Topic One

Diagnosis methods:
Endoscopes, which use visible light
CAT scans, which use x-rays
Ultrasound, which use sound waves

Treatment methods:
Ionising radiation, usually in the form of
gamma rays and x-rays
Non-ionising radiation in the form of light
(lasers) and ultrasound
Radiation is energy carried by waves or
particles from a source
The intensity of radiation will decrease
with distance from a source according
to the nature of the medium through
which it is travelling
This is calculated through the equation:
intensity=power of incident
radiation/area
Light is focused on the retina by the actions of
the cornea and the lens.

The average adult human eye has a near
point of about 25cm and a far point of infinity.


Long sighted people can focus on distant
objects but not near ones. It is caused by
the eyeball being too short and therefore is
fixed with a converging lens.
Short sighted people can focus on close
objects but not far ones. It is caused by the
eyeball being too long and therefore is
fixed with a diverging lens.
Contact lenses are also available to
correct vision- although they can cause
infection and irritation to the eyes.
Laser correction is also an option where
a laser is used to permanently alter the
shape of the cornea to make it act as a
converging/diverging lens dependant
on the patients requirements
Here we have
reflection.
This is refraction. This
occurs because the
light ray slows as it
enters the glass due
to the density. It
therefore bends
towards the normal.
This is total internal
reflection, this occurs
when the angle of
incidence is greater
than the critical
angle.
To calculate the critical
angle:
Sin C=1/n
(n being the refractive
index)
Snells law explains
refraction:

Sin i/sin r = nr/ni
(with n being the
refractive index)
TIR in fibre optics:
Light enters a fibre and reflects continually off the wall.
Some of the optical fibres carry light inside them which
reflects off the inside of the body and is focussed by the
lens.
This can be used in an endoscope in order to examine a
patient, but also allow keyhole surgery and therefore a
faster recovery time.

Ultrasound in treatment:
High intensity ultrasound can break up kidney stones, and
absorption of energy can be used to treat muscle
damage.
Ultrasound in diagnosis:
Its able to locate hard deposits such as kidney stones,
accurately with a real time image for doctors to see.
How is light focussed on the retina?
What is long sight, what is its cause and
how is it fixed?
How does total internal reflection work?
How is TIR used in fibre optics in an
endoscope?
Name two uses of ultrasound in
medicine.
Light is focused on the retina by the action of both
the cornea and lens, as they refract the light.
Long sight means you cant focus on things close to
you, caused by a short eyeball and fixed by a
converging lens.
Total internal reflection occurs when the angle of
incidence is larger than the critical angle.
It is used in fibre optics as it reflects all the way
throughout the fibre, it is used in an endoscope as
some fibres carry light and then the reflected image
is focussed by a lens.
Ultrasound can be used in diagnosis, through a scan
or can be used in treatment in high intensity to break
up hard deposits, e.g. Kidney stones


Topic Two
The ability of X-rays to ionise materials depends
on their energy:
The more energy means they are more
ionising, the energy is related to the frequency.
Therefore, the more frequent, means more
energy, which in turn means they are more
ionising.

The movement of charged particles is
equivalent to an electric current as charged
particles or electrons can move from the
cathode to the anode to complete a circuit.
X-ray machines consist of:
Thermionic emission of electrons from an
electron gun (heated cathode)
A large potential difference between the
cathode and the anode to accelerate the
electrons
A Vacuum to stop the electrons from
colliding in the tunnel
It works to produce x-rays because most of
the kinetic energy from the collisions is
transferred as thermal energy, yet some is
converted into x-rays.
1. Explain how X-rays can be produced in
an evacuated glass tube using a hot
filament, a metal target and a potential
difference.

2. Describe the relationship between how
ionising X-rays are to their frequency
and energy.
Current = no of electrons per sec X
charge on each electron
I = N q
Kinetic energy = 1/2mv
2
or electronic
charge X accelerating potential
difference.
KE = e V

1. Calculate the kinetic energy gained by
an electron accelerated by a voltage
of 230V. (e= 1.6x10
-19
)

2. Calculate the current produced when
2.5x10
10
electrons flow past in 1 second.

3. Explain how X-rays produce a
photograph of a hand.
The denser a material is, the more x-rays it
absorbs, hence becoming white on an x-ray.
X-rays in CAT scans- several cross section scans
are taken to build up a 3D image on a
computer
X-rays in fluoroscopes- used to show a patients
organs working (a patient is placed between a
source and a detector attached to a video
camera)


Benefits- painless, non invasive and eliminates
need for biopsy
Drawbacks- damages other tissues and not
suitable for pregnant women/children
An action potential is an electrical signal sent to a
muscle to tell it when to contract. These can be
shown in the heart via an ECG which is a picture of
the hearts action potentials.
For people whos hearts do not work properly, a
pacemaker can be fitted to correct the action
potentials in order to make them spread across the
heart.
Pulse oximetry works as it consists of two LEDs, one of
red light and the other of infra red. Oxygenated
blood surges after each heartbeat, and this absorbs
more infra red light, therefore the pulse is worked out
by how frequent the surges in absorption are. Then, it
works out the percentage maximum of oxygen in the
blood by comparing the absorbance between the
two LEDs
P wave = when
the atria
contract.
QRS Complex =
when the
ventricles
contract.
T wave = when
the ventricles
relax.
Frequency of heartbeat- work out
average time period per beat, then
divide 1 by it.

Frequency(hertz)=1/time period
How does an x-ray machine work?
Why is the flow of electrons the same as
an electric current?
How does a fluoroscope work?
What is the inverse square law?
In an ECG, what is QRS?
How does a pulse oximeter show
oxygenated blood?
Name a pro and con of x-rays.
An x-ray machine fires electrons from a cathode to a
rotating anode repeatedly in order to transfer some of the
kinetic energy into x-ray energy.
The flow of electrons is the same as an electric current as
they both carry charge and flow from the cathode to the
anode to close the circuit.
A fluoroscope uses x-rays to show a real time view of a
patients organs working.
The inverse square law says by doubling the distance from
a source, the intensity decreases to a quarter.
QRS is the action potential spreading up the ventricle
walls.
A pulse oximeter can measure the oxygen content as
oxygenated blood absorbs more infrared light.
PRO= painless, non-invasive, no need for biopsy, CON=
damages other tissues, not good for pregnant women/kids






Topic Three
TYPE MASS CHARGE PROPERTIES
Alpha 4 +2
Heavily ionising with low penetration (stopped after
10cm)
Beta 1/1840 -1
Weakly ionising with low penetration (stopped by
aluminium)
Positron 1/1840 +1
Weakly ionising with low penetration (stopped by
aluminium)
Neutron 1 0
Not directly ionising with high penetration
Gamma 0 0
Not directly ionising with high penetration (stopped by
thick lead)
In an atom, the number of protons equals the number of electrons.

B- decay is where a neutron becomes a proton plus an electron;
B+ decay is where a proton becomes a neutron plus a positron
Decay Atomic number Mass number
a -2 -4
B+ -1
B- +1
y 0 0
Nuclear equations:

Alpha: 4/2 He
Electron: 0/-1 e
Positron: 0/+1 e
Gamma: 0/0 y
The N-Z curve for stable isotopes curves above the N=Z line, between
the b+ and b- lines.

Nuclei with high values of z (above 82) usually undergo alpha decay.

An isotope above the curve has too many neutrons to be stable and
will undergo b- decay. Whereas, an isotope below the curve has too
many protons to be stable and therefore undergoes b+ decay.
Protons and neutrons each contain three quarks.
In a proton there are two up quarks and one down
quark.
In a neutron there are two down quarks and one up
quark.

In B- decay, a down quark changes into an up quark
causing the neutron to become a proton.
In B+ decay, an up quark changes into a down quark
causing the proton to become a neutron.
MASS CHARGE
UP QUARK 1/3 +2/3
DOWN QUARK 1/3 -1/3
Nuclei that have undergone
radioactive decay often undergo
nuclear rearrangement with a loss
of energy as gamma radiation.
Ionising radiation causes mutations in the
structure of DNA, it can also cause burns.
Some precautions to prevent this are:
Increasing the distance from the source,
Shielding,
Containing the source,
Minimising time spent exposed to radiation.

Internal radiation is usually a beta emitter,
whereas external radiation is usually gamma
rays or x-rays.
Palliative care is used to improve health,
not cure the issue. E.G. Shrinking tumours.

Radioactive tracers are used with a PET
scan to locate areas of abnormality. The
isotopes used in the tracer have to be
made nearby as the isotope has to have
a short half life, so it doesnt remain in the
body and cause excess tissue damage.
What is the charge of an alpha particle?
How ionising is beta radiation?
Where on the stability curve would you
see b- decay, and why?
What happens in b+ decay?
Name a precaution for radiation?
What is palliative care?
+2
Weakly ionising, but quite penetrative (stopped by
aluminium)
B- decay would be above the curve as it has too
many neutrons.
In b+ decay, the proton turns into a neutron plus a
positron- an up quark changes into a down quark.
Limiting time spend with a source, distancing,
shielding.
Palliative care is improving the condition of a patients
life, not curing their issue. E.g. Shrinking a tumour.
Topic Four
By using particle accelerators, scientists can
attempt to make new particles to
understand how the earth was created.
Scientists also collaborate in big groups to
have larger funds and bring together large
amounts of expertise.

For motion in a circle, there must be a
resultant force known as a centripetal
force, that acts towards the centre of the
circle.
Particle accelerators called cyclotrons
cause charged particles to move in a
circular or spiral path due to the
magnetic field.
Certain stable elements can be
bombarded with proton radiation to
change them into radioactive isotopes.
Small cyclotrons are used in hospitals to
produce isotopes with short half lives
needed in PET scanners.
In elastic collisions, both kinetic energy and
momentum are conserved. Whereas in inelastic
collisions, only momentum is conserved.
Momentum = mass X velocity

Gamma rays can be produced by the annihilation of
an electron and a positron.
In positron electron annihilation, charge and
momentum are conserved.
The masses of the annihilated electron and positron
are converted into an equivalent amount of energy.
Mass-energy is conserved.
E=mc
2
E is the energy of a system, m is the mass
and c is the speed of light (3x10^8ms)
Radio isotopes are used in PET scanners
to produce gamma rays. This is because
the radio isotopes the emit positrons are
injected into the blood in a tracer which
accumulates in various tissues. The body
contains naturally occurring electrons
which then annihilate, creating gamma
rays which are then picked up by the
detectors around the patient.
What is E=mc2 for?
What is the centripetal force?
Why are cyclotrons used in hospitals?
What happens in an elastic collision?
What happens in positron electron
annihilation?
What is the speed of light?
Why are radio isotopes used in PET
scans?
It shows how during annihilation, the masses are
transferred into energy.
The centripetal force is the resultant force acting towards
the centre of a circle to create motion in a circle.
Cyclotrons are used in hospitals to make radioactive
isotopes for use in scanners.
In an elastic collision, kinetic energy and momentum are
conserved.
In positron electron annihilation, charge and momentum
are conserved. Mass is converted into mass energy- which
is conserved. Gamma rays are made.
Speed of light is (3x10^8)2
Radio isotopes that emit positrons are used as they collect
in tissues and they encounter electrons in the body and
annihilate producing gamma rays, which are picked up
by the PET scanner.
Topic Five
Solids- Particles are held tightly together and cannot
move, but can vibrate.
Liquids- Particles are still held together but are able to
move over each other, but are uncompressible.
Gases- Particles are far apart and can move around
quickly, also compressible.

The pressure of gases are caused by the particles
hitting the walls of a container. The faster the
particles move, the more collisions, therefore a higher
pressure.
The higher the temperature, the more kinetic energy
there is, so there is more collisions causing a higher
pressure.
At absolute zero (-273c) it is theorised that
there is NO movement in any particles.
Converting from Kelvin to Celsius, -273
Converting from Celsius to Kelvin, +273

The average kinetic energy of the particles in a
gas is directly proportional to the Kelvin
temperature of the gas.

In medicine, gases e.g. Oxygen, are stored at
high pressure in order to store a higher volume.
If the volume of a gas increases at a constant
temperature- pressure decreases
V1P1=V2P2 (v is volume m3) (p is pressure Pa)
If the temperature of a gas is increased at a
constant pressure- the volume increases
V1=V2T1/T2 (t is temperature K)
These two equations above can be combined:
P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2
(initial pressure X initial volume/initial temperature =
final pressure X final volume/final temperature)

What happens at absolute zero?
How do you convert from Celsius to
Kelvin?
What happens if there is a gas at a high
temperature?
If the volume of gas increases at a
constant temperature, what happens?
If the temperature of a gas increases at
a constant pressure, what happens?
At absolute zero, it is theorised that no
particles can move.
Add 273.
The gas will move quicker, causing a
higher pressure.
The pressure decreases.
The volume increases.