de /DDD# por la que se establece y regula la imparticiHn de la lengua extran:era en el primer ciclo de &ducaciHn primaria# en el Gmbito de la %omunidad !utHnoma de &xtremadura. - <&%9 <ateriales para la ,eforma# area de lengua extran:era. <adrid. *er"icio de publicaciones del <&%. -..-. - <&%. +royecto %urricular. <ateriales para la reforma. <adrid. *er"icio de publicaciones del <&%# -..-. - rewster# &llis and Nirard. The primary &nglish Teachers Nuide. 4ondon. +enguin. -../. 5B- (*e trata del tema // del temario especJfico de la especialidad de lengua extran:era) T&<! //9 Variables to be taken into consideration in the organi(ation of the foreign language classroom. +upils grouping# space and time management# methodology selection# teachersP role# . . . -.1 Neneral Factors -.-.1 !ge Nenerally speaking# it is said that children learn more quickly than adults but this is not so clear. %hildren learn more quickly because of their innate abilities of acquisition in primary le"els. %hildren# because of their moti"ation to become a communicator# de"elop a better pronunciation than adults# but adults will acquire primary le"els more rapidly because of their greater cogniti"e abilities and strategies. -./.1 *ex 't has been found that girls and boys use different strategies when they are learning a language. Nirls tends to be mere communicati"e than boys. -.8.1 <oti"ation and attitudes. Nardner and 4amberer stabled two main kinds of moti"ation9 1'ntegrati"e9 The learner has a genuine interest in the second language community 1'nstrumental9 3is interest is in how the second language can be useful towards furthering others goals. 't is clear that this is not enough to be highly moti"ated# 't must be acompained by others factors such as useful strategies. 5B/ -.6.1 !ptitude and intelligence 4earning a second language in a classroom in"ol"es two sets of intellectual abilities9 1 ! general academic or reasoning ability called intelligence 1 *pecifics cogniti"e qualities needed for second language acquisition called aptitude There are se"eral problems to stablish the difference of influence of both in the second language acquisition. -.A.1 +ersonality Krashen argues that extro"erted learners will find easier to make contact with other users of the second language and therefore will obtain more input. !lso %haracteristics such as extro"ersion asserti"eness and ad"enturesomeness are predictable to be positi"e for learning *ocial *kills. !llow the students to be related to the world and culture of the country. 7ther factors we ha"e to consider are inhibition and axiety. ! teacher who reduces both in the whole learning process will make students increase confidence when producing a language. -.5.1 4earning *tyles !ccording to !usubel# learning styles are define as Oself1 consistent and enduring indi"idual differences in cogniti"e organi(ation and functioningO. 't can be inducti"e or deducti"e) dependent or independent) holistic or analytic) ... These cogniti"e learning stiles will be de"eloped in the chapter of learning strategies. !ge# sex# moti"ation# aptitude# intelligence# personality and learning style stablish indi"idual differences in the way or second language acquisition. *o we should consider them to stablish the most effecti"e way to teach them /.1OThe good language learnerO (&llis) and the unsuccessful learner a)&llis characteristics of a good language learner ]e able to respond to the group dynamics of the learning situations ]*eek out all opportunities to use the target language ]make maximum use of the opportunities to practice the 5B8 second language ]*upplement the learning that deri"e from the direct contact with speakers of the second language ]e an adolescent or an adult rather a young child ]+ossess sufficient analytic skills to percei"e categori(e and store the linguistic features of the second language and also to monitor errors ]+ossess a strong reason for learning the second language and also de"elop a strong task moti"ation ]e prepared to experiment by taking risk ]e capable of adapting to different learning conditions b) %haracteristics of an unsuccessful language learner ]tendency toward a history of faliture ]4ack of confidence ]=o risk taking ]4ow self1steam ]=egati"e attributions ]+oor study habits and learning strategies ]Full of surprises 8.14earner in"ol"ement9 *trategies For a successful learner1centred1comunicati"e methodology# the teacher must be no more the OcontrollerO or the OconductorO. *Ehe must help the learner to be self1autonomous and aware with the global learning. !ccording to 3utchinson these are the characteristics that should be enhanced with the classroom9 8.-.1 +ositi"e attitudes To de"elop affecti"ity in the language# the learner and the teacher ha"e to work together. The teacher role is to turn into a producti"e ingredient in the learning pot. 3e is going to decide how to conduct the process# materials# . . . 3e also should teach attitudes# strategies# abilities# skills and other concepts now included in the syllabus design. +ositi"e attitudes are those concerned with culture awareness. 8./.1 !wareness raising Teacher must apply global contents. *Ehe must pro"ide the learner the strategies to become responsible. The strategies included here are those affecti"e ones. 8.8.1*kill de"elopment 5B6 The skills are directed toward cogniti"e and metacogniti"e strategies. <etacogni"e strategy is a learning strategy that in"ol"es thinking about our knowledge of the learning process. %ogniti"e strategy is a strategy that in"ol"es mental manipulation or transformation of materials or tasks and is intended to enhance comprehension# acquisition or retention. oth are concerned with the Olearning to learnO. 8.6.1 asic tools for learning9 Techniques ]*ound acquisition 1repeating aloud 14istening carefully and talking aloud ]Nrammar 1Following rules 1'nferring grammar rules 1%omparing 4- and 4/ 1<emori(ing structures and using them ]Vocabulary 1<aking up charts 14earning words in context 14earning words that are associated 1Tsing new words in phrases 1Tsing a dictionary ]4istening comprehension 14istening to the radio 1&xposing oneself to different accents and registers ]4earning to talk 1 =ot being afraid to make mistakes 1 <aking contact with nati"e speakers 1 !sking for correction ]4earning to write 13a"ing penpals 1$riting frequently 1Frecuent reading of what you expect to write ]4earning to read 1,eading something e"eryday 1,eading things that are familiar 1,eading texts at the beginners le"el 5BA 1looking for meaning from the context 8.A.14earner syllabus design (loopback) The contents that a task based syllabus# like the *panish reform one# *hould be di"ided into9 a)%ontents which de"elop the oral communicati"ely abilities b)%ontents which de"elop the written communicati"ely abilities c)*ociocultural contents These contents must include the strategies abo"e mentioned. These strategies will achie"e the specific and the general aims. ! progresi"e e"aluation will be considered during the academic year. !nd one of the most important things included in the syllabus is the selection of a methodology. 'n summary# we are clamming a task based approach focused in the process where e"aluation and methodology are included in the learning contents. 6.1%lass management. +upils grouping 47%K1*T&+ +!', $7,K N,7T+ $7,K '=@'V'@T!4 *TT@> ! @ V ! = T ! N & * ]!nyone can hear what is being said ]$e get a good language model ]$e can mo"e the lass at a fast pace ]'s not "ery stressing ]'ncreases the pupils practice ]<oti"ation to learn with others ]'mportant for our youngest pupils ]'ncreases the amount of pupils talking time ]Ni"es them opportunities to use the language to communicate ]They learn and teach exhibiting a degree of self1reliance which is absent from teaching controlled acti"ities ]more dynamic ]=eed a communication more important ]more relax than pair work ]%hild relax from outside pressure ]%hild internali(e what sEhe is learning ]+ermit our pupils select between diferent acti"ities @ ' ]%hildren does not ]=oise problems ]3ow to group our ]Tse of *panish ]'ncorrectness 5B5 * ! @ V ! = T ! N & practice "ery much ]lack of heterogeneity ]lack of effecti"eness for a communicati on work pupils ]*ome pupils do not like to work in pairs ]To moti"ate them we ha"e to tell them what the reason for the acti"ity is ]Tse of *panish ]=oise ]<oti"ated clearly defined goals are the solution ]*election of group members T & ! % 3 & , * t , 7 4 & ]controller ]assessors ]!ssessors ]+rompters ]resources ]+ro"ides assistance ]%hecks the task is carried out satisfactorily K ' = @ * ]7+&= +!',* $ho are not *ide by side perform a task. The rest listen them ]%47*&@ +!',* The class is di"ided into pairs and working at the same Time ]%47*&@ Y 7+&= Form new ones during the acti"ity ]%77+&,!T'V& 7ur two pupils ha"e to help each other to ]*T,7=N Y $&!K T7N&T3&, Tsually good for oth ]N,7T+* 7F *T,7=NE$&!K They could work different materials at The same time ] iggest si(e for a group is half class and only for competiti"e acti"ities. ]*mallest group (5 more or less) 5BB complete the acti"ities ]Flexible groups !s the acti"ity progress the group split up and reform ]fixed groups for all the year you can ha"e group leaders who make of group organi(er and mini1teacher A.1*pace and time management The teacher should consider this options9 A.-.1The physical en"iroment 1*eating 1Voice proyection 1lackboard A./.1,apport between teacher and student 1physical position 1eye contact 1Tsing students names 1+ersonal in"ol"ementEen:oyment 1&ncouragement 1*elf1confidence 1%larity A.8.1*tudentsP indi"idual sense of belonging to a group 1teacher in"ol"ing all equality 1&xpressing their own personalities 1%onstitution of groups in the class A.6.1%lassroom organi(ation and lay out 1'n most cases we do not ha"e total freedom to organi(e the classroom. rewster underlines *ix points to consider9 -.1 ! grid plan made to scale is useful if we ha"e a large class squee(ed into a small area /.1 $e must think about sitting our pupils in rows or groups 8.1 +upils who is closed to the teacher %oncentrate more and work harder 6.1 ! small classroom library colour coded acording to 5B? difficulty A.1 !reas where our pupils can display their work 5.1 %orners A.6.-.1 %lassroom display $e must encourage them to display their work when setting a display we must keep se"eral points in mind9 -.1try to keep the work at our pupils eye le"el /.1$e may include related words pictures or a tape which may tell a story which is described "isually in a display 8.1!s they must be eye catching# the titles and lettering should be large and attracti"e 6.1 $e must ensure that the pupilsP names are on their work and abo"e all# that all our pupils ha"e something on display A.A.1Time management The differents groups can go at a different speed and what we ha"e planed could be good for one but not for the others. $e ha"e to plot realistic timings for the complection of certain acti"ities. $e may be left with time to spare at the end of our lesson) 'n these cases we need to ha"e some acti"ities reser"ed 5.1*electing a methodology 7ur curriculum established that the main aim of teaching a foreign language in primary education is to enable our pupils to reach communicati"e competence and its main subcomponents9 Nrammar competence9 @omain of grammar and lexical capabilities @iscourse competence9 written or speaking discourses with coherence and cohesion. *ocio1linguistic competence9 Tnderstand the social context in which the con"ersation takes place *ocio1cultural competence9 Knowledge of cultural aspects of the target language speaking countries 5.-.1 %ommunication in the classroom $e can stablish a continuum where communicati"e and non communicati"e acti"ities are the extremes. 'n the classroom we di"ide the work into 8 ma:or acti"ities depending on the point of the continuum we are placed9 +resentation +ractice +roduction 5B. 5./.1 'ntegrated *kills 7ur acti"ities will sometimes ha"e to concentrate on one single skill to reach our aims but we ha"e to use that to practicing others. 5.6.1 !ssessment %ontinuous assessment is now the more wide spread method of assessment in our schools. This assessment ha"e to show our pupils le"el of attainment# the effecti"eness and efficiency of our methods and it start with an initial diagnosis. B.1! common working en"ironment9 TeachersP role B.-.1 Teaching style Teaching style is a complex amalgam of beliefs# attitudes# strategies# techniques# personality and control which lies at the heart of the interpersonal relationship between teacher and learner. B./.1 <oti"ation ! primary function of the teacher management roe is to moti"ate the learners who are demoti"ated. There are se"eral ways9 1!dopting a positi"e attitude towards the learner. 1Ni"ing pupils meaningful rele"ant and interesting task to do. 1<aintaining discipline to be extent that a reasonable working atmosphere is stablish 1eing moti"ated and interested themsel"es 1'n"ol"ing the learner more acti"ely in the classroom process and acti"ities that demand inter1student communication and cooperati"e efforts 1'ntroducing learners to the concepts of self apprassial and self1e"aluation 1Ni"ing positi"e feedback or written assignments 1&ncouraging pride in achie"ement by allowing learners to display their work on the classroom. B.8.1 <ain types of teachers $e are going to analy(e the six main roles that 3ammer distinguishes9 %7=T,744&,. $e are totally in charge of the class. 't is use in presentation stage. 't is only adequate during the reproducction stage# being wholly inappropriate at the production stage. 5?D !**&*7,. @uring the presentation stage we also correct our pupilsP error and mistakes but without making our pupils ashamed of their errors. 7rgani(ing feedback is a ma:or part of assessing our pupils performance. The teacher waits until an acti"ity or task has been completed and he tells pupils how they did. 7,N!='\&,. is to tell our pupils what is our topic and what re the tasks. $e must also get the acti"ity going# sol"ing initial problems and finally organi(e feedback. +rompter. $e sometimes need to help our students where there is a silence or our pupils are confused. $e should help only when it is necessary +!,T'%'+!=T. 'n simulations is interesting to participate with our pupils. ,&*7T,%&.'n communicati"e acti"ity itPs important to keep our roles as assessors and to be a kind of resource center. B.6.1 %omunication patterns9 OformalO or OinformalO; 'f we allow greater freedom of participation from the learner# we will de"elop a less formal communication pattern. The learners will be more ready to share meanings and "alues. This will enrich the contents of learning. B.A.1!ttitude towards errors in the learning process. The mistakes are caused by an o"ergenerali(ation of the second language or by the interference of the mother tongue. !s educators# our porpoise is to encourage risk1takers. The mistakes takes part in the learning process and they assure the stage of the studentsP acknoledgement. 7nly if obstruct the comunication are to be corrected.
ESPECALDAD NGLES TEMA (( VARIA9LES A TENER EN CUENTA EN LA ORGANISACIN DE LA CLASE DE LENGUA EXTRANJERA INGLESA: AGRUPACIN DEL ALUMNADO, DISTRI9UCIN DEL ESPACIO Y TIEMPOD SELECCIN DE METODOLOGWAS, PAPEL DEL PROFESOR, ETC... 5?- ASPECTS OF CLASS MANAGEMENT: PUPIL GROUPING, SPACE AND TIME MANAGEMENT, MET3ODOLOGY SLECTRION, ROLE OF T3E TEAC3ER, ETC... 1. INTRODUCTION. (. PUPIL GROUPINGS. a. 4ockstep. b. +air work. c. Nroup work. d. 'ndi"idual work. *. SPACE AND TIME MANAGEMENT. a. *pace management. b. Time management. 4. T3E ROLES OF T3E TEAC3ER AND LEARNER. a. The teachers role. b. The learners role. I. MET3ODOLOGY SELECTION. a. *election of acti"ities. b. +lanning principles in methodology selection. L. SUMMARY. G. SYNOPSIS. H. 9I9LIOGRAP3Y. -1 INTRODUCTION. 'n this topic we will analyse "arious aspects of class management which we must take into account for achie"ement of effecti"e teaching. These aspects include the student groupings# the space and time management# the methodology selection and the role of the teacher. 5?/ This topic is of prime rele"ance since class management in"ol"es the efficiency of the teacher and the learning acti"ities. / L PUPIL GROUPINGS. $e will first discuss the pros and cons of "arious interaction patterns9 lockstep, pair work, group work and individual study. 't is ad"isable to use the different groupings. (.1 [ L&)0'%!-. 4ockstep is the traditional teaching situation. !ll the students work as a group with the teacher ( they are Mlocked into some acti"ity ) and the teacher acts as controller and assessor. This type of grouping is used when the teacher pro"ides feedback or gi"es instructions. aC A",an%ag!'. 4ockstep has certain ad"antages9 The whole class are concentrating and the learners attention span is then impro"ed. &"eryone can hear what is being said. The students get a good language model from the teacher. <any students find lockstep "ery comforting. 5C D$'a",an%ag!'. There are also reasons why the use of lockstep alone is less than satisfactory9 *tudents working in lockstep get little chance to practise. esides# they do not use language in real1life situations. 4ockstep usually goes at the wrong pace9 either the teacher is too slow for the good students or heEshe is too fast for the weak students. (.( Pa$2 6&20. aC P2&)!"2!' #&2 -a$26&20. 't pairwork is to be successful# certain procedures need to be followed. 5?8 '. <ake sure the students know exactly what the ha"e to do. &xplain the acti"ity and practise as necessary. ''. @i"ide the students into pairs ( taking ad"antage of the way the are seated ). @epending on the type of acti"ity# make sure that students take it in turns to initiate and respond ( e. g. ask and answer questions ). '''. %arry out selecti"e checking# walking round the class and listening in Foin in with a pair from time to time# especially with those students who are likely to need your help. 'f you feel that an acti"ity is going badly# stop it# re1present it to the class and let the students start again. 'V. %ontrol noise le"el by stopping an acti"ity and asking the students to start again more quietly. V. Nauge the amount of tune an acti"ity should go on for. *top the acti"ity when most students ha"e had a reasonable amount of practice. V'. +ro"ide any necessary feedback. Tell the students how well they ha"e done. 5C A",an%ag!'. +air work has the following ad"antages9 't increases the amount of students talking time as they are presented with opportunities for producti"e practice. 't de"elops sociali(ation skills and attitudinal contents (cooperation# participation# autonomy and responsibility)# which contribute to create a good atmosphere in the classroom. )C D$'a",an%ag!' 3owe"er# pair work has se"eral disad"antages9 The students will sometimes use their mother tongue. !part from selecting acti"ities which we can be reasonably sure are not beyond the le"el of the students and in preparing them if necessary with some essential language (especially in the early stages)# there are a number of things we can do to help o"ercome this problem9 5?6 &xplain to the students why they are doing acti"ities of this kind9 i.e. that this is an opportunity to use &nglish. @emonstrate whene"er possible how they can Mget round difficulties # i.e. through alternati"e expressions. &ncourage the students to consult us if they ha"e real difficulties. !sk them at least from time to time to impose self1 discipline# e.g. through a penalty system which requires them to pay a small fine if they use the mother tongue. This can be done in a fun1like way so that the students actually en:oy catching one another out. 'ncorrectness is another problem as many students think that if they are not corrected# they do not learn. Teachers sometimes worry about noise when pair work is used. (.*. G2&- 6&20 aC O2gan$'$ng g2&- 6&20. a) Forming groups. The si(e of the groups should be worked out in relation to the total number of students in the class. !s a general rule# we could say that there should be A1? students in each group and not more than A15 groups in the class. The teacher should normally form the groups# usually on the basis of mixed ability ( i.e. good and weak students together) since as a rule learners do help one another. b) Nroup leader. &ach group should ha"e its own Mleader. The function of the group leader is not to dominate the group but to coordinate their acti"ities and to ser"e as a link between the group and the teacher. c) The role of the teacher. These are some of the things the teacher must do9 *elect acti"ities carefully. The teacher should ensure that the acti"ities can be done reasonably well with the language the students ha"e at their disposal. $ork out the instructions for an acti"ity carefully. Keep instructions simple# and if necessary use the mother tongue. 5?A +resent the acti"ity to the class. Ni"e plenty of examples and gi"e the students a Mtrial run. <onitor the students performance. $hile the acti"ities are in progress# the teachers main task is to mo"e around the class and to Mlisten in discreetly in order to find out how the students are getting on. The teacher should not# as a rule# correct mistakes of language during a group acti"ity but make a note of them and use them as the basis of feedback. d) +ro"ide feedback. 5C A",an%ag!' Nroup work offers the following ad"antages9 't increases the amount of students talking time. 't gi"es the students the opportunity of using language to communicate with each other. 't de"elops sociali(ation skills and attitudinal contents. )C D$'a",an%ag!' Nroup work has the same disad"antages as pair work9 use of the first language# incorrectness and noise. The si(e of the groups depends on the acti"ity type# whether it is a dialogue# a debate# a game# etc. $hen the class is di"ided into two groups# we speak of team work. Team work is not often used because it in"ol"es less pupil participation. (.4. In"$,$"a1 S%"8 $e must try and let students work on their own and at their own pace at some stage during the class. This type of grouping can be used for reading and writing work. 8: SPACE AND TIME MANAGEMENT *.1. S-a)! +anag!+!n%. 5?5 *pace bears a direct relationship to the acti"ities to be done# and an indirect relationship to the methodology. There are different ways of organising the classroom9 a) -raditional seating arrangement. The students sit in rows facing the teaching. 't is up1front teaching9 the teacher is at the front of the class as the focus. There is not a close relationship between the teacher and the students. Therefore this seating arrangement does not foster communication. This type of class arrangement is suitable for the beginning and the end of the lesson# the representation stage# and indi"idual work9 exams# written exercises# compositions# silent reading. This distribution does not fa"our communication# and the position of the teacher is of distance and difference with respect to the pupils. b) &ircle, teacher out. This kind of arrangement fa"ours communication# since the pupils can see each other. !s the teacher is out# the pupils feel more comfortable. This type of arrangement is suitable for debates# discussions# games. 't is typical of the methods %ommunity 4anguage 4earning# Total +hysical ,esponse and The *ilent $ay. c) &ircle, teacher inside. The role of the teacher is to pro"ide help when necessary. 't is suitable for e"ery kind of communication acti"ity. d) 3orse shoe. The students are seated in a semicircle and the teacher is in the middle. 't is suitable for e"ery kind of acti"ity9 drills# games# debates# etc. This grouping fa"ours communication. e) Eoarding meetings. 't is used for acti"ities in"ol"ing a lot of material (reports# pro:ect work ). The desks are placed together and the pupils sit around. f) "treams. The pupils are seated in two parallel rows facing the blackboard or facing each other. The most suitable acti"ity to use this type of arrangement is the debate. g) %ix and mingle. &"ery student is in a different position# all looking at the teacher. This type of arrangement is suitable for many oral games. h) 'earning stations. The class is di"ided into groups of 6# 5 or eight students# each group like a station in which different acti"ities are done and where the pupils can change positions. *.(. T$+! +anag!+!n% 5?B Time plays a decisi"e role in the learning process# since we can plan ob:ecti"es# contents and acti"ities according to the length of lessons. $e must take into account the psychological characteristics of our pupils and design "aried and short acti"ities as their concentration span is short. 7n the other hand# w should plan realistic timings for the completion of certain acti"ities (games# discussions) and design acti"ities for the end of the lesson# in case we run out of material. $e will now present the different types of timetable9 a) 7pen timetable. 't allows the students to plan the acti"ities of the day# and so requires careful acti"ity9 planning and material organi(ation. b) Flexible timetable. 4essons can be shorter or longer. The ad"antage of this type of timetable is that it is adapted to the needs of the syllabus. c) Traditional timetable. There is a fixed number of fifty1minute lesson gi"en by the same teacher in the same classroom. d) <odular timetable. The school day is di"ided into modules of /D minutes. The &nglish lesson may co"er two successi"e modules one day# three the next day# two the next day. There are certain acti"ities that can be done in one module# like con"ersation in small groups. 4: T3E ROLES OF T3E TEAC3ER AND LEARNER 4.1. T7! %!a)7!2K' 2&1!. The role of the teacher# then# will depend to a large extent on the acti"ity type. $e will examine the roles of controller# assessor# prompter# participant and resource. 4.1.1. C&n%2&11!2T C&n")%&2 The teacher acts as a controller at the presentation stage# at the practice stage and in lockstep acti"ities. !t the presentation stage# the teacher checks that all the students ha"e understood the form and meaning of the new language item. !t the practice stage# the teacher elicits responses# pro"ides cues in drills# works out the instructions for the acti"ities and check that the pupils are doing the acti"ity in the proper way. 5?? 4.1.(. A''!''&2 The teacher will correct the students mistakes at the practice stage. 3e E*he should also assess how well they are performing. 7n the other hand# the teacher will encourage self1assessment. 'n this way the pupils will become more responsible# autonomous and independent# and they will get more in"ol"ed in the learning process# which is "ery important# as it is the centre of learning and a point of reference. The teacher must also assess hisEher own work as teacher. 4.1.*. O2gan$'!2 The success of many acti"ities depends on good organi(ation and on the students knowing exactly what they ha"e to do. The main aim of the teacher when organising an acti"ity is to gi"e clear instructions and get the acti"ity going. 4.1.4. P2&+-%!2 The teacher will encourage the students to participate or make suggestions about how to carry out an acti"ity when there is a silence or when do not know what to do next. 4.1.I. Pa2%$)$-an% The teacher will sometimes act as a participant. This will contribute to create a pleasant atmosphere in the class# and will also gi"e the students the opportunity of practising &nglish with someone who speaks it better than they do. 4.1.L. R!'&2)! The teacher should always be willing to offer help if necessary. 4.(. T7! 1!a2n!2K' 2&1! 7ne of the ma:or changes in foreign language teaching refers to the learners role. $hereas in the traditional foreign language methods the learner assumed a passi"e role# the teacher being the focus# in the communicati"e approach the learner plays an acti"e role and is responsible for their own learning. 7n the other methods# such as The *ilent $ay and *uggestopedia# the students are encouraged to become independent. 5?. I. MET3ODOLOGY SELECTION I.1. S!1!)%$&n &# a)%$,$%$!' The learning and assessment acti"ities will aim to de"elop the students communicati"e competence and to practise the four language skills (listening# speaking# reading and writing) taking into account that following the Foreign 4anguage !rea %urriculum in +rimary &ducation# auralEoral skills will be stressed o"er written skills. The acti"ities will be selected according to the stage of the lesson9 ]!t the practice stage# we will design pre1communicati"e acti"ities# which will prepare the students for using the new language in real communication. The acti"ities will be oral guided9 drills# short dialogues# exercises[ ]!t the production stage# the pupils will do free speaking and written acti"ities which engage them in real communication9 simulations# role1plays# discussions# information gap acti"ities# problem sol"ing acti"ities# compositions# games# etc. $ith regard to assessment# there are many ways of assessing the students progress from class obser"ation to ob:ecti"e test. &"aluation should be continuous and global. I.(. P1ann$ng P2$n)$-1!' $n M!%7&"&1&g8 '!1!)%$&n. 7n the other hand# we must take into consideration two planning principles in methodology selection9 aC Va2$!%8 Variety mainly means using a wide range of materials and acti"ities in the classroom. There are many ways of introducing "ariety within a lesson9 1 $e can use a wide range of acti"ities and materials. 1 $e can change the seating arrangements for different acti"ities. 1 $e can use the coursebook in different ways. $e should introduce "ariety for three reasons9 1 The students moti"ation will be better. 1 7ur pupils attention span is short and they thus need to do different things. 5.D 1 4essons will be more en:oyable. 5C F1!=$5$1$%8 Flexibility means the ability to use different techniques# acti"ities and materials depending on the students le"el. L :SUMMARY 'n this topic we ha"e analysed "arious aspects of class management including student groupings# the distribution of space and time# the role of the teacher and the learner# and the selection of methodology. $e also ha"e described briefly the ad"antages and disad"antages of the different types of interaction9 lockstep# pair work# group work and indi"idual study. *pace bears a direct relationship to the acti"ities to be done# and an indirect relationship to the methodology. Time is also a rele"ant element in the teaching process# since we plan ob:ecti"es# contents and acti"ities according to the length of lessons. The role of the teacher depends to a large extent on the acti"ity type. $e ha"e examined the roles of controller# assessor# prompter# participant and resource. 'n the learning process# pupils are responsible for their own learning and should de"elop autonomy. 'n the last part of the topic we ha"e focused on methodology selection. $e ha"e centred on different types of learning acti"ities according to the stage of the lesson. Finally we ha"e enumerated two essential learning principles9 Variety and flexibility. Variety means mainly using a wide range of materials and acti"ities in the classroom. Flexibility means the ability to use different techniques# acti"ities and materials depending on the students le"el. 5.- G : SYNOPSIS PUPIL GROUPINGS ] 4ockstep 1 !d"antages 1@isad"antages ]+air work 1 +rocedures of pair work 1 !d"antages 1 @isad"antages ] Nroup work 1 7rganising group work 1 !d"antages 1 @isad"antages ] 'ndi"idual work SPACE AND TIME ] *pace management 1 Traditional seating arrangement 1 %ircle# teacher out 1 %ircle# teacher inside 1 3orse shoe 1 oarding meeting 1 *treams 1 <ix and mingle 1 4earning stations ] Time management 1 Types of timetable T3E ROLES OF T3E TEAC3ER AND LEARNER ]Teachers roles 1 %ontroller 1 !ssessor 1 7rganiser 1 +rompter 1 +articipant 1 ,esource ] 4earners roles 5./ MET3ODOLOGY SELECTION ]*election of acti"ities 1 4earning acti"ities 1 +re1communicati"e acti"ities 1 %ommunicati"e acti"ities ]+lanning principles 1 Variety 1 Flexibility H:9I9LIOGRAP3Y 9URT, ..M. A DU.AY, 3.C.# =ew @irections in *econd 4anguage 4earning9 ! Nuidebook for &*4E&F4 Teachers. <acNraw 3ill 'nternational ook %ompany. CRYSTAL, D. 4engua:e infantil. !prendi(a:e y 4ingIJstica. <edico1tKcnica. arcelona# -.?-. DIXON, R.J. +ractical Nuide to the Teaching of &nglish. ,egent +ublishing %o.# =ew >ork# -.BA. 3ARMER, JEREMY.# The +ractice of &nglish 4anguage Teaching. 4ongman 3andbooks for 4anguage Teachers. 4ongman -.?8. This book is a complete guide and reference work for all teachers of &nglish as a foreign or second language. 3ONEY A MUNFORD# <anual of 4earning *tyles. %ambridge# -../. NUNAD, DAVID.# @esigning Tasks for the %ommunicati"e %lassroom. %ambridge# -.?.. VAN., E. ..# The Threshold 4e"el. %ouncil of &urope# -.BA. /IDOS3, 3. J.# Teaching &nglish as %ommunication. 7xford T. +.# -.B?. 5.8 T&<! /8 1 7+7*'%'7=&* @& &@T%!%'W= +,'<!,'! 1 &*+&%'!4'@!@ @& '=N4^* 7+7*'%'7=&* ! 4! &*+&%'!4'@!@ @& O'=N4^*O &@T%!%'W= +,'<!,'! T&<! /8 4! &4!7,!%'W= @& <!T&,'!4&* %T,,'%T4!,&* +!,! 4! %4!*& @& '=N4^*. %,'T&,'7* +!,! 4! *&4&%%'W= > T*7 @& 47* 4',7* @& T&UT7. @7%T<&=T7* !TT^=T'%7* > @7%T<&=T7* !@!+T!@7*9 4'<'T!%'7=&* @& T*7. 4! %74!7,!%'W= @& 47* !4T<=7* &= &4 @'*&k7 @& 47* <!T&,'!4&*. D. '=T,7@T%T'7=. -. +,7@T%'=N &=N4'*3 4&**7=* %T,,'%T4!, <!T&,'!4*. / %,'T&,'! F7, T3& %377*'=N !=@ T*& 7F %7T,*&77K*. -.- %hoosing a course book. /./. Tsing a course book. 8 !TT3&=T'%# *'<T4!T&@1!TT3&=T'% !=@ =7=1!TT3&=T'% T&UT*9 T*& %7=*T,!'=T*. 6 '=7V74V'=N T3& %3'4@,&= '= <!T&,'!4 @&*'N=. A '4'7N,!+3>.
D. 1 '=T,7@T%T'7= There is an abundance of &nglish language teaching materials on the market. !t "arious times of our professional life we will be in"ol"ed in the selection of materials for our pupils# and# if we do not find any materials which response to our pupilsP needs we will ha"e to design them. 5.6 efore attempting to e"aluate published materials or to design our own# we must come to some conclusions about our pupils and what their needs are. The following profile of pupils needs has been taken from O3armerO and has three ma:or components9 1 description of pupils 1 description of pupilsP needs 1 conclusions @&*%,'+T'7= 7F +T+'4* -. !ge9 /. =umber of boys and girls9 8. Familiar background9 6. +arentsP occupation9 A. <oti"ationE!ttitude9 5. Knowledge of the world9 B. Knowledge of &nglish9 ?. 'nterests9 .. +upils with special needs9 -D. +upils with discipline problems9 --. ased on the abo"e# what conclusions can we draw about the kind of materials that would be suitable for our pupils; 7nce we ha"e an idea of our pupilsP personal characteristics we must come to some kind of conclusion about what their needs are. <ost of them are legally marked (general ob:ecti"es# assessment criteria.) @&*%,'+T'7= 7F +T+'4*P =&&@* - . To reach communicati"e competence we need to study the four skills9 1 ,eading 1 4istening 1 $riting 1 *peaking / . 's there any pupil with special needs; $hat shall we do about them; =ow we ha"e a clearer idea bout our pupils and their needs. 't is time to mo"e to some conclusions about the type of materials we want to select and design. $e will now study the selection and production of materials separately. 5.A
-. +,7@T%'=N &=N4'*3 4&**7= %T,,'%T4!, <!T&,'!4*. +roducing our own materials is a time1consuming process# so it is not "ery often that teachers decide to produce all the materials they need for a whole cycle. <ost teachers# howe"er# produce supplementary materials which are finely tuned to their pupilsP needs. (rewster gi"es some reasons for producing our own supplementary materials# e"en if we ha"e a course book9 - 1 $e may feel that our course book does not pro"ide enough practice on a problematic point for our pupils and we must prepare some extra acti"ities. / 1 *ome of the materials in our course book are not appropriate for our class# either because their lack of interest or because they do not answer our pupilsP needs. 8 1 $e want to foster a different methodology which is not the one used by the course book authors# eg. $e want to pro"ide our pupils with a selection of different acti"ities so that they can choose and work more autonomously. 6 1 'f the course book uses the same approach one and again we may want to add some acti"ities for the sake of "ariety. 'n any of these cases we can see we are dealing with the production of materials such as $orksheets# flashcards $orksheets can be exercises which are drawn# written or sheet of paper then photocopied so that each pupil in the class could ha"e one. They are clear) simple and attracti"e with the instructions in "ery simple &nglish or in *panish (especially with our youngest pupils). The acti"ities we normally use last a few minutes and practise one particular language point in"ol"ing our pupils in different skills. $e can use worksheets to organi(e both oral and written work# indi"idually or in pairs or groups. 'f we want to use them more than once it is a good idea to co"er them in plastic. 'f we do not# our pupils can personali(e the worksheets with labels# colours and so on. $hen designing worksheets# we must think about how our pupils 5.5 will use them. 't is important to know whether they will need written instructions# either in simple &nglish or in *panish# or only oral ones. 't is always a good idea to try the worksheet oursel"es to see if there is really enough room to write our pupilsP names and the responses demanded in the acti"ities. $orksheets can be used with information gap acti"ities. For example we can tell our pupils they are going to work in pairs. $e gi"e them a worksheet and tell them they cannot show each other their worksheet. They ha"e to share the information in order to complete the worksheet. $e can also make a picture dictation where our pupils will gi"e us a non1"erbal response. The worksheet consists of a simple drawing of a naked# bald boy. $e dictate his description and our pupils must add the new elements to the drawing. 7ther acti"ities will include Time dictation# where our pupils as us the time and draw it on the clockfaces drawn in the worksheet or True or False where our pupils must compare the information they ha"e in the worksheet with the information we gi"e them orally.
Flashcards for young learners are often made using pictures and some words. The pictures must be clearly recognisable and the letters# large# clear and black. Flashcards must be large enough for the whole class to see9 they must con"ey the meaning clearly# especially when they refer to actions our pupils must follow. Flashcards must be used to introduce and practise "ocabulary related to our pupilsP fields of interest. For example9 $hatPs this; 'tPs a monkey To introduce and practise OyesEno questionsO or Owh1questionsO. For example9 @o you like (*howing marmalade flashcard); >es# ' doE =o# ' donPt To introduce and practise talking about possessions# about uses of modal "erbs# There isE there are. oth flashcards and worksheets can be made by oursel"es or by our pupils# as we will see in the last section. / . %,'T&,'! F7, T3& %377*'=N !=@ T*& 7F %7T,*& 77K*. 'n the introduction we studied our pupils and their needs. =ow that we know them we can start to e"aluate materials# abo"e all our course book. 5.B /.- %hoosing a course book. %hoosing a course book is extremely difficult. 'n some case# we cannot get a good picture of the suitability of a book till we ha"e been working through it for some time. 3owe"er# we can prepare a course book e"aluation form which is based on O3armerO. !ccording to him# any course book e"aluation form should be based on the following criteria. %,'T&,'! F7, *&4&%T'=N %7T,*& 77K* ( =unan ) - 1 The course book makes clear the link between the classroom and the wider word. / 1 The course book fosters independent learning. 8 1 The course book focuses our pupils on their learning process. 6 1 The course book is readily a"ailable. A 1 The course book accords with our pupilsP needs. 5 1 The course book can be used at more than one le"el of difficulty (heterogeneity) B 1 The pedagogical ob:ecti"es of the materials are clear. 3armerPs material e"aluation form has se"en parts. &ach part is considered through a set of questions which may be answered OyesEno with an additional comment. The se"en parts are9 1 practical considerations 1 layout and design 1 acti"ities 1 skills 1 language type 1 sub:ect and content 1 guidance To these we must add the final conclusions. Tnder practical considerations we must decide if the price of the materials is suitable for our pupils. $e must also be sure about the a"ailability of the different parts of the course such as tapes# workbooks. $e must also :udge whether the course book layout and design is attracti"e for our pupils. $e must also study our selected course books to see that there is a 5.? balance of acti"ities. 'n particular# there should be a substantial amount of aural language input and a wide "ariety of communicati"e acti"ities. The presentation of new language should take place in realistic contexts. 'n the skills part we must see whether the course book balance of skills is appropriate for +rimary &ducation. $e must see that the aural component is more important than the written one# and that recepti"e skills are more important than the producti"e ones. 'n language type# we must consider whether the language is realistic9 1 authentic 1 simulated authentic $e must also consider whether it is of the right type (rele"ant to our pupilsP needs)) and finally# if the progression is adequate for the cogniti"e stage of de"elopment of our pupils. 'n sub:ect and content we analy(e what topics are included in the course book and whether they match up to our pupilsP personalities# backgrounds and needs. *ub:ect and content should be rele"ant# realistic# interesting and "aried. $e must also consider if there is sufficient guidance# not only for us# but for our pupils. !s far as we are concerned# we need to ha"e clear explanations of how the material should be used to take the maximum ad"antage out of it. !s far as our pupils are concerned# we ha"e to consider whether the materials are clear# easy to follow and ha"e well1defined ob:ecti"es that the whole class can understand. Finally# we must come to conclusions about the adoption of the proposed course book once the form has finally been completed. The whole %ourse ook e"aluation form will take the following form9 %7T,*& 77K &V!4T!T'7= F7,<9 - . =ame of the course book under consideration9 / . !uthor or authors9 8 . +ublisher9 6 . 4e"el9 A . +rice9 - . +ractical considerations. -.-. 's the price of the materials appropriate for our pupils; 5.. >&* E =7 %omment -./. !re the integral parts of the course a"ailable now (course books# tapes# teacherPs books# tapes.) ; >&* E =7 %omment9 / . 4ayout and design. /.- 's the layout and design of the materials appropriate for our pupils; >&* E =7 %omment9 8. !cti"ities. 8.-. @o the materials pro"ide a balance of acti"ities that is appropriate for your pupils; >&* E =7 %omment9 8./. 's there a sufficient amount of communication output in the course book under consideration; >&* E =7 %omment9 8.8. @o the course book pro"ide enough roughly1tuned input for our pupils; >&* E =7 %omment 8.6. 's new language introduced in moti"ating and realistic contexts; >&* E =7 %omment9 6. ! source of practical teaching ideas. A. $ork that our pupils can do on their own so that we do not need to be centre stage all the time. 5. ! basis for homework if that is required. B. ! basis for discussion and comparison with other colleagues. 't also helps our pupils because it offers them9 - . ! sense of purpose# progression and progress. / . ! sense of security 8 . *cope for independent and autonomous learning 6 . ! reference for checking and re"ising. 3owe"er# we also find some things that we can do better# such as9 participating in oral interactions# ad:usting le"el and quantity of work to our pupilsP needs) and encourage our pupils when they are not moti"ated. !s we can see it is equally wrong not to de"iate from the course book at all as de"iating for the sake of de"iating. 'f we ha"e chosen the book properly# it is usually a good idea to use the book "ery much as the author suggests for the first time# as a great deal of thought has gone into its writing. This way we can see really see its ad"antages and drawbacks and act accordingly. !ny chosen text must be BDD adapted to the particular requirements of the class and it is not "ery professional to adopt for our cycles the aims and ob:ecti"es of the course book# unless they are reasonably complementary. 3owe"er# whether we adapt the course book or we teach it straight from beginning to end# we must decide on our pace of progress. This is "ery important in +rimary education where we ha"e -BD teaching hours e"ery year. This is plenty of time really (roughly an hour a day) and so we must be able to produce plenty of additional and "aried practice of the same topic. To do this we can use authentic# simulated authentic# or artificial materials. 8. !TT3&=T'%# *'<T4!T&@ !TT3&=T'% !=@ =7=!TT3&=T'% <!T&,'!4*9 T*& %7=*T,!'=T*. The main aim of all our teaching is to enable our pupils to reach communicati"e competence. !s the focus will be on assisting our pupils to do in class what they will need to do outside# the materials we use should reflect the world outside. 'n other words they should ha"e a degree of authenticity. This authenticity should relate to the text sources as well as to the pupilsP acti"ities and tasks.
8. - 1 !uthenticity. (=unan) !uthenticity material are usually defined as those which ha"e been produced for other purposes than to teach language. They can be got from many different sources9 "ideo clips# recordings of authentic interactions# extracts from tele"ision# radio and schedules. @espite the difficulties associated with the use of authentic materials# they are easily :ustified on the grounds that specially scripted texts are artificial. %ardlin and &delhoff suggest that there are at least four types of authenticity which are important in our classrooms9 1 authenticity of goal 1 authenticity of en"ironment 1 authenticity of text 1 authenticity of task =unan thinks that the most important type of authenticity is what he called Olearner authenticityO. y this he means Othe realisation BD- and acceptance by the learner of the authenticity of a gi"en text# task# set of materials or learning acti"ityO. 'f we want our pupils to think that the materials we use are authentic they must fulfil two conditions9 - . They must be recognised by learners as ha"ing a legitimate place in the language classroom. / . They must engage the interests of our pupils by relating to their interests# background knowledge and experience# and through these# stimulate genuine communication. 't is important to make our pupils realise that they are learning something. This is especially easy with traditional acti"ities# such as drills or translations# but new# communicati"e acti"ities may seem to them a waste of time. 'n some acti"ities we can ha"e# as Na"in olton said of drama a unique pedagogic situation# where a teacher sees himself as teaching but our pupils do not see themsel"es as learning. The second condition is easily fulfilled if we take into account our pupils characteristics and needs. 8. / . *imulated authentic and artificial. ! non1authentic text# in language teaching terms# O is one that has been designed especially for language learnersO. (3armer). $e can make a distinction here# howe"er# between texts which ha"e been made to illustrate particular language points for presentation (artificial) and those which appear to be authentic (simulated authentic) The :ustification for simulated authentic texts is clear in the case of our pupils. eginner pupils are able to handle genuinely authentic texts# but they need to ha"e practice in texts that look authentic# e"en if they ha"e been edited# and so there is a certain degree of language control. <anipulating and comprehending these texts will help our pupils to acquire the necessary skills they will need when they come to handle authentic material.
6. '=V74V'=N T3& +T+'4* '= <!T&,'!4 @&*'N=. BD/ 7ur curriculum clearly ad"ocates a communicati"e approach to language teaching. This approach makes use of tasks that will be linked in principle ways to the real1tasks our pupils are required to engage in outside the classroom. The %ommunicati"e approach to language teaching also suggests that classroom1based acquisition is fostered by psycholinguistically 1 moti"ated learning tasks. 3owe"er# our curriculum also establishes a learner1centred approach and one of the best ways to take account of our pupils needs and characteristics is by making them participating of the material design process. A. '4'7N,!+3>. rewster# F.# &llis# N. and Nirard# @. The +rimary &nglish TeacherPs Nuide +enguin. 4ondon -../. rumfit# %.F.# and Fohnson K. (eds) The %ambridge &ncyclopedia of 4anguage# %T+ %ambridge 3armer# F. The +ractice of &nglish 4anguage Teaching# 4ongman# 4ondon# -.?8 3alliwell# *. Teaching &nglish in the +rimary %lassroom# 4ongman# 4ondon# -../. (There exists *panish translation9 4a &nse`an(a del 'nglKs en &ducaciHn +rimaria. 4ongman# 4ondon# -..8.) 4ittlewood# $. %ommunicati"e 4anguage Teaching. %T+. %ambridge# -.??. =unan# @. The 4earner1 %entred %urriculum. %T+# %ambridge# -.??. ,ichards# F.%. and ,odgers# T.*. !pproaches and <ethods in 4anguage Teaching# %T+. %ambridge#-.?5. +latt# F.# and +latt# 3. @ictionary of 4anguage Teaching and !pplied 4inguistics# 4ongman# 4ondon# -../ *a"ignon# *. %ommunicati"e %ompetence9 Teory and %lassroom +ractice# !ddison1$esley. ,eading# <ass.# -.?8 $idowson# 3.N. Teaching 4anguage as %ommunication. 7T+. 7xford# -.B?. BD8 T&<! /8 1 7+7*'%'7=&* @& &@T%!%'W= +,'<!,'! 1 &*+&%'!4'@!@ @& '=N4^* &*XT&<! 4! &4!7,!%'W= @& <!T&,'!4&* %T,,'%T4!,&* +!,! 4! %4!*& @& '=N4^*. %,'T&,'7* +!,! 4! *&4&%%'W= > T*7 @& 47* 4',7* @& T&UT7. @7%T<&=T7* !TT^=T'%7* > !@!+T!@7*9 4'<'T!%'7=&* @& *T T*7. 4! %74!7,!%'W= @& 47* !4T<=7* &= &4 @'*&k7 @& 47* <!T&,'!4&*. D . '=T,7@T%%'7= 1 TeacherPs roles9 1 selection 1 production 1 +rofile of pupilsP needs9 1 description of pupils 1 description of pupilsP needs 1 conclusions - . +,7@T%'=N &=N4'*3 4&**7=* 1 %T,,'%T4!, <!T&,'!4*9 ] ,easons for producing our own materials9 -. 7ur course book does not pro"ide enough practice. /. *ome of the materials in our course book are not appropriate for our class. 8. $e want to foster a methodology which is not the one used by the course book authors. 6. To add some acti"ities for the sake of "ariety. 1 $orksheets9 1 practise one linguistic point 1 oral and written 1 pair and indi"idual BD6 1 Flashcards9 1 information gap 1 time dictation 1 true or false /. %,'T&,'! F7, T3& %377*'=N !=@ T*& 7F T3& %7T,*& 77K*. /.- %hoosing a course book9
] %riteria. -. The course book makes clear the link between the classroom and the wider word. /. The course book fosters independent learning. 8. The course book focuses our pupils on their learning process. 6. The course book is readily a"ailable A. The course book accords with our pupilsP needs. 5. The course book can be used at more than one le"el of difficulty (heterogeneity) B. The pedagogical ob:ecti"es of the materials are clear. ]3armerPs e"aluation form9 1 practical considerations 1 guidance 1 layout and design 1 conclusions 1 acti"ities 1 skills 1 language type 1 sub:ect and content
/./. Tsing a course book9 ] $hat the course book does well9 1 to the teacher 1 to the pupils ] To the teacher. -. ! clearly thought out programme which is appropriately sequenced and structured to include re"ision. /. ! wider range of material than we can collect indi"idually. 8. &conomy of preparation time. 6. ! source of practical teaching ideas. A. $ork that our pupils can do on their own so that we do not need to be centre stage all the time. 5. ! basis for homework if that is required. BDA B. ! basis for discussion and comparison with other colleagues. ] To our pupils -. ! sense of purpose# progression and progress. /. ! sense of security. 8. *cope for independent and autonomous learning 6. ! reference for checking and re"ising. ] $hat the teacher does better9 1 oral exchange 1 ad:usting le"el and quality of work 1 encourage our pupils ] $e must adapt course books to our pupilsP needs.
] <ain aim9 to reach communicati"e competence 8.- !uthenticiy. ] =unanPs definition. ] &nabling out pupils to comprehend and manipulate real texts. ] %adlin and &delhoff9 1 authenticity of goal 1 authenticity of en"ironment 1 authenticity of text ] 4earnerPs authenticity. ] !uthenticity conditions9 -. They must be recognised by learners as ha"ing a legitimate place in the language classroom. /. They must engage the interests of our pupils by relating to their interests# background# knowledge and experience# and through these# stimulate genuine communication. T&<! /8 1 7+7*'%'7=&* @& &@T%!%'W= +,'<!,'! 1 &*+&%'!4'@!@ @& '=N4^* BD5 8./ *imulated !uthentic and artificial. ] 3armerPs definition of non1authentic. ] Types of non1 authentic texts. 1 artificial 1 simulated authentic ] *imulated authentic texts9 prepare for real texts. ] <aterials we use9 1 authentic 1 simulated authentic 6. '=V74V'=N T3& %3'4@,&= '= <!T&,'!4 @&*'N= ] %ommunicati"e approach. ] 4earner1centred approach ] <aterial design9 *panish or &nglish class. ] $ay to introduce it9 -. Tell the class to pay close attention to the features of one acti"ity in the course book. /. Tell them to think of possible ways to make a similar acti"ity using the materials they normally ha"e at home ( pencils# glue# scissors# a dictionary# a word processor.) 8. Ni"e them the outline of an acti"ity. They will ha"e to prepare in pairs a flashcard or a worksheet to go with the acti"ity. A. '4'7N,!+3>. UNIT (*: CREATING MATERIALS FOR ENGLIS3 LESSONS. COURSE:9OO. SELECTION AND USE CRITERIA. AUT3ENTIC MATERIALS AND ADAPTED MATERIALS. INVOLVING PUPILS IN MATERIAL DESIGN. BDB 1. PRODUCING ENGLIS3 LESSON CURRICULAR MATERIALS There is an abundance of &nglish language materials on the market. +roducing our own material is a time1consuming process# so although teachers do not "ery often decide to produce all materials# they produce supplementary acti"ities to the course1book. 7nce we know our pupils characteristics and needs# we can deal with a production of material as worksheets# flash1cards# etc.# in order to include some "ariety# more practice and focus on an interesting item that there is not in the course1book. oth# flash1cards or worksheets# can be elaborated by our own pupils. (. CRITERIA FOR T3E SELECTION AND USE OF COURSE:9OO. %hoosing a course1book can be difficult. $e must consider9 %ontents9 if selected language is based on the ob:ecti"es *equence9 if contents are gradually presented in a cyclic way# pre"ious language and a little more. !cti"ities for all the learning moments (presentation# practice and production). 'f progression is adequate to the cogniti"e stage of children. *kills9 if it works the four skills !cti"ities9 if language is realistic# the topics are rele"ant to pupils# if there are communicati"e acti"ities. @esign9 if they are attracti"e for pupils and ha"e "isual backups for most presentations of new language. 'nstructions must be clear. +ractical considerations9 if price is suitable for children. 'f there is a"ailability of other materials9 tapes# work1books# "ideos# graded readings# teacher1book# acti"ities for e"aluation# [) The course1book help teacher by pro"iding an appropriately sequenced and structured programme# a wide range of material# economy of preparation time# practical teaching ideas# security# a reference to checking and re"iewing. ut teachers must adapt the course1books to their pupils needs. *. AUT3ENTIC, SIMULATED AND NON:AUT3ENTIC MATERIALS. %ommunicati"e competence is our main aim. To get it# children need materials which reflect the world outside. !uthentic materials are the ones produce for purposes other than to teach language9 "ideo1clips# TV programmes# radio and newspaper# signs# maps and charts# photographs and pictures# timetables# etc. !uthentic materials imply some difficulty but they prepare pupils to understand and manipulate language in real communicati"e situations. They get gradually used to the new element. !s beginners are not able to handle genuinely authentic texts# they need to ha"e practice in simulated texts that look authentic# so there is a certain degree of language control. <anipulating these texts they will acquire the necessary skills they will need when they handle authentic material. *imulated materials ha"e been designed specially for language learners# but they are similar to real situations. There is also artificial material# designed to illustrate particular language points in presentation stages. BD? &"en if there is a certain language control# simulated authentic materials are useful to acquire linguistic skills in communicati"e situations. 4. INVOLVING PUPILS IN MATERIAL DESIGN %ommunicati"e approach is a learner1centred approach. $e should make them participants of the material design process. eginners can make their own flash1cards with cut1outs or drawing their own cards to play afterwards. 't is dynamic# moti"ating and they ha"e a responsibility in their own learning process. 7lder pupils can also make materials that can be used with other pupils9 puppets# "ideo1 recordings# brochures# sur"eys# [ They can do it as a pro:ect. Teachers offer a topic or they can choose one of their interest. They make groups# search rele"ant information# prepare the design# di"ide the tasks into the group members and produce the item. Then# they show it to the rest of the class and the work is e"aluated by all of them. UNIT (4: TEC3NOLOGICAL AND PEDAGOGIC ASPECTS OF USING VISUAL, AURAL AND AUDIO:VISUAL MATERIALS. COMPUTERS AS ADDITIONAL RESOURCE IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. 1. VISUAL, AURAL AND AUDIO:VISUAL MATERIALS ! number of new techniques for teaching &nglish ha"e been de"eloped thanks to new technologies and the decease in price of appliances. These machines ha"e contributed greatly to the di"ersification of teaching acti"ities. They make learning more en:oyable and they are more and more widely used. V$'a1 +a%!2$a1' N!6'-a-!2'9 They are quite a"ailable and cheap. They include a wide "ariety of text types and a great amount of information from and about the target culture. 't is an interesting way to bring the real world into the learning situation. 't is also useful for integrating skills. ,eading material leads easily into discussions and writing acti"ities. *tories are interesting but date o"er "ery quickly. *o# it may be better to collect human interest stories which do not became out of date for a long period of time. 3owe"er# e"en older pupils find newspapers difficult because of the special grammar con"entions# unknown "ocabulary# cultural references# etc. we should teach them some of the con"entions of the newspaper style at a basic le"el. *ome acti"ities can be9 $riting and replying small ad"ertisements $riting and replying to letters to agony aunts ,eordering paragraphs BD. ,eplying to :ob ads +redicting horoscopes [. E-$')&-!: we can use this pro:ector to show any material to the whole group. 't is not useful for a long term. O,!27!a" -2&E!)%&2: 't is used with transparencies# which are "ery easy to elaborate. They can be partially co"ered and also superposed# so language can be presented gradually. They are good for presentation and correction. S1$"!': They can be easily made by the teacher or the pupils. They focus attention# being moti"ating and useful for story telling. C&+$)' an" '%&285&&0': +ictures are "ery moti"ating for children and help to understand the story. They usually ha"e short texts# with similar structures. They can be used to fill the bubbles# ordering the sequence# describing# retelling. Maga;$n!'9 They ha"e "ery attracti"e pictures# good for cut1outs. %hildren can create their own material or illustrate descriptions of famous people. P&'%!2'9 There is a wide range of posters and wall charts# in different types and si(es. They can be a guide for common expressions# reminders and "isual aides. Very useful for descriptions. F1a'7)a2"'9 They must be small and resistant# easy to manipulate. Nood for new "ocabulary presentation# games# hide and seek# pointing# [ 91a)05&a2"9 't is the most used in school. 't is good for spontaneous examples and presenting new language. The magnetic ones can be used for presenting or illustrating an issue. The magnetic cut1outs can get mo"ed and superposed. A2a1 Ma%!2$a1' Ra"$&: 's a wonderful way to de"elop listening skills. Nraded radio lessons offer the opportunity to listen to programmes adapted to the pupils abilities# moti"ating them to future authentic listening. 3owe"er# our pupils do not ha"e the necessary linguistic abilities to cope with radio programmes. Ca''!%%! 2!)&2"!2: The de"elopment of listening skills in the classroom situation relies on recorder material. %assettes pro"ide a good model of spoken &nglish. 't is "ery useful for introducing new language and songs. %hildrens utterances can be recorded to be conscious of pronunciation. They can contrast their performance with the good model and also it can be useful for checking pronunciation achie"ement. There must be B-D acti"ities for pre# while and post1listening. 't can be listened more than once. There could be a listening corner in the classroom. Langag! >1a5?: %hildren work indi"idually. 't is useful for practising oral drills. 't can also be boring and with no purpose. A"$&:,$'a1 +a%!2$a1' They include both# sound and pictures. T!1!,$'$&n ! TV language programme offers audio1"isual clues to meaning. *tudents hear the language and see the context. 't is a powerful moti"ator. 't brings the outside world into the classroom# it is a powerful stimulus to talk about. 't introduces the culture of the target language into the classroom and means a change from the teacher and the textbook# although it is difficult# for it cannot be repeated or stopped. V$"!& ,ecordings offer the possibilities a li"e programme cannot. Teachers can plan the acti"ities from a great range of sources9 4anguage1teaching broadcast Films# cartoons# ad"ertisements#[ TV programmes# documentaries Video recordings of classroom acti"ities Video recordings show language in a context. The learners can see why things are said in a different way. They can pick speakers feelings and attitudes. Video presentations allow re"iewing and comprehension questions# follow1up ideas and suggestions. They generate interest and moti"ation and a good atmosphere for a successful learning. Teachers must take ad"antage of the power of "ideo1films to create a successful language en"ironment. 't should be used as another technique for facilitating language acquisition. 4earners must take part and not think they are being entertained or watching TV passi"ely. 't is essential the gradual introduction of "ideo in the classroom. V$"!&:5a'!" 1!''&n -1ann$ng For a one1hour class# it is enough to use an extract of between three and fi"e minutes. 'f its length is of -A minutes or more# it is better to play it once through and then go back and concentrate on short extracts. Viewing the "ideo about three times gi"es us the chance to get familiar with it# study the language and beha"iour as well as language use. 'f the "ideo is difficult we may set the scene and explain a few words and sentences essential to understanding. For the first time students watch "ideo# we could set an acti"e "iewing task with techniques as silent "iewing# prediction# thinking and feeling# sound only# true or false sentences# etc. There is a technique which requires answering these questions after "iewing9 where# when# who# what# why# how; *ilent "iewing 9 the sound is turned down. 4earners can predict or guess what might be said. $hen the sound is played we can check whether their expectations were right. B-- Free(e frame 9 pressing the pause button allows to look more closely at indi"idual images# utterances# [ within a sequence. 't is useful for detailed language study# obser"ation and description. ,ole play 9 acting out in"ol"es practising the exact words of a dialogue. For that# learners will need to look at the script and reproduce gestures# expressions# etc. 't is important to be able to transfer language from the situation on the screen to their own usage. They can carry out creati"e acti"ities like changing the setting somehow. eha"iour study 9 it focuses on non1"erbal ways to express (facial expressions# gesture# dresses# physical contact) The main aim is to make learners conscious of the beha"iour con"entions in other cultures. They could be compared to beha"iour con"entions in their own culture. +rediction 9 the teacher stops the "ideo and asks what is going to happen next (look at the title and predict the topic# predict the end# guess the title# write the dialogue) Thinking and feeling 9 this technique focuses on emotions between characters and its relation with what it is said (body language# certain words# what the characters are thinking# how they would feel in case [# etc.) *ound only 9 the screen must be co"ered or turned round. 't is good for describing things or people# identifying things by sounds or following a description of something. $atchers and listeners 9 half the class watches the scene and the other half listens. The watchers explain to the listeners what they ha"e seen. 't is a good practice in speaking# obser"ation and accurate reporting. Telling the story 9 the learners watch the end of a "ideo sequence and try to construct the story. Then# they watch and contrast. %ulture comparison 9 it focuses on differences and similarities between the own culture and the target culture. 't makes learners aware of their own culture. Video camera 9 four steps can be suggested to make use of the "ideo recorder9 Talking head9 one person talking to the camera @ialogues9 people talking together Nroup discussion9 a group is filmed while discussing ! pro:ect work9 the use of a camera for recording interesting items# and also the learners performances in the target language. To e"aluate the "ideo# it must be reflected the aims of using it. if there are no specific learning aims# there is no point in making a film. C&+-%!2' 4earning with computers is quite new# as there are only programmes for beginners in certain areas# such as word building# "ocabulary# prepositions# etc. 't is "ery useful at personal le"el but not in con"entional schools. 't is quite expensi"e for a group and it needs some knowledge on how to operate it. *ometimes it makes tasks easier and more en:oyable. 't is highly moti"ating. The main acti"ities are matching# gap1filling# sentence correction# multiple choice# odd out# putting the paragraphs in order# relating parts# true or false# etc. B-/ There is a programme called 0Nrammar %hecker2 for spelling mistakes# punctuation# usage# [ but it cannot correct meaning and style. 't is good for teachers if programmes are already made. They can use the spare time to assist weaker pupils. 't can result boring sometimes. 't can only be used for written skills. T7+'% /6. T&%3=747N'%!4 !=@ +&@!N7N'%!4 !*+&%T* '= T*'=N !T@'71 V'*T!4 <!T&,'!4* (=&$+!+&,*# TV# T!+& ,&%7,@&,*# V'@&7# &T%.). %7<+TT&,* !* != !TU'4'!,> ,&*7T,%& F7, 4&!,='=N !=@ '<+,7V'=N F7,&'N= 4!=NT!N&* INDEX 0. INTRODUCTION 1. AUDIOVISUAL MATERIALS (. COMPUTERS AS AN AUXILIARY RESOURCE FOR LEARNING AND IMPROVING FOREIGN LANGUAGES 0. INTRODUCTION ! number of new techniques for teaching &nglish ha"e been de"eloped during the last ten years thanks to the fast de"elopment of new technologies and the decrease in price of appliances such as TV sets# "ideo machines# camcorders or computers. esides# the educational authorities ha"e tried to de"elop their use# lately the use of computers in particular with programmes such as 'ldea -lo!al, Info PPI, 0ducared# etc. These machines ha"e not only made our li"es easier but ha"e also greatly contributed to the di"ersification of teaching acti"ities when teaching a foreign language. %onsequently# new products ha"e been launched. =ew "ideo methods# new computer programs# make the learning more en:oyable and enable the teacher to widen current classroom teaching techniques. $e could say that these audio"isual technologies started to expand in the late -.BDs or early -.?Ds and are getting more and more widely used. 3owe"er there are other techniques based on technological de"elopment which are still used in the classroom and which date back a little farther. These techniques are not really 0audio"isual2# but we will study them9 newspapers# radio# cassette recorder# etc. $hen talking about the use of technology in the classroom ad"antages and disad"antages should be taken into account. B-8 !d"antages9 1 language is taught in its context 1 high moti"ation 1 it pro"ides creati"e opportunities 1 it broadens hori(ons and extends contacts 1 it means a great potential for a wide "ariety of acti"ities 1 it pro"ides flexible responses to learning problems @isad"antages9 1 ephemerality 1 difficulties in comprehension (language and structural) 1 it requires a lot of commitment on behalf of the teacher# who has to think that technology must ser"e himEher# but will ne"er replace himEher. 1. USING AUDIOVISUAL MATERIALS -.-. V'*T!4 <!T&,'!4* The student belongs to the 0image and sound generation2. Therefore# the learning process must include "isual and audio"isual materials which are so familiar to them. These images will encourage the student to communicate# as they are natural and moti"ating stimuli for them. They make the language used in the classroom look more real. The main functions of the image in the &nglish classroom are9 1 moti"ating function9 the students becomes acti"e. 1 it replaces reality9 the image is used in substitution of reality. 1 it creates situations9 the student gets in"ol"ed with it. 1 it suggests experiences9 the student is suggested interpretations or experiences that will lead himEher to real communication situations 1 informati"e function9 it transmits cultural aspects (customs# landscape# art# politics# celebrations[ of the country) 1 checking function9 the image is used for checking the studentsR understanding of the "erbal message. 1 concentration function9 it focuses attention on something. 1 reinforcing function9 the image supports understanding and memorising. $e will talk about the n!6'-a-!2 because it is an essential "isual material used in the &nglish classroom. &nglish1language newspapers are a"ailable world1wide on a daily basis. *ome originate from &nglish1speaking countries# others are locally produced. They are cheap and plentiful so newspapers can be useful in the classroom (the same happens with maga(ines). =ewspapers contain a "ery wide "ariety of text types and an immense range of information. They are therefore a natural source of many of the "arieties of written &nglish that become increasingly important as learners progress. B-6 ,eading newspapers is a way to transfer latent skills from the mother tongue to the language learning classroom. Those pupils who normally read newspapers in *panish will be recepti"e to the use of &nglish newspapers in the classroom. ,eading newspapers we exercise skimming and scanning skills. These skills are "ery useful for our pupils. =ewspapers are about the outside world so using them in the classroom is an interesting way to bring the real world into the learning situation. Tsing newspapers is also useful to integrate skills. The reading material leads easily into discussions and writing acti"ities. This integration of skills is also authentic as the response to what we read in newspapers is likely to be authentic and personal. Topicality is both an ad"antage and a disad"antage. %ontemporary stories are moti"ating# but also date quickly. For this reason# it may be better to collect human interest stories which do not date o"er a long period of time. Finally# we can say that newspapers are probably the best source of information about the target language culture. 3owe"er# there are also drawbacks. <ost learners find newspapers difficult9 special grammar con"entions# obscure cultural references# large amounts of unknown "ocabulary[ 4etting our pupils choose the text they wish to work with can get rid of many problems. efore the third cycle authentic newspapers shouldnRt be used# as the students could demoti"ate. 'n the third cycle we can teach them some of the con"entions of the newspaper style at a basic le"el. The acti"ities we may use will include9 1 writing and replying to small ads 1 writing and replying to letters to agony aunts 1 re1ordering :umbled paragraphs 1 re1ordering :umbled cartoon strips 1 completing cartoon speech bubbles 1 predicting horoscopes for class members 1 matching property ads with pupilsR needs 1 replying to :ob ads (role plays) 1 designing and elaborating a newspaper !ll these acti"ities can only be done at a "ery basic le"el with our pupils. 3owe"er# it is important to familiarise them with newspapers. They will be used by secondary teachers more extensi"ely and we must not forget that most educated people read one or more newspapers daily. 7ther "isual materials are photographs# the o"erhead pro:ector# realia# flashcards or drawings on the blackboard# rods# wall pictures# slides# etc. -./. !T,!4 <!T&,'!4* 3ere we can include the radio# the cassette recorder# the laboratory. The radio is not "ery common in the &nglish class. Though it is a "ery useful way to de"elop listening skills# our students do not ha"e the necessary linguistic abilities to cope with radio B-A programmes. The foreign language lab is hardly used now and it can be replaced by a computer lab. $e will speak more about the )a''!%%! 2!)&2"!2. Though much can be done by simply speaking while all the children follow what we say# it is clear that the de"elopment of listening skills in our classroom situation relies hea"ily on the uni"ersal a"ailability of a cassette of pre1recorded material. !ll new +rimary &nglish coursebooks ha"e a teacherRs cassette with the corresponding texts and songs. These cassettes pro"ide a good model of spoken &nglish and real language. $e can accustom our pupils to listen to recordings of simple stories or fairy tales with acti"ities to follow if we set up a listening corner in our classroom where we can ha"e two or three cassettes and the acti"ity books. The children will of course need to be trained in how to use a cassette player on their own# but they probably know how to play it already. 't is a good reinforcing material for slower students# who can work autonomously. 'f we use the cassette player to introduce new language we can always gi"e our pupils the possibility of listening to the recording more than once. 4istening materials suitable for our le"els are "ery simple and the range of acti"ities they include are somehow limited. $e must try to widen the range of acti"ities including pre1# while1 and post1 listening acti"ities which will impro"e the listening skills of our pupils. ,ecording de"ices can also be used to impro"e our pupilsR oral skills. They can record themsel"es noticing differences between their own pronunciations and the pronunciations of the cassette. This is also moti"ating for our pupils. 7ne acti"ity which promotes oral skills and moti"ates our pupils is recording their own songs in a tape. /.8. !T@'7V'*T!4 <!T&,'!4* !udio"isual materials proper include both sound and pictures. $e next study how to use the tele"ision# the "ideo and the camcorder in the classroom. ;elevision 'n relation to tele"ision# we can say that it is inherently a medium that has a great potential for moti"ating learners. 't pro"ides a wide "ariety of situations# accents# topics and presentation techniques. The real situations pro"ide a context for language exploitation. The language used offers the necessary authenticity. 't offers the possibility of exploiting studentsR current interests. Tele"ision pro"ides a wide range of paralinguistic clues L facial expressions# body mo"ements# etc. L that are "ery useful for comprehension. Tele"ision can introduce the culture of the country L food# clothes# buildings# etc. 1. ! ma:or ad"antage is that the same programme can adapted to different le"els# depending on the task students are asked to do. The role of the teacher becomes crucial to take the decision as to how to work the programmes. !s one of the B-5 ma:or problems of using tele"ision and "ideo in the classroom is the ephemerality of the medium# our task as teachers is to confront the pupils with acti"ities that build and reinforce the "iewing experience. %hildren may not understand a real TV programme# but that is not a problem. $atching regularly TV programmes especially made for nati"e children is "ery beneficial. ut we cannot expect children to answer questions or reproduce what they hear# e"en if they spend hours watching programmes in &nglish. TV programmes# such as cartoons# do not teach the language# but help internalise it. This kind of material must be authentic and interesting. The problem of using TV is that we cannot stop it. !lthough TV is an important aid for study# it fulfils its real importance in the classroom on "ideocassette. Cideo !s an addition to the teacherRs resources# "ideo offers an interesting and moti"ating aid to learning. 't brings the outside world into the classroom# it offers examples of new language and is a stimulus to the classroom communication. Video materials used in language teaching come from a wide range of sources9 1 "ideo recordings of language1teaching broadcasts and films 1 "ideo recording of domestic tele"ision broadcasts# such as comedy and news programmes 1 "ideo recordings of specialists films and tele"ision programmes such as documentaries produced by industry# or educational programmes 1 "ideo language1teaching materials made for the classroom rather than for public transmission or broadcasts 1 self1made "ideo films# in"ol"ing the teachers and learners. The combination of sound and "ision is dynamic# immediate# and accessible. This means that communication can be shown in a context) it is what we could call language in action. $e find out straight away about the speakers in dialogues since they can be seen and heard. This way# we find out about their ages# their sex# whether they are related or not to each other# the place where the situation is taking place# etc. $ith all this information the learner can clarify whether the situation is formal or informal# etc. ,egister is the way in which we say things depending on the people we are talking to and our relationship with them. The learner can see why things are said in a different way. $atching the "ideo# sEhe can :udge relationships and feelings from the speakerRs gestures# facial expressions# posture# distance from each other# dress and surroundings. !ll these factors influence or reflect what people say and how they say it# and only "ideo can show them fully. 4ike any feature film or TV programme# a "ideo will use close1ups of people# places and things to emphasise or explain what it is going on. The camera technique helps learners to understand the narrati"e and the characterRs beha"iour and moti"ation. B-B 7ne more important aspect to think of is that learning a language is not only a matter of structures and words. %ultural factors are a "ery important part of language learning. Video allows the learner to see the target language at work. !lthough the audio"isual features of "ideo films are found in cinema films and tele"ision broadcasts too# they do not offer the same facilities for classroom exploitation. 7n top of that we must not forget the electronic tricks to create special effects and images. !ll these pre"ious aspects make the "ideo material interesting. !t their best# "ideo presentations will be intrinsically interesting to language learners# and they will want to watch more# e"en if comprehension is limited# and should ask questions and follow1up ideas and suggestions. y generating interest and moti"ation# the "ideo films can create a climate for successful learning. $e ha"e to make it clear that the "ideo recorder cannot and does not replace the teacher. 't changes his or her role so that teachers become more facilitators adapting the materials to the needs of indi"idual classes or pupils. 4earners should not be exposed to long excerpts whose body of texts would be so demanding that could create more frustration than encouragement. !s a general rule# it is much better to choose a short excerpt and to work thoroughly on it. !n adequate approach could consist of three phases9 1 in the first phase the "ideo is :ust being played so that pupils become familiar with the materials they are going to watch 1 before the second phase takes place# some "ocabulary might be taught but it is not necessary. 'n this phase the "ideo is paused frequently so that attention can be focused on specific items of "ocabulary and the actual teaching and learning acti"ities can be initiated. 1 phase three is aimed to reinforce the work that has been done. @epending on how challenging the materials ha"e been# the "ideo can be played through or paused at different stages for pupils to process what is being said. *ome techniques for the use of "ideo are9 - *ilent "iewing9 playing the "ideo with the sound turned down for no more than two minutes. The learners watch it and decide what is happening and what the speakers are saying. / Free(e frame9 pressing the +ause button on the "ideo recorder to free(e the motion of the screen. This allows the learner to look more closely at indi"idual images or utterances within a sequence. 't is useful for detailed language study# obser"ation# and description. 8 ,oleplay9 it is# together with acting# one of the most useful ways of using new language through a "ideo. !cting out in"ol"es practising the exact words of a dialogue# while roleplaying means that the learners use their own words and personalities to act out the situation they ha"e seen on the screen. B-? 6 eha"iour study9 it concentrates on the non1"erbal ways in which people express themsel"es L facial expressions# gesture# posture# dress# physical contact# etc. The main aim is to sensitise learners to con"entions of beha"iour in another culture. A +rediction9 the teacher stops the "ideo and elicits from the class what happens or what is said next. They can predict the topic after looking at the title# predict the end# guess the title# write the dialogue# the synopsis# etc. 5 Thinking and feeling9 this technique is designed to focus on the thoughts and emotions of the characters in a sequence# and their relation to what is said. The learners ha"e to say how the speaker is feeling# gi"ing reasons for their choice. The teacher can also as 0$hat are the characters thinking;2 or e"en 03ow would you feel in a situation like this;2 B *ound only9 the opposite of silent "iewing. 'nstead of not listening# the learner can listen but has to imaging the picture. The technique pro"ides practice in describing things or people# identifying things or people from their description and following an oral description of something. ? $atchers and listeners9 half the class watch the screen and the other half listen. Then the watchers explain to the listeners what they ha"e seen. This pro"ides practice in speaking# obser"ation and accurate reporting. Video impro"es both listening and speaking skills# but it can also be used to impro"e writing ones# with exercises and acti"ities# :umbles# word soups# etc. &"en at higher le"els learners can be asked to complete a script# to take short notes about what is being said# or produce short summaries. T7! ,$"!& )a+!2a !t a certain stage (after rehearsal# but at any le"el) students can be in"ited to produce their own material and record it in "ideo. 't is a high moti"ating task# but it requires time and technical mastery. The teacher andEor the learners should operate the "ideo camera and equipment competently. Then a wide "ariety of stimulating pro:ects can be undertaken. *peaking abilities are de"eloped# but also self1confidence# work in groups# organisation and order# care for the class materials# etc. Four steps can be suggested to make use of the camcorder9 1 a talking head9 one person talks to the camera 1 dialogues9 two or three people are filmed talking together 1 group discussion9 a larger group of people are filmed in discussion 1 pro:ect work9 a freer use of the "ideo facilities The acti"ities that can be carried out can be categorised in groups9 B-. 1 language1training "ideo9 which presents to the learners some aspects of communication in the target language 1 recordings of the learners9 which allow them to see and hear themsel"es performing in the target language 1 "ideo pro:ects controlled by the learners# which offer the learners the opportunity of working together in the target language $ith small children the exploitation of the "ideo camera will be on the part of the teacher# but it will be as stimulating and instructi"e as with older students. The "iewing will be# in this case# the most important part of the process. For both small and older students the "iewing is en:oyable and surprising# and means the moment of feedback. /. %7<+TT&, !* != !TU'4'!,> ,&*7T,%& F7, 4&!,='=N !=@ '<+,7V'=N F7,&'N= 4!=NT!N&* !lthough they ha"e been used for teaching since the -.5Ds# computers only became practical and affordable for language learning in the early -.?Ds# when relati"ely inexpensi"e personal computers first became a"ailable. The first %omputer1!ssisted 4anguage 4earning (%!44) programs were mainly used for manipulating words and sentences# playing games with students# testing them# and gi"ing them feedback on their performance. Tsed in this way the computer has often been described as the 0medium of the second chance2 (because the acti"ities usually let you try more than once to get the answer right) and of risk1taking (because you can make mistakes in your answers without other students knowing). !s computers became more powerful# and multimedia software became practical# the early -..Ds saw the emergence of %@1,7<s# storing complete encyclopaedias or language courses with text# graphics# and audio or "ideo. %ommercial products of this sort# which are professionally produced# reliable# and straightforward to use# ha"e a place in many classrooms. 7f course# the teacher must know how to work the computer and the program. The students ha"e the mastery already. &"ery school has now its computer room and each learner can sit down and work. The use of a computer is an excellent way to set remedial work. =ot only does the learner ha"e access to it at any time (with a computer at home)# but has a reliable source if the program has been properly de"eloped# and# what is more# the computer ne"er gets tired# irritable or impatient. 't is particularly good for learners who cannot cope with a more traditional teaching approach. !s in "ideo learning# computer learning makes use of a series of techniques that eases the task and makes it more en:oyable and entertaining. !nd pupils find that using computers is highly moti"ating. The number of interacti"e programs on the market has increased a lot# but not all of them are useful for the class. <any are for adults and are still focused on the language# not on the content# as the machine cannot grasp meaning. They work on pronunciation# B/D repetition# grammar and "ocabulary exercises. The communication is still something that has to do with human beings. +rograms that children can use are made specially for them# some are for the learning of &nglish but do not focus on grammar# but on concentration games# memory games# tales# cookery recipes# numbers and letters# paintings# etc. 7thers are not specially sold for learning &nglish# but has the option of using it in this language. They are "ery moti"ating for our students and they learn the language unconsciously and in a playful way. 'n many ways# howe"er# the challenges presented to both students and teachers by %7! In%!2n!% can pro"ide a more interesting# rewarding experience. The =et is a huge# rich resource. 'ts main distinguishing feature is that it is a medium of exploration# which releases creati"ity and imagination. The 'nternet is beginning to transform language learning9 1 first of all by making a"ailable to teachers and students an enormous range of information and resources 1 as a means of communication 1 not only in writing# but it is beginning to allow audio and "ideo communication 1 it leads to more cross1curricular work 1 for their potential to moti"ate. The students# once they are working on the computer# unless they need help# take the attention away from the teacher# though the teacher must co1ordinate and assess. This allows more flexibility in managing the lesson# and in particular there is often more time to work with indi"iduals and groups than in an ordinary class. <ost of the acti"ities with the 'nternet require small groups# they are not usually done indi"idually. <aterials from the 'nternet can be used with a "ariety of le"els by allowing students themsel"es to choose the kind of material they work with# and by "arying the kind of task they are asked to perform. For example# if students ha"e to "isit newspaper sites in order to produce their own newspaper# they can be gi"en a choice of $ebsites# of the kind of news they select# and of the task they are to carry out with the news they find. There are also steps to work with computers9 -.+re1computer work9 in some cases# before beginning an acti"ity on the computer# it will be necessary to pre1teach "ocabulary# or a specific function or structure. 'n e"ery case# howe"er# you will need to ensure that the students know exactly what they ha"e to do when they begin work on the computers. /. %omputer work9 'f the acti"ity has been well prepared# and the students suitably trained# the teacher should inter"ene only if sEhe is asked for help. 'nstead# the teacher will monitor what the students are saying and doing. 8. +ost1computer work9 it is important that anything done in the computer room should be transferable to the normal classroom# and any 'nternet acti"ity should be planned from the outset with some kind of follow1up acti"ity in mind. $here"er possible# B/- students should ha"e something physical that they can take away with them from the computer room# so that they ha"e a record of what they ha"e done for follow1up work or for end1of1course1 re"ision. 7ne drawback of the 'nternet is that it is a huge# rich resource# much of it yet unplanned. The "ariety of resources is so great that deciding how to exploit resources once you find them can be a challenge in itself. >ou ha"e to plan the lessons "ery well in order to ensure your studentsR 'nternet time is producti"e in terms of language learning. UNIT (I: LEARNER:CENTRED FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEAC3ING AND LEARNING. ADVANTAGES, RUDIMENTS AND APPLICATIONS. IDENTIFICATION OF ATTITUDES TO/ARDS FOREIGN LANGUAGE. ITS APPLICATIONS. 1. LEARNER:CENTRED FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEAC3ING AND LEARNING !ll class acti"ities can be done using information that learners themsel"es bring to the class. This methodology in"ol"es pupils acti"e partaking# and e"ery single acti"ity is based on the knowledge and experience of our pupils. The ad"antages of this method are9 &xploding learners potential9 interests# ideas# beliefs# [ !nalysis of needs9 analysis is always positi"e for de"eloping abilities +re"ious learning experience9 teachers must know their interests and needs. 4earners as authors9 they prepare their material +eer teaching and correction9 they learn from each other 4earners learn better when the content is rele"ant to their past experience and present concerns. They learn how to learn. There are different types of learners9 A)%$,! 1!a2n!2'9 through games# pictures# "ideo#[ They need to use the language by doing things. Ana18%$)a1 1!a2n!2'9 they prefer studying grammar# through books# finding their own mistakes# [ C&++n$)a%$,! 1!a2n!2'9 they en:oy learning by obser"ing and listening to nati"e speakers# talking to friends# watching TV# [ A%7&2$%8:&2$!n%!" 1!a2n!2'9 they like teachers to explain e"erything# taking notes# reading# etc. These differences must be taken into account to follow the principles of learner1centred teaching. 'f our learners prefer traditional learning acti"ities we should start with them and try to mo"e gradually towards acceptance of more communicati"e acti"ities. Ma%!2$a1' They are by definition limited to those produced by the learners in the class. The material should reflect the outside world and ha"e some authenticity. B// L!a2n$ng 7&6 %& 1!a2n @ifferent pupils ha"e different ways of learning and different preferences about materials. They must become more and more independent and effecti"e learners. %ogniti"e learning 9 planning# hypothesising# reflecting# classifying# matching# predicting# [ *ocialisation 9 collaboration# peer1corrections# [ %ommunication 9 participation# [ 't is extremely important the curiosity and a positi"e attitude towards foreign language learning. 3!%!2&g!n!$%8 There are mixed1ability groups# so homogenous materials cannot pro"ide effecti"e practice. 't has a positi"e effect on pupils attitude. A''!''+!n% an" !,a1a%$&n &"aluation in"ol"es both# teachers and pupils. +upils should learn how to assess their own progress and also materials# acti"ities# etc.# to be aware of their own role as acti"e agents during the learning process. +upils can fill a diary form about what they ha"e learnt# what mistakes ha"e been made# what they would like to learn next# [ T!a)7!2K' 2&1! 'n a learner1centred approach the teacher will be a curriculum de"eloper. 3eEshe must adapt the syllabus to the pupils# contribute with ideas and opinions# answer pupils questions on "ocabulary# grammar or procedures# pro"ide what pupils ask for# etc. There can be some resistance from learners who ha"e specific preconceptions about the learning process. *ome learners will feel that they are only learning when doing the type of acti"ities they are used to. 'n any syllabus there would always be pupil1centred teaching acti"ities. To face the responsibility for the sequence of e"ents in the classroom it is necessary to record all the work done. (. IDENTIFICATION OF MOTIVATIONS AND ATTITUDES TO/ARDS ENGLIS3. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS. ! learner1centred course should be :ustified in terms of rele"ance and moti"ational potential for our pupils. $e must know first the type of pupils we ha"e. $e need their description and interests. 7nce their needs are analysed# we can get to know their moti"ations and attitudes towards &nglish. $e need to know their language proficiency and patterns of language use# and also their sub:ecti"e needs# such as expectations and attitudes towards &nglish# which are much more difficult to diagnose. $e can use standardised inter"iews and proficiency assessments# classroom obser"ation# self1rating scales# .. &.g.9 3ow do you like learning; $hen you speak# do you want to be corrected; B/8 $here do you like learning from; @o you find these acti"ities useful; @o you find your &nglish is impro"ing; T&<! /A EL PROCESO DE ENSESANZA ; APRENDIZA9E EN LA LENGUA E8TRAN9ERA CENTRADO EN EL ALUMNO< FUNDAMENTOS ; APLICACIONES. LA IDENTIFICACION DE LAS MOTIVACIONES ; ACTITUDES ANTE LA LENGUA INGLESA. APLICACIONES PRACTICAS. D. '=T,7@T%T'7= -. 4&!,=&,1%&=T,&@ F7,&'N= 4!=NT!N& T&!%3'=N !=@ 4&!,='=N9 -.-. !d"antages. -./. Theoretical bases. -.8. <ethodology in a learner1centred curriculum -.6. <aterials in a learner1centred curriculum. -.A. !ssessment and e"aluation in a learner1centred curriculum. -.5. The role of the teacher. -.B. +otential problems. -.B.-. 4earner resistance. -.B./. &xternal restraints. -.B.8. @emands on the teacher. /. '@&=T'F'%!T'7= 7F <7T'V!T'7=* !=@ !TT'TT@&* T7$!,@* &=N4'*39 'T* !++4'%!T'7=*. /.-. Techniques for identification of moti"ations and attitudes. /./. !pplications. 8. '4'7N,!+3> B/6 D. '=T,7@T%T'7=. %ampbell (-../) has stated that the main principle in learner1centred teaching is that all class acti"ities can be done using information that the learners themsel"es bring to the class. 't is true that humanistic approaches - also accept acti"e pupil in"ol"ement in learning methodology# but learner1centred teaching is more radical because it belie"es that e"ery single one acti"ity can be based on the knowledge# experience# and expertise of our pupils. 4earner1centred teaching can be used in different ways in the &nglish classroom. 't can be any of the following9 1 the only method used in the classroom 1 a complement of other materials# pro"iding topicality and practising language not co"ered by other materials 1 a set of remedial procedures to use in unpredicted situations such as poor attendance 1. LEARNER:CENTRED FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEAC3ING AND LEARNING: $e next study tile most important aspects of a learner1centred curriculum9 1 ad"antages 1 methodology 1 materials 1 assessment 1 the role of the teacher 1 problems -.-. !d"antages. %ampbell (-../) mentions nine ad"antages of using learner1centred teaching9 1 the potential of the learner 1 constant needs analysis 1 topicality 1 pre"ious learning experience - 3umanistic approaches consider the following principles important9 the de"elopment of human "alues) growth in self1awareness and in the understanding of others) sensiti"ity to human feelings and emotions) acti"e pupil in"ol"ement in learning. *ee unit -8 for further information. B/A 1 learners as authors 1 pace B/5 1 the element of surprise 1 peer teaching and correction 1 group solidarity ;he potential of the leanier. 7ur pupils bring a lot with them into the classroom. They ha"e their own ideas# beliefs# attitudes and interests. These things are "ery important for them# so# if they can see them reflected in the way they learn &nglish and the acti"ities within the classroom they will be more moti"ated to use language for effecti"e communication. 't is easier for a pupil to talk freely about a topic he himself has chosen# and therefore# he can draw on his knowledge to talk about# than about a topic which may be totally irrele"ant. The way to fluency is more direct this way. 't is also important not to forget that a great part of the knowledge our pupils bring with them into the classroom is their mother language and culture. 4earner1centred teaching encourages them to incorporate this into their target language competence. #onstant needs ana:sis. 'n learner1centred teaching# analysis is a continually de"eloping process. !cti"ities are chosen to met the current needs of its members. !s our pupils carry out an acti"ity# we spot the problems they ha"e and introduce suitable practice acti"ities in subsequent lessons. !s we can see# the analysis ne"er stops. ;opicality. 4earner1centred teaching allows us to introduce those issues our pupils are interested in into the classroom. This may be used to supplement or replace unsuitable coursebooks topics. .revious learning e+perience. ' learner1centred approach offers an open1ended experience to our pupils. $e gi"e them a basic framework that they must complete according to their interests and needs. This way# the same framework can e"ol"e in completely different ways with different groups. &"en if we repeat the same acti"ity it may be different if the members of the group are different. earners as authors. 4anguage practice is doubled in learner1centred learning because our pupils are in"ol"ed not only in using the materials but also in preparing them as well. They will be interested in seeing how other people will use the materials they ha"e prepared so they ha"e a real1life reason to pay attention in the feed1back stage. B/B .ace. +reparation work is longer in learner1centred acti"ities. 3owe"er# as the acti"ity progresses# the pace increases. !lso# the in"ol"ement of our pupils is total from the "ery beginning. ;he element of surprise. The fact that pupils in a learner1centre teaching situation do not ha"e the materials in ad"ance# adds a strong element of surprise to the lesson. =ot only do our pupils not know what is coming before the lesson starts# but they are often unable to l.9redict how the lesson will d elop# and how the material they ha"e produced will be used. .eer teaclang and correction. 4earner1centred teaching encourages pupils to work together and learn from each other# thus increasing their le"el of sociali(ation. !cti"ities are structured in such a way that our pupils ha"e to pay attention to what their colleagues are saying. They can teach and correct each other. This working together means that the class can pool whate"er indi"idual linguistic resources they ha"e. -roup solidarity. The fact that our pupilPs work together in acti"ities which are based in their interests and needs will tend to create a spirit of group solidarity. 4earners are working with one another# not in competition with one another and therefore the atmosphere of the classroom is one of really purposeful commitment to learning &nglish. 1.(. T7!&2!%$)a1 5a'!'. The basic principle of permanent education in the Neneral 4aw of *panish &ducational *ystem (47N*&) can only be achie"ed if the instructional programmes are centred around learnersP needs. 7nly in this way should education de"elop in our pupils the capacity to control their own destiny. Therefore# the learner should be seen as being at the centre of the educational process. earing this in mind# the following principles of learner1centred curricula can be identified9 1 pupils who "alue their own experience as a resource for further learning or whose experience is "alued by others are better learners 1 pupils learn best when the learning ob:ecti"es are congruent with their current self1concept 1 pupils react to experience as they percei"e it# not as we present it B/? 1 pupils do not learn when they are o"er1stimulated or stressed 1 pupils learn best when the content is rele"ant to past experience or present concerns and the learning process is rele"ant to life experiences 1 pupils who ha"e learnt how to learn are the most producti"e learners 1 pupils learn best when new information is presented through a "ariety of sensory modes $e next study how these principles are reflected in all aspects of pupil1centred teaching. 1.*. M!%7&"&1&g8 $n a 1!a2n!2:)!n%2!" )22$)1+. Traditional approaches to language teaching ha"e tended to separate considerations of syllabus design from methodology. *yllabuses specify the OwhatO of teaching whereas methodology specifies the OhowO. 'n recent times# the shortcomings of this lack of integration ha"e become apparent# and there ha"e been calls for a more integrated approach. 'n learner1centred models# all the elements are in interaction and each may influence the other. This change in perspecti"e has been prompted more by the de"elopment of communicati"e language teaching than anything else9 for communicati"e language teaching to become a reality# there was a need for methodologies to reflect curriculum goals. ! communicati"e curriculum uses pedagogic tasks which must be linked in principled ways to the real1world tasks pupils might be required to engage in outside the classroom. 4earnercentred approaches draw on these acti"ities and in studies on classroom acquisition which may pro"ide psycholinguistically moti"ated learning tasks. ut this is not enough because so far the language learner# who is the centre of our methodology# has been neglected. $hat happens if our pupils do not see as helping him learn acti"ities which we consider to be communicati"e and psycholinguistically :ustified; 'f we want to adopt both a communicati"e and a pupil1centred approach we may find oursel"es in a big problem. *ome pupils fa"our more traditional learning acti"ities rather than communicati"e type acti"ities. !n analysis of pupils data re"eals that there may be four types of learners9 4 concrete learners* they prefer learning by games# pictures# PVideo# talking in pairs# learning through the use of the cassette ... B/. 4 analytical learners* they prefer studying grammar# studying &nglish books# studying alone# finding their own mistakes# ha"ing problems to work on ... 4 communicative learners* they en:oy learning by obser"ing and listening to nati"e speakers# talking to friends in &nglish# watching TV in &nglish ... 4 authority4oriented learner* they like the teacher to explain e"erything# writing e"erything in a notebook# ha"ing their own textbook# learning to read ... !s we can see it is "ery difficult to use a communicati"e approach with analytical andauthority1oriented learners if# at the same time# we want to follow the principles of learner centred teaching. These pupils may say things like O' donMt want to clap and sing. I want to lean 0nglish. ] ;hese differences must be taken into consideration and a process of negotiating learning acti"ities should begin. 'f our pupils do not belie"e in the learning "alue of communicati"e acti"ities we can begin by setting traditional learning acti"ities# and gradually try and mo"e our pupils towards acceptance of more communicati"e acti"ities. The danger here is that our pupils get used to these traditional acti"ities and do not want to change into communicati"e ones later on. For this reason some teachers prefer to make quite clear their expectations from the beginning. $hate"er choice is made we must pro"ide the maximum amount of information to learners# and set up mechanisms to facilitate negotiation and consultation. 1.4. Ma%!2$a1' $n a 1!a2n!2:)!n%2!" )22$)1+. +upil1centred teaching materials are by definition limited to those produced by the learners in class. Therefore paper and pen are usually all that is needed though the use of more sophisticated equipment such as photocopiers# audio or "ideo recorders and so on may be moti"ating. The focus will be on assisting our pupils to do in class what they will be able to do outside# the materials should reflect the outside world. To do this# they should ha"e a degree of authenticity. The materials should also foster independent learning B1!a2n$ng 7&6 %& 1!a2nC and# as all our classes ha"e mixed ability groups of learners# materials should be designed so that they are capable of being used in a "ariety of ways and also at different proficiency le"els. $e now study these characteristics in detail. 1.4.1. A%7!n%$)$%8. B8D =unan (-.??) describes authenticity as follows9 ]'uthentic materials are usually defined as those which have !een produced for purposes other than to teach language. ;hey can !e culled from many different sources* video clips, recordings of authentic interactions, e+tracts from television, radio and newspapers, signs, maps and charts, photographs and pictures, timeta!les and schedules. ] @espite the difficulties associated with the use of authentic materials# they are easily :u# Pified on the grounds that specially scripted texts are artificial. %omprehending and manipulating this type of texts does not mean that our pupils will comprehend and manipulate language in real communicati"e situations and this is one of the principles of communicati"e language teaching that we ha"e adopted. $hile authenticity is generally thought of in terms of the materials used in a gi"en teaching acti"ity# there are other factors which may be equally important. %andlin and &delhoff (-.?/) suggest that there are at least four types of authenticity which are important in our classrooms9 1 authenticity of goal 1 authenticity of en"ironment 1 authenticity of text 1 authenticity of task =unan (-.??) thinks that the most important type of authenticity is what he called Olearner authenticityO. y this he means ]the realisation and acceptance !y the learner of the authenticity of a given te+t, task, set of materials or learning activity]. 'f we want our pupils to think that the materials we use are authentic they must fulfil two conditions9 -. They must be recognised by learners as ha"ing a legitimate place in the language classroom. /. They must engage the interests of our pupils by relating to their interests# background knowledge and experience# and through these# stimulate genuine communication. 't is important to make our pupils realise that they are learning something. This is especially easy with traditional acti"ities# such as drills or translations# but new# communicati"e acti"ities may seem to them a waste of time. 'n some acti"ities we can ha"e# as Na"in olton said of drama# a unique pedagogic situation# where a teacher sees B8- himself as teaching# but our pupils do not see themsel"es as learning. The second condition is easily fulfilled if we take into account our pupils characteristics and needs. The problem is that these two conditions can be mutually exclusi"e. Tele"ision can be an engaging experience for our pupils# at home# but they may not legitimate its presence in the classroom. 'n this case we must found a process of negotiation# through which our pupils are gradually sensitised to the new element. Those who take a hard line on authenticity insist that these should not be edited in any way. 3owe"er# especially with our pupils# who are beginners# it may be necessary to edit authentic materials in a way. &dited materials can be classified into simulated authentic and artificial. 1.4.(. L!a2n$ng 7&6 %& 1!a2n. 4earning to learn approaches take into account that different pupils ha"e different ways of learning (as we ha"e seen when discussing learnersP types). This means that they also ha"e different preferences regarding learning materials. Therefore# the materials we use must aim to de"elop self1awareness and gradually lead pupils to a conscious de"elopment of their own learning strategies# so that they become more effecti"e and independent learners. This entails using materials that enable our pupils to acquire the following strategies9 -. <etacogniti"e strategies# such as planning for learning# hypothesi(ing# self1assessment and reflection on the learning process. /. %ogniti"e strategies# such as sorting# classifying# matching# predicting# using dictionaries# repeating ... 8. *ocial mediation strategies# such aPs collaborating and peer1correction# which may be de"eloped by means of materials designed for pair or group work. 6. %ommunication strategies# that is# using phrases to enable them to participate and maintain communication in &nglish# e.g.# %an you say that again, please? !cquiring learning to learn processes de"elops our pupilsP curiosity and fosters a positi"e attitude towards foreign language learning. This is extremely important with our pupils as one of the main aims of +rimary foreign languages education is to familiari(e our pupils with &nglish. This will prepare them for more formal and exam1oriented courses in secondary school. B8/ 1.4.*. 3!%!2&g!n!$%8. 3eterogeneous materials can be used at different le"els of proficiency. !s all classes are composed of mixed1ability groups# homogeneous materials cannot pro"ide effecti"e practice for all our pupils) they may be too difficult for the weak pupils and may lack in "olume or challenge for the stronger. The use of heterogeneous exercises not only ensure that a higher proportion of our pupils get learning "alue out of the practice# it also has a positi"e effect on our pupilsP attitude as responses at different le"els may be right. The pre"ious characteristics should be present in learner1centred materials. 1.I. A''!''+!n% an" !,a1a%$&n $n a 1!a2n!2:)!n%2!" )22$)1+. =o model would be complete without an e"aluation component. $e normally use the terms evaluation and assessment interchangeably# but they may mean different things for theoreticians. 'ssessment is taken to refer to the set of processes by which we :udge pupil learning. &"aluation# on the other hand# is wider term# entailing assessment but also some additional processes which are designed to assist us in interpreting and acting on the results of our assessment. 'n any pupil1centred system# localised e"aluation processes in"ol"ing both teachers and pupils need to be de"eloped. 7ur pupils should learn how to assess their own progress# and also e"aluate# from their own perspecti"es# other elements within the curriculum including# materials# acti"ities# and learning arrangements. *uch pupil1centred e"aluation will assist in the de"elopment of a critical self1consciousness by learners of their own role as acti"e agents during the learning process. This is one of the main goals of a pupil1centred approach. *elf1assessment at basic le"el should not take a complex form. 7ur pupilsP learner diary typical sheet may take the following form9 PUPILcS DIARY %ompleta una ho:a cada semana. -. &sta semana lie estudiado .... B88 /. &sta semana he aprendido ... 8. &sta semana he usado el inoles en ... 6. &sta semana he hablado con ... A. &sta semana he "isto los siguientes programas en in -5s ... 5. &sta semana he cometido estos errores ... B. <is dificultades han sido ... ?. <e eustaria saber .. .. 4a semana que "iene "oy a aprender ... 1.L. T7! 2&1! &# %7! %!a)7!2. $hithin a pupil1centred system# the teacher has a central role to play in all aspects of the curriculum. !ccordina to =unan# in traditional curricular systems# the teacher is reduced to the role of ser"ant to a centralised curriculum process in which decisions about what will be taught# how it will be taught and how it. will be assessed are made by an authority remote from the point of lesson deli"ery. 'n a pupil1centred system such a control is undesirable. 7ur curriculum sets a group of shared minimum contents which may well be differentiated in terms of topics# themes# materials# learning tasks according to the particular teaching situation we are in. The main role of the teacher in a learner1centred approach will be that of curriculum de"eloper. 3e must adapt the curriculum to his pupilsP characteristics (third le"el of concreteness). 3e must adapt the planned curriculum# which is set down in curriculum documents# to his teaching situation# implemented curriculum. Finally# he will assess what the pupils actually learn (assessed curriculum). @eri"ed from this main role of curriculum de"eloper# we may find others such as9 1 participant 1 resource 1 monitor or assessor !s acti"e participants we contribute ideas and opinions or relate personal experiences# helping to bridge the traditional gap between pupil and teacher. 'n learner1based teaching# the teaching and learning are taking place on both sides. B86 $e are also a resource# answering our pupils questions on "ocabulary# grammar of acti"ity procedures. y pro"iding what our pupils ask for# rather than what we think they need# we can facilitate more effecti"e learning. !t other times we will be assessors or monitors# checking what learners ha"e produced. This assessing could be o"ert or co"ert. 'n communicati"e acti"ities it is not "ery con"enient to interrupt our pupils. 1.G. P&%!n%$a1 -2&51!+'. %ampbell finds three main problems9 1 learner resistance 1 external restraints 1 demands on the teacher 1.G.1. L!a2n!2 2!'$'%an)!. 4earner resistance arise with groups of learners who ha"e specific preconceptions about the learning process. This will not normally happen with our youngest pupils as it is the first time they are learning &nglish# but it may well happen if they ha"e had a different teacher during the second and third cycles of primary education. *ome learners will feel that they are only learning when doing the type of acti"ities they are used to. ! gradual introduction of learner1centred acti"ities may con"ince our pupils of their "alue. 1.G.(. E=%!2na1f2!'%2a$n%'. &"en if you are required to follow a syllabus which# despite ha"ing been appro"ed by .iie *chool oard and the teaching staff# you do not quite like# you may find that it is still possible to co"er parts of the syllabus using pupil1centred teaching acti"ities. 1.G.*. D!+an"' &n %7! %!a)7!2. 'f we follow a pupil1centred approach we are faced with the responsibility for the sequence of e"ents in )he classroom# a role which was normally left to the coursebook in con"entional teaching. 't is therefore essential to keep a record of all work done. $e can make this in a pupil1centred way as well if the pupils collaborate in the production of a regular class newsletter# which B8A ser"es as a summary of all that has been achie"ed o"er a period of time# and reassures all concerned that progress is being made. (. IDENTIFICATION OF MOTIVATIONS AND ATTITUDES TO/ARDS ENGLIS3: ITS APPLICATIONS. $e ha"e already studied the main features of a learner1centred curriculum. $e now know that the contents of a learner1centred course should be :ustified in terms of rele"ance and moti"ational potential for our pupils. $e must now analy(e procedure which ha"e the potential for generating different curricula for learners with different moti"ations and attitudes towards &nalish. The starting point is generally the collection of "arious types of biographical data. This description of our pupils is ob"iously the same one we need in order to select and design materials for them9 DESCRIPTION OF PUPILS -. !ge9 Q. :um!er4 of !oys and girls* R. )amiliar !ackground* ^. .arentsM occupation* _. &otivation1attitude* B. <nowledge of the world* ?. <nowledge of 0nglish* @. Interests* >. .upils with special needs* =[. .upils with discipline pro!lems* ==. Based on the a!ove, what conclusions can we draw a!out the kind of materials that would !e suita!le for our pupils? 7nce we know our pupils we can begin a needs analysis procedure to get to know their moti"ations and attitudes towards &nglish. B85 =eeds1analysis made its appearance during the -.BDs in language planning. 't ser"es three main purposes9 1 obtaining wider input into the content# design and implementation of a language programme 1 de"eloping goals# ob:ecti"es and content 1 pro"iding data for re"iewing and e"aluating existing programmes 'nitially needs assessment was linked to accountability and rele"ance in political terms rather than to educational aims. =owadays# howe"er# taking account of our pupilsP needs when designing the cours of instruction is well established. 7ur pupilsP need can be di"ided into two groups9 1 ob:ecti"e 1 sub:ecti"e 7b:ecti"e needs are those which can be diagnosed by teachers on the basis of the analysis of personal data about learners along with information about their language proficiency and patterns of language use. *ub:ecti"e needs# which are the moti"ations# attitudes# expectations towards &nglish we are more interested in# are more difficult to diagnose# e"en by our pupils themsel"es. 7b:ecti"e needs analysis results in content specifications deri"ed from an analysis of the communicati"e situations our pupils are likely to find themsel"es. !s they are deri"ed from the language situation# they can be carried out in the absence of our pupils. 7n the other hand# sub:ecti"e needs are deri"ed from the learners themsel"es. $hile there is a tendency to equate ob:ecti"e needs with the specification of content# and sub:ecti"e needs with the specification of methodology# the two need not be seen as synonymous. 'n learner1centred approaches techniques for sub:ecti"e needs analysis will therefore figure as prominently as techniques for ob:ecti"e needs analysis. (.1. T!)7n$@!' #&2 $"!n%$#$)a%$&n &# +&%$,a%$&n an" a%%$%"!'. Techniques for data collection and course planning can be ranged on a continuum from formal to informal. Formal techniques include standardised inter"iews and proficiency assessments# while informal techniques include such things as classroom obser"ation and self1rating scales for use by learners in e"aluating learning acti"ities. B8B !t the initial data1collecting stage# we will probably not need all the data listed in the following sur"ey. 't may be interesting# howe"er# to see the wealth of information we can get from our pupils referring to their sub:ecti"e needs (moti"ations# attitudes and expectations). This sur"ey is a practical application of the learner1centred approach theory in relation to the identification of our pupilsP moti"ations and attitudes towards &nglish. (.(. A--1$)a%$&n'. The following questionnaires ha"e been adapted from rindley e3unan# (-.??9-?B)f9 !. @ime si el siguiente use del inglKs es importante para ti. (<ucho# regular# nada) -. Tell people about yourself ... /. Tell people about your family ... /. Tell people about your interests ... 8. Tse busesEtrainsEferries ... 6. Find new places in the city .. A. ,ecei"e telephone calls ... 5. <ake telephone calls ... B. Foin hobby or interest groups ... ?. $atch TV ... .. 4isten to the radio ... -D. ,ead newspapersEbooksEmaga(ines ... --. Ni"eEacceptErefuse in"itations ... &lige los cinco usos que quieras aprender en primer lugar. - / 8 6 A B8? . _%Hmo to gusta aprender; %ontesta *'E=7 -. 'n class do you like learning a. indi"idually; b. in pairs; c. in small groups; d. in one large group; /. @o you like learning a. by memory; b. by problem sol"ing; c. by getting information for yourself; d. by listening; e. by reading; f. by copying from the board; g. by listening and taking notes; h. by reading and making notes; i. by repeating what you hear; 8. $hen you speak do you want to he corrected a. immediately# in front of e"eryone; or ... b. later# at the end of the acti"ity# in front of e"eryone; c. later# in pri"ate; 6.@o you mind if other pupils sometimes correct your written work; @o you mind if the teacher sometimes asks you to correct your own work; @o you mind if the teacher asks you to correct some other pupilsP work; A. @o you like learning from a. tele"isionE"ideo filmsP; b. radio; c. tapesEcassettes; (e. g. language lab# language masters# cassette players) d. written material; e. the blackboard; f. picturesEposters; B8. 5. @o you find these acti"ities useful; a. ,ole play b. 4anguage games c. *ongs d. Talking with and listening to other students e. <emorising con"ersationsEdialogues f. Netting information from guest speakers g. Netting information from planned "isits B. 3ow do you like to find out how much your &nglish is impro"ing; y ..... a. written tasks set by the teacher; b. oral language samples taken and assessed by the teacher; c. checking you own progress by making tapes# listening to the critically and comparing them; d. de"ising your own written tasks for completion by yourself and other students; e. seeing if you can use the language you ha"e learnt in real1life situations; ?. @o you get a sense of satisfaction from9 a. ha"ing your work graded; b. being told that you ha"e made progress; c. feeling more confident in situations that you found difficult before; 'n this way we can get practical information about our pupilsP moti"ations and attitudes# enabling us to use the principles of learner1centred teaching in our classroom so that we could make the most of its ad"antages. For example we can use the following learnercentred acti"ity in order to practise the simple present and physical description "ocabulary. First# we draw a circle on the board. *econdly# we tell our pupils they are going to build this into a character deciding pre"iously whether it is a man or a woman. =ext# we continue to ask questions to build up the physical representation on the board# e.g. 6oes he have a moustache?, Is he fat? ... $e continue to ask questions about where he li"es# his :ob# interests# family and so on. $e point out contradictions e.g. he is =B and father of three. 's our pupils come with suggestions B6D the pace increases and our pupils will point out contradictions and suggests alternati"es by themsel"es. B6- *. 9I9LIOGRAP3Y. rewster# F.) &llis# N. and Nirard# @. ;he .rimary 0nglish ;eacherMs -uide. +enguin. 4ondon -../. rumfit# %.F.# and Fohnson K. (eds) ;he #ommunicative 'pproach to anguage earning. 7T+. 7xford# -.B.. %ampbell# %. and Krys(ewska# 3. earner4 Based ;eaching. ,A.. 7xford# -../. %rystal# @. ;he #am!ridge 0ncyclopedia of anguage. #A.. %ambridge# -.?B. 3armer# F. ;he .ractice of 0nglish anguage ;eaching. 4on1man. 4ondon# -.?8. 3alliwell# *. ;eaching 0nglish iii the .rimary #lassroom. 4ongman. 4ondon# -../. (There exists *panish translation9 a 0nseiian3a del Ingles en la 0ducacion .ribraria. 4ongman. 4ondon# -..8. ) 4ittlewood# $. #ommunicative anguage ;eaching. #A.. %ambridge# -.?-. =unan# @. ;he earner4#entred #urriculum. #A.. %ambridge# -.??. ,ichards# F.%.# and ,odgers# T.*. 'pproaches and ðods in anguage ;eaching. #A.. %ambridge# -.?5. ,ichards# F.%.# +latt# F.# and +latt# 3. 6ictionary of anguage ;eaching and 'pplied inguistics. 4ongman. 4ondon# -../. *a"ignon# *. #ommunicative #ompetence* ;heory and #lassroom .ractice. !ddison1$esley. ,eading# <ass. # -.?8. $idowson# 3.N. ;eaching anguage as #ommunication. ,A.. 7xford# -.B?. B6/ 22<Un$&#& D$&V(t$(# 1 de 1er Ciclo Primaria O>9ETIVOS Los objetivos generales de etapa indican las capacidades que los alumnos habrn adquirido al final de la educacin primaria. Estos objetivos se concretan en los objetivos de los dos ciclos (segundo y tercero) de la etapa en los que se imparte la lengua extranjera. As, los objetivos de segundo ciclo se refieren al primer contacto con la lengua extranjera; por ello, si iniciamos el aprendizaje en el primer ciclo, pensamos que stos son los objetivos que expresan las capacidades que los alumnos deben haber adquirido al terminar el primer ciclo de primaria. Para alcanzar estos objetivos hemos de disear una serie de unidades didcticas cuyos objetivos se concretan y se corresponden con los mismos. T#3,# & O3Dt$%*) O>9ETIVOS DE ETAPA O>9ETIVOS DEL PRIMER CICLO O>9ETIVOS DE LA UNIDAD DIDRCTICA 1.- Comprender textos orales y sencillos relativos a objetos , situaciones y acontecimientos prximos y conocidos. 1.- Comprender la informacin especfica de textos orales sencillos referentes a situaciones conocidas.
1 Comprender la informacin global y especfica de textos orales sencillos referentes al entorno de la clase y a situaciones que impliquen saludar y despedirse; nombrar, identificar y contar objetos de la escuela y mascotas. 2.- Utilizar de forma oral la lengua extranjera para comunicarse con los dems en el aula mediante las situaciones creadas para este fin, atendiendo a las normas bsicas de la comunicacin interpersonal y adoptando una actitud respetuosa hacia las aportaciones de los dems. 2.- Utilizar la lengua extranjera de forma oral para comunicarse con el profesor y con los compaeros en las actividades habituales de la clase y en las situaciones creadas para reste fin, respetando las distintas aportaciones. 2 Utilizar la lengua extranjera de forma oral para comunicase con el profesor y los compaeros en situaciones que implican saludar y despedirse; nombrar, identificar y contar objetos de la escuela y mascotas, respetando las distintas aportaciones y normas de convivencia. 3.- Producir textos escritos breves y sencillos sobre temas familiares, respetando las reglas bsicas del cdigo escrito. 3.- Producir textos escritos muy sencillos sobre funciones o situaciones familiares, mostrando inters por conocer las reglas bsicas del cdigo escrito. 3 Desarrollar la motricidad mediante ejercicios de pre-escritura.
4.- Leer de forma comprensiva textos cortos y sencillos, relacionados con sus conocimientos, experiencias e intereses. 4.- Leer de forma comprensiva textos cortos y sencillos, previamente trabajados de forma oral y relacionados con sus mbitos de inters y experiencia. 4.-
5.- Reconocer y apreciar el valor comunicativo de las lenguas extranjeras y la propia capacidad para aprender a utilizarlas, mostrando una actitud positiva de comprensin y respeto hacia otras lenguas, sus hablantes y su cultura. 5.- Reconocer y desarrollar las capacidades personales para aprender a utilizar la lengua extranjera como vehculo de comunicacin.
5 Reconocer y desarrollar las capacidades personales para comunicarse en ingls en situaciones que implican saludar y despedirse; nombrar, identificar y contar objetos de la escuela y mascotas, mostrando una actitud positiva. 6.- Comprender y utilizar algunas convenciones lingsticas y no lingsticas empleadas por los hablantes de la lengua extranjera - saludos, despedidas, presentaciones, felicitaciones, etc. - para facilitar la comunicacin. 6.- Comprender algunas convenciones lingsticas para interpretar el mensaje transmitido.
6 Comprender algunas convenciones lingsticas y no lingsticas para interpretar el mensaje transmitido: saludos, despedidas, presentaciones, identificacin de objetos de la clase, animales. B68 7.- Utilizar los conocimientos y las experiencias previas con otras lenguas y desarrollar progresivamente las estrategias de aprendizaje autnomo. 7.- Reconocer la importancia de los recursos utilizados en el aprendizaje de otras lenguas para su aplicacin en el aprendizaje de la lengua extranjera. 7 Reconocer los recursos empleados en el aprendizaje de otras lenguas (repetir rimas, imitar sonidos, memorizar nombres) para iniciar el aprendizaje de la lengua extranjera. 8.- Establecer relaciones entre el significado, la pronunciacin y la representacin grfica de algunas palabras y frases sencillas, as como reconocer aspectos sonoros rtmicos y de entonacin caractersticos de la lengua extranjera. 8.- Establecer relaciones entre significado, pronunciacin y representacin grfica del vocabulario estudiado y utilizado en frases sencillas - enunciativas e interrogativas - con el ritmo y entonacin adecuados. 8 Establecer relaciones entre significado y pronunciacin del vocabulario relativo a la escuela, mascotas y de situaciones que impliquen saludos, despedidas, presentaciones, y utilizarlo en frases sencillas con el ritmo y entonacin adecuados. 9.- Utilizar los recursos expresivos no lingsticos - gestos, postura corporal, sonidos diversos, dibujos, etc. - para comprender y hacerse comprender en la lengua extranjera. 9.- niciar la reflexin sobre el uso de los recursos no lingsticos como vehculo de comunicacin de la lengua extranjera. 9 niciar el uso de recursos no lingsticos (gestos, posturas, entonacin) en la comunicacin oral. CONTENIDOS 1. PROCEDIMENTALES 1.1. R,#t$%*) # ,# (*5.n$(#($Wn *!#, 1. mitacin de la pronunciacin de frases sencillas. 2. Comprensin de mensajes orales sencillos. 3. Utilizacin del saludo y la despedida a la entrada y la salida de clase; as como en juegos. 4. Participacin activa en intercambios orales en grupo. 5. Anlisis de una informacin oral, expresando si es verdadera o falsa. 6. Formulacin y respuesta de preguntas sencillas y breves. 7. dentificacin de los objetos de la clase por el tacto y la vista. 8. Respuesta a ordenes breves y sencillas en juegos. B66
1.2. R,#t$%*) # ,# (*5.n$(#($Wn )(!$t# 1. Desarrollo de la motricidad a travs de ejercicios de preescritura 1 .
1.3. R+,-$Wn )*3! ,# ,n'.# 1. Revisin de vocabulario. 2. Reflexin sobre los progresos realizados en clase. 3. Enumeracin en un dibujo de los objetos aprendidos en clase. 4. Memorizacin de estructuras trabajadas. 5. Memorizacin de vocabulario y nmeros 2 . 6. Desarrollo de estrategias de aprendizaje por medio de rimas y juegos.
1.0. A)"(t*) )*($*(.,t.!#,) 1. Utilizacin de las normas y hbitos de presentacin y despedida.
This is a table, chair, book, pencil, door, bin, rubber, bag, notebook, teacher, pupil, ruler blackboard, window, pen and duster 3 . nty, Minty, tipsy, toe Olla, bolla, domino Oker, poker, dominoker Out you go
Pronunciacin del vocabulario y expresiones B6A Preguntar por los objetos de la clase y mascotas Despedirse Preguntar por informacin personal
Contar del 1 al 16
Seguir instrucciones dentificar mascotas What's this? s this a ...? Goodbye Who are you? Who is he/she? One, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven and twelve, thirteen, fourteen, fifteen and sixteen 4 . Stand by, point at. This is a dog, cat, horse, cow, peacock and duck 5 .
2.2. R,#t$%*) # ,# (*5.n$(#($Wn )(!$t# 2.3. R+,-$Wn )*3! ,# ,n'.# 1. Lxico referido a las situaciones ms habituales de clase y a los intereses especficos de los alumnos en el entorno del aula 2. Funciones comunicativas: saludar, presentarse... 3. Rimas.
2.0. A)"(t*) )*($*(.,t.!#,) 1. Reglas y hbitos de la vida cotidiana inglesa, comparados con los de la lengua materna 6 .
3. ACTITUDINALES 3.1. R,#t$%*) # ,# (*5.n$(#($Wn *!#, 1. nters por comunicarse en ingls. 2. Gusto por la participacin activa. B65 3. Atencin y respeto a los mensajes orales emitidos por otros compaeros 7 . 4. Superar las barreras iniciales en el aprendizaje de la lengua extranjera. 5. Respeto a las reglas de los juegos 8 . 6. Reconocimiento de la importancia de ser capaz de comunicarse en una lengua extranjera.
3.2. R,#t$%*) # ,# (*5.n$(#($Wn )(!$t# 1. Valoracin de las tareas de pre-escritura en el proceso de aprendizaje.
3.3. R+,-$Wn )*3! ,# ,n'.# 1. Curiosidad por conocer las formas de presentacin, saludo y despedida en ingls. 2. nters en el conocimiento del vocabulario, como ayuda para la comunicacin. 3. Reconocimiento del progreso del proceso de aprendizaje.
3.0. A)"(t*) )*($*(.,t.!#,) 1. Actitud receptiva y de respeto ante comportamientos sociolingsticos y de convivencia como presentaciones y despedidas 9 . 2. nters por el medio ambiente y sensibilizacin hacia las cuestiones medio ambientales 10 . -. Conexin con otras reas: artstica, lengua castellana. /. Conexin con otras reas: matemticas y conocimiento del medio. 8. Conexin con otras reas: conocimiento del medio. 6. Conexin con otras reas: matemticas A. Temas transversales: educacin ambiental 5. Temas transversales: educacin moral y cvica. B. Temas transversales: educacin moral y cvica. ?. Temas transversales: educacin moral y cvica. .. Temas transversales: educacin moral y cvica. B6B -D. Temas transversales: educacin ambiental CRITERIOS DE EVALUACI:N O>9ETIVOS DE LA UNIDAD DIDRCTICA CRITERIOS DE EVALUACI:N 1. Comprender la informacin global y especfica de textos orales sencillos referentes al entorno de la clase y a situaciones que impliquen saludar y despedirse; nombrar, identificar y contar objetos de la escuela y mascotas. 1. Extraer informacin especfica de textos orales sencillos en situaciones de comunicacin cara a cara con sus compaeros y el profesor, referentes al entorno de la clase y a situaciones que impliquen saludar y despedirse; nombrar, identificar y contar objetos de la escuela y mascotas. 2. Utilizar la lengua extranjera de forma oral para comunicase con el profesor y los compaeros en situaciones que implican saludar y despedirse; nombrar, identificar y contar objetos de la escuela y mascotas, respetando las distintas aportaciones y normas de convivencia. 2. Participar en conversaciones breves de forma oral cara a cara con sus compaeros y el profesor, referentes al entorno de la clase y a situaciones que impliquen saludar y despedirse; nombrar, identificar y contar objetos de la escuela y mascotas, respetando las diferentes aportaciones y normas de convivencia. 3. Desarrollar la motricidad mediante ejercicios de pre-escritura. 3. Localizar y dibujar siguiendo lneas de puntos los objetos y las mascotas aprendidos. 4. 4. 5. Reconocer y desarrollar las capacidades personales para comunicarse en ingls en situaciones que implican saludar y despedirse; nombrar, identificar y contar objetos de la escuela y mascotas, mostrando una actitud positiva. 5. Utilizar los conocimientos adquiridos para comunicarse en ingls en situaciones que implican saludar y despedirse; nombrar, identificar y contar objetos de la escuela y mascotas, mostrando una actitud positiva. 6 Comprender algunas convenciones lingsticas y no lingsticas para interpretar el mensaje transmitido: saludos, despedidas, presentaciones, 6. nterpretar el mensaje transmitido, mediante convenciones lingsticas y no lingsticas. B6? identificacin de objetos de la clase, animales. 7. Reconocer los recursos empleados en el aprendizaje de otras lenguas (repetir rimas, imitar sonidos, memorizar nombres) para iniciar el aprendizaje de la lengua extranjera. 7. Utilizar los recursos empleados en el aprendizaje de otras lenguas (repetir rimas, imitar sonidos, memorizar nombres) para iniciar el aprendizaje de la lengua extranjera. 8. Establecer relaciones entre significado y pronunciacin del vocabulario relativo a la escuela, mascotas y de situaciones que impliquen saludos, despedidas, presentaciones, y utilizarlo en frases sencillas con el ritmo y entonacin adecuados. 8. Relacionar el significado y pronunciacin del vocabulario relativo a la escuela, mascotas y de situaciones que impliquen saludos, despedidas, presentaciones, y utilizarlo en frases sencillas con el ritmo y entonacin adecuados. 9. niciar el uso de recursos no lingsticos (gestos, posturas, entonacin) en la comunicacin oral. 9. Utilizar los recursos no lingsticos (gestos, posturas, entonacin) en la comunicacin oral. ESTRUCTURA DE LA UNIDAD DIDRCTICA Cada una de las actividades que aparecen en la Unidad Didctica tiene la misma estructura: unos objetivos especficos de la actividad, que estn relacionados con los objetivos de la Unidad Didctica, indicados entre parntesis; la descripcin de la actividad; el lenguaje bsico que se utiliza en la actividad, al cual se hace referencia en el listado de contenidos conceptuales; la duracin aproximada; el nivel de dificultad y la distribucin de los alumnos en la clase. Algunos de estos apartados se han omitido al coincidir en algunas de las actividades que se van repitiendo a lo largo de la Unidad. 1. MASCOTAS. En el poster de cada leccin siempre aparece el dibujo de un animal que ser la mascota del da. En este caso todos son animales domsticos, tema que se est trabajando en 1 de primaria. Presentamos a la mascota del da en ingls y animamos a nuestros alumnos a que digan cosas que saben sobre la misma. Al finalizar las actividades propuestas para el da, siempre se ir a la lmina de las mascotas y se localizar el animal que se ha presentado, para repasar las lneas de puntos que definen su contorno y cuyo trazado sirve como ejercicio de pre- escritura. B6. Al finalizar la Unidad Didctica siempre est previsto que se cuente un cuento, en el que aparecen todas las mascotas que se han estudiado. Un alumno saldr a la pizarra, donde tambin estar colocado el poster, e ir sealando todos los animales que van apareciendo en el cuento. Con esta actividad pretendemos desarrollar la atencin y la comprensin auditiva. Desde el primer momento, se utilizarn todos los recursos que estn a nuestro alcance para que nuestros alumnos sean capaces de entender lo ms posible del cuento. 2. PRESENTACION DEL VOCA>ULARIO. El primer centro de inters que hemos elegido, para iniciar la primera de una serie de unidades didcticas que van a completar un curso escolar ha sido En el colegio, centrndonos en &a clase; y lo creemos necesario, porque se trata del entorno ms inmediato en el que a partir de ahora se va a desenvolver el alumno. No slo se presenta el nuevo vocabulario, sino tambin las funciones comunicativas y estructuras, que servirn de soporte para el desarrollo de la Unidad. En todo momento se intentar utilizar la lengua inglesa en el aula, haciendo uso el profesor de todos los recursos que estn a su alcance para hacer ms fcil su comprensin. 3. RECUERDA - REPASO. Despus del primer da de curso, iniciamos la leccin repasando lo que se ha aprendido hasta ese momento. Siempre se hace el repaso a travs de juegos. La presentacin de todo lo que se va a aprender se basa en lo que ya se ha aprendido. Creamos en nuestros alumnos la necesidad de comunicarse; se les plantean tareas que tienen que resolver. 0. 9UEGOS. El juego nos va a ayudar, tanto a repasar todo lo que se ha aprendido con anterioridad, como a presentar nuevos contenidos. La mayor parte de los juegos que presentamos fomentan el trabajo en grupo. A travs del juego los alumnos se conocen, participan, comparten, cooperan, compiten, se divierten, aprenden. A travs del juego hacemos que en el aprendizaje de la lengua inglesa intervengan los sentidos: la vista, el oido, el tacto, el gusto, el olfato. Para resolver problemas que se plantean en algunos de los juegos que se presentan, es imprescindible utilizar el conocimiento proporcionado por otras materias. 2. RIMAS. Con las rimas y canciones pretendemos que nuestros alumnos practiquen la pronunciacin, el ritmo, la entonacin y la memorizacin. Aunque cada da se les ensea una parte de la rima, siempre se recita toda. Al principio de curso es importante que los alumnos se conozcan, por lo que pensamos que se trata de una rima ideal para poder formar grupos heterogneos. En lo sucesivo, siempre que se quieran formar grupos se utilizar este mtodo. 4. POSTERS. BAD En cada uno de las lminas que tiene el alumo, se hace una sntesis de todas las actividades que se van a realizar a lo largo de la leccin. Siempre al finalizar cada leccin el alumno localiza, tanto en el pster de las mascotas como en el de la clase, todo el vocabulario que se ha aprendido, pasando posteriormente a repasar las lneas de puntos. Se recomienda que los psters se coloquen ampliados en la pizarra y que se vayan completando al mismo tiempo que los alumnos. Estos posters los utilizaremos como diccionario de clase y como soporte para realizar otras muchas actividades. L))*n 1< MB +$!)t En',$)/ (,#)) XLV5$n# 1 Y
1. PRESENTATION A$5 Students will be able to understand and produce greetings and introductions. (1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) P!*(&.! f this is the first lesson, it might be interesting to start by greeting your students by means of the expression "Good morning." Ask them to repeat this expression as many times as you consider necessary for them to get used to it. Once they have practised the expression "Good morning", introduce yourself by saying "'m ..." Then, go on by adding the question "Who are you?", so that your students answer by saying 'm ..., interacting with the teacher. L#n'.#' C*55.n$(#t$% +.n(t$*n) greeting others and introducing oneself. V*(#3.,#!B #n& -"!))$*n) Good morning, 'm ... T$5 1OF L%, U A(t$%$tB whole class work
2. GAME 1 BA- A$5 Students will be able to greet others and introduce themselves. (2, 5, 8, 9) P!*(&.! Ask children to stand in a circle, and then throw a ball to one of the students. The child who has caught the ball is told to say: "Good morning, 'm ..." Now, ask the child to throw the ball to another student in the circle, who will also greet the others and introduce him/herself. This game will be finished once every student has played with the ball. L#n'.#' C*55.n$(#t$% +.n(t$*n) greeting others and introducing oneself. V*(#3.,#!B #n& -"!))$*n) Good morning, 'm ... T$5 12F L%, U A(t$%$tB Whole class work. M#t!$#, A soft ball.
3. GAME 2 A$5 Students will be able to greet others and introduce themselves and others. (1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) P!*(&.!
n a circle, you, as part of the group, greet and introduce yourself to the other members of the class. mmediately afterwards, introduce the one next to you by saying "This is ..." Now, do the same with other members of the group. Ask the last child you have introduced to go on by greeting and introducing him/herself and the one next to him/her. The game will be finished once everybody has played. L#n'.#' C*55.n$(#t$% +.n(t$*n) greeting others and introducing oneself and others. V*(#3.,#!B #n& -"!))$*n)< Good morning. 'm... This is ... T$5 12F L%, UU BA/ A(t$%$tB Whole class work
0. MASCOT A$5 Students will develop favourable attitudes towards the environment and respect towards animals. Students will be able to identify animals. (1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) P!*(&.!
Direct attention to the mascot of the lesson and introduce him/her by saying: "This is a DOG." Ask students to repeat it after you and to find it in the picture of the class. Tell them that they will find mascots in every lesson. L#n'.#' C*55.n$(#t$% +.n(t$*n)< dentifying animals. V*(#3.,#!B #n& -"!))$*n)< This is a dog. T$5 2F L%, U A(t$%$tB Whole class work
2. RH;ME A$5 Students will be able to pronounce and memorize the first line of the rhyme, paying attention to intonation. (7) P!*(&.!
Recite the whole rhyme aloud and ask students to repeat the first line after you. L#n'.#'
IntB, M$ntB, t$")B, t* Olla, bolla, domino Oker, poker, dominoker Out you go T$5 1OF L%, UU A(t$%$tB Whole class work BA8
4. POSTER A$5
Students will be able to locate in the picture the words learnt. Students will be able to write over dotted lines. (3) P!*(&.! Ask students to find the dog in the poster, to draw over the dotted lines and finally, to colour it in. T$5 2F L%, U A(t$%$tB ndividual work M#t!$#, Poster
6. CARDS A$5
Students will make identification cards in order to ask for personal information. (2, 3) P!*(&.! Tell students to cut out the cards which will be found at the end of the unit. Ask them to write their names on and to keep their cards for the next day. T$5 2F L%, U A(t$%$tB ndividual work M#t!$#, Cards, rounded tip scissors, safety pins. t could be recommended to seal the cards in plastic to protect them.
7. SA;ING GOOD>;E A$5 Students will be able to say "goodbye". (1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) BA6 P!*(&.!
Say "goodbye" to your students at the end of the class and ask them to repeat what they have heard. L#n'.#'
C*55.n$(#t$% +.n(t$*n): Saying Goodbye V*(#3.,#!B #n& -"!))$*n)< Goodbye T$5 2F L%, U A(t$%$tB Whole class work L))*n 2< MB (,#))!**5 XLV5$n# 2 Y 1. PRESENTATION P!*(&.! Start the lesson by saying "Good morning" and revising the mascot presented in the previous lesson. T$5 2F
2. MASCOT P!*(&.! Direct attention to the mascot of the lesson and introduce him/her by saying "This is a CAT." Ask students to repeat it after you and to find it in the picture of the class. L#n'.#' V*(#3.,#!B #n& -"!))$*n)< This is a cat. T$5 2'
3. GAME 1A!%$)$*nC A$5 Students will be able to inquire about classmates' identity. (1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) P!*(&.! Ask students to stick their cards on and to sit in a circle. BAA Then, throw a ball to one of the students and ask him/her the question "Who are you?". Once he has said his/her name, he is told to throw the ball to any other classmate and to ask his/her name. Go on with the activity until you consider the revision has been completed. L#n'.#'
C*55.n$(#t$% +.n(t$*n): Asking for and giving personal information. V*(#3.,#!B #n& -"!))$*n)< ZWho are you?"." 'm ..." T$5 1OF L%, U M#t!$#, A(t$%$tB Whole class work Cards and safety pins.
0. VOCA>ULAR; GAME AL$)tn #n& &$)(!$5$n#tC A$5 Students will be able to identify classroom objects. (1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) P!*(&.! Show students a book and say the word "BOOK" at the same time. Ask students to repeat the word after you. Do the same with PENCL, CHAR and TABLE. Continue the activity as above, but introducing the expression "This is a ...". Now, show the students the objects and using the expression "s this a ...?" ask them to say YES or NO, depending on whether the object shown goes with the word pronounced or not. Once we have practised enough with the four objects, ask them "How many objects have we learnt today?". The objects will be shown again and at the same time the numbers will be said aloud "ONE, TWO, THREE, FOUR". Ask students to repeat them after you. L#n'.#' C*55.n$(#t$% +.n(t$*n)< dentifying objects and counting. BA5 V*(#3.,#!B #n& -"!))$*n)< Table, chair, book and pencil. This is a ... s this a ...? Yes/No. T$5 12F L%, U A(t$%$tB Whole class work. M#t!$#, Classroom objects.
2. RH;ME A$5 Students will be able to pronounce and memorize the first and second line of the rhyme, paying attention to intonation. (7) P!*(&.!
Recite the whole rhyme aloud and ask students to repeat the first and second line after you. L#n'.#' IntB, M$ntB, t$")B, t* O,,#, 3*,,#, &*5$n* Oker, poker, dominoker Out you go T$5 1OF L%, UU A(t$%$tB Whole class work.
4. POSTER P!*(&.! Ask students to find the CAT in the poster and to draw over the dotted lines. Ask students to find the four words presented in class: BOOK, TABLE, PENCL, CHAR and to draw over the dotted lines. T$5 1OF L%, U A(t$%$tB ndividual work. BAB M#t!$#, Poster.
6. SA;ING GOOD>;E A$5 Students will be able to say "goodbye". (1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) P!*(&.!
Say "goodbye" to your students at the end of the class and ask them to repeat what they have heard. L#n'.#'
C*55.n$(#t$% +.n(t$*n): Saying Goodbye V*(#3.,#!B #n& -"!))$*n)< Goodbye T$5 2F L%, U A(t$%$tB Whole class work
L))*n 3< MB (,#))!**5 XLV5$n# 3 Y 1. PRESENTATION AND REVISION P!*(&.! Start the lesson by saying "Good morning" and revising the mascots presented in the previous lessons: DOG and CAT. Ask the children about their identities by means of the expression "Who are you?" Then, ask them to name and count the four words learnt in the previous lesson: TABLE, BOOK, CHAR and PENCL. T$5 6F
2. MASCOT BA? P!*(&.! Direct attention to the mascot of the lesson and introduce him/her by saying "This is a HORSE." Ask students to repeat it after you and to find it in the picture of the class.
L#n'.#' V*(#3.,#!B #n& -"!))$*n)< This is a horse. T$5 3F
3. GAME A$5 Students will be able to identify and count classroom objects. (1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) P!*(&.!
Show students a BAG and say the word "BAG" at the same time. Ask students to repeat the word after you. Do the same with DOOR, BN and RUBBER. Continue the activity as above, but introducing the expression "This is a ...". Add the four objects learnt in the previous lesson to the ones presented today. Now, show the students the objects and using the expression "s this a ...?" ask them to say YES or NO, depending on whether the object shown goes with the word pronounced or not. Once we have practised enough with the eight objects, ask them "How many objects have we learnt today?" The objects will be shown again and at the same time the numbers will be said aloud: "ONE, TWO, THREE and FOUR." Ask students to repeat them after you. Now, ask them "How many objects have we learnt so far?" Do the same as above emphasising the numbers FVE, SX SEVEN and EGHT. L#n'.#' C*55.n$(#t$% +.n(t$*n)< dentifying classroom objects and counting. V*(#3.,#!B #n& -"!))$*n)< Door, bin, rubber and bag. Five, six, seven and eight. This is a ... Yes/No. s this a ...? T$5 2OF L%, U BA. A(t$%$tB Whole class work. M#t!$#, Classroom objects.
2. RH;ME A$5
Students will be able to pronounce and memorize the first, second and third line of the rhyme, paying attention to intonation. (7) P!*(&.! Recite the whole rhyme aloud and ask students to repeat the first, second and third lines after you. L#n'.#' IntB, M$ntB, t$")B, t* O,,#, 3*,,#, &*5$n* O1!, "*1!, &*5$n*1! Out you go T$5 1OF L%, UU
A(t$%$tB Whole class work.
4. POSTER P!*(&.! Ask students to find the HORSE in the poster and to draw over the dotted lines. Ask students to find the four words presented in class DOOR, BN, RUBBER and BAG and to draw over the dotted lines. T$5 1OF L%, U A(t$%$tB ndividual work.
B5D 6. SA;ING GOOD>;E P!*(&.! Add to the expression "Goodbye" "See you tomorrow." B5-
Topic 1 - Language As Communication Oral and Written Language. Factors That Define A Communicative Situation Sender, Receiver, Functionality and Context.