Ethical theories

Deontological Principle
Teleological Principle
Virtues ethics
Kohlberg Cognitive Moral Development
Deontology
This theory often called Duty Ethics was formulated by
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
ethicals theory tackles duties and rights; consequently,
morally focuses on the intentions or the means behind the
decision, rather than results to evaluate the decency of the
action
The Good Will : Kant believed that nothing was good in itself
except a good will, and he defined will as the uniquely human
ability to act in accordance with rules, laws, or principles
regardless of interests or consequences.
deontological - reason and rational factors

Universal principles of right and wrong are established
by reason and rational determination

Through time, experience, and rational thought and
action, humans come to know the meaning and
application of such concepts as order, freedom, justice,
benevolence, and integrity

Universal principle :
we should not steal things; killing or injuring people is
wrong; we should not tell lies, and we should give time
and money to charities
Divine Command Theory (DCT)
DCT states that morality is based not upon the
consequences of actions or rules, nor upon
self-interest or other-interestedness, but
rather upon something higher than these
mere mundane events of the imperfect
human or natural world (Thiroux, 2001:59)
DCT state that one should obey God and His
commandments as relayed to human beings
(through voices or any other means)
regardless of the consequences simply
because God is all-good and has told us that is
what we should do. What is good and what is
right is what God has stated is good and right(
Thiroux, 2001:56-57).
Teleological Principle
commonly referred to as utilitarianism
Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill were the pioneers of
teleological
the ultimate reference is to the comparative amount of
benefit produced or expected to be produced
right actions are determined by the principle of utility: act
always as to maximize the utility of the greatest number
the ethical nature of choice is determined by the outcome (or
the ends) which matter more than the act required to achieve
the end. Given multiple methods to achieve an end, a
utilitarian would choose the method that maximizes the utility
for the greatest number because it is ones duty to maximize
the outcome to the greatest number
Virtues
Virtues mean traits of character to behave
oneself in a generally consistent way under
similar contexts.
Virtues are not born and must be developed
and cultivated by ones efforts, education,
socialization
For Aristotle virtue is an excellence (arte)
that can be divided into two types-intellectual
and moral-reflecting
(man)his reason and ability to make moral
judgments through language: "It is a
characteristic of man that he alone has any
sense of good and evil, of just and unjust
Aristotle's doctrine of the golden mean
virtues occupies the middle ground between
two extreme positions
can be cultivated in man by habitually
practicing virtuous actions
Moral Development
Lawrence Kohlbergs (1976) stage theory,
based on cognitive-development theories,

moral development occurs in a specific
sequence of stages across cultures and
assumes that basic moral norms and
principles are structures arising through
experiences of social interaction.
values and ethics are cultivated from the
interaction between the person and the
environment, and that moral judgment is
characterized according to how a person
reasons
His theory explains principles of justice as the
principles for resolving conflicting point of
view at each moral stage
Kohlbergs six-step model of moral
development stipulated that an individual
mature progressively, without oscillating, in
hierarchical irreversible sequences. The six
moral stages can be explained in three major
level : the pre-conventional level (stages 1 and
2), conventional level (stages 3 and 4), and
post-conventional level (stages 5 and 6).
Types of relationships between the self and
societys rules and expectations. From this point
of view, Level I is a preconventional person, for
whom rules and social expectations are
something external to the self; Level II is a
conventional person, in whom the self is
identified with or has internalized the rules and
expectations of others, especially those of
authorities; and level III is a postconventional
person, who has differentiated his self from the
rules and expectation of others and defines his
values in terms of self-chosen principles.
(Kohlberg, 1976:33)
Level One : Pre-conventional

Stage One : Obedience and punishment orientation.
1) Sticking to rules to avoid physical punishment.
Obedience for its own sake.

Stage Two : Instrumental purpose and exchange.
2) Following rules only when it is in ones immediate interest.
Right is an equal exchange, a fair deal

To a pre-conventional person in level one, rules and social
expectations are something external to the self (concrete individual
perspective). Therefore, at the pre-conventional level, one acts only
for ones interests and needs
Level Two : Conventional
Stage Tree : interpersonal accord, conformity, mutual expectations.
3) Stereotypical good behavior. Living up to what is expected by
people close to you.
Stage four : Social accord and system maintenance.
4) Fulfilling duties and obligations to which you have agreed. Upholding
laws except in extreme cases where they conflict with fixed social duties.
Contributing to the society.

Person in this level identifies the self with the rules and expectations of
others (member-of-society perspective). Individual in stage 3 conform to
what is expected by people close to them. It means their reasoning
encompasses the motive to gain approval from others. Morality is defined
by reciprocal role taking.
Therefore, others expectations are an important factor that decides right
and wrong of an individuals action

Individual in stage 4 distinguish societal point of view from interpersonal
agreement or motives. They consider fulfilling their obligations and
conforming to laws important to keep the institution as a whole.
Level Tree : Post-conventional
Stage five : social contract and individual rights.
5) Being aware that people hold a variety of values; that rules are
relative to the group. Upholding rules because they are social contract.
Preserving non-relative values and rights regardless of majority opinion.
Stage six : Universal ethical principles.
6) Following self-chosen ethical principles. When laws violate these
principles, act in accord with principles. (Kohlberg, 1969).

A person operating at level three, stage six, the highest degree on
Kohlbergs scale, possesses the highest degree of moral maturity, and thus
makes moral decisions based on logical reasoning from universal and
objective ethical principles.

a post-conventional person differentiates the self from the rules and
expectations of others and characterizes his or her values in terms of self-
chosen principles (prior-to-society perspective). They conform to keep the
welfare of all and the protection of all peoples right. They evaluate
particular laws or social agreements in terms of their own principles.
Table 7: Kohlbergs Stages of Moral Development
Stage What is Right Reason for Doing Right
Stage 1 :
Pleasure/pain
orientation
Avoiding breaking rules backed by
punishment; obedience for its own sake;
and avoiding physical damage to persons
and property
Avoidance of punishment and the superior
power of authorities.
Stage 2:
Cost/benefit orientation
Following rules only when it is in
someones immediate interest; acting to
meet own interests and needs and letting
others do the sme. Righ is whats fair, an
equal exchange, a deal, and an agreement
To serve ones own needs or interests I aworld
where you have to recognize that other people
have their interest too.
Stage 3:
Good child orientation
Living up whats expected by people close
to you or what is generally expected of
people in your role. Being good is
important and means having good motive,
showing concern, keeping mutual
relationships such as trust, loyalty, respect.
The need to be good person in your own eyes
and those of others. Belief in the Golden
rule.Desire to maintain rules and authority that
support stereotypical good behavior.
Stage 4:
Law and order
orientation
Fulfilling the actual duties to which you
have agreed. Laws are to be upheld except
in extreme cases of conflict with other
fixed social duties. Right is contributing to
society, the group, or institution.
To keep te institution going as a whole, to
avoid the breakdown in the system if
everyone did it or the imperative of
consciences to met ones defined obligations.
Stage 5:
Social contract
orientation
Being aware that peope hold a variety of
values and opinions; most values and rules
are relative to ones group, but these
relative rules should usually be upheld in
the interest of impartiality and because
they are the socialcontract. Some
nonrelative values and rights (life and
liberty) must be upheld in any society
regardless of majority opinion.
A sense of obligation to law because of ones
social contract to make and abide by lawss for
the welfare of all and for the protection of
allpeoples rights. A feeling of contractual
commitment, and concern that laws and dutes
be based on rational calculation for overall
utility.
Stage 6:
Ethical principle
orientation
Following self chosen ethical principles.
Law or socilagreements are usually valid
because they rest on such principles. When
laws violate these priniples, one acts in
accordance with the principle. Priciples are
universal priniples of justice-the equality
of human rights and respect for dignity of
human beings.
The belief as a rational person in the validity
of universal moral principles, and a sense of
personal commitment to those principles.