RESEARCH HYPOTHESES AND QUESTIONS

A research hypothesis is a prediction of the outcoe of a study! The prediction ay

"e "ased on an educated #uess or a fora$ theory! E%ap$e & is a hypothesis for a
none%perienta$ study!
E%ap$e &
It is hypothesi'ed that first #rade #ir$s (i$$ sho( "etter readin# coprehension than first
#rade "oys!
In E%ap$e &) the author is predictin# that he or she (i$$ find hi#her coprehension
aon# #ir$s than "oys! To test it) a none%perienta$ study (ou$d "e appropriate "ecause
nothin# in the hypothesis su##ests that treatents (i$$ "e #i*en!
A sip$e research hypothesis predicts a re$ationship "et(een t(o *aria"$es! +ro your
study of *aria"$es) it shou$d "e c$ear that the t(o *aria"$es in E%ap$e & are ,&- #ender
and ,.- readin# coprehension! The hypothesis states that readin# coprehension is re/
$ated to #ender!
E%ap$e . is a hypothesis for an e%perienta$ study!
E%ap$e .
It is hypothesi'ed that chi$dren (ho arc sho(n a *ideo (ith i$d *io$ence (i$$ "e ore
a##ressi*e on the p$ay#round than those (ho are sho(n a sii$ar *ideo (ithout the
*io$ence!
In E%ap$e .) the independent variable is *io$ence ,i$d *s! none-) and the dependent
variable is a##ressi*eness on the p$ay#round!
The hypotheses in E%ap$es & and . are e%ap$es of directiona$ hypotheses! In a direc/
tiona$ hypothesis) (e predict (hich #roup (i$$ "e hi#her or ha*e ore of soethin#!
Soeties (e ha*e a nondirectiona$ hypothesis! Consider E%ap$e 0!
E%ap$e 0
It is hypothesi'ed that the chi$d/rearin# practices of Tri"e A are different fro those of
Tri"e 1!
The author of E%ap$e 0 is sayin# that there (i$$ "e a difference "ut does not predict the
direction of the difference! This is perfect$y accepta"$e (hen there is no "asis for a2in#
an educated #uess!
Instead of a nondirectiona$ hypothesis) (e i#ht state a research purpose! E%ap$e 3
sho(s a research purpose that corresponds to the nondirectiona$ hypothesis in E%ap$e 0!
E%ap$e 4
The purpose is to e%p$ore the differences in chi$drearin# practices "et(een Tri"e A and
Tri"e 1!
A research 4uestion ay a$so "e su"stituted for a nondirectiona$ hypothesis! E%ap$e 5
sho(s a research 4uestion that corresponds to the nondirectiona$ hypothesis in E%ap$e
0!
E%ap$e 5
The research 4uestion is 6Ho( do the chi$drearin# practices in Tri"e A and Tri"e 1
differ78
9hen usin# a research 4uestion as the "asis for research) (e usua$$y shou$d "e carefu$
not to state it as a 4uestion that can "e ans(ered (ith a sip$e 6yes8 or 6no)8 as is done
in E%ap$e :!
E%ap$e :
The 4uestion is) 6Do the chi$d/rearin# practices in Tri"e A and Tri"e 1 differ78
E%ap$e : ere$y as2s 6do they differ78 This is not a *ery interestin# research 4uestion!
E%ap$e 5 is superior "ecause it as2s how do they differ78
The choice "et(een a nondirectiona$ hypothesis) a research purpose) and a research 4ues/
tion) is pure$y a atter of persona$ taste; a$$ are accepta"$e in the scientific counity!
Of course) (hen (e are (i$$in# to predict the outcoe of a study) (e shou$d state a
directiona$ hypothesis!
If you<*e read research reports) you ay ha*e encountered references to another type of
hypothesis;the nu$$ hypothesis! This is a statistical hypothesis, (hich (i$$ "e e%p$ored
ne%t!
E=ERCISE
&! 9hich type of stateent ,hypothesis) purpose) or 4uestion- predicts the outcoe of a
study7
.! 6It is hypothesi'ed that co$$e#e students (ho ha*e fir career #oa$s achie*e hi#her
>PAs than those (ho do not ha*e fir career #oa$s!8 Is this a directiona$ or
nondirectiona$ hypothesis7
0! 9ou$d an e%perienta$ or none%perienta$ study "e "etter for testin# the hypothesis in
4uestion .7
3! 6It is hypothesi'ed that chi$dren of ii#rants and chi$dren of nati*e "orn citi'ens (i$$
differ in their attitudes to(ard schoo$!8 Is this a directiona$ or nondirectiona$
hypothesis7
5! 6The #oa$ of this study is to e%aine co$$e#e students< attitudes to(ard re$i#ion!8 Is this
stateent a hypothesis or purpose7
:! 6Are chi$dren of a$coho$ics different in their socia$ ad?ustent than chi$dren of non/
a$coho$ics78 Is this research 4uestion stated appropriate$y7 9hy7 9hy not7
@! 9hen (e are (i$$in# to predict the outcoe of a study) shou$d (e state a directiona$ or
nondirectiona$ hypothesis7
Questions for Discussion
A! Restate this hypothesis as a research purposeB 6It is hypothesi'ed that there is a
difference in ?o" satisfaction "et(een those (ho recei*e re#u$ar feed"ac2 on their ?o"
perforance and those (ho recei*e irre#u$ar feed"ac2!8
C! Is the hypothesis in 4uestion C directiona$ or nondirectiona$7 E%p$ain!
&D! Cou$d an e%perient "e conducted to test the hypothesis in 4uestion A7 E%p$ain!
&&! Restate this hypothesis as a research 4uestionB 6It is hypothesi'ed that those (ho
e%ercise re#u$ar$y and those (ho do not e%ercise re#u$ar$y (i$$ differ in other
"eha*iors that affect hea$th!8
ANS9ERS
&! hypothesis
.! directiona$
0! none%perienta$
3! nondirectiona$
5! purpose
:! no) "ecause it is stated in a (ay that can "e ans(ered yes or no
@! directiona$
A! Sap$e ans(erB The purpose is to e%p$ore differences in ?o" satisfaction "et(een
those (ho recei*e re#u$ar feed"ac2 on their ?o" perforance and those (ho
recei*e irre#u$ar feed"ac2!
C! nondirectiona$ "ecause it does not predict (hich #roup (i$$ ha*e #reater ?o"
satisfaction
&D! Sap$e ans(erB yes) "ecause (e cou$d physica$$y anipu$ate the re#u$arity of
feed"ac2
&&! Sap$e ans(erB Ho( do those (ho e%ercise re#u$ar$y and those (ho do not differ
in other "eha*iors that affect hea$th7
INTRODUCTION TO THE NUEE HYPOTHESIS
Suppose (e dre( rando sap$es of en#ineers and psycho$o#ists) adinistered a
se$f/ report easure of socia"i$ity) and coputed the ean ,the ost coon$y used
a*era#e- for each #roup! +urtherore) suppose the ean for en#ineers is :5!DD and the
ean for psycho$o#ists is @D!DD! 9here did the fi*e point difference coe fro7 There
are three possi"$e e%p$anationsB
&! Perhaps the popu$ation of psycho$o#ists is tru$y ore socia"$e than the popu$ation of
en#ineers) and our sap$es correct$y identified the difference! ,In fact) our research
hypothesis ay ha*e "een that psycho$o#ists are ore socia"$e than en#ineers ;
(hich no( appears to "e supported "y the daTA-
.! Perhaps there (as a "ias in procedures! 1y usin# rando sap$in#) (e ha*e ru$ed
out sap$in# "ias) "ut other procedures such as easureent ay "e "iased! +or
e%ap$e) ay"e the psycho$o#ists (ere contacted durin# Dece"er) (hen any
socia$ e*ents ta2e p$ace and the en#ineers (ere contacted durin# a #$ooy +e"ruary!
The on$y (ay to ru$e out "ias as an e%p$anation is to ta2e physical steps to pre*ent it!
In this case) (e (ou$d (ant to a2e sure that the socia"i$ity of "oth #roups (as
easured in the sae (ay at the sae tie!
0! Perhaps the popu$ations of psycho$o#ists and en#ineers are the sae "ut the sap$es
are unrepresentati*e of their popu$ations "ecause of rando sap$in# errors! +or in/
stance) the rando dra( ay ha*e #i*en us a sap$e of psycho$o#ists (ho are ore
socia"$e) on the a*era#e) than their popu$ation!
The third e%p$anation has a nae ; it is the nu$$ hypothesis! The #enera$ for in (hich
it is stated *aries fro researcher to researcher! Here are three *ersions) a$$ of (hich are
consistent (ith each otherB
Fersion A of the nu$$ hypothesisB
The observed difference was created by sampling error. ,Note that the ter sampling
error refers on$y to random errorsnot errors created "y a "ias!-
Fersion 1 of the nu$$ hypothesisB
There is no true difference between the two groups. ,The ter true difference refers to
the difference (e (ou$d find in a census of the popu$ations) that is) the difference (e
(ou$d find if there (ere no sap$in# errors!-
Fersion C of the nu$$ hypothesisB
The true difference between the two groups is zero.
Significance tests deterine the pro"a"i$ity that the nu$$ hypothesis is true! ,9e (i$$ "e
considerin# the use of specific si#nificance tests in future (ee2s!- Suppose for our e%a/
p$e) (e use a si#nificance test and find that the pro"a"i$ity that the nu$$ hypothesis is true
is $ess than 5 in &DDG this (ou$d "e stated as p H!D5) (here p o"*ious$y stands for
probability. Of course) if the chances that soethin# is true are $ess than 5 in &DD) It<s a
#ood "et that it<s not true! If it<s pro"a"$y not true) (e reect the null hypothesis, $ea*in#
us (ith on$y the first t(o e%p$anations that (e started (ith as *ia"$e e%p$anations for the
difference!
There is no ru$e of nature that dictates at (hat pro"a"i$ity $e*e$ the nu$$ hypothesis shou$d
"e re?ected! Ho(e*er) con*entiona$ (isdo su##ests that !D5 or $ess ,such as !D& or !DD&-
is reasona"$e! Of course) researchers shou$d state in their reports the pro"a"i$ity $e*e$
they used to deterine (hether to re?ect the nu$$ hypothesis!
Note that (hen (e fai$ to re?ect the nu$$ hypothesis "ecause the pro"a"i$ity is #reater than
.!5, (e do ?ust thatB (e 6fai$ to re?ect8 the nu$$ hypothesis and it stays on our $ist of
possi"$e e%p$anationsG (e never 6accept8 the nu$$ hypothesis as the on$y e%p$anation ;
ree"er) there are three possi"$e e%p$anations and fai$in# to re?ect one of the does not
ean that you are acceptin# it as the on$y e%p$anation!
An a$ternati*e (ay to say that (e ha*e re?ected the nu$$ hypothesis is to state that the dif/
ference is statistically significant. Thus) if (e state that a difference is statistica$$y
si#nificant at the !D5 $e*e$ ,eanin# !D5 or $ess-) it is e4ui*a$ent to statin# that the nu$$
hypothesis has "een re?ected at that $e*e$!
9hen you read research reported in acadeic ?ourna$s) you (i$$ find that the nu$$ hy/
pothesis is se$do stated "y researchers) (ho assue that you 2no( that the so$e purpose
of a si#nificance test is to test a nu$$ hypothesis! Instead) researchers te$$ you (hich
differences (ere tested for si#nificance) (hich si#nificance test they used) and (hich
differences (ere found to "e statistica$$y si#nificant! It is ore coon to find nu$$
hypotheses stated in theses and dissertations since coittee e"ers ay (ish to a2e
sure that the students they are super*isin# understand the reason they ha*e conducted a
si#nificance test! As (e consider specific si#nificance tests in other chapters of the te%t)
(e<$$ e%aine the nu$$ hypothesis in ore detai$!
E=ERCISE
&! Ho( any e%p$anations (ere there for the difference in socia"i$ity "et(een
psycho$o#ists and en#ineers in the e%ap$e in this topic7
.! 9hat does the nu$$ hypothesis say a"out sap$in# error7
0! Does the ter sampling error refer to random errors or to bias"
3! The nu$$ hypothesis says that the true difference e4ua$s (hat *a$ue7
5! 9hat is used to deterine the pro"a"i$ities that nu$$ hypotheses are true7
:! +or (hat does p H!D5 stand7
@! Do (e re?ect the nu$$ hypothesis (hen the pro"a"i$ity of its truth is hi#h or (hen it is
$o(7
A! 9hat do (e do if the pro"a"i$ity is #reater than !D57
C! 9hat is an a$ternati*e (ay of sayin# that (e ha*e re?ected the nu$$ hypothesis7
&D! Are you ore $i2e$y to find a nu$$ hypothesis stated in a ?ourna$ artic$e or in a thesis7
ANS9ERS
&! three
.! the o"ser*ed difference (as created "y sap$in# error
0! rando errors
3! 'ero
5! si#nificance tests
:! pro"a"i$ity that the nu$$ hypothesis is true $ess than 5 in &DD
@! (hen it is $o(
A! fai$ to re?ect the nu$$ hypothesis
C! a difference is statistica$$y si#nificant
&D! thesis