Important Facts to Know: General studies A

1.The study of bones is called ostelogy

-Total no of bones 206
-Smallest bone-Stapes(ear boe)
-ongest bone-!emus(Thigh bone)
-Strongest bone-Tibia(leg bone)
-Total no of muscles-6"#
-argest grand-li$er
-ongest gland-thyroid
-ongest ner$e-Sciatic
-%ardest bone-Tooth enamal
-Total amount of blood in the body is (1&1' of body (eight)
-)ormal body Temperature-#*.6!("+,)
2.-o$t.of .ndia banned the student .slamic mo$ement of .ndia (S./.)because it had
lin0ed (ith 1sama 2in aden345s a1-6aeda -roup
".The Salary of member of parliament and higher per0s is enhanced from 7s.8000 to
129000 per month and constituency allo(ance from 7s.*000 to 109000 per month and
daily allo(ance of 7s.800 to 7s. '00 for a period of fi$e year
8.,ompetition bill to replace /7T:, (/onopolies and 7estricti$e Trade :ractice ;ct.)
'.Supreme court ruled on ;ugust 292001 that a public ser$ant con$icted in corruption
case should not hold office till he (as cleared of the charges by a superior court
6.)umber of amendments in constitution is * till no(
+.The terrorist out fit that brought the <T, and destroyed part of :entagon in
<ashington is ;1-6ueda.the net(or0 association (ith 1sama 2in aden
*. .S.-.nter Ser$ice .ntelligence
#.=urent line boundary bet(een .ndia and ;fghanistan
11./c /ohan ine>-boundary bet(een .ndia and china
12.7edcliff ine> - boundary bet(een .ndia and :a0istan
1".:al0 Strait> - boundary bet(een .ndia and Sri an0a
18.:rith$i>-Surface to surface missile. .t has a range 2'00m
1'.;gni>- .s Surface to surface missile. .t has a range1'00-20000m
16.;0ash>- .s Surface to surface missile. it has a range of 2'0m
1+ )ag> .t is an anti tan0 missile ha$ing range of 80m
1*.2an0 rate is the rate at (hich the reser$e 2an0 of .ndia gi$es credit to commercial
2an0s
1#.;micus ,uriae-a(yer appointment by the court to represent a poor person. it means
friend of court
20.,.7.7- ,ash 7eser$e 7atio
21./edico egal case-;ccidental ,ase
22.The most important influence of the moon on the earth is the effect on ocean tides
2".7anthambore>- 7anthambore )ational par0 in 7a?asthan(810 s@.0m)(as ones the
pri$ate tiger reser$e of the /ahara?a of Aaipur
28.-hana 2ird Sanctuary-2haratpur 7a?asthan
2'.Standerd =eduction in income taB-"09000&-
26./aBimum income not liable to taB-'09000&-
2+.;merican345s 7obinson <alton(2ill gates)is the richest person in the (orld
2*.2io terrorism>-.t refer to the use of disease causing micro organism as terrorist
(eapons to cause de$astating pac0 on the people. !or eBample ;nthraB.
2#. :ublic Cni$ersity founded in 1#*2 at ahore. ;fter partition in (as re-established in
.ndia on 1st of 1ctober 1#8+.the Cni$ersity mo$ed to ,handigarh in 1#'69$ice chancellor
of :un?ab uni$ersity is 34DE.).:atha0
"0.Eapil =e$ has been chosen the (isdom .ndian cric0eter of the century.
"1. ;0shardham Temple is in -andhi )agar (-u?arat "' people (ere 0illed by terrorist)
"2./etro rail =elhi 28 =ec9 2002(Shahdra to is %agari 34D*."0m)
"".,;-- F.).Eaul
"8.,hairman of S2.-;.E.:ur(ar
"'.-uru )ana0 born in Tal(andi no( called )an0ana Sahib in 186# .%e died in
1'"#.-uru (as founder of Si0hism
"6. -uru ;ngad =e$- introduced longer system
"+. -uru ;mar =as- social reformer and discarded sati pratha
"*. -uru 7am =as- founded city of ;mritsar
80. -uru ;r?un =eb- 2uilt -olden Temple and compiled ;adi -ranph or -uru -ranth
Sahib. -uru ;r?un =eb compled -ranth Sahib in 1608 (ith the of bhai -urdas 2halla ?i.
-uru ;r?un =e$ (as eBecuted by Aahangir on the ad$ice of ,handu Singh. -uru ;r?un
=e$ got the foundation of %armandir Sahib laid do(n by a /uslim !a@ir main /ir.
81. -uru %argobind singh 34Dstarted the system of ;0al ta0ht and miri9 piri.
82.-uru %ar 7ai
8".-uru %ar0ishan
88.-uru Teg 2ahadur--uru Teg 2ahadur eBecuted by ;urangGeb
8'. -uru -obind Singh 34D!ounder of Ehalsa 1"th ;pril9 16##9 2aisa0hi9 and Ehalsa
means military brotherhood Hafarnama> - This is etter (ritten by -uru -obind Singh to
/ughal Imperor ;urangGeb.This letter (as (ritten because ;urangGeb (as committed
many atrocities on people. -uru -obind Singh as0ed ;urangGeb to gi$e up the policy at
;nandpur Sahib on the 1st 2aisa0h 1"th ;pril9 16## ;.=
86.=asam -ranth (as compiled by a de$oted Si0h mani singh after passing a(ay 1f
-uru -obind Singh .
8+. -uru Ei 0ashi-Ta0hat =amdma Sahib. .t is famous -urud(ara9 <hich is situated at
Tal(andi Sabo. .t is called -uru Ei Eashi
8*.-uru Ei <adali 34Dit is 2irth place of -uru %argobind Ai. .t is famous -urud(ara of
:un?ab
8#.2anda 2ahadur- <as born on 2+th 1ctober9 16+0. %is real name (as achaman =as.
1nce9 during hunting an arro( of 2anda 2ahadur stuc0 a pregnant she deerJ 2anda
2ahadur (as greatly pained to see the tragic death of the deer and its t(o 0ids. %e
renounced the (orld and become a 2airagi. 2anda 2ahadur adopted the name /adho
=as after becoming a 2airagi. /adho =as (2anda 2ahadur) met -uru Sahib. %e said
34K. am your 2anda (Ser$ant) 34 . Thus /adho =as become 2anda. -uru -obind Sahib
called him 2anda the bra$e. Thus ac@uired the name 2anda 2ahadur
'0. Sharomani -urda(ara :rabandha0 ,ommittee (as established on 1'th )o$. 1##09 at
;0al Ta0hat ;mritsar.
'1. ;0lis launched a non-mo$ement in 1#21 (ith the aim of 34Dibrating Si0h -uru
-urud(ara from /ahants.
Important Facts to Know: General Studies
iterature> -
'2.,reator of ;sa-di-(ar9 Aapu?i sahib--uru )ana0 =e$ ?i.
'".,reator of 2achittar )ata0- -uru -obind Singh
'8.,reator of Aab Sahibh- -uru -obind Singh
''.,reator of ;nand Sahib- -uru ;mar =as ?i
'6.,reator of Su0hmani Sahib 34D-uru ;r?an =e$ ?i
'+. ,ompiler of -uru -ranth Sahib 4D-uru ;r?an =e$ ?i.
'*. <riter of ;dhi -ranth at the time of its compilation of 34D2ahi -urdas 2halla ?i
'#.,reator of 2ani (ritten in =asam -ranth--uru -obind singh ?i
60./ost famous (riter of 6isa :uran 2hagat 34D!aGal Shah.
/ahara?a 7an?it Singh and his ;dministration>-
61.=ate of 2irth of /ahara?a 7an?it Singh-)o$.29 1+*0.
62.)ame of the parents of /ahara?a 7an?it Singh- !ather name>-/aha singh 9/other
name >-7a? Eaur
6".Time of treaty of ;mritsar bet(een /ahara?a 7an?it Singh and 2ritish 34D2'th
;pril91*0#
68.)ame of the !oreign minister of /ahara?a 7an?it Singh-!a@ir ;GiGudeen
6'.%ead of !inance minister at the time of /ahara?a 7an?it Singh- =ee(an Eaura /al
66./ost famous prime minister of /ahara?a 7an?it Singh- =hian Singh =ogra
6+./eaning of Ean0ut system started by /ahara?a 7an?it Singh- TaB on standing crop in
the field
6*.345)aGim ;dalat345 at the time of /ahara?a 7an?it Singh state le$el- ,ourt
6#.,apital city of mahara?a 7an?it Singh- ahore
+0.!irst (ar bet(een Si0h and 2ritish 34D 1*8' ;.=.
+1.Second ;nglo Si0h <ar-1*8*-1*8# ;.=.
+2. 7an?it Singh (Thein) =am has been constructed on the ri$er- 7a$i
+".<hich =am is built on 2eas near Tal(ara- :ong =am.
+8. =am built on the ri$er Satlu?- 2ha0rha =am
+'.The =usi dam has been constructed on the ri$er 2eas
+6.The old name of the ;mritser 34D7amdas nagar
++.<hich -uru got constructor ;0al Ta0hat 34D-uru%argobind Sahib
+*The real -ranth Sahib has been placed at 34DEartarpur
+#.-uru )ana0 =a$ Ai (as enlightenment at- Sultan :ur
*0.<hich -uru built 2ura? 2aba ;tal- -uru %argobind Sahib
*1. The old name :un?ab- Sapat Sindhu
*2.The -urud(ara situated at present (here foundation of Ehalsa :anth (as laid
34D-urud(ara Eesgarh Sahib.
*". The other name of %armandir Sahib is-=arbar Sahib.
*8.The -uruJ (ho founded ;nandpur Sahib (as 34D-uru Teg 2ahadur
*'.2hagat Singh (as hanged on-2"rd /arch9 1#"1
*6.)umber of district in :un?ab-1+9 o0 Sabha seats-1"
*+. %ighest -allantry ;(ard-:aram Fir ,ha0ra
**.)12I :7.HISJ-The %onors of <ining the )oble :riGes go to the !ollo(ing +
.ndians
(i)7abinder )ath Tagore (in the noble priGes from literature in 1#1".
(ii),.F. 7aman (in the noble priGes from physics in 1#"0.
(iii)%argobind Ehurana (in the noble priGes from medicine in 1#6*.
(i$)/other Teresa (in the noble price from peace in 1#+#.
($i) S. ,handrase0har (in the noble priGe from physics in 1#*6.
($ii) :rof. ;maritya Sen (in the noble priGes from Iconomics in 1##*.
($iii) F.S.)aipal (in the noble priGes from iterature in 2001.
#0.%ighest -allantry ;(ard- :aramFir ,ha0ra
#1.%ighest ,i$ilian ;(ard- 2harat 7atana
#2.!irst 1lympic -ame held at ;thens in 1*#6
#".!irst =eputy :rime /inister of .ndia-Sardar :atel
#8.2nd deputy :rime /inister of .ndia-/orarGi =esai
#'. "hd =eputy :rime /inister of .ndia 34D,houdhari ,haran Singh
#6. 'th =eputy :rime /inister of .ndia 34DL.F.,hauan.
#+.6th =eputy :rime /inister of .ndia 34D=e$ al
#*. +th =eputy :rime /inister of .ndia- al Erishna ;d$ani
##. ;.=S> ;c@uired .mmune =eficiency Syndrome
100.%.F> %uman .mmunodeficiency Firus
101.;.=S>.s caused by Firus ;ids is due to %uman .mmunodeficiency Firus
102.,lassical =ance of .ndia>-
-/anipur of /anipur
-1ddisi of 1rissa
-Eatha-Eali of Eerala
-Euchi-:udi of ;ndhra :radesh
-2harat )atyam of Tamil )adu
-Eatha0 of Ctter :radesh
-2ihu of ;ssam
10".egal Ser$ice ,linic>-; egal Ser$ice ,linic open 28 hours on all days9 has been
established in ;hemdabad to pro$ide free ser$ice of retired high court ?udge and reputed
la(yer.
10'.The State of %aryana->,ame into begin on 9 )o$.191#66 as result of the re-
organiGations of the old :un?ab state into t(o separate seats. .t consist of the %ind
spea0ing area of :un?ab9secong language status has been gi$en to :un?ab(1##6)
106.2oo0 and ;uthor>-
-ife =i$ing
-;in-.-;0bari -;ourbinbo -hosh
-:anchtantra -;bdul !aGal
-/ahabharta -Fishnu Sharma
-.ndia (ins !reedom -Feda Fyas
-=isco$ery of .ndia -/aulana ;bdul Ealam
-/y IBperiment (ith Truth --andhi
-/adhushala -%ari$ansh 7ai 2achan
-:risoner345s Scorapboo0 -.E.;d$ani
10+.Sports>-
-;gha Ehan ,up -%oc0ey
-=urant ,up -!ootball(.ndia)
-=uleep&ren?it Trophyre -,ric0et
-Santosh Trophy -)ational !ootball
-Thomas ,up -<orld 2edminton(/en)
-=a$is ,up -a(n Tennis
10*.2uddhism>2uddhism (as founded by -autam
2uddha. %is 1riginal name (as -autam Siddhartha9 ; Eashatriya9 2oran in '6" 2., at
umbini in )epal . %e attended enlightenment at 2odhgaya under papal tree.2udha died
at the age of *0 years in 8*" 2., at Eushinagar (=istrict Ctter :radesh).%e ga$e * fold
paths to control the desire.1st sermon (as deli$ered by him at Srnarth at 2anaras .The
anguage used by 2uddhist people (as pali .
Important facts to Know for General Studies
10#. 7ed cross (as founded by-A.%. =urant9 Istablished in 1*68 <orld red ,ross day is
celebrated on /ay *9 The 2irthday its founder A.%. =urant.
110.Sir 7obert S.S 2aden :o(ell is the founder of scouting
111.<ho ga$e the call go bac0 to Fedas-=ayanand
112.The construction of 6utab /inar (as begun by 6uatab-ud-din ;iba0 but it (as
completed by lltutumish.
11". <ho built the Sanchi Stupa- ;gratala.
118. <ho founded sla$e dynasty in 1206 ;.= 6uatab-ud-din ;iba0.
11'. The ,apital of Tripura is ;gratala.
116. The ,apital of /iGoram is aiGa(l.
11+. The ,apital of ;ustralia is 34D,anberra.
11*.Spring tides occurs on- !ull moon day as (ell on ne( moon day.
11#.Tides in the oceans are caused by-;ttraction of the moon.
201.2uddhism place of (orship is-:ongda.
121.Ae(s place of (orship is-Synagogue.
122.%olish boo0 of Ae(s-Talmud.
12"./alguddi days (ritten by 34D7.E. )araynan
128.=as capital-Earl /arB
12'.The father of Iconomics- ;dam smith.
126.The ,hip0o /o$ement (as associated (ith-pre$enting felling of trees.
12+.:ashmina is a breed of -Sheep.
12*.<hat is the meaning of 2uddha 34D;n enlightened one.
12#.<hich is the holy boo0 of :arsis- Aorah
1"0.:arliament of C.S.; is 0no(n as- ,ongress
1"1. :arliament of ;fghanistan- Shoora
1"2. :arliament of 7ussia-=uma.
1"". :arliament of Aapan 34D=iet.
1"8.S;7S>-.t Stands for Se$ere ;cute 7espiratory Syndrome. S;7S is caused by $iruses
from the corona and paramyBo $irus family.
1"'.)e( -o$ernors of .ndia>-
-Eailashpati /ishara 34D -u?rat
-7am :ar0ash -upta 34D/adhya :radesh
-1.: Ferma -:un?ab
-F.S Eo0?e - %imachal :radesh
-)irmal ,hand - 7a?asthan
1"6.,;(ight ,ombat ;ircraft)is named as 34KTe?as34
1"+. a0sh$a is :ilot ess target ;ircraft
1"*.Ealpna ,ha(la> She (as an .ndian born ;merican ;stronaut. She died (ith other siB
astronauts in the ,olumbia shuttle crash on feb.19 200".She embar0ed on her second
Foyage in the Cnited State space shuttle ,olumbia on Aan 169 earlier.She (as an .ndian
born ;merican ;stronaut. She died (ith other siB astronauts in the ,olumbia shuttle
,olumbia on Aan 169 earlier. She
(as one of the siB astronaut cre( that fle( the
,olumbia !light STS-*+in no$.1##+ ,ha(la (ho had her schooling in Earnal (%aryana)
and college education in :un?ab did her /asters in ;erospace Ingineering from the
Cni$ersity of TaBes in 1#*8 and =octorate from ,olorado Cni$ersity t(o year later. ;n
a$id flier9 she held certified flight instructor345s license (ith ;irplane and -ladder
ratings9 commercial :ilot icense for single and multi-engine land and seaplanes
1"#.Aan. #9 the day /ahatma -andhi return from South ;frica in 1#1'-(as chosen to
celebrate the :ra$asi 2haratiya =i$as
180.The fi$e day #0th session of the ndian science congress conclude in 2angalore on
Aan.+9 200".The focal theme of the congress (as Fision for the global Space community.
181. Sris0a and 7anthambore are the reser$e for lion.
182. .nternational ,riminal court (as launched formally in the mid march in the %auge.
The first eighteen ?udges too0 1ath in the grand ceremony. The court has been set up to
handle genocide and the <orst case of (ar crime or mass atrocities against ci$ilians (hen
no national court is able or (illing to do so.
18". 7ight to Iducation>-article 21; pro$ides the free and compulsory education to all
children of the age of siB to fourteen.
188. !reedom of information bill>- The parliament appro$ed the 34K!reedom of
information bill34 .)o( it is statutory right of the citiGen to access information from the
-o$ernment.
18'.7ight to Iducation >- article21; pro$ides the free and compulsory education to all
children of the age of siB to fourteen
186.!reedom of information bill>- The :arliament appro$ed the 34Kfreedom of
information bill34 . )o( it is statutory right of the citiGen to access information from the
-o$ernment.
18+./inister of state for defense is prof. ,haman lal gupta
18*.;?it singh is ;griculture /inister.
18#. Sapan is not a member of --* group.
1'0. ;:S;7; is the name of the .ndia345s first )uclear 7eactor.
1'1.The (orld en$ironment day is celebrated on ?une '.
1'2. Aainism>-!ounded by (7ishabha)Farhamana /aha$ira. %e (as a great 28th
Triathan0ras (:athfinder).1r prophet of Aainism ./aha$ir (as a
greast Eshtiya 9born at Eundagram (Faishali) in bihar. %e came to be 0no(n as /aha$ir
of ?ina. The con@ueror of passingJ his follo(ing are 0no(n as Aanis. %e passed a(ay at
age +2 in 862 2. , at :a$apuri9 a place near modern 7a?gir . /aha$ira Teaching are
0no(n as the 34KTri 7atna34 or the three ?e(els of Aainisn9(hich lead to the attainment
of sal$ation . They are (.) 7ight Eno(ledge and (..) 7ight ;ction .The Aanis used and
de$eloped :ra0rit9The language of the common people .Their religious literature (as
(ritten in ;rdhamagadhi.
1'".Fasco da -ama landed in ,alicut in 18#*.
1'8..st ,hinese tra$eler9 !ahein came to .ndia during the period of chandra -upta-
..(Fi0ramaditya)
1''.2nd ,hinese tra$eler %ieun Tsang came to .ndia during the region of %arsh$ardhana
1'6.<ho is the )apoleon of .ndia 34DSamundra -upta for his military eBploits.
1'+.%arsh$ardhana (ritten three boo0s-1.:riya =arshi0a 2.7attana$ali ".)aga )anda.
The official poet of harsh$ardhana (as bana bhatt .2ana bhatta
composed harsha chirtra and 0adambari
1'*.first battle of panipat in 1'26 and founded
the /ugahal dynasty in .ndia
1'#.Second battle of :anipat (as fought bet(een
;0bar and .brahim odhi at :anipat in 1''6 ;0bar
=efeated %imu and became the ruled of =elhi and ;gra
160 Third battle of :anipat fought bet(een ;hmed Shah ;bdali of ;fghanistan and
/arathas in 1+61..n this third battle of :anipat /arathas (ere completely routed by
;hmed Shah ;bdali.
161..ndian )ational ;rmy (as founded by Subash ,hander 2ose in 1#8" in Singapore
along (ith 7asbihari 2ose. The main aim of ;Gad %ind !auG
(as to liberation of .ndia.
162.The 2rahma Sama? (as established by 7a?a 7am /ohan 7oy in 1*2* (hose
leadership (as later ta0en by 7abendernath tagore and Eeshub ,hande Sen.
16".The ;rya Sama? founded by S(ami =ayananda Saras(ati in 1*+' attempted to
reform the %indu religion from its decadence.
168.The 7ama0rishana /ission (as founded by
S(ami Fe$e0ananda in 1*#6 .
16'.;nnie besant>- !ounded Theosophical society started home rule league in 1#16. She
(as the first (oman president of .ndian )ational ,ongress. .ndian )ational ,ongress
!ounded by ;.1.%ume in 1**'. %o(e$er first :resident of .ndian national congress (as
<.,. 2aner?ee.
166. S(adeshi mo$ement (as started in 1#0'.
16+. -adder party (as founded by lala %ardayal singh in 1#1" at !rancisco.
16*.%ome rule league founded by ;nnie 2esant and 2al -anga =har Tila0 in 1#16.
1#16.7o(latt ;ct. :assed in 1#1#.
1+0.)on-,o-1peration mo$ement started in 1#20 by -andhi ?i. This mo$ement ended in
1#22 after ,hauri ,haura incident.
1+1.Simons commission 34D1#2*
1+2.,i$il =isobedience mo$ement-1#"0
1+". 34K=o or die34 34D/ahatma -andhi
1+8. 34K)ightingale of .ndia34 -Saor?ini )aidu.
1+'. 34K!ather of .ndian Cnrest34 -2al -anga =har Tila0.
1+6. 34K;rchitect of .ndia34 - :andit )ehru.
1++. 34K
/an of :eace34 -al 2hadur Shastri.
1+*. 34K.ron /an of .ndia34 -Sardar.
1+#. 34K?ai hind34 34Dsubash chander bose
1*0. 34K-rand old man of .ndia34 34D=ada 2hai )aro?i
Important Facts to Know for General Studies
1*1./ughal =ynasty (1'26-1'80and 1'''-1*'+)
1.2abur (1'26-1'"0)
2.%umayum
".Sher Shah Suri (1'80-8')
8.;0ber (1''6-160')
'.Aahangir (160'-162+)
6.Shah Aahan (162*-16'*)
+.;urangGeb (16'*-1+0+)
1*2.2;2C7>
-!ounder of /ughal Impire
-1st battle of panipat bet(een 2abur and .brahim lodhi
1*".%C/;LC)>
-Son of 2abur
-%umayun Tomb at =elhi-1st /ughal /onument
1*8.S%I7 S%;% SC7.>
-%e (as an ;fghan
-.ntroduced a brilliant administration
-.ssued a coin called 34M7upia345
-2uild -rand Trun0 7oad in0ing :esha(ar to ,alcatta
1*'.;E2;7>
a. Ildest son of %umayun
b. 7eal founded of /ughal empire
c. -ood (or0s done by him
d. :opular for his toleration
e. !oundation of =in-e-illahi(code of conduct)
f. ;0bar Tomb 34DSi0andria
g. argest building built called 34M;gra !orte345
h. ;bdul !aGal (as a famous :oet (ho has (ritten ;aine 34D;0bari 9;0bar 34D)ame
1*6.A;%;)-.7>
a. 7eal name Salim
b. Son of ;0bar
c. %e is 0no(n for his strict administration of Austice
d. %e married /ehr-un-nissa or )ur?ahan in 1661.
e. Aahangir345s Tomb built at ahore
f. IBecuted -uru ;r?un =e$ at the ad$ice of ,hand Singh
1*+.S%;% A;%;)>
a. Son of ?ahangir
b. %is (ife /umtaG /ahal died in 16"1
c. 2uilt Ta? /ahal in her memory in ;gra
d. Eno(n for promotion of ;rt
e. 34M7ed !ort345 and 34MAama /as?id345 got built by him
f. Shah Aahan (as imprisoned by his third son ;urangGeb till he died in 1666
1**.;C7;)-HI2>
a. Third son of shah ?ahan
b. 7uled for '0 years and he (as a cruel 0ing
c. 2anned all religious festi$al and demolished %indu Temples
d. IBecuted -uru Teg 2ahadur Ai (#th -uru) (hen he refused to embrace .slam
1*#. );=.7 S%;%>
a. ; :ersian Eing during the region of /ohamd Shah too0 the 34MEohinoor345 diamond
to ;fghanistan
1#0.<ho (as the first -o$ernor of free .ndia 34Dord /ountbatten
1#1. <ho (as the first -o$ernor -eneral of free .ndia 34D , 7a?agopalchari
1#2. <ho (as the first -o$ernor of free 2ritish .ndia 34D<arren %asting(1++2-1+#")
1#". <ho (as the first father of ,i$il Ser$ice in .ndia-ord ,orn(allis (1+*6-1+#")
1#8. <ho abolished sati :ratha and other cruel rites 34Dord <.2entic0 ((ith the help of
7a?a ram /ohan 7ai in 1*2#
1#'.<ho introduced <ido( 7emarriage ;ct. .n 1*'6 34Dord =alhousie
1#6.T7;. -Telecom 7egulatory ;uthority of .ndia
1#+.F7S-Foluntary 7etirement Scheme
1#*.F;T-Falue ;dded TeB
1##.ST=-Subscriber345s Trun0 =ialing
200..S=-.nternationl Subscriber45 s =ialing
201.:;) 34D :ermanent ;ccount )umber
202.:.) 34D:ostal .ndeB )umber
20". );T1-)orth ;tlantic treaty 1rganiGation
208.S;;7, 34DSouth ;sian ;ssociation for 7egional ,ooperation.
20'.,.7.7.-,ash 7eser$e 7atio.
206. ..S.7.1. -.ndian Space 7esearch 1rganiGation.
20+.);S;-)ational ;eronautics and Space ;dministration.
20*.F.=...S. 34DFoluntary =isclosure .ncome Scheme
20#. :.,.1. 34D:ublic ,all 1ffice
210. .:.-. 34Di@uefied :etroleum gas
211.,.T.2.T. 34D,omprehensi$e Test 2an Treaty
212. F.:.:. 34DFalue :ayable :ost
21". .,.;. 34D ight ,ombat ;ircraft.
218. :.1.<. 34D :risoner of <ar.
21'. T.I..I.N 34D Teleprint IBchange.
216 .,., 34Dine of ;ctual ,ontrol.
21+. ,)--,ompressed )atural -as.
21*. S/S 34DShort /essaging Ser$ice.
21#. 1;:I, -1rganiGation of ;rab :etroleum IBporting ,ouriers.
220.1:I, -1rganiGation of :etroleum IBporting ,ountries
221..nterpol-.nternational ,riminal :olice 1rganiGation it345s head@uarter is in yons
(:aris)
222.<ho (as the first man go to space- Luri -agarin
22".<ho (as the first .ndian go to in Space- 7a0esh
228. <ho (as the first .ndian (oman go to in Space 34DEalpna ,ha(la.
22'. <ho (as the first man land on moon 34D)eil ;rmstrong on 219 Auly9 1#6#.
226. 2angalore is the Silicon ,ity of the .ndia.
22+. %yderabad is the %.-Tech. ,ity of .ndia.
22*. 2008 1lympics to be held in ;thens.
22#. /issile man of the .ndia 34D;.:.A.;bdul Ealam ;Gad.
2"0. ,apital of !i?i 34D Su$a.
2"1. <orld345s largest ri$er in South ;merica345s ;maGon (hich flo(s into South
;tlantic. The source is -lacier 34D!ed- a0es.
2"2. <hich of the first .ndian state to be recogniGed on the basis of language 34D;ndhra
:radesh.
2"". <hen (ere the .ndian states re-organiGed on linguist basis 34D1#'6.
2"8. <hich scheduled deals (ith matters relating toanti defection 34D 10th
2"'. <hich scientist laid the foundation of atomic energy research in .ndia 34D %omi A.
2habha.
2"6. <hich branch of science studies the relationship bet(een matter and energy 34D
:hysics.
2"+. <hich planet ha$e no atmosphere 34D/ercury
2"*. ,on$eB lenses are used for correction of 34DShort Sightedness
2"#. <hich mirror is used as a rear $ie( mirror in $ehicles 34D,on$es
280. !ilament of an electric bulb is maid of 34DTungsten
281. The oil in the (ic0 of an oil lamp rises up due to 34D,apillary action
282. The best conductor of heat 34DSil$er
28". ; radar (hich defects the presence of an enemy air craft uses 34D7adio <a$es
288. Felocity of sound is maBimum in 34DSteel
28'. The terminal colure of 7ainbo( are 34D7d O 2lue
28'. The gas eBtinguish fire is 34D,arbon /onoBide
286. The purest form of carbon is-=iamond.
Important Issues: Current Affairs
1. <hich mo$ie has (on the best motion picture of the year a(ard at 1scars9 200'-
/illion =ollar 2aby
2. <hich political party has (on the maBimum number of seats in the recently held
assembly elections in 2ihar - Aanta =al 34DCnited
". Aamie foB has (on the best actor a(ard in the 1scars9 200'. !or (hich mo$ie9 %e has
been a(arded 34D 7ay
8. ++th 1scars9 200' has a(arded 34K2est actress a(ard in a leading 7ole34 To 34D
%ilary s(an0
'. :resident of ;fghanistan (as on a $isit to .ndia during !ebruary 34D /arch9 200'. %is
name is -/r. %amid EarGai
6. <ho is the richest .ndian as per 34M!orbes345 list 34D a0shmi )i(as /ittal
+. <hich film has (on the '1st )ational !ilm ;(ards9 200' in the category of 2est
!eature film on )ational .ntegration also called 34M)argis =utt ;(ard345 34D :in?ar
(%indi)
*. <ho has (on =ada Saheb !al0e ;(ard9 200" declared in the )ational !ilm ;(ard
ceremony9 200' -;sho0 Eumar (:osthumously)
#. =r. ;.:.A ;bdul Ealam9 the :resident of .ndia is the author of the boo0 34D The <ings
of !ire and .gnited /inds
10. )ana$athi ,ommission relates to - Terrorists attac0 in .ndian :arliament
11. ;.=. stands for 34D ;nno =omini
12. Tony 2lair9 :rime minister of 2ritain9 belongs to 34D abour :arty
1". 7SF: stands for - 7espondeG S345il Fous :lait
18. The first )obel :eace :riGe (as a(arded to 34P34P. in 1#01 34D A.%.=unant
1'.<hich !rench Ingineer designed the structure of the statute of liberty 34D
16.<hich of the follo(ing is called the /other of all :arliaments 34D The 2ritish
:arliaments .
1+. ;s per %uman =e$elopment 7eport of 20089 (hat is full form of %=. 34D %uman
=e$elopment .ndeB.
1*. ;lagh ,ommittee relates to 34D ,i$il Ser$ices IBamination.
1#.. Treaty on 34M1Gone depletion345 34D /ontreal Treaty.
20.. !irst ,hief Ilection ,ommissioner of .ndia (as 34D Su0umar Sen.
21.. Iast Timor recei$ed independence in 2002 from 34D .ndonesia
22. !irst (oman :rime /inister in the (orld (as of 34D Sri an0a.
2". -ratuity is paid at the rate of 1' =ays (ages for each completed year of ser$ice .
28. :ostal ser$ice in .ndia (as opened to the public in 1*"+.
2'. The person (as facilitated (ith 34M)ishan-e-:a0istan345 34D =ilip Eumar
26. The author of the boo0 34M%arry :otter and the %alf 2lood :rince345is
34DA.E.7o(ling.
2+. 34M!allu?ah345 city9 (hich (as recently in ne(s9 is in -.ra@
2*. The -o$ernment of .ndia recently announced a special de$elopment pac0age of 7s.
2'0 crore for the de$elopment of 34D/anipur
2#. /.S. Subbala0shmi (ho died recently (as a famous 34D,lassical Singer.
"0. .n <hich country a non-resident .ndian /r. 2obby Aindal recently (on the
:arliamentary electionsQ 34DCS
"1. <here is %alebid34Da place <hich is (ell Enon for its elaboratedly sculptured
temples of the %oysala eriodQ-Earnata0a
"2.<here is /eena0shi-a famous %indu templeQ 34D/adurai
"". <here is Srihari0ota 9 .ndia345s satellite launching centreQ ;ndhra :radesh
"8. The To(er of Fictory345 is .ocated in- 7a?asthan.eBander
"'.;leBander -raham bell is credited (ith the in$ention of-Telephone.
"6. 34MThe Tele$ision345 (as in$ented by-A..2aird.
"+.(here is the longest rail(ay playtform in the (orld - Eharagpur
"*. (hich of the follo(ing countries is called the land of (hite elephant - Thailand
"#. The capital of -reece is 34D ;thens
80.The %ead@uarters of Cnited )ations Iducational9 scientific and cultural organiGation
(C)IS,1) are located in-:aris.
81.<ho is the first .ndian recipient of the 1lympic -old 1rder-.ndira -andhi34PR
82.The argest monument in the (orld 6uetGalcoatl :yramid is in-,airo
8".<hich planets of our solar system do not ha$e moons-/ercury and Fenus.
88. T(o of ;sho0a345 s lion pillars built in the "rd century 2.,. stand perfectly
preser$ed e$en today at their original location. 1ne is at auriya )andangarh. <here is
the otherQ- Sarnath
8'.<hich article of the constitution of .ndia pro$ides for the post of -o$ernor of stateQ-
;rticle1'"
86..n (hich State is the Sun Temple Suryan Eo$il locatedQ 34DTamil )adu
8+.;t (hich of the follo(ing 1lympic -ames did the lndian %oc0ey team (in its first
gold medalQ-;msterdam
8*. !irst ,hief Ilection ,ommissioner of .ndia (as 34D Su0umar Sen.
8#. Iast Timor recei$ed independence in 2002 from 34D .ndonesia.
'0. !irst (oman :rime /inister in the (orld (as of 34D Sri an0a.
'1. =eficiency disease Fitamin ;-)ight 2lindness9 Fitamin 2 34Dberiberi9 Fitamin , 34D
scur$y Fitamin = 34D7ic0ets9 Fitamin I-S0in and hair disease9 Fitamin E 34D ,lotting
of 2lood.
'2. 7ich sources of Fitamin ;- ,arrots9 :I/- :rotein Inergy /alnutrients.
'"..=isease due to deficiency of .ron 34D ;nemia9 ife time of 72, 34D 120 =ays
TEACHING AND ESEACH !"TENTIA#
34S )a$odaya Fidyalaya Samiti (as registered as a society on 34D1' ;ugust 1#'0
34S <ho (as the ,hairman of the first .ndian Iducation ,ommission 34DSir Aohn %unter
34S <ho organiGes the )ational Talent Search ,ompetiti$e Test 34D).,.I.7.T.
34S <hen (as ,entral ;d$isory 2oard of Iducation set up 34D1#'6
34S )a$odaya Fidyalayas ha$e been set up 34D.n 7ural ;reas
34S The programme -yan Fani is broadcasted by 34D;.7
34S <hen (as ).,.I.7.T. Istablished 34D2nd 1ct. 1#+1
34S .n 1#"6-"+ (ho submitted the report on technical Iducation 34D;bbot
34S <ho conducts the admission test for )o$daya Fidyalayas 34D).,.I.7.T.
34S <ho (as the chairperson of <ardha Scheme 34DHa0ir %ussain
34S )ational la( school of .ndia is situated at 34D2angalor
34S ;...,.T.I. stands for 34D;ll .ndia ,ouncil of Technical Iducation
34S .n (hich year Cni$ersity -rants ,ommission ;ct (as passed 34D1#'6 ;.=.
34S The central .nstitude of .ndian anguages is located at 34D/ysore
34S <hich 1rganiGation (as established during 2engal :artition 34D)ational ,ouncil of
Iducation
34S <hich (as the first Cni$ersity to be opened in 2ritishers time Q 34D,alcutta
Cni$ersity
34S To (hom did ord /acaulay present the famous /acaulay345s minute Q 34Dord
2entinc0
34S .n (hich year ,.2.S.I. set up open school Q 34D1#*'
34S <hat (as the other name for hunter commission 34D.ndian Iducation ,ommission
34S <hat amount (as sanctioned by ,harter ;ct of 1*1" to be spent on education Q
34D1ne a0h
34S 7eshtriya Sans0rit Sansthan has its head @uarters at 34D)e( =elhi
34S <hich is the first open Cni$ersity of .ndia Q 34D.ndira -andhi open Cni$ersity )e(
=elhi
34S <hat is the /inimum @ualification re@uird to appear in any eBamination of the 1pen
Cni$ersity Q 34D)o /inimum @ulification
34S 7egional ,ollege of Iducation for the )orthern region is located at 34D;?mer
34S <here is situated the 7egional ,ollege of Iducation for the eastem region Q
34D2hu$anesh(ar
34S <here is 7egional ,ollege of Iducation for <estern region Q 34DC??ain
34S 7egional ,ollege of Iducation for the Southern region is at 34D/ysore
34S The 7egional ,olleges of Iducation (ere set up by the ).,.I.7.T. (ith the co-
operation of 34D:lanning ,ommission of .ndia
34S -enerally the medium of instruction in :ublic School is 34DInglish
34S The famous =oon :ublic School is located at 34D=ehra =un
34S The famous =oon :ublic School 2ishop ,otton is situated at 34DShimla
34S The famous a(rence :ublic School is at 34DSana(ar
34S The famous Shi$a?i :ublic School is at 34D:une
34S The famous ;ir !orce ,entral School is situated at 34D=elhi ,antt
34S Tamil )adu has a Saini0 School at 34D;mrauathinagar
34S The Saini0 School in 1rissa is at 34D2hu$anesh(ar
34S The Saini0 School in Earnata0a is at 34D2i?apur
34S -andhi had (hich Iducational =egree Q 34Da(
34S -andhi got his la( =egree from 34DIngland
34S <here did -andhi as a teacher Q 34DSouth ;frica
34S <ho said 34K; co(ardly teacher cannot ma0e his students $aliant Q 34D/.E.
-andhi
34S Iffecti$e teaching is a function of -Teacher345s methodology
34S <hat should be the attitude of the teacher to(ards school authorities Q 34D,ordial
34S The attitude of teacher to(ards ne( idea should be 34D7ecepti$e
34S Teachers should be made accountable for 34DTeaching
34S ;n eBcellent teacher must be 34D-ood guide
34S ;s a teacher9 you are ne$er supposed to be angry 34D. am a human and can also be
angry
34S <hat is your :rime duty as a teacher Q 34DTo help the student in understanding
:hysical and Social In$ironment
34S <hat is the best 6uality of the teacher Q 34Dgood human sub?ect being
34S The enthusiastic teachers generally Q 34Din$ol$e the students in learning34Dteaching
process
34S ; teacher has better chances of succeeding if Q 34Dhe is properly trained for the
profession
34S =oes the teachers en?oy the freedom to ma0e their syllabus fleBible Q 34D!alse
34S ; good teacher can o$ercome the defects of Q 34DSystem
34S ; @uality teacher al(ays reaches the school Q 34D2efore the morning assembly is
o$er
34S <hy you (ant to ma0e teaching as a career Q 34Dit ma0e you eligible for the
profession in ten months
34S -enerally a good number of students do not li0e to go to the class rooms because- the
curriculum is dull
34S <hat is attitude 34Dfeeling
34S ; good teacher priority in school is his 34Dstudents
34S :eople345s attitude to(ards teaching is becoming positi$e because 34D percei$ing
teaching as a profession
34S <ho can be creati$e teacher- de$elop thin0ing ability among the students
34S ;mong the students faith in the human $alues can be generated through 34D /oral
Iducation
34S .f as teacher you gi$e too much liberty to students (hat (ill be result 34D indiscipline
in the class room
34S .f some one does not agree (ith you (hat (ill you do 34D polite eBplain your $ie(
point to him
34S ;s a teacher (hat means of recreation (ill you li0e to prefer 34D literary magaGines
and ne(s papers
34S ; teacher al(ays learns and he learns from 34D Students
34S <hat enhances the status and respect of a teacher 34D community ser$ice
34S <hy a teacher fails in maintaining discipline in the class 34D because he lac0s
consistency in his approach to discipline
34S <hat type beha$ior is eBpected from a teacher in the class room 34D calm9 dignified
and composed
34S <hy a teacher should be lo$er of sports 34D it encourages the students to ta0e part in
sports
$HAT AE C"%!&TES'
,omputers ha$e been around since the ,hinese ;bacus. They are here to stay. There is a
certain feel and flo( to the logic that directs their acti$ities.
Ilectronically9 all computers (or0 about the same. ,omputers $ary (idely in siGe and
use. %o(e$er all computers are similar in (hat the hard(are does. So-called
microcomputers (li0e your des0top :ersonal ,omputer (:,)) are designed for personal
use9 relati$ely lo( price9 and modest data processing tas0s.
/inicomputers are moderate siGed (a small refrigerator siGe) and perform more compleB
tas0s (ith larger amounts of data. /inicomputers might be used in a small engineering
office or a local ban0 branch to send transaction data to a head office computer.
/ainframe computers are large9 eBpensi$e and process billions of characters of data
rapidly and fill entire rooms.
!inally9 supercomputers are built to minimiGe distance bet(een circuit boards and operate
at $ery high speed for compleB uses such as designing airplanes9 animating compleB
mo$ie se@uences graphically or sol$ing compleB engineering formulas ha$ing billions of
steps mathematically. Supercomputers are built for ra( speed. Supercomputers are the
main ser$ers in the .nternet System.
Some terms apply to all computers. .):CT is ho( data gets into a computer. The
0eyboard and mouse are familiar .):CT de$ices. 1CT:CT references ho( data is
pro$ided from the computer. ; /onitor or printer are good eBamples of 1CT:CT
de$ices.
:7./;7L ST17;-I or /I/17L is the computer345s immediate data storage area -
usually this is in small integrated circuit chips (hich hold data 1)L (hile po(er is
supplied. This :7./;7L ST17;-I area is thus temporary. /ore permanent
SI,1)=;7L ST17;-I is used (hen computer po(er is off or (hen data o$erflo(s
primary storage. This is usually floppy or hard dis0 dri$es but can include paper tapes9
punch cards9 or e$en non-$olatile magnetic bubble memories.
; computer system includes computer hard(are9 soft(are and people. ; computer is a
de$ice capable of sol$ing problems or manipulating data by accepting data9 performing
prescribed operations on the data9 and displaying the results in the desired form. The
computer is a useful tool for data (or .nformation) .nput9 storage9 processing and output.
HIST"( )H"$* $HEE* $HEN DID IT A## STAT'
The first computational de$ice (as the abacus. This has been in continuous use for
thousands of years. =uring the 1600Ts the :ascal adding machine (as de$eloped. This
(as a mechanical de$ice that laid the ground(or0 for todayTs odometers and gas meters.
The 1*00Ts sa( many machines de$eloped that (ere controlled by punch cards - (ea$ing
looms. The theoretical basis for electronic circuitry (as de$eloped in the mid 1*00Ts.
.n 1#8+9 ?ust after the first electronic computer (as built9 the transistor (as in$ented9
enabling the birth of $astly less eBpensi$e9 more reliable computers. I$en (ith
transistors9 computers (ere still too compleB and costly for (idespread use until the
ad$ent of the integrated circuit (.,) in 1#61 made truly ineBpensi$e computers possible at
last.
!rom this point forth there (ere many firsts as computers became less mechanical9
smaller9 faster and cheaper. .n 1#+19 ., technology progressed to a point (here a
complete central processing unit - the heart of the computer - could be integrated on a
single piece off silicon9 gi$ing birth to the microprocessor. The microprocessor led to the
personal computer. The :ersonal ,omputer is distinguished by its siGe9 cost9 and
applications for small business and the home. The first one appeared in Aanuary 1#+' and
(as the ;ltair **00 0it. 1nly hobbyists bought these. Then the 7adio Shac0 T7S *0 and
;pple computers hit the mar0et as the first pre-assembled microcomputers.
/ar0et gro(th remained sluggish until t(o business students - =an 2ric0lin and =an
!ylstra - de$eloped a program to run on ;pple computers to handle the tedious
recalculations in their school assignments. This program (as called Fisi,alc and is the
forerunner to the spreadsheet program otus 12".
<ith Fisi,alc as a useful tool9 ;pple sales too0 off. ;pple became the standard because
all programs (ere (ritten for ;pple. Today in the CS9 ;pple still dominates the school
mar0et.
.n 1#*1 .2/ introduced its :,. .2/345s legacy still dominates the industry today. The
:, (as unable to run ;pple soft(are. Cnli0e ;pple or other .2/ products9 the .2/ :,
had an open architecture. This means the technical details of ho( it operated (ere
published (ith the productTs introduction. This permitted hundreds of companies to (rite
soft(are (programs) for the .2/ :, and a $ariety of hard(are accessories. ;dding
.2/Ts sterling reputation9 the open architecture did enable rapid mar0et penetration. The
microcomputer (as no longer a toy9 it (as a business tool.
The open architecture also allo(ed for the generation of a host of lo(er cost compatible
computers. .2/ had traded @uic0 initial mar0et entry for e$entual erosion of mar0et
share. .n both instances9 the consumersT benefit. .n the early #0s ,omputers (ere applied
$ariously in the fields of Science9 Technology and Space eBploration.
.nitially9 :,s re$olutioniGed ho( businesses are run9 but today9 computers deepest impact
are felt in the merging of ,ommunications and .nformation. The emergence of the <orld
<ide <eb and the eBplosion of .nternet usage is ha$ing far-reaching effects on all aspects
of society.
Success and progress in all spheres of life9 is no( dri$en by .nformation and Technology.
The future is bright9 but it is up to e$ery user of the technology to see that it is used to
positi$e effect.
Histor+ of Computers:
,- First Generation .,/0/),/123 ) 4acuum tu5e
34S 1#"+ - Aohn F. ;tanasoff designed the first digital electronic computer
34S 1#"# - ;tanasoff and ,lifford 2erry demonstrate in )o$. the ;2, prototype
34S 1#81 - Eonrad Huse in -ermany de$eloped in secret the H"
34S 1#8" - .n 2ritain9 the ,olossus (as designed in secret at 2letchley :ar0 to decode
-erman messages
34S 1#88 - %o(ard ;i0en de$eloped the %ar$ard /ar0 . mechanical computer for the
)a$y
34S 1#8' - Aohn <. /auchly and A. :resper Ic0ert built I).;, at C of :; for the C.S.
;rmy
34S 1#86 - /auchly and Ic0ert start Ilectronic ,ontrol ,o.9 recei$ed grant from
)ational 2ureau of Standards to build a I).;,-type computer (ith magnetic tape
input&output9 renamed C).F;, in 1#8+ but run out of money9 formed in =ec. 1#8+ the
ne( company Ic0ert-/auchly ,omputer ,orporation (I/,,).
34S 1#8* - %o(ard ;i0en de$eloped the %ar$ard /ar0 ... electronic computer (ith '000
tubes
34S 1#8* - C of /anchester in 2ritain de$eloped the SSI/ 2aby electronic computer
(ith ,7T memory
34S 1#8# - /auchly and Ic0ert in /arch successfully tested the 2.);, stored-program
computer for )orthrop ;ircraft9 (ith mercury delay line memory and a primiti$e
magentic tape dri$eJ 7emington 7and bought I/,, !eb. 1#'0 and pro$ided funds to
finish C).F;,
34S 1#'0- ,ommander <illiam ,. )orris led Ingineering 7esearch ;ssociates to
de$elop the ;tlas9 based on the secret code-brea0ing computers used by the )a$y in
<<..J the ;tlas (as "* feet long9 20 feet (ide9 and used 2+00 $acuum tubes
34S 1#'1 - S. ;. ebede$ de$eloped the /IS/ computer in 7ussia
34S 1#'1 - 7emington 7and successfully tested C).F;, /arch "09 1#'19 and
announced to the public its sale to the ,ensus 2ureau Aune 189 1#'19 the first commercial
computer to feature a magnetic tape storage system9 the eight C).SI7F1 tape dri$es
that stood separate from the ,:C and control console on the other side of a garage-siGe
room. Iach tape dri$e (as siB feet high and three feet (ide9 used 1&2-inch metal tape of
nic0el-plated bronGe 1200 feet long9 recorded data on eight channels at 100 inches per
second (ith a transfer rate of +9200 characters per second. The complete C).F;, system
(eighed 2#9000 pounds9 included '200 $acuum tubes9 and an offline type(riter-printer
C).:7.)TI7 (ith an attached metal tape dri$e. ater9 a punched card-to-tape machine
(as added to read .2/ *0-column and 7emington 7and #0-column cards.
34S 1#'2 - 7emington 7and bought the I7; in =ec. 1#'1 and combined the C).F;,
product line in 1#'2> the I7; 1101 computer became the C).F;, 1101. The C).F;, .
(as used in )o$ember to calculate the presidential election returns and successfully
predict the (inner9 although it (as not trusted by the TF net(or0s (ho refused to use the
prediction.
34S 1#'8 - The sage aircraft-(arning system (as the largest $acuum tube computer
system e$er built. .t began in 1#'8 at /.TTs incoln ab (ith funding from the ;ir
!orce. The first of 2" =irection ,enters (ent online in )o$. 1#'69 and the last in 1#62.
Iach ,enter had t(o ''9000-tube computers built by .2/9 /.T9 ;)= 2ell abs. The
2+'-ton computers 0no(n as U,lydeU (ere based on Aay !orresterTs <hirl(ind . and had
magnetic core memory9 magnetic drum and magnetic tape storage. The ,enters (ere
connected by an early net(or09 and pioneered de$elopment of the modem and graphics
display.
6-Second Generation Computers .,/12 ),/1/3 ) transistor
34S 1#'0 - )ational 2ureau of Standards ()2S) introduced its Standards Iastern
;utomatic ,omputer (SI;,) (ith 109000 ne(ly de$eloped germanium diodes in its
logic circuits9 and the first magnetic dis0 dri$e designed by Aacob 7abino(
34S 1#'" 34D <atson Aunior led .2/ to introduce the model 608 computer9 its first (ith
transistors9 that became the basis of the model 60* of 1#'+9 the first solid-state computer
for the commercial mar0et. Transistors (ere eBpensi$e at first9 cost V* $s. V.+' for a
$acuum tube. 2ut <atson (as impressed (ith the ne( transistor radios and ga$e them to
his engineers to study. .2/ also de$eloped the 6'0 /agnetic =rum ,alculator9 the first
by .2/ to use magnetic drum memory rather punched cards9 and began shipment of the
+01 scientific U=efense ,alculatorU that (as the first of the /odel +00 line that
dominated main frame computers for the neBt decade
34S 1#'' - .2/ introduced the +02 business computerJ <atson on the co$er of Time
magaGine /arch 2*
34S 1#'6 - 2endiB --1'; small business computer sold for only V8'90009 designed by
%arry %us0ey of )2S
34S 1#'# - -eneral Ilectric ,orporation deli$ered its Ilectronic 7ecording /achine
;ccounting (I7/;) computing system to the 2an0 of ;merica in ,aliforniaJ based on a
design by S7.9 the I7/; system employed /agnetic .n0 ,haracter 7ecognition
(/.,7) as the means to capture data from the chec0s and introduced automation in
ban0ing that continued (ith ;T/ machines in 1#+8
0- T7ird Generation Computers .,/1/ ),/8,3 ) IC
34S 1#'# - Aac0 Eilby of TeBas .nstruments patented the first integrated circuit in !eb.
1#'#J Eilby had made his first germanium ., in 1ct. 1#'*J 7obert )oyce at !airchild
used planar process to ma0e connections of components (ithin a silicon ., in early 1#'#J
the first commercial product using ., (as the hearing aid in =ec. 1#6"J -eneral
.nstrument made S. chip (100W components) for %ammond organs 1#6*
34S 1#68 - .2/ produced S;27I9 the first airline reser$ation trac0ing system for
;merican ;irlinesJ .2/ announced the System&"60 all-purpose computer9 using *-bit
character (ord length (a UbyteU) that (as pioneered in the +0"0 of ;pril 1#61 that gre(
out of the ;! contract of 1ct. 1#'* follo(ing Sputni0 to de$elop transistor computers for
2/I<S
34S 1#6* - =I, introduced the first Umini-computerU9 the :=:-*9 named after the mini-
s0irtJ =I, (as founded in 1#'+ by Eenneth %. 1lsen (ho came for the S;-I pro?ect at
/.T and began sales of the :=:-1 in 1#60
34S 1#6# - =e$elopment began on ;7:;net9 funded by the =1=
34S 1#+1 - .ntel produced large scale integrated (S.) circuits that (ere used in the digital
delay line9 the first digital audio de$ice
2- Fourt7 Generation .,/8,),//,3 ) microprocessor
34S 1#+1 - -ilbert %yatt at /icro ,omputer ,o. patented the microprocessorJ Ted %off
at .ntel in !ebruary introduced the 8-bit 80089 a FS. of 2"00 components9 for the
Aapanese company 2usicom to create a single chip for a calculatorJ .2/ introduced the
first *-inch Umemory dis0U9 as it (as called then9 or the Ufloppy dis0U laterJ %offmann-a
7oche patented the passi$e ,= display for calculators and (atchesJ in )o$ember .ntel
announced the first microcomputer9 the /,S-8J )olan 2ushnell designed the first
commercial arcade $ideo game U,omputer SpaceU
34S 1#+2 - .ntel made the *-bit *00* and *0*0 microprocessorsJ -ary Eildall (rote his
,ontrol :rogram&/icroprocessor (,:&/) dis0 operating system to pro$ide instructions
for floppy dis0 dri$es to (or0 (ith the *0*0 processor. %e offered it to .ntel9 but (as
turned do(n9 so he sold it on his o(n9 and soon ,:&/ (as the standard operating system
for *-bit microcomputersJ 2ushnell created ;tari and introduced the successful U:ongU
game
34S 1#+" - .2/ de$eloped the first true sealed hard dis0 dri$e9 called the U<inchesterU
after the rifle company9 using t(o "0 /b plattersJ 7obert /etcalfe at NeroB :;7,
created Ithernet as the basis for a local area net(or09 and later founded ",1/
34S 1#+8 - NeroB de$eloped the ;lto (or0station at :;7,9 (ith a monitor9 a graphical
user interface9 a mouse9 and an ethernet card for net(or0ing
34S 1#+' - the ;ltair personal computer is sold in 0it form9 and influenced Ste$e Aobs and
Ste$e <oGnia0
34S 1#+6 - Aobs and <oGnia0 de$eloped the ;pple personal computerJ ;lan Shugart
introduced the '.2'-inch floppy dis0
34S 1#++ - )intendo in Aapan began to ma0e computer games that stored the data on
chips inside a game cartridge that sold for around V80 but only cost a fe( dollars to
manufacture. .t introduced its most popular game U=on0ey EongU in 1#*19 Super /ario
2ros in 1#*'
34S 1#+* - Fisicalc spreadsheet soft(are (as (ritten by =aniel 2ric0lin and 2ob
!ran0ston
34S 1#+# - /icropro released <ordstar that set the standard for (ord processing soft(are
34S 1#*0 - .2/ signed a contract (ith the /icrosoft ,o. of 2ill -ates and :aul ;llen and
Ste$e 2allmer to supply an operating system for .2/Ts ne( :, model. /icrosoft paid
V2'9000 to Seattle ,omputer for the rights to 6=1S that became /icrosoft =1S9 and
/icrosoft began its climb to become the dominant computer company in the (orld.
34S 1#*8 - ;pple ,omputer introduced the /acintosh personal computer Aanuary 28.
34S 1#*+ - 2ill ;t0inson of ;pple ,omputers created a soft(are program called
%yper,ard that (as bundled free (ith all /acintosh computers. This program for the
first time made hyperteBt popular and useable to a (ide number of people.
1- Fift7 Generation .,//, and 9e+ond3
34S 1##1 - <orld-<ide <eb (<<<) (as de$eloped by Tim 2erners-ee and released
by ,I7).
34S 1##" - The first <eb bro(ser called /osaic (as created by student /arc ;ndreesen
and programmer Iric 2ina at ),S; in the first " months of 1##". The beta $ersion 0.' of
N /osaic for C).N (as released Aan. 2" 1##" and (as instant success. The :, and /ac
$ersions of /osaic follo(ed @uic0ly in 1##". /osaic (as the first soft(are to interpret a
ne( ./- tag9 and to display graphics along (ith teBt. 2erners-ee ob?ected to the ./-
tag9 considered it fri$olous9 but image display became one of the most used features of
the <eb. The <eb gre( fast because the infrastructure (as already in place> the .nternet9
des0top :,9 home modems connected to online ser$ices such as ;1 and ,ompuser$e
34S 1##8 - )etscape )a$igator 1.0 (as released =ec. 1##89 and (as gi$en a(ay free9
soon gaining +'X of (orld bro(ser mar0et.
34S 1##6 - /icrosoft failed to recogniGed the importance of the <eb9 but finally released
the much imporo$ed bro(ser IBplorer ".0 in the summer.
$H( D" $E &SE C"%!&TES'
This similar to as0ing (hy do (e use carsQ 2ut too many people and organiGations
purchase and use ,omputers for the (rong reasons. ,omputers are practical tools to be
used in helping you get results.
,omputers are needed (here>
1. There is a need for a more accurate and cost effecti$e 0no(ledge to assist decision
ma0ing. Success and progress is no( being determined by your access to information and
ho( you use that information to get results.
2. .t is impossible to get results due to either time constraint or sheer magnitude of (or0
in$ol$ed.
". .t (ill reduce the mental and physical effort in tac0ling certain tas0s.
8.There is intense competition and there is a need for cost efficiency through the
elimination and reduction of inefficient practices.
'.There is a need to assist in enhancing ,ustomer ser$ice.
6.There is a need for correct forecasting of mar0et trends to ensure business sur$i$al.
C"%!&TE A!!#ICATI"NS
=ue to technological de$elopments9 ,omputers are no( used in $irtually all spheres of
life. %ere are a fe( of the application areas>
S,.I),I O TI,%)11-L (SOT)
,omputers are used in SOT to promote ad$ances that could be useful to man0ind9 i.e.
disco$ering better and more efficient (ays of doing things. They are especially useful for
humanly intractable calculations and simulation eBperiments. This is especially critical in
situations (here it (ould be too ris0y or eBpensi$e to directly carry out the re@uired
operation. !or eBample9 in Space eBploration9 under(ater eBploration9 testing of ne(
drugs9 etc. ,omputers enable SOT professionals can carry out their practical procedures
using faster9 more accurate and safer methods.
I=C,;T.1)
,omputers are useful for promoting learning eBperiences. !rom the toddler to the full
gro(n adult9 educational ,omputer tools are a$ailable. ,omputers are useful for learning
about ,omputers and learning about other sub?ects9 i.e. using ,omputer ;ssisted
earning soft(are. earning is usually interacti$e and can be reinforced o$er and o$er.
!or children9 the ad$ent of /ultimedia9 has made learning fun. They often don345t
realiGe it (hen they345re playing that they are also learning.
2;)E.)- O !.);),I
,omputers are $ery useful for handling financial transactions9 most especially the storage
and processing of huge amounts of information 0ept by financial institutions. ,omputers
enhances ,ustomer ser$ice9 through the pro$ision of upto date and timely information for
their ,ustomers.
,omputers additionally assist (ith the monitoring of operational costs9 to ensure cost
effecti$eness and profitability of operations.
.n some financial institutions9 ,omputers are used to identify trends and pro$ide timely
information for present and future management decision ma0ing.
7I,7I;T.1)
1n your a$erage :,9 you can play a $ariety of games. Lou 0no( (hat they say about
Aac0. <ith the games9 you could be the sole player9 play against the ,omputer or you and
a friend could play against each other.
SI,C7.TL
,omputers are useful for storing information about crimes9 criminals and suspects. This
can be $ery useful in ,rime detection and pre$ention. Such systems can be interfaced
(ith photograph capturing and fingerprint systems. They can also be lin0ed to mobile
radio communication systems o$er a (ide area to enable in the fast and efficient sharing
of information on ,riminal acti$ities. Such systems (ould possess en@uiry facility for
historical and analytic purposes.
There so many other areas (here the impact of the ,omputer is being felt such as
/edicine9 a(9 Sports9 Intertainment9 /edia9 2uilding9 ,onstruction9 etc.
.n e$ery situation the ,omputer performs different functions relating to .nformation
storage9 input9 output and processing. .t is no (onder that producti$e ,omputer based
acti$ity is referred to popularly as .nformation Technology. <hat are ,omputersQ ;
computer system includes computer hard(are9 soft(are and people.
HAD$AE 4ersus S"FT$AE
<hat is the difference bet(een computer hard(are and soft(areQ
%;7=<;7I
.n simplest terms9 hard(are is the physical parts associated (ith a computer - the
electronic9 magnetic9 and mechanical de$ices (monitor9 0eyboard9 printer9 micro chip
boards9 floppy dri$es9 cables and physical pieces of a system. These .):CT&1CT:CT
=IF.,IS allo( the operator to interact (ith the computer.
S1!T<;7I
Sets of programs (stored sets of instructions) that go$ern the operation of the computer
system and ma0e the hard(are perform. These programs (instructions) tell the hard(are
ho( to do a particular tas0 such as (ord
processing9 games9 database management9 etc. ;lthough these instructions are usually
stored inside a piece of hard(are (e.g.9 soft(are instructions stored inside a circuit chip or
floppy dri$e) but they are ne$ertheless soft(are.
.n a (ay9 Soft(are refers to the instructions that enable an other(ise dead machine to
understand your inputs and transform them into desired outputs. ,omputer hard(are by
itself lac0s personalityJ this is determined by the soft(are. <ord processing soft(are
turns the computer into a (ord processor9 accounting soft(are turns the computer into an
accounting tool9 etc.
ets discuss a bit about Soft(are before (e go bac0 to %ard(are. T7ere are two ma:or
t+pes of software: "peratin; s+stem software and Applications software-
1perating system soft(are (li0e =1S9 C).N or <indo(s #') performs $ery elemental
house0eeping instructions (e.g.9 (here is the monitor9 ho( can . 0eep trac0 of (hat data
is on (hich trac0 or sector of a floppy dri$e9 (hether more than user can (or0 on the
system at the same time e.g. C).N.)
The operating system that all .2/ and compatible :,Ts use is called =1S (sounds li0e
floss). =1S is soft(are that allo(s the terminal9 printer9 computer and mass storage
systems (floppy dis0s) to (or0 together as a unit9 and controls the eBecution of programs.
.t also allo(s you to do house0eeping chores regarding managing dis0s and files.
;pplications programs perform tas0s on a higher le$el (e.g.9 (ord processing
Spreadsheet9 -ames9 =atabase /anagement9 ;ccounting9 :ayroll programs are
applications.) -enerally an application soft(are pac0age uses the lo(er le$el operating
system (=1S) to do routine tas0s (e.g.9 your (ord processing application uses the lo(er
le$el =1S operating system fre@uently to (rite and store data on a dis0.
And w7at is a Data5ase'
; database is a collection of information that is organiGed for ease of reference. !or
eBample9 your address boo0 is a database9 ?ust as an in$entory of goods9 a list of all
churches in your state or your staff list.
2efore Ilectronic processing of information9 databases had to be maintained on paper
stored in file folders that (ere 0ept in filing cabinets. <ith Ilectronic =ata2ase
/anagement Systems (=2/S)9 information stored electronically and be recalled
instantly and accurately.
HAD$AE
CENTA# !"CESS" &NIT .C!&3
%eart of the :, - it contains the microprocessor. The ,:C is a set of miniaturiGed circuits
that does all the Uthin0ingU. .t controls the interpretation (arithmetic-logic unit) and
eBecution (control unit) of instructions. The ,:C in con?unction (ith 7andom ;ccess
/emory (7;/) comprise the computerTs UbrainU. The ,:C does the Uthin0ing &
calculatingU (hile 7;/ contains the instructions or UmemoriesU.
.t is the ,:C that largely determines the operating speed of the computer. The type of
processor on your :, (ill determine the nature of functions it can carry out and the speed
at (hich instructions are carried out. !or eBample9 (hile a 2*6 processor (ould struggle
to load <indo(s ".19 a 8*6 processor loads it easily. ;dditionally9 a 2*6 processor is
ob$iously incapable of running most ne( soft(are. :entium processor are no( as fast as
200 /%G.
)o( the good stuff. ets read on and (ant del$e into great compleBity. )o( it345s time
to del$e deeper into the heart of the computer. The central processing unit or ,:C is the
UbrainsU of e$ery computer. 1n the :,9 the ,:C is simply a tiny integrated circuit. .t is
the control center and contains t(o circuit elements to perform tas0s plus se$eral special
locations or memory areas called registers (hich hold instructions.
7egisters9 located (ithin the ,:C chip are temporary storage locations (hich hold
instructions. Secondly9 the arithmetic logic unit or ;C is the location (ithin the ,:C
(here basic math and logic operations ta0e place (such as addition and subtraction.)
!inally9 the control unit is a portion of the ,:C (hich directs all elements of the
computer. .t does not add or subtract li0e the ;C9 it only directs the acti$ity.
=espite this seeming compleBity9 a basic fact remains> all digital computers can only add
and subtract t(o numbers> Gero and oneY et345s bac0 up a bit. !or purposes of digital
computer electronics9 internally a computer can only respond to t(o things> on and off -
?ust li0e a light s(itch. These electronic states of being might actually be a positi$e and
negati$e $oltage or a high and lo( $oltage stored in a series of transistors etched in
silicon on a chip9 but to the computer the logic is on or off. T(o conditions9 that is all.
2ac0 in the human (orld (e can represent these as one and Gero (1 and 0). ; special
branch of mathematics deals (ith calculations of numbers represented by 1 and 0 (hich
is called binary arithmetic.
<e rarely thin0 of 0 as a number since (e consider it )1T%.)-.) To computers HI71
is al(ays a numberYYY
To a computer these binary numbers march together in a long string9 one after another.
7emember9 the ,:C has only t(o numbers to (or0 (ith> 1 and 0.
%uman =ecimal 0 1 2 " 8 ' 6 + * # 10 11 12
,omputer 2inary 0 1
$HAT IS THE DIFFEENCE 9ET$EEN A 9IT AND A 9(TE'
The .2/ :, and its clones generally use * bits (electrical pulses) to ma0e up a byte
(computer (ord.) ; ninth Uodd bitU is used for error chec0ing (parity testing) to ma0e
sure the other eight bits are not accidentally erased or lost during storage or use by the
computer.
2its are li0e alphabet characters and bytes are li0e the (ords made up from alphabet
characters. 2its and 2ytes are used to measure information by the computer.
2.T
Smallest unit of information recogniGed by the computer. 2.T is short for 2inary =igit. ;
2inary =igit can be either a 0 or a 1. Se$eral bits ma0e up a byte.
2LTI
; group of * 2.TS. This grouping of ad?acent binary digits (bits) is operated on by the
computer as a unit. ,omputers use 1
2LTI to represent 1 character such as a letter of the alphabet9 a number9 a punctuation
mar09 a space9 etc. ; 2LTI is also a unit of measure since it represents 1 character.
!or eBample9 (hen the letter U;U is pressed9 the 0eyboard actually sends the follo(ing to
7;/> 10000001 - a set of * bits.
AND"% ACCESS %E%"( .A%3
Thin0 of a computer as a human brain. Lour brain is a memory sponge. .t contains a
lifetime of memories that cause us to act or react based on inputs. .nputs come through
our ' senses. .f you see and smell hot suya burning on the grill (inputs) you 0no( ho( to
react based on pre$ious eBperiences. ; set of miniaturiGed circuits (hich represents the
(or0ing memory of the computer. This is (here application programs (soft(are) can be
loaded from the outside and then eBecuted. The larger the 7;/ the better. ; typical
single user computer system may contain approBimately *90009000 bytes of 7;/.
(This is often abbre$iated as */2 7;/.)
The computerTs brain consists of the 7;/ and the ,:C. The ,:C and 7;/ (or0
together as the computerTs UbrainU. Iach day (hen (e start up the computer one of the
first tas0s (ill be to fill 7;/ (ith instructions to gi$e it an ability to do (or0. This (or0
may be in the creation of documents or trac0ing accounting data.
Lou control (hich instructions (ill go into the computerTs brain. Lou control the sets of
eBperiences you (ill pro$ide the computer. 1nce in 7;/9 the computer (ill e$aluate
inputs from many de$ices and react. The most typical input de$ice is a 0eyboard. ;s you
type commands9 the computer e$aluates them. 2ased on the set of instructions (ithin its
7;/9 it (ill follo( some action> print a document9 calculate9 send information o$er a
telephone line9 etc.
;t some later point you may empty the computerTs brain and install a different set of
instructions9 thus gi$ing it a different ability.
The 7;/ is emptied (hen the computer is turned off - thus it is often called U$olatileU
memory. <%;T L1C SII 1) L1C7 ,1/:CTI7 /1).T17 .S ;,TC;L .)
7;/ 1)L - a temporary storage location. To ma0e it permanent (e Usa$eU it or U(riteU
it to a floppy dis0 or hard dri$e. These de$ices are non $olatile storage - they do not
re@uire electricity.
Iach time the computer is turned off9 all information (ithin 7;/ is lost. 7;/ is called
$olatile memory because of the electricity re@uirement.
EAD "N#( %E%"( ."%3
This is a special section of memory that contains instructions (hich are acti$ated each
time the computer is turned on. These instructions are set at the factory and cannot be
changed - thus9 they can only be UreadU9 not (ritten to. 71/
instructions perform e@uipment chec0s and initialiGation of the computer prior to each
use.
DISKS
Thin0 of dis0s as cassettes. Lou can record information on a cassette that can be replayed
indefinitely and if desired9 recorded o$er. !loppy and %ard =is0s operate in a similar
fashion. <e record (Sa$e) something (e ha$e created - li0e a document - onto the dis0.
Then9 hours9 days9 or months later (e can play bac0 (7etrie$e) the document into the
computer to alter or print out.
The magnetic dis0 used to store information (or0s in a manner similar to a tape recorder
- magnetic impressions are placed on the tape and can be later replayed. ; magnetic
computer dis0 (or0s in the same fashion but spins in a circle li0e a music record rather
than mo$ing in a straight line li0e recording tape.
/agnetic computer dis0s are a$ailable in t(o basic types> floppy and hard dis0s. Aust li0e
cassettes9 the !loppy and %ard =is0s do not re@uire electricity to retain their information.
%ard =is0s and !loppy =is0s are similar. %o(e$er9 %ard =ri$es ha$e a larger capacity
for file storage9 are faster and are less li0ely to fail due to the protected en$ironment from
(ithin (hich they operate. !loppy and %ard =is0s are non$olatile in nature because they
(ill retain their information (ithout the aid of electricity.
; hard dis0 can hold considerably more information than a floppy dis0 - fre@uently
billions and millions of computer (ords (or UbytesU) (hile a floppy dis0 holds less than a
million in many cases. %o(e$er (hat the floppy dis0 loses in capacity in gains in the
ad$antage of portability since it can easily be remo$ed from the :, and stored (hich is
not true of the hard dis0.
<hen you format a dis0 you as0 the computer to inspect the magnetic surface of the dis0
for any errors9 prepare it for use by future data and create an indeB Ufile allocation table
(!;T)U (hich is li0e a card indeB for a large library of boo0s. !ormatting a dis0 is a little
li0e ta0ing a blan0 piece of paper and using a pencil and ruler to turn it into graph paper
(ith both horiGontal and $ertical lines. <hat (as blan0 before no( has little cells or file
dra(ers (hich can hold information.
=.SE =7.FI
The port in (hich a floppy dis0 is inserted. This de$ice Ureads data from a magnetic dis09
and copies data into the computerTs memory (7;/) so it can be used by the computer9
and that U(ritesU data from the computerTs memory onto a dis0 so it can be stored for
later use. Iach =is0 =ri$e is labeled ;929,9 etc. because (e often must tell the computer
(hich dri$e has the dis0 (ith the information or (here to send the information. ; =is0
=ri$e reads and (rites on a '.2' inch or ".' inch floppy dis0.
!1::L =.SES
The most commonly used mass storage de$ice. ;llo(s entering programs to 7;/ and
sa$ing data from 7;/. <ill hold data e$en after the computer is turned off. =ata on
these dis0s is stored in concentric rings called trac0s. The =is0 surface is a thin piece of
mylar and is coated (ith a magnetiGed material similar to audio or $ideo tape.
The read&(rite heads can magnetiGe and demagnetiGe the coated surface repeatedly.
Therefore9 the =is0 can be used9 erased9 and reused indefinitely.
!loppy dis0s are also a$ailable as double density and high density format. ; standard
floppy dis0ette is either '= inches or "; inches s@uare. 1b$iously the high density of
";U dis0ette contains more information than the ";U double density dis0ette. ; '=U
=ouble-sided9 =ouble density dis0 holds approBimately "600 (orth of information (2'0
double spaced pages of teBt). The smaller ".' inch =ouble density dis0s (hich hold at
least t(ice as much - +200.
<or0ing (ith floppy dis0ettes.
To insert a floppy dis0ette into your computer dri$e9 first remo$e it from the paper or
plastic slipco$er if one protects it. The proper (ay to insert a floppy dis0ette in most
dri$es is as follo(s.
!or larger ' - 1&8 inch floppies9 turn the printed label side up and locate the T<1 FI7L
T.)L notches along one edge. )ear the notches (ill be a ?elly bean shaped hole about
one inch long cut into the plastic surface of the dis0ette. This oblong hole is the
read&(rite opening. .nsert the dis0ette into the dri$e (ith the label side up and the t(o
tiny notches !.7ST into the dri$e opening then close the dri$e loc0ing handle. ;long one
edge of the dis0ette you (ill also see a S.)-I s@uare shaped hole (hich is the (rite
protect notch.
.f this (rite protect notch is C),1FI7I= you can 21T% read and (rite data to the
dis0ette. .f the (rite protect notch is co$ered (ith a piece of tape9 then you can 7I;=
information from the dis0ette but you ,;))1T (rite information to the dis0ette. This is
a safeguard feature you may (ish to use from time to time. Eeep fragile dis0ettes a(ay
from smo0e9 hair9 dirt and IS:I,.;L sources of magnetism such as motors9
loudspea0ers or e$en childrenTs magnetic toys (hich may I7;SI your dataY
!or smaller " - 1&2 inch siGe dis0ettes9 turn the label side up and locate the metal
UshutterU. .nsert the dis0ette into the dri$e (ith the label up and the shutter !.7ST into
the dri$e. The (rite protect notch or opening is a small s@uare hole (ith a S.=.)-
:;ST., T;2 (hich is slid ,1SI= (cannot see an open hole) to enable 21T%
reading and (riting to the dis0ette. The sliding tab is placed 1:I) ($isible open hole) to
enable reading but )1T (riting.
!.NI= =.SE =7.FI
Csually named dis0 dri$e ,. .t is essentially a $ery large floppy dis0. This !iBed =is0
(commonly called a %ard =ri$e) is secured (ithin the machine and cannot be seen or
transported. The storage capacity is so large it is measured in megabytes (1/ Z 1E
s@uared Z 1908*9'+6 bytes). !iBed =is0s are a$ailable from '/ on up. The main
ad$antages are that it has enough space to meet most usersT total storage needs9 operates
much faster than a floppy ('-10 times faster)9 and is less li0ely to fail since it Uli$esU
(ithin the protected computer.
IN!&T DE<ICES
Since (e ha$e co$ered data storage lets mo$e to data input.
(a) :7./;7L .):CT =IF.,IS
T(o primary input de$ices are 0ey to getting data into a :,. The 0eyboard and the
mouse.
(i) EIL21;7=
.nput de$ice that lets you enter data into the computer. The layout is similar to the
standard 6<I7TL type(riter 0eyboard. %o(e$er9 there are many eBtra special 0eys that
are defined by the soft(are you are running.
(ii) /1CSI
%and operated pointing and selection de$ice (hich ser$es as alternate input to the
0eyboard. .t is $ery useful for -raphical Cser .nterface (-C.) ;pplications such as
<indo(s9 etc.9 (hich is rolled or mo$ed across the des0top to position a cursor or pointer
on the computer screen.
The mouse also contains se$eral buttons to help select items on data on the monitor
screen. ; mouse (as initially an optional de$ice9 but it is becoming difficult to (or0
(ithout it9 (ith the spread of <indo(s based systems.
(b) S:I,.;TL .):CT =IF.,IS
ets mo$e on to the specialty input de$ices li0e the scanner and the =igital camera.
(i) S,;))I7
; scanner con$erts teBt and images to digital information. This teBt and images can be
from a $ariety of sources such as magaGines9 photographs9 articles9 scientific diagrams9
etc. The scanner creates a digital image from your photograph or dra(ing9 for use in
graphics9 =es0Top :ublishing or :resentation applications.
There are different types of scanners li0e %and scanner9 flatbed scanner and the
multifunction scanner&faB&printer&copier. The flatbed scanner pro$ides a larger scanning
area than the other scanners and is the usually more eBpensi$e.
(ii) =.-.T; ,;/I7;
The =igital ,amera produces the same result as a Scanner. ;ny pictures ta0en are
transferred straight to the computer9 i.e. in the form of a graphics image suitable for
image editing or =es0Top :ublishing applications. .t eliminates the need for film.
"&T!&T DE<ICES
;nother introductory topic is that of output de$ices such as a monitor9 printer or plotter.
(i) :1TTI7
; plotter is a de$ice (hich uses a motor to mo$e pens or dra(ing implements in tightly
controlled horiGontal and $ertical motions on a piece of paper or film. The computer can
control a plotter to combine on one piece of paper differing pen colors and teBt and
pictures stored (ithin the computer. ,omputer plotter can be purchased (ith flat table or
flat bed configurations or in models (hich mo$e the pen(s) bac0 and forth (ith gears that
also dri$e the paper mo$ement at the same time.
(ii) :7.)TI7
The printer is probably the most common and useful output de$ice attached to your
computer. There are many types of modern computer printer (ith differing speeds and
capabilities. The most common printer is the =ot
matriB printer (hich pro$ides characters made up from tiny dots of in0 on paper. ine
printers (usually (ith /ainframe computers or /inicomputers) print entire lines of teBt
in one s(eep then mo$e to the neBt line and are thus $ery fast. .n0 ?et printers produce
characters made from indi$idual dots of in0 sprayed onto the paper.
The in0 ?et printer s@uirts indi$idual dots of in0 onto the paper to form letters or other
characters. ; high @uality paper is necessary since the (et in0 can smear if not carefully
handled. ;lthough (ith the most recent models9 ordinary paper can also be used. The
,olour print facility is also no( standard (ith most in0?et printer.
!inally9 laser printers use a rapidly scanning laser to sensitiGe a polished drum (ith an
entire page of information @uic0ly and loo0 and (or0 roughly li0e an office copier. The
first t(o printers are classified as impact printers since something stri0es the paper (hile
the later t(o are non impact printers.
The laser and in0 ?et printers are becoming more popular due to rapid speed of printing
and @uiet mode of operation.
The laser printer is used for @uic0ly producing one page of teBt at a time. .n operation9
the laser scans a polished drum (ith an image (hich is then dusted (ith dar0 toner
particles (hich stic0 to the eBposed areas made sensiti$e by the laser. :aper is then
placed in contact (ith the drum and the toner is transferred to the page and is finally
fused (ith heat to UfiBU or seal the toner particles to the page.
1f the /icrocomputer printers9 the aser is the most eBpensi$e in terms of purchase
price9 maintenance cost and consumable cost.
=ot matriB printers are common and affordable alternati$es for many small offices9 home
computer hobbyists or organiGations (ith $oluminous printing re@uirements (e.g.
statements of accounts for ban0s). The =ot matriB is additionally designed for use (ith
continuous flo( paper9 as (ell as typical single sheet paper.
=ot matriB usually operates in $arying modes of draft and letter @uality. .n draft mode9
the printer speed is faster9 (ith draft @uality. etter @uality is slo(er (ith higher @uality.
=ot matriB printers produce letters $ia small pins (hich stri0e the in0 ribbon and paper to
produce print (hich can be ?agged loo0ing. )ine pin dot matriB printers produce
some(hat rough loo0ing letters (hile 28 pin dot matriB printers produce crisper9 fully-
formed letters. The =ot matriB printer stri0es the paper through a ribbon to transfer in0 to
the printed page.
,onnecting a printer $ia a cable to the computer is al(ays done through one of t(o plugs
(or interfaces) on the bac0 of the computer. 1ne type of interface (computer plug) is
serial9 the other called parallel.
The most commonly used interface for printers today is the parallel interface but serial
interface printers do eBist. <hat is the differenceQ 7ecall that there are eight bits
(computer dots and dashes) to a byte (or computer (ord). The serial interface has each bit
sent one at a time to the printer - li0e men in single file at the supermar0et chec0out
counter. The parallel interface sends all eight bits at once - li0e eight men all entering
eight supermar0et counters at once. Iach interface is different9 the printer manufacturer
(ill tell you (hich interface to use9 i.e. serial or parallel.
!re@uently9 modems or mouse de$ices use the serial interface lea$ing the printer to the
parallel interface.
(iii) /1).T17S
<e ha$e tal0ed about output to paper9 neBt letTs briefly discuss output to a monitor or
screen. The monitor is a tele$ision li0e de$ice that the computer uses to communicate
(ith you. The monitor or $ideo display (or0s much li0e your tele$ision - some older
home computers still use a TF. ;n old term for a monitor is the cathode ray tube or ,7T.
/onitors differ in the sharpness or resolution they can display. 1n the lo( end of the
resolution spectrum is the monochrome (single color) monitor fre@uently a$ailable in
either green or amber screens. )eBt is the color 7-2 monitor (7-2 stands for 7ed9
-reen and 2lue) (hich displays lo( resolution color dots to ma0e up an image.
%igher resolution is obtained (ith an I-; monitor (Inhanced -raphics ;dapter) and
still higher (ith a F-; (Fideo -raphics ;rray) /onitor and e$en higher (ith an SF-;
(Super Fideo -raphics ;rray) /onitor.
Iach monitor is matched to (or0 (ith a circuit card located (ithin the body of the
computer. 1ne (ay to upgrade a computer is to s(itch both the monitor and
display&graphics circuit card to produce a sharper9 more colorful image. The dots (hich
ma0e up all images on the monitor screen are called piBels. The smaller the piBels9 the
higher and sharper the image resolution.
Typically the monitor displays *0 columns (characters) by 2' ro(s (lines) of information.
The initial SF-; cards could only display 16 colours. ;nd then 2'6 colours. )o( some
SF-; card can display millions of colours.
.):CT O 1CT:CT =IF.,IS
,ertain de$ices can act as both input and output de$ices to the computer. Typical de$ices
mentioned earlier are the dis0s (floppy and hard).
(i) /1=I/
Short for /odulator&=emodulator. ; de$ice to send and recei$e computer output o$er
telephone lines.
THE C"%!&TE DE<ICES = E#ATI"NSHI!S
,;S.)- O /1T%I721;7=
<here is your ,:C 0eptQ =onTt loo0 for 7;/ near your mouse. /ost of the components
are internal9 and 0ept inside a casing. This casing model can be To(er9 minito(er or
des0top. .nside the casing9 there is a po(er supply unit that ta0es in the po(er supplied
from the public po(er supply and steps it do(n to supply the computerTs needs. ;lso
inside the casing is the motherboard9 (hich is a large printed circuit board that all
eBpansion boards plug into.
The motherboard contains the most essential parts of the computer such as the ,:C9
7;/9 71/9 0eyboard9 spea0er and po(er connections9 and other assortment of
important parts.
The eBpansion boards contain special circuits for the monitor (monitor card)9 dis0 dri$es
and mouse (multi .nput&1utput card) and other options such as modem and scanner.
SOME SHORT NOTES ON COMPUTER SCIENCE :
in0s are also gi$en
1. Hardware (disambiguation).
Hardware is a general term that refers to the physical artifacts of a
technology. It may also mean the physical components of a computer
system, in the form of computer hardware.
Hardware historically meant the metal parts and fittings that were
used to make wooden products stronger, more functional, longer
lasting and easier to fabricate or assemble. In modern usage it
includes equipment such as keys, locks, hinges, latches, corners,
handles, wire, chains, plumbing supplies, tools, utensils, cutlery and
machine parts, especially when they are made of metal. In the United
tates, this type of hardware has been traditionally sold in hardware
stores, a term also used to a lesser e!tent in the U".
In a more colloquial sense, hardware can refer to ma#or items of
military equipment, such as tanks, aircraft or ships.
In slang, the term refers to trophies and other physical representations
of awards.$etrie%ed from &http'((en.wikipedia.org(wiki(Hardware&
)ategories' *quipment
2. System soft(are
System software is any computer software which manages and
controls computer hardware so that application software can perform a
task. +perating systems, such as ,icrosoft -indows, ,ac + . or
/inu!, are prominent e!amples of system software. ystem software
contrasts with application software, which are programs that enable
the end0user to perform specific, producti%e tasks, such as word
processing or image manipulation.
ystem software performs tasks like transferring data from memory to
disk, or rendering te!t onto a display de%ice. pecific kinds of system
software include loading programs, +perating systems, de%ice dri%ers,
programming tools, compilers, assemblers, linkers, and utility
software.
oftware libraries that perform generic functions also tend to be
regarded as system software, although the di%iding line is fu11y2 while
a ) runtime library is generally agreed to be part of the system, an
+pen3/ or database library is less ob%iously so.
If system software is stored on non0%olatile memory such as
integrated circuits, it is usually termed firmware.
3. Computer software
Computer software is a general term used to describe a collection of
computer programs, procedures and documentation that perform
some tasks on a computer system.4he term includes application
software such as word processors which perform producti%e tasks for
users, system software such as operating systems, which interface
with hardware to pro%ide the necessary ser%ices for application
software, and middleware which controls and co0ordinates distributed
systems.
&oftware& is sometimes used in a broader conte!t to mean anything
which is not hardware but which is used with hardware, such as film,
tapes and records.
Relato!s"p to #omputer "ardware
Main article: Computer hardware
)omputer software is so called to distinguish it from computer
hardware, which encompasses the physical interconnections and
de%ices required to store and e!ecute (or run) the software. In
computers, software is loaded into $5, and e!ecuted in the central
processing unit. 5t the lowest le%el, software consists of a machine
language specific to an indi%idual processor. 5 machine language
consists of groups of binary %alues signifying processor instructions
which change the state of the computer from its preceding state.
oftware is an ordered sequence of instructions for changing the state
of the computer hardware in a particular sequence. It is usually written
in high0le%el programming languages that are easier and more efficient
for humans to use (closer to natural language) than machine
language. High0le%el languages are compiled or interpreted into
machine language ob#ect code. oftware may also be written in an
assembly language, essentially, a mnemonic representation of a
machine language using a natural language alphabet. 5ssembly
language must be assembled into ob#ect code %ia an assembler.
4he term &software& was first used in this sense by 6ohn -. 4ukey in 789:.
;<=
In
computer science and software engineering, #omputer software is all computer
programs. 4he theory that is the basis for most modern software was first proposed
by 5lan 4uring in his 78<9 essay Computable numbers with an application to the
Entscheidungsproblem.
2- Ke+5oard .computin;3
The 108-0ey :, CS Inglish 6<I7TL 0eyboard layout e$ol$ed from the standard
type(riter 0eyboard (ith eBtra 0eys special to computing.
The =$ora0 Simplified Eeyboard layout arranges 0eys so that fre@uently used 0eys are
easiest to press. ;d$ocates of this 0eyboard layout claim that it reduces muscle fatigue
(hen typing common Inglish.
partially modeled after the type(riter 0eyboard.
:hysically9 a 0eyboard is an arrangement of buttons9 or 0eys. ; 0eyboard typically has
characters engra$ed or printed on the 0eysJ in most cases9 each press of a 0ey corresponds
to a single (ritten symbol. %o(e$er9 to produce some symbols re@uires pressing and
holding se$eral 0eys simultaneously or in se@uenceJ other 0eys do not produce any
symbol9 but instead affect the operation of the computer or the 0eyboard itself. See input
method editor.
; ma?ority of all 0eyboard 0eys produce letters9 numbers or signs (characters) that are
appropriate for the operatorTs language. 1ther 0eys can produce actions (hen pressed9
and other actions are a$ailable by the simultaneous pressing of more than one action 0ey.
'. /ouse (computing)
.; contemporary computer mouse9 (ith the most common standard features> t(o buttons
and a scroll (heel.
.n computing9 a mouse (plural mice9 mouse de4ices9 or mouses) is a pointing de$ice that
functions by detecting t(o-dimensional motion relati$e to its supporting surface.
:hysically9 a mouse consists of a small case9 held under one of the userTs hands9 (ith one
or more buttons. .t sometimes features other elements9 such as U(heelsU9 (hich allo( the
user to perform $arious system-dependent operations9 or eBtra buttons or features can add
more control or dimensional input. The mouseTs motion typically translates into the
motion of a pointer on a display9 (hich allo(s for fine control of a -raphical Cser
.nterface.
The name mouse9 originated at the Stanford 7esearch .nstitute9 deri$es from the
resemblance of early models ((hich had a cord attached to the rear part of the de$ice9
suggesting the idea of a tail) to the common mouse.
[1\
The first mar0eted integrated mouse 34] shipped as a part of a computer and intended for
personal computer na$igation 34] came (ith the NeroB *010 Star .nformation System in
1#*1.
6. .nput&output
I>"9 I>" de4ice9 I>" interface9 ead>write c7annel9 and Transput all redirect here. !or
the use of the term input)output in economics9 see .nput-output model. !or other uses of
the term I>"9 see .&1 (disambiguation).
.n computing9 input>output9 or I>"9 refers to the communication bet(een an information
processing system (such as a computer)9 and the outside (orld 34D possibly a human9 or
another information processing system. .nputs are the signals or data recei$ed by the
system9 and outputs are the signals or data sent from it. The term can also be used as part
of an actionJ to Uperform .&1U is to perform an input or output operation. .&1 de$ices are
used by a person (or other system) to communicate (ith a computer. !or instance9
0eyboards and mouses are considered input de$ices of a computer9 (hile monitors and
printers are considered output de$ices of a computer. =e$ices for communication
bet(een computers9 such as modems and net(or0 cards9 typically ser$e for both input
and output.
)ote that the designation of a de$ice as either input or output depends on the perspecti$e.
/ouses and 0eyboards ta0e as input physical mo$ement that the human user outputs and
con$ert it into signals that a computer can understand. The output from these de$ices is
input for the computer. Similarly9 printers and monitors ta0e as input signals that a
computer outputs. They then con$ert these signals into representations that human users
can see or read. (!or a human user the process of reading or seeing these representations
is recei$ing input.)
.n computer architecture9 the combination of the ,:C and main memory (i.e. memory
that the ,:C can read and (rite to directly9 (ith indi$idual instructions) is considered the
heart of a computer9 and from that point of $ie( any transfer of information from or to
that combination9 for eBample to or from a dis0 dri$e9 is considered .&1. The ,:C and its
supporting circuitry pro$ide memory-mapped .&1 that is used in lo(-le$el computer
programming in the implementation of de$ice dri$ers.
%igher-le$el operating system and programming facilities employ separate9 more abstract
.&1 concepts and primiti$es. !or eBample9 most operating systems pro$ide application
programs (ith the concept of files. The , and ,WW programming languages9 and
operating systems in the CniB family9 traditionally abstract files and de$ices as streams9
(hich can be read or (ritten9 or sometimes both. The , standard library pro$ides
functions for manipulating streams for input and output.
+. ,entral processing unit
Aump to> na$igation9 search
U,:CU redirects here. !or other uses9 see ,:C (disambiguation).
=ie of an .ntel *08*6=N2 microprocessor (actual siGe> 12^_6.+' mm) in its
pac0aging.
; Central !rocessin; &nit (C!&)9 or sometimes ?ust called processor9 is a description
of a class of logic machines that can eBecute computer programs. This broad definition
can easily be applied to many early computers that eBisted long before the term U,:CU
e$er came into (idespread usage. The term itself and its initialism ha$e been in use in the
computer industry at least since the early 1#60s (<ei0 1#61). The form9 design and
implementation of ,:Cs ha$e changed dramatically since the earliest eBamples9 but their
fundamental operation has remained much the same.
Iarly ,:Cs (ere custom-designed as a part of a larger9 usually one-of-a-0ind9 computer.
%o(e$er9 this costly method of designing custom ,:Cs for a particular application has
largely gi$en (ay to the de$elopment of mass-produced processors that are suited for one
or many purposes. This standardiGation trend generally began in the era of discrete
transistor mainframes and minicomputers and has rapidly accelerated (ith the
populariGation of the integrated circuit (.,). The ., has allo(ed increasingly compleB
,:Cs to be designed and manufactured in $ery small spaces (on the order of
millimeters). 2oth the miniaturiGation and standardiGation of ,:Cs ha$e increased the
presence of these digital de$ices in modern life far beyond the limited application of
dedicated computing machines. /odern microprocessors appear in e$erything from
automobiles to cell phones to childrenTs toys.
?- Computer data stora;e
160 -2 S=T tape cartridge9 an eBample of off-line storage. <hen used (ithin a robotic
tape library9 it is classified as tertiary storage instead.
Computer data stora;e9 often called stora;e or memor+9 refers to computer
components9 de$ices9 and recording media that retain digital data used for computing for
some inter$al of time. ,omputer data storage pro$ides one of the core functions of the
modern computer9 that of information retention. .t is one of the fundamental components
of all modern computers9 and coupled (ith a central processing unit (,:C9 a processor)9
implements the basic computer model used since the 1#80s.
.n contemporary usage9 memory usually refers to a form of semiconductor storage 0no(n
as random access memory (7;/) and sometimes other forms of fast but temporary
storage. Similarly9 storage today more commonly refers to mass storage - optical discs9
forms of magnetic storage li0e hard dis0s9 and other types slo(er than 7;/9 but of a
more permanent nature. %istorically9 memory and storage (ere respecti$ely called
primary storage and secondary storage.
The contemporary distinctions are helpful9 because they are also fundamental to the
architecture of computers in general. ;s (ell9 they reflect an important and significant
technical difference bet(een memory and mass storage de$ices9 (hich has been blurred
by the historical usage of the term storage. )e$ertheless9 this article uses the traditional
nomenclature.
#. :, /emory Cnits - Noun,-computer memor+ unit - a unit for measuring computer
memory
unit9 unit of measurement - any di$ision of @uantity accepted as a standard of
measurement or eBchangeJ Uthe dollar is the Cnited States unit of currencyUJ Ua unit of
(heat is a bushelUJ Uchange per unit $olumeU
byte - a se@uence of * bits (enough to represent one character of alphanumeric data)
processed as a single unit of information
sector - the minimum trac0 length that can be assigned to store informationJ unless
other(ise specified a sector of data consists of '12 bytes
bloc0 - (computer science) a sector or group of sectors that function as the smallest data
unit permittedJ Usince bloc0s are often defined as a single sector9 the terms Rbloc0T and
RsectorT are sometimes used interchangeablyU
allocation unit - a group of sectors on a magnetic dis0 that can be reser$ed for the use of a
particular file
partition - (computer science) the part of a hard dis0 that is dedicated to a particular
operating system or application and accessed as a single unit
(ord - a (ord is a string of bits stored in computer memoryJ Ularge computers use (ords
up to 68 bits longU
Ei29 0ibibyte9 0ilobyte9 029 E - a unit of information e@ual to 1028 bytes
0ilobyte9 029 E - a unit of information e@ual to 1000 bytes
0b9 0bit9 0ilobit - a unit of information e@ual to 1000 bits
0ibibit9 0ibit - a unit of information e@ual to 1028 bits
mebibyte9 /i29 megabyte9 /29 / - a unit of information e@ual to 1028 0ibibytes or 2`20
(1908*9'+6) bytes
megabyte9 /29 / - a unit of information e@ual to 1000 0ilobytes or 10`6 (190009000)
bytes
/b9 /bit9 megabit - a unit of information e@ual to 1000 0ilobits or 10`6 (190009000) bits
mebibit9 /ibit - a unit of information e@ual to 1028 0ibibits or 2`20 (1908*9'+6) bits
-i29 gibibyte9 gigabyte9 -29 - - a unit of information e@ual to 1028 mebibytes or 2`"0
(190+"9+819*28) bytes
gigabyte9 -29 - - a unit of information e@ual to 1000 megabytes or 10`# (1900090009000)
bytes
-bit9 gigabit9 -b - a unit of information e@ual to 1000 megabits or 10`# (1900090009000)
bits
gibibit9 -ibit - a unit of information e@ual to 1028 mebibits or 2`"0 (190+"9+819*28) bits
tebibyte9 Ti29 terabyte9 T2 - a unit of information e@ual to 1028 gibibytes or 2`80
(190##9'11962+9++6) bytes
terabyte9 T2 - a unit of information e@ual to 1000 gigabytes or 10`12
(19000900090009000) bytes
,@- &ser .computin;3
&sers in a computing conteBt refers to one (ho uses a computer system. Csers may need
to identify themsel$es for the purposes of accounting9 security9 logging and resource
management. .n order to identify oneself9 a user has an account (a user account) and a
username9 and in most cases also a pass(ord (see belo(). Csers employ the user
interface to access systems.
Csers are also (idely characteriGed as the class of people that uses a system (ithout
complete technical eBpertise re@uired to fully understand the system. .n most hac0er-
related conteBts9 they are also di$ided into lusers and po(er users. See also Ind-user
(computer science).
Screen names (also called a 7andle9 nicAname9 or nicA on some systems) refer to a
public name that can be used to TscreenT ones true user name from the public eye. Ser$ices
such as ;1 allo(ed customers to ha$e multiple screen names per user name9 and .7,
nic0s are independent of oneTs system account username.
!or instance9 one can be a user of (and ha$e an account on) a computer system9 a
computer net(or0 and ha$e an e-mail account9 an ./ account and use one or more nic0s
on .7,.
INF"%ATI"N AND C"%%&NICATI"N TECHN"#"G(
C"%%&NICATI"N: Introduction
,ommunication is an indispensable tool in all areas of human interaction. 2ut it is a
process that is compleB. The eBtent of its compleBity can be seen in the $ariety of (ays in
(hich it can be defined. Thus9 communication is any beha$ior9 $erbal9 non$erbal or
graphic that is percei$ed by another. .t in$ol$es a (eb of acti$ities that differ in different
situations. .n the (or0place9 for eBample9 you (ould probably communicate differently
(hen tal0ing formally to customers as compared to informally (ith a peer. %o( you
percei$e the situation (ill often determine your communication beha$ior.
F"%S AND T(!ES "F C"%%&NICATI"N
:eople communicate (ith each other in a $ariety of (ays that depend on the message
they (ant to send and the conteBt in (hich it is to be sent. ;s a result there are a $ariety
of forms and types of communication such as e-mail9 face-to-face9 telephone9 meetings9
corridor con$ersations and seminars. =(yer categoriGes these into
Three forms of communication - $erbal9 non$erbal and graphic
!our types of communication - intrapersonal9 interpersonal9 public and mass.
C"%%&NICATI"N %"DE#S AND THE"IES
T,ommunication is a dynamic and interacti$e processT. Aust as there are many definitions
of communication9 so there are many models of communication9 each pro$iding different
$ie(s of ho( people transfer and interpret information. i0e a ?igsa( puGGle9 each model
pro$ides a part of the picture9 but no one model seems to co$er all aspects.
9E#"BS %"DE#
2erloTs focus remained on the transmission model of communication. %o(e$er9 he
introduced more of the human elements9 such as the relationship bet(een the message
channel and the fi$e senses. Iffecti$e communication in$ol$es both the sender and the
recei$er. The sender must be as clear as possible and the recei$er must signal
understanding or clarification. .t in$ol$es both content and relationship elements
,ontent Z message9 idea
relationship Z emotions9 po(er9 status
personal Incoding and decoding are based on a personTs perception of the (orld.
THE TANS%ISSI"N %"DE#
The transmission model is concerned (ith the transfer of meaning from the sender to the
recei$er. ,ommunication is a one (ay process.
THE !"CESS %"DE#
The transmission model (as subse@uently adapted to form the process models in (hich
people transmit9 recei$e9 interpret and respond to messages (ith feedbac0. The process
models ha$e se$en main elements>
Sender
/essage
7ecei$er
!eedbac0
,hannel
,onteBt or setting (en$ironment)
)oise or interference
in the process models9 a message is encoded by the sender through a communication
channel9 such as $oice or body language9 and then decoded by the recei$er. The recei$er
then pro$ides feedbac0. The process is influenced by the conteBt of the situation and any
noise or interference.
N"TES "N C"%%&NICATI"N: Continued
C"%%&NICATI"N 9AIES
.neffecti$e communication can lead to errors9 misunderstanding9 poor performance9 lo(er
moti$ation and morale9 negati$e feelings in the (or0place and many other issues that
may detract from achie$ing organiGational goals. .t is9 therefore9 important to try to
minimiGe barriers to effecti$e and efficient communication> communication barriers
distort or interrupt the message and its meaning
"GANICATI"NA# C"%%&NICATI"N
,ommunication in an organiGation may be used to influence9 inform9 control or inspire.
1rganiGational communication can be di$ided into t(o broad categories - formal or
structured ((ithin the TsystemsT established by management) and informal (as (hen co-
(or0ers chat about company matters). 2oth areas are significant and both need to be
ThealthyT for the organiGation to be healthy.
F"%A# C"%%&NICATI"N CHANNE#S AND NET$"KS
!ormal communication channels follo( the organiGational structure or hierarchy and
flo( in four directions>
These four directions in (hich communication can tra$el are> do(n(ardJ up(ardJ lateral
or horiGontalJ and diagonal.
=o(n(ard (1) communication in$ol$es communication from higher to lo(er le$els so
that leadership can communicate goals9 strategies or role eBpectations.
Cp(ard (2) communication flo(s from lo(er le$els to higher le$els of the organiGation9
for eBample9 (hen there is a need to communicate problems9 results or suggestions.
%oriGontal (") communication occurs across the same le$el and in$ol$es for eBample9
coordination of acti$ities (ith peers (teams9 committees)9 dissemination of useful
information from one department to another (for eBample sales forecasts from the sales
department to production9 and problems such as a problem (ith product design from the
production department to research and de$elopment). %oriGontal communication
facilitates the lin0ing of different areas of eBpertise and this may encourage inno$ation.
=iagonal (8) channels may potentially cause conflict as they in$ol$e communication
bet(een the lo(er le$el of one department to a higher le$el in another. .n the diagram
abo$e9 this may cause friction bet(een the employee in accounting department , and the
Fice-:resident (F:) of ;ccounting as the employee has gone around his or her o(n
superior. )e$ertheless this type of communication may be useful as it may simply be
information rele$ant to the /ar0eting =epartment and the F: ;ccounting does not need
to be in$ol$ed.
!ormal communication net(or0s also occur (ithin the hierarchy of the organiGation and
reflect ho( groups of employees9 for eBample those in a department9 (or0 together.
)et(or0ing or mapping the flo( of communication in an organiGation can be a useful
de$ice. This can identify (ho is communicating (ith (hom and (hether the lines of
communication are effecti$e and efficient9 or (hether there is potential for destructi$e
conflict or tension arising from the communication channels (for eBample9 inappropriate
diagonal communication).
F"%A# C"%%&NICAIT"N: !"9#E%S AND S"#&TI"NS-
/any communication problems arise from the structure of the organiGation. =(yer
mentions three related organiGational factors> centraliGationJ the creation of too many
organiGational layersJ and the structure of the organiGation. 1ther factors may include
do(nsiGing (hich leads to ambiguous reporting structure and poor leadership. /any of
these problems may be o$ercome by>
analyGing the organiGation structure and communication net(or0s for barriers to
effecti$eness and efficiency ensuring do(nsiGing is (ell planned and the Tsur$i$orsT
(those left in the organiGation) understand the impact of the process on communication
net(or0s and procedures recruiting for competent communication9 particularly (hen
recruiting for leadership roles.
INF"%A# C"%%&NICATI"N
.nformal organiGational communication eBists outside the formal lines of the
organiGational structure. ;n eBample of this is friendship groups. The informal
communication channel ser$es t(o main purposes> it permits employees to satisfy their
need for social interaction in the (or0place and it can impro$e an organiGationas
performance by creating alternati$e9 and fre@uently faster and more efficient9 channels of
communication (7obbins et al. 2000).
1ne of the most common forms of informal communication is Tthe grape$ineT. ;ccording
to Ereitner and Einic0i (1##') the term grape$ine originated from the ;merican ,i$il
<ar practice of stringing battlefield telegraph lines bet(een trees as a means of efficient
communication. )o( it supplements the formal channels of communication.
ESEACH A!TIT&DE
T+pes of esearc7 ) Definitions
Action researc7 is a methodology that combines action and research to eBamine specific
@uestions9 issues or phenomena through obser$ation and reflection9 and deliberate
inter$ention to impro$e practice.
Applied researc7 is research underta0en to sol$e practical problems rather than to
ac@uire 0no(ledge for 0no(ledge sa0e.
9asic researc7 is eBperimental and theoretical (or0 underta0en to ac@uire ne(
0no(ledge (ithout loo0ing for long-term benefits other than the ad$ancement of
0no(ledge.
Dualitati4e researc7 is research underta0en to gain insights concerning attitudes9 beliefs9
moti$ations and beha$iors of indi$iduals to eBplore a social or human problem and
include methods such as focus groups9 in-depth inter$ie(s9 obser$ation research and case
studies.
Duantitati4e researc7 is research concerned (ith the measurement of attitudes9
beha$iors and perceptions and includes inter$ie(ing methods such as telephone9 intercept
and door-to-door inter$ie(s as (ell as self-completion methods such as mail outs and
online sur$eys.
T7ree 5asic t+pes of Euestions t7at researc7 pro:ects:
=escripti$e. <hen a study is designed primarily to describe (hat is going on or (hat
eBists. :ublic opinion polls that see0 only to describe the proportion of people (ho hold
$arious opinions are primarily descripti$e in nature. !or instance9 if (e (ant to 0no(
(hat percent of the population (ould $ote for a 2A: or ,ongress in the neBt election9 (e
are simply interested in describing something.
7elational. <hen a study is designed to loo0 at the relationships bet(een t(o or more
$ariables. ; public opinion poll that compares (hat proportion of males and females say
they (ould $ote for a 2A: or ,ongress candidate in the neBt election is essentially
studying the relationship bet(een gender and $oting preference.
,ausal. <hen a study is designed to determine (hether one or more $ariables (e.g.9 a
program or treatment $ariable) causes or affects one or more outcome $ariables. .f (e did
a public opinion poll to try to determine (hether a recent political ad$ertising campaign
changed $oter preferences9 (e (ould essentially be studying (hether the campaign
(cause) changed the proportion of $oters (ho (ould $ote 2A: or ,ongress (effect).
Time is an important element of any research design. The most fundamental distinctions
in research design nomenclature> cross-sectional $ersus longitudinal studies. ; cross-
sectional study is one that ta0es place at a single point in time. .n effect9 (e are ta0ing a
TsliceT or cross-section of (hate$er it is (eTre obser$ing or measuring. ; longitudinal
study is one that ta0es place o$er time -- (e ha$e at least t(o (and often more) (a$es of
measurement in a longitudinal design.
; 4aria5le is any entity that can ta0e on different $alues. ;nything that can $ary can be
considered a $ariable. !or instance9 age can be considered a $ariable because age can ta0e
different $alues for different people or for the same person at different times. Similarly9
country can be considered a $ariable because a personTs country can be assigned a $alue.
There is a distinction bet(een an independent and dependent 4aria5le. .n fact the
independent $ariable is (hat you (or nature) manipulates -- a treatment or program or
cause. The dependent $ariable is (hat is affected by the independent $ariable -- your
effects or outcomes. !or eBample9 if you are studying the effects of a ne( educational
program on student achie$ement9 the program is the independent $ariable and your
measures of achie$ement are the dependent ones.
; 7+pot7esis is a specific statement of prediction. .t describes in concrete (rather than
theoretical) terms (hat you eBpect (ill happen in your study. )ot all studies ha$e
hypotheses. Sometimes a study is designed to be eBploratory.
ESEACH A!TIT&DE
SA%!#ING: Sampling is the process of selecting units (e.g.9 people) from a population
of interest so that by studying the sample (e may fairly generaliGe our results bac0 to the
population from (hich they (ere chosen. ; response is a specific measurement $alue that
a sampling unit supplies. .f you measure the entire population and calculate a $alue li0e a
mean or a$erage9 it is called parameter of the population. The distribution of an infinite
number of samples of the same siGe as the sample in your study is 0no(n as the sampling
distribution.
.n sampling conteBts9 the standard error is called sampling error. Sampling error gi$es us
some idea of the precision of our statistical estimate. ; lo( sampling error means that (e
had relati$ely less $ariability or range in the sampling distribution. %o( do (e calculate
sampling errorQ on the standard de$iation of our sample. The greater the sample standard
de$iation9 the greater the standard error &the sampling error. The standard error is also
related to the sample siGe. The greater your sample siGe9 the smaller the standard error.
2ecause the greater the sample siGe9 the closer your sample is to the actual population
itself. .f you ta0e a sample that consists of the entire population you actually ha$e no
sampling error because you donTt ha$e a sample9 you ha$e the entire population. .n that
case9 the mean you estimate is the parameter.
!ro5a5ilit+ samplin; method is any method of sampling that utiliGes some form of
random selection such as pic0ing a name out of a hat9 or choosing the short stra(.
The simplest form of random sampling is called simple random sampling. Simple random
sampling is simple to accomplish and is easy to eBplain to others. 2ecause simple random
sampling is a fair (ay to select a sample9 it is reasonable to generaliGe the results from
the sample bac0 to the population. Simple random sampling is not the most statistically
efficient method of sampling and you may9 ?ust because of the luc0 of the dra(9 not get
good representation of subgroups in a population.
Stratified andom Samplin;9 also sometimes called proportional or @uota random
sampling9 in$ol$es di$iding your population into homogeneous subgroups and then
ta0ing a simple random sample in each subgroup. .t assures that you (ill be able to
represent not only the o$erall population9 but also 0ey subgroups of the population9
especially small minority groups. Second9 stratified random sampling (ill generally ha$e
more statistical precision than simple random sampling. This (ill only be true if the strata
or groups are homogeneous.
The problem (ith random sampling methods (hen (e ha$e to sample a population thatTs
disbursed across a (ide geographic region is that you (ill ha$e to co$er a lot of ground
geographically in order to get to each of the units you sampled. .t is for precisely this
problem that cluster or area random sampling (as in$ented. .n cluster sampling9 (e
follo( these steps>
1.di$ide population into clusters (usually along geographic boundaries).
2. 7andomly sample clusters.
". /easure all units (ithin sampled clusters.
Non)pro5a5ilit+ samplin;- The difference bet(een nonprobability and probability
sampling is that nonprobability sampling does not in$ol$e random selection and
probability sampling does. <e can di$ide nonprobability sampling methods into t(o
broad types> accidental or purposi$e. .n accidental sampling9 sample is chosen
accidentally and (e ha$e no e$idence that they are representati$e of the populations
(eTre interested in generaliGing to and in many cases (e (ould clearly suspect that they
are not. e.g. college students in some psychological sur$ey. .n purposi$e sampling9 (e
sample (ith a purpose in mind. <e usually (ould ha$e one or more specific predefined
groups (e are see0ing. !or instance9 ha$e you e$er run into people in a mall or on the
street (ho are carrying a clipboard and (ho are stopping $arious people and as0ing if
they could inter$ie( themQ /ost li0ely they are conducting a purposi$e sample.
:urposi$e sampling can be $ery useful for situations (here you need to reach a targeted
sample @uic0ly and (here sampling for proportionality is not the primary concern. <ith a
purposi$e sample9 you are li0ely to get the opinions of your target population9 but you are
also li0ely to o$er(eight subgroups in your population that are more readily accessible.
1ne of purposi$e sampling is @uota sampling. .n @uota sampling9 you select people
nonrandomly according to some fiBed @uota. There are t(o types of @uota sampling>
proportional and non proportional. .n proportional @uota sampling you (ant to represent
the ma?or characteristics of the population by sampling a proportional amount of each.
e.g. getting 80X females from a population of say 1000.
Then there is sno(ball sampling. .n sno(ball sampling9 you begin by identifying
someone (ho meets the criteria for inclusion in your study. Lou then as0 them to
recommend others (ho they may 0no( (ho also meet the criteria.
ESEACH DESIGN
7esearch design pro$ides the glue that holds the research pro?ect together. ; design is
used to structure the research9 to sho( ho( all of the ma?or parts of the research pro?ect
the samples or groups9 measures9 treatments or programs9 and methods of assignment
(or0 together to try to address the central research @uestions. =esign can be either
eBperimental or non-eBperimental.
=ata analysis is the last part of the research. .n most social research the data analysis
in$ol$es three ma?or steps9 done in roughly this order>
,leaning and organiGing the data for analysis (=ata :reparation)
=escribing the data (=escripti$e Statistics)
Testing %ypotheses and /odels (.nferential Statistics)
=ata :reparation in$ol$es chec0ing or logging the data inJ chec0ing the data for
accuracyJ entering the data into the computerJ transforming the dataJ and de$eloping and
documenting a database structure that integrates the $arious measures.
=escripti$e Statistics are used to describe the basic features of the data in a study. They
pro$ide simple summaries about the sample and the measures. Together (ith simple
graphics analysis9 they form the basis of $irtually e$ery @uantitati$e analysis of data.
<ith descripti$e statistics you are simply describing (hat is9 (hat the data sho(s.
.nferential Statistics in$estigate @uestions9 models and hypotheses. .n many cases9 the
conclusions from inferential statistics eBtend beyond the immediate data alone. !or
instance9 (e use inferential statistics to try to infer from the sample data (hat the
population thin0s. 1r9 (e use inferential statistics to ma0e ?udgments of the probability
that an obser$ed difference bet(een groups is a dependable one or one that might ha$e
happened by chance in this study. Thus9 (e use inferential statistics to ma0e inferences
from our data to more general conditionsJ (e use descripti$e statistics simply to describe
(hatTs going on in our data.