Many cameras come with built-in close-up or "macro" features that let users photograph small

objects or details located only a few inches from the camera. Owners of cameras without a macro
feature can get closer by simply holding a photographic close-up (diopter) lens or even a
magnifying glass directly in front of the camera lens.

These close-up shots usually work best in natural light or when the subject is illuminated by a
spotlight or lamp. When flash is used, the subject is often washed out due to overexposure caused
by too much flash lighting.

That's because the built-in flash is normally most

effective in the "typical" flash range of six-to-twelve feet
and is not able to reduce output to the degree needed
for close ups. Even advanced digital cameras that
adjust electronic flash when in macro mode can make
errors and overexpose. Fortunately, there are some
very simple tricks that improve the situation.

If you have an advanced camera, first, see if it has

exposure compensation. Sometimes decreasing the
exposure using the "plus-or-minus" exposure controls
will do the trick. A few professional cameras will also
allow you to cut the light output of the flash in half or
quarters. And if your camera offers full manual control, you can choose a smaller f/stop to cut back
on the exposure.

But if you are one of the millions of users without these advanced controls, there are other easy
ways to take care of the problem. Most involve simply placing some kind of semi-transparent
material in front of the flash to physically reduce the light that reaches the subject.

The quickest fix is to use a small sheet of white paper to cover the flash window. Try a single layer
first and if the flash is not reduced enough, simply fold the paper so that two layers are in front of a
flash. Be sure not to cover part of the lens!

You'll need to experiment with several shots to find the exact number of layers required to produce
the proper exposure. You may also want to try moving the paper from directly in front of a flash
window to a short distance from it, which can influence the flash coverage and reduce "hot spots."

If you plan to do a great deal of close-up work with a simple camera, a more elegant solution can be
found around the kitchen or living room. Many products come with white opaque plastic material in
their packaging. These include the press-on lids from coffee cans, some plastic bottle caps, and our
favorite, the white plastic containers used to hold videotapes.

Using a sharp knife, cut enough plastic to completely cover the

flash window and a bit more. Depending on the configuration of
your camera, you may be able to cut a large piece of plastic
and fold it at a right angle so that it fits flush to one side of the
camera, where it is held in place either by your finger, a piece
of tape or a more permanent hook and loop fastener.

Again, it is important to experiment both with the thickness and

opacity of the plastic. This will not only control light output, but
the amount of diffusion. When taking close ups of small shiny

1
objects such as jewelry, you may find a big difference in the final results depending on the material
used to reduce the flash.

If you are going to shoot a large number of objects using this

technique, try to leave a small airspace between whatever
material you use at the front face of the flash window. Each
flash produces a small amount of heat. While there is
certainly no danger of fire, the slight suppression of this heat
over a long period of time could cause a discoloration of the
plastic window directly in front of the flash tube.

And, of course, the

best thing about
digital photography
is that you can
experiment and see the results right away at no cost!
Experiment making mini versions of the many diffusers
used by the pros! Try mounting a piece of plastic or paper
with some tiny holes punched in the material to allow a
percentage of the full flash to strike the subject.
Experiment with diffused flash for close-up portraits or
"head shots" as well! Have fun and get creative with your
digital camera!

Page 2 of 4

There are various ways to correct for color in Photoshop. This method is one of the easier ways and
can achieve some very nice results. Here is an example of an image we corrected using
Photoshop.

Curves

Setting the Black Point

Open your image in Photoshop and select Image > Adjust > Curves. Click the black Eyedropper in
the task bar that comes into view. This eyedropper is just below the auto button on the far left. Click
on the blackest part of the picture, which in this picture is the man's shirt. If you open the info

2
palette, it can help you determine the darkest and the lightest values. If you look at the CMYK area
of the info palette, you will notice that when you scroll over the picture with the eyedropper the
numbers change. Look at the percentage after K (K represents the color black). The higher the
percentage the more black there is in the pixel. This can help you determine the darkest pixel in
your photo.

Setting the White Point

Now take the white eyedropper, which is the dropper furthest to the right, and click on the area that
represents what you think is the whitest area in the picture. Remember to look on your info palette
at the CMYK area. The lightest pixel will have the lowest percentage after the letter K.

Color Balance

In this picture we find that, with the exception of the man's face most of the colors are pretty correct.
However, if you find that your picture has a slight color cast, select Image > Adjust > Curves or
Levels, select your gray eyedropper which is the middle of the three, and click on what you believe
to be the most colorless or neutral gray area of your photo. If this doesn't remove the color cast,
then use the color balance dialog box found under Image > Adjust > Color Balance, and adjust the
color until you believe you have found the most accurate color for your photo. For problem areas
follow the instructions below.

After correcting the curves, we still find that there are problem areas within the picture. The man's
face is too red. Take your polygonal lasso found in the upper-right square of your tools palette and
select the area around the man's face and neck. It does not have to be a precise selection as long

3
as it is within the flesh areas, and the background or clothes are not selected. After you have
selected the area, go to Select > Feather. A dialog box will appear asking how many pixels you
would like to feather. Depending on the size of the selection you would feather about 20% of the
pixels selected. That is to say, if you had ten pixels selected you would feather two, one hundred
you would feather twenty and so on. After you have feathered the selection, go up to Image >
Adjust > Color Balance. Select the red channel and there you would set the sliders to remove or
replace color that is too predominant or lacking, until you come up with something pleasing.

Page 3 of 4

Now that the color has been adjusted, it's time to Sharpen the image. If you are printing out this
image, then be sure to size it before you sharpen it. You may lose some of the sharpening effects if
you size it after you sharpen.

Select Filter>Sharpen > Unsharp Mask. A dialog box will appear with a small preview window. Your
cursor will now be in the shape of a little box. If you are sharpening a portrait, place the box over the
eye so you can review the sharpening process as you slide the bar. You will notice that the dialog
box, offers three areas to consider: amount, radius, and threshold. Amount is the percentage of
sharpening that will be done to the edges of the image. Radius is how many pixels in from the color
edge will have their pixels sharpened, or alternatively how thick you will choose to make the edge
(the higher the radius, the thicker the edge). Threshold is how different the color shifts in the pixels
have to be before the filter sharpens them. So if you are sharpening flesh tones, you probably want
to increase the threshold to avoid sharpening any grain or noise in your picture. More abrupt color
changes can take a decrease in threshold. Also it is better to sharpen at lower percentages twice
for a smoother look, then to run it once at a percentage that is twice the number. And remember,
always make "Sharpen" the last thing you do in the image-editing process.

4
White balance
If you are a bit unsure of the use of the white balance setting on your camera, then
this simple explanation may be of help.

Without getting too technical, it is important to understand that a digital still camera
needs to establish a basis from which the percentage of each colour is derived.
White, the sum of all colours, needs to be decided each time the camera takes a
photo, one of the reasons digital cameras tend to be a bit slower off the mark than
their film- based cousins who leave that nagging detail to the film. Since white is
affected by the lighting environment, the camera must be able to compensate for
the effects of this light, on white. The importance of this to the user is that having
to adjust the colour balance of an image can be complicated after the fact, however
versatile the image editing program.

Most digital cameras, in particular the newer models, offer an adjustable white
balance. Usually, the various settings fall into the following categories:
AUTO WHITE BALANCE

This setting is always the default on digital cameras. Complex algorithms,

programmed into the camera's firmware, decide where the white point is. Mostly
this is a fairly accurate system, but it is far more successful at deciding the correct
white point when used outdoors and in bright conditions. Under a cloudy sky,
many auto white balance systems will fare less well, and can cause blue- tinged
images.

TUNGSTEN

Also called "incandescent ", or

"indoor" on some cameras.
This setting is intended for use
when the lighting environment
is mostly light bulbs, such as
commonly found in a home.
When the white balance
system of the camera "knows"
that the photo will be taken in
this type of environment,
without flash, then it is better
able to decide where the white
point should be. This is the
setting that should be used
2 photos are taken under the same incandescent light and without when taking photos indoors,
flash. The section on the left is photographed using the without the flash.
Incandescent (Tungsten) white balance setting, while the section
on the right uses the camera's Auto white balance.

5
FLUORESCENT

This setting is for adjusting the

white balance when taking
photos under fluorescent tube
lighting. Some cameras offer
more than one fluorescent
adjustment since there are
different types of fluorescent
tubes: cool white and warm
white.

These different fluorescent

lamp types are used in many
work places and the type used
follows no rules. The
photographer must decide 2 photos are taken under the same cool white fluorescent light
which type it is, to best use and without flash. The section on the left is photographed using the
Auto white balance setting, while the section on the right uses the
the white balance settings fluorescent setting.
available on the camera.

Of all the settings to use, this one is the most difficult to determine. For example,
many offices and schools use a mix of these tubes to soften the harsh cold light
produced by all cool white tubes, by adding the peach coloured tinge of the light
that emanates from the warm white tubes. In such circumstances,
experimentation is best.
SUN, CLOUD, SHADE, OR
OUTDOOR

These settings are not offered

on all cameras. Generally,
white balance systems are
optimized for outdoor
situations. Therefore, they can
handle setting the white
balance easily. Still, some
manufacturers add extra
settings to their cameras. The
actual uses of these settings
can depend on the particular
camera. It is best to consult
the manual to determine the
Under a partly cloudy sky, the results of Auto white balance and the
intended use, since, on one
Cloud setting.
camera it might be intended
for very "intense sun", and
"setting sun" on another.

ONE -PUSH , USER PRE-SET, MANUAL, OR WHITE BALANCE HOLD

Many different names are used to describe the same concept. All of them describe a
white balance setting decided on the spot, under the lighting conditions that are
prevalent where the photo is to be taken.

6
Usually, the user is required to point the camera at a "white" surface and select it as
the white point. The difficulty comes in deciding what is "white". An example of that
difficulty can be seen with plain white paper. Different stocks of white paper will
present different "whites". Some might be more yellow, some brighter white. Under
lights affecting our perception of white, how is one supposed to determine what is
"truly" white?

One way to deal with the problem, is to carry a small rectangular piece of white
paper along with the camera. We have found that a small square of very white
paper works well. Then, when the white balance setting is critical because the photo
opportunity may not present itself again, establishing the white balance on the
"reference" white paper can work well, provided it is used to balance the white in an
indoor situation

7
If you wonder what focal lengths, zooms and digital zooms are, and how they work,
then this little explanation might be of some help.

First, let's look at what is a focal length. We will use 35mm single lens reflex
cameras with interchangeable lenses to illustrate.
Focal length is defined as "the
distance between the rear
nodal point of the lens and the
focal plane, when the focus is
set at infinity"¹. The rear nodal
point of the lens "is where the
rays of light appear to have
come from, after passing
through the lens"².

The focal length of a lens is

expressed in millimetres. The
focal length of the lens also
determines the field of view:
how wide, or narrow the
view through the lens is.

The photo at left shows a 35mm

camera fitted with a 50mm lens.
In the 35mm film format, lenses
with focal lengths in or around
the 50mm mark, are generally
referred to as normal lenses.
This is because these lenses show
objects and scenery, at
approximately the same scale as
is perceived by the unaided
human eye.

8
The photo on the right shows
the field of view of a 50mm
lens. The image shown here is
taken through the viewfinder
of the camera.

The scale is very similar to

what an observer would see
with the naked eye while
standing at the same vantage
point as the camera.

Now, we see the

same camera, but
this time, fitted with
a 200mm lens. The
lens magnifies the
image reaching the
focal plane and in
turn, narrows the
field of view, just
like binoculars
would.

Again, the photo on the left

shows what can be seen
throught the viewfinder of the
camera.

Since the image is

considerably magnified, we
only see a small portion of
what was visible in the 50mm
image, but that portion now
shows much more detail than
was visible previously.

9
The Optical Zoom

A zoom lens is a lens

desig ned so that its focal
length can be varied over
a predetermined range.
The image is optically
magnified and, depending on
the zoom's setting, will show
a larger, or smaller field of
view. The variability of the
zoom lens allows it to
replace a number of single
focal length lenses.

With a digital camera, the

optical zoom does not change
the image size, or the
resolution. The number of
pixels used to describe the
image remains constant.
Therein lies the difference with
the digital zoom.

In this example, the photo is

taken with the camera's zoom
set to the 38mm position,
offering a broad field of view.
The image's resolution is 1600
x 1200 pixels.

Now, we zoom in to 115mm,

maintaining the camera in the
same exact position. The
image still has the same
resolution as the previous one:
1600 x 1200 pixels. Similarly,
the number of kilobytes used
to store the image file without
compression, will be the same
as the photo above.

The optical zoom has brought

the subject "closer", showing
more detail than was visible
previously, as if the camera
had been moved physically
closer to the subject.

10
The Digital Zoom

Digital cameras equiped with a

single focal length lens,
usually offer the possibility of
mimicking a zoomed image.
The system is called a digital
zoom.

With single focal length

cameras, the process works by
capturing only the central
portion of the entire image
received by the sensor.

In a real sense, the digital zoom is really only a cropping tool, since it cuts off the
parts of the image that would be out of the field of view if a longer focal length lens
had been used.

The image above shows the "zoom" possibilities. For example, if the real image has
a size of 1600 x 1200 pixels, a 2.5X digital zoom would capture a smaller image
measuring only 640 x 480 pixels, taken from the centre of the frame. In the
illustration above, the white rectangles indicate other possible digital zoom options.

Inherent in a digital zoom, is the fact that the numbers of pixels used to capture the
image is the same, as the number of pixels representing the same area on the
original, non- zoomed image. Therefore, the digital zoom image is either smaller
than the image it was cropped from but has the same definition (the same the
number of pixels are used to represent the same area), or, if the image is re- sized
by interpolation to be of the same size as the non-zoomed image, it exhibits a much
lower definition.

Since the physical number of pixels that captured the image is always constant,
resizing the image by interpolation has a serious impact on the quality of the image
itself. The best way to demonstrate this is to look at the examples below:

11
The image shown on the right
is an un- cropped reduction of
an original photo which
measured 1600 x 1200 pixels.
The image is captured with a
single focal length lens of
40mm.

To show the effect of a digital

zoom, we selected a 640 x 480
pixel portion from the central
part of the original frame
(white rectangle). Then, we
re-sized this new smaller
image to the same
measurements as those of the
original photo: 1600 x 1200
pixel.
Resizing the smaller cropped image has the effect of lowering the definition.

We cropped each photo (represented by the smaller yellow rectangle in the

illustration above), so they could be placed side by side below.

This is a 280 x 210 pixel portion of the original image, This is a 280 x 210 pixel portion of the zoomed image.
showing the definition of the non-zoomed image. The The interpolation of the original image data has caused
definition exhibited here is normal for a distant object, the photo to become quite blurred, as the interpolation
imaged by relatively few of the sensor's pixels. algorithm "invented" pixels to increase the image size.

What is important to remember, is that the very same thing can be accomplished
with just about any photo editing program. A photo can be cropped to what ever is
required, with greater flexibility than the digital zoom provides, since any given area
can be selected.The digital zoom on the other hand, can only use the centre portion
of the entire frame.

If there is an advantage to the digital zoom, it is that since the camera meters only
the "zoomed" section of the image (a smaller section at the centre of the frame), it
can quite often generate a better exposed image for that particular area, than if the
exposure had been determined based on the larger image.

12
There are as many ways to take photos as there are photographers. However, one
concept affects all photos: composition. Because, for an image to be successful and
meaningful, it needs to be composed correctly. Should the subject be poorly
positioned in the frame, it may go unnoticed, or the meaning of the photograph
may come across incorrectly.

Without getting into the many fine points of composition, there are a few basic rules
that should be applied; even though, as every one knows, "rules are made to be
broken"... By the same token, the rules do need to be known before they can be
broken.

For many centuries now, first architects, then painters

of the Renaissance, and much later—during the middle
of the 19th century—photographers, have used a grid
based on the Golden Rule, to guide them in the
composition of their images.

The golden rule establishes an ideal ratio between

height and width. These proportions are derived from
the field of view of the human eye, and are used, often
with slight variations, throughout a large number of
commonly used objects . Examples can be found in
architecture, in the shape of doors and windows, to
more mundane items such as picture frames and sheets
of paper.

More or less, the ratio corresponds to 2/3 x 1/3; and

this is a ratio that can be recognized in the size of most
film frames and, today, in the image sizes of digital
cameras.

Within that frame, another rule is used: the rule of

thirds. It is used to determine precise areas where the
important parts of the image should be placed. The
same principle is used to determine the position of the
horizon and the proportion of ground to sky.

When first looking at an image, the eye of the viewer

rarely settles at the centre of the image, but instead
follows an approximate "Z" pattern (top left to right,
then to the lower left and right again). This pattern is

13
 most unconscious but has been well- documented. It is
probably associated with the western reading pattern.

From the photographer's point of view, the goal then

becomes to guide the gaze of the viewer to the
subject, while being aware of the way most people look
at an image.

Similarly, compositions
containing diagonals can
also be based on the
golden rule and the rule of
thirds, so that the
resulting image is
balanced.

All these rules can be circumvented intentionally, as they have been by many well-
established artists, but they offer an important starting point for any composition.

Particular care must also be used in portraits so that the gaze of the subject is not
too close to the edge of the frame.

Note the direction of the gaze of the

model in this famous painting at
right, and the space which it is
given. Also notable is the diagonal
composition of the painting.

Johannes Vermeer
1632-1675
The lace maker.

14
Yet, this composition method does have some
limitations. When a wide angle lens is used, particular
care must be given to framing and composition since this
type of lens can easily cause curvature in the straight
lines placed near the edges of the image frame. This is
why it is generally advisable to place the horizon near
the horizontal centre of the frame, so as to avoid a
curvature, which in turn would detract from the wide
field of view presented in the photo.
The same care must be taken with vertical lines in
architecture- type photos, since they too can become
odd- looking curves that deform the shape of the building
and ruin the composition. Digital camera zoom lenses
are particularly prone to these distortions since they are
usually equipped with optics that are very hard to correct
totally, and will often have barrel distortion in wide
angle and pincushionning at the telephoto end.

So, while immediacy is at the heart of photography, a close look at the great photos
of the past, those that are remembered, will usually reveal a flawless composition.

Therefore, it is worthwhile to take a little time, if possible, before pressing the

shutter release. A walk around the subject to find the best angle, selecting which
element should be where in the frame, and visualizing the final image in the mind's
eye, will greatly improve most photos. This way, a better chance will be had to
capture that special something that triggered the desire to take the photo

15
What it is.
A good starting point to any consideration of exposure is the admission that a
correct exposure is mostly "correct" in the eye of the photographer. Meaning that
any under, or overexposure can be perfectly acceptable if it is part of the
communication of the photographer. This said, exposures can also be looked at
from a "technical" point of view.

Digital cameras calculate a technically correct exposure based on the information

their light meter provides. While this method works well in the majority of cases, it
can, on occasion, lead to exposures that can be labelled as "technically" inaccurate.

To remedy these occasional problems, most digital cameras— including relatively

inexpensive ones—are equipped with exposure compensation. Exposure
compensation provides a me ans by which an exposure error can be rectified. In
general, cameras offer a exposure compensation range of ± (plus or minus) 2EV
(Exposure Value). Many cameras allow compensation to be made in increments of
1/3 EV, while some others permit it in 1/2 EV increments.

A simple concept

In exposure compensation positive values increase the brightness of the image,

while negative values darker it. Probably the easiest way to explain how exposure
compensation is to provide some examples of how exposure compensation affects
the exposure.

The subject is an old totem pole in a park. For these photos, we selected a Casio
QV8000SX, as it is one of those cameras that can record a great deal of image data
(see the columns below). Additionally, the QV- 8000SX is used because it has an 8X
zoom, making it possible to zoom in on the top of the totem; and because of the
fact that it has a good multi- pattern meter, which generally guarantees a correct
exposure. A correct exposure with the exposition compensation set to "0" is
important so the variations caused by the compensation can be observed.

16
Compensation set to "+1EV"
File Size : 457 kbyte
Resolution : 1280 x 960 pixels
Quality : Fine
AE : Programmed AE
Light Mete ring : Multi
Shutter speed : 1/49sec
Aperture stop : F3.2
Exposure comp : +1.00EV
Focusing mode : Auto Focus
Flash mode : Off
Sharpness : Normal
Saturation : Normal
Contrast : Normal
White balance : Auto
Digital zoom : Off
Model : QV-8000SX

Compensation set to "0"

File Size : 459 kbyte
Resolution : 1280 x 960 pixels
Quality : Fine
AE : Programmed AE
Light Metering : Multi
Shutter speed : 1/96sec
Aperture stop : F3.2
Exposure comp : 0.00EV
Focusing mode : Auto Focus
Flash mode : Off
Sharpness : Normal
Saturation : Normal
Contrast : Normal
White balance : Auto
Digital zoom : Off
Model : QV-8000SX

17
 Compensation set to " –1.00EV"
File Size : 472 kbyte
Resolution : 1280 x 960 pixels
Quality : Fine
AE : Programmed AE
Light Metering : Multi
Shutter speed : 1/146sec
Aperture stop : F3.2
Exposure comp : –1.00EV
Focusing mode : Auto Focus
Flash mode : Off
Sharpness : Normal
Saturation : Normal
Contrast : Normal
White balance : Auto
Digital zoom : Off
Model : QV-8000SX

As can be seen the effect is quite dramatic. More subtle results can be achieved by
increasing or decreasing the compensation in smaller increments. As a matter of
fact, some cameras can do this automatically, shooting 1 frame with the settings
provided by the metering, then shooting 2 other frames, one with negative
compensation and one with positive compensation. The method is referred to as
"bracketing", or "exposure bracketing".

To show the more subtle differences in exposure that can be achieved with a lesser
increments, let's consider the next 3 photos of the same subject.

Compensation set to "+0.75EV"

File Size : 385 kbyte
Resolution : 1280 x 960 pixels
Quality : Fine
AE : Programmed AE
Light Metering : Multi
Shutter speed : 1/121sec
Aperture stop : F3.2
Exposure comp : 0.75EV
Focusing mode : Macro
Flash mode : Off
Sharpness : Normal
Saturation : Normal
Contrast : Normal
White balance : Tungsten
Digital zoom : Off
Model : QV-8000SX

18
 Compensation set to "0"
File Size : 452 kbyte
Resolution : 1280 x 960 pixels
Quality : Fine
AE : Programmed AE
Light Metering : Multi
Shutter speed : 1/211sec
Aperture stop : F3.2
Exposure comp : 0.00EV
Focusing mode : Macro
Flash mode : Off
Sharpness : Normal
Saturation : Normal
Contrast : Normal
White balance : Tungsten
Digital zoom : Off
Model : QV-8000SX

Compensation set to " –0.75EV"

File Size : 490 kbyte
Resolution : 1280 x 960 pixels
Quality : Fine
AE : Programmed AE
Light Metering : Multi
Shutter speed : 1/347sec
Aperture stop : F3.2
Exposure comp : –0.75EV
Focusing mode : Macro
Flash mode : Off
Sharpness : Normal
Sa turation : Normal
Contrast : Normal
White balance : Tungsten
Digital zoom : Off
Model : QV-8000SX

Just like everything else in photography, the best way to learn how to use exposure
compensation is by experimentation. Sometimes, a slight alteration to the exposure
dictated by the camera's meter can have an impact on the tone, and the success of
the image. Darkening a stormy sea with - 1/3EV can create a foreboding mood,
while increasing the compensation to +1/3EV can make a picture of a child playing
on a swing look happier and sunnier

19
Every time information is provided about the lens of a digital camera, the focal
length mentioned is also given in 35mm equivalent. While the reason for this may
be obvious to some, it also occasions questions for quite a number of people.
35mm film frames measure 36 x 24mm, and are
the film frame size of the majority of film cameras
in use today.

This widespread use of 35mm film has caused many

28mm focal length (wide angle)
people to develop a general idea of the field of view
that will be visible with various 35mm focal lengths.
In other words, because of its popularity, the 35mm
film format has become a reference point, much
like a unit of measure such as the foot or the
metre.

For example, a 28mm focal length will capture a

fairly wide angle; a 35mm focal length noticeably
less; a 50mm lens will provide a near normal field
of view, a 380mm lens will fill the field of view (see
comparison lower down) with a distant subject.

Put another way, the smaller the number of the

focal length the wider the field of view and,
conversely, the larger the focal length number the
35mm focal length (wide angle) narrower the field of view will be; and this holds
true whether for film or digital.
All focal lengths are measured
in millimetres, whatever the
format of the camera: 35mm,
APS, or digital.

The focal length number

indicates the distance between
the lens and the focal plane—
the position of the film or
sensor. The precise definition
of focal length is "the distance
between the focus (where the
image is sharp on the focal
plane) and the optical centre
of the lens". (See graphic at
right).

20
 With digital cameras, these focal length numbers
are usually very small because the image sensors
most commonly used today are quite small—under
an inch when measured diagonally. To form an
image on such a small target, the lens needs to be
quite close to the focal plane, hence the short focal
length numbers common to many digital cameras.

However, the real reason a 35mm equivalent is

50mm focal length (normal view)
given, is not because people can't relate to the
short focal lengths of digital cameras, but because
the "real" focal length on a digital camera—for
example a 6 to 18mm zoom—will not always
corresponds to the same field of view on different
digital cameras.

At the root of this difference is the fact that

different electronic image sensors —the digital
equivalent of a film size—come in a variety of
different sizes.
380mm focal length (telephoto view)

Let's take 3 different CCDs as example:

§ a 2.1 megapixel CCD measuring 0.5 inch diagonally = (1/2")

§ a 3.3 megapixel CCD measuring 0.55 inch diagonally = (1/1.8")
§ a 4 megapixel CCD measuring 0.66 inch diagonally = (2/3")

As can be seen, each CCD has not only a different diagonal measurement, but a
different resolution, which is to say the number of pixels that will form the image.
It is important to note that the
number of pixels used to form
the image is not related to the
the focal length. In fact, a
number of digital cameras
have been produced which,
while having different sensor
resolutions, are in every other
respect, similar: same lens,
same body, etc. And, if the
sensors used are the same
physical size, the 35mm
equivalent of the lens will be
exactly the same.

On the other hand, if the lens

employed for each CCD is
exactly the same focal length,
i.e. 8mm, but the CCDs have
different sizes, then their
35mm equivalent focal length
will be different, as each will

21
show a greater or lesser field
of view. (See graphic at left)
So, using a "standardized" way to describe the field of view of digital cameras helps
to simplify everything, irrespective of the size of the CCD in use. And that need for a
common way of expressing the field of view, is why the "35mm equivalent" is
generally mentioned when a digital camera lens is described

22
The depth of field defines the zone in which all elements show clearly from
foreground to background. The depth of field in an image is controlled by three
factors: the distance to the subject, the focal length, and the aperture used to
capture the image.

This article is an attempt at explaining a subject which appears simple superficially,

but is in fact quite complex, and one for which explanation often comes through the
guise of formulae and equations. We thought we would approach the topic in more
general terms, and avoid peripheral ideas such as depth of focus, the hyperfocal
point of a lens and optical concepts such as circles of confusion. Instead, we seek to
explain the observable difference between the depth of field of a digital camera that
uses a small- size CCD, and others that use larger imagers or film.

Before anything else, it is necessary to understand that the term depth of field
defines a somewhat "elastic" concept: acceptable sharpness. The perception of
sharpness can differ from one individual to another, and when the expression depth
of field is used, it really denotes that area in an image that exhibits a sufficient
sharpness to be considered more or less in focus. The depth of field doesn't have be
one of precise sharpness, but instead that portion of the image in which things — or
people — remain recognizable for what they are.

For users of compact digital cameras, depth of field is a subject of special interest
because depth of field is more difficult to control with a compact digital camera than
with earlier film cameras. The small imaging sensors of compact cameras require
the use of short focal lengths, and this in turn gives these cameras an unusually
long depth of field when compared to 35mm cameras. Thus, intentionally getting a
shallow depth of field is more difficult.

The influence of subject distance on depth of field:

As a rule, depth of field decreases as the subject gets closer to the camera. Meaning
that as the point of focus gets closer to the lens, the possible extent of the depth of
field diminishes. On the other hand, if the subject is far enough away from the
camera — and for compact digital cameras, this need not be very far — the depth of
field extends out to infinity.

Focal length and focal plane:

To understand the relationship between the focal length of a lens and the perceived
depth of field, some terms need to be defined. The graphic below, (based on a
graphic © Olympus America), illustrates the meaning of focal length and focal
plane:

23
 Focal length describes the length of the
lens, as measured in millimetres, from
the focus point in the lens, to the focal
plane.

The focal plane is the area — in this

case the area of the sensor — that
needs to be covered by the circle of light
focused by the lens.

The physical dimensions of the lens are

determined by the need to cover the
entire focal plane. As the diagonal of the
focal plane represents its longest
dimension, the diameter of the circle of
light created on the focal plane by the
lens must exceed the diagonal
measurement of the focal plane.
Therefore, in the case of a 1/2-inch sensor, to ensure complete coverage of the
sensor, the circle of light focused by the lens must be larger than the diagonal of
the sensor when it arrives at the focal plane. With a 35mm camera, that same
coverage must be even bigger since the area to be imaged is larger — hence the
need for a bigger and longer lens.

As a corollary, the longer the lens' focal

length, the shorter the possible depth of field
will be. In other words, as the focal length of
the lens increases, the depth of field for any
given aperture, becomes progressively
shorter as long as the position of the lens,
relative to the subject, remains unchanged.
The reverse also holds true. As the focal
length gets shorter, the possible depth of
field becomes progressively longer.

Furthermore, the depth of field is usually

uneven divided between the front and the
back of the focus point. For shallow depths of
field, the division is almost equal, with the far
depth being a bit greater. When the near
depth extends one quarter of the way toward
the camera, the far depth will extend twice
that depth behind the focus point. By the
time the near depth of field has reached half
the distance to the camera, the far depth has
gone out to infinity and everything beyond
the focus point will be in focus.

24
 The relationship between aperture and depth of field

Not only does the physical length of the lens impact the depth of field,
the depth of field is also impacted by the aperture used to capture the
image. The aperture of the lens is the opening that controls how much
light gets to the sensor. In a camera with a variable aperture, a mechanism called a
diaphragm, or iris, is used to restrict the amount of light that travels through the
lens. The diaphragm provides control over the exposure, as well as the depth of
field.

The diaphragm can be made as simple covers

with holes that provide different apertures, or
composed of blades that are adjusted
incrementally to provide varying apertures.

The illustration below shows the relationship

of aperture to depth of field:

(Note that the f-numbers shown below are just examples of

the relationship, and do not precisely correspond to the lens
apertures shown.)

25
So, as the f-number representing the aperture increases, for example progressing
from f2 to f11, the depth of field increases — which provides an easy way to
remember the relationship:

small f-numbers = less depth of field,

big f-numbers = more depth of field.

The influence of focal length on depth of field

As mentioned previously, short focal lengths have an intrinsically long depth of field.
Since compact digital cameras use short focal lengths, obtaining a long depth of
field — where elements from foreground to background are clearly recognizable —
isn't a problem, but obtaining photos with a shallow depth of field is more difficult.
In fact, in wide angle (the shortest focal length), and at distances of more than 3 or
4 metres (9 to 12 feet) the depth of field of a compact digital is very long, and the
aperture's primary role is more to control the amount of light reaching the sensor
and therefore the exposure, than the depth of field. Unlike with a 35mm, for the
compact digital the subject needs to be closer to the camera for the influence of the
aperture to become observable.

This is demonstrated in the images below, both of the same subject, photographed
from approximately 1 metre (3 feet) away at f1.8. The lenses are set so as to have
a similar focal length as is evidenced by the width of field.

26
 This first photo is captured
with a compact digital that
uses a 1/2-inch CCD. The lens'
aperture is set to f1.8, the
maximum possible with the
camera.

As the background is a
relatively short distance
behind the subject, the large
aperture only blurs it slightly.
Details such as the pine
needles on the ground at the
base of and behind the flower
remain visible, and readily
recognizable.

This second image is capt ured

with a digital SLR camera
equipped with a much larger
CCD which allows it to use
standard 35mm lenses. As can
be seen, the longer lens
means that the depth of field
at f1.8 is much shorter.

The pine needles in the

background are not
recognizable as such, and the
outline of the rocks is very
soft.

If a long depth of field is "natural" for the compact digital, it also means that
purposefully obtaining a shallow depth of field is bound to be more difficult.

Controlling the depth of field with a compact digital camera

Control over the depth of field means being able to select whether the image will
have a long, or a short depth of field. With most compact digital cameras, this can
be quite challenging, and in some cases almost impossible. Yet, a short depth of
field is very useful for some types of photos, particularly portraits. With a portrait,
the photographer generally wants to make the subject appear detached from the
background, as the latter can be distracting.

One way to mitigate — to some extent — the long depth of field of a compact digital
and obtain the appearance of a shallower depth of field, is to place the subject at
least a few meters in front of the background, and use the optical zoom to frame
the subject. This technique places the background on the outer edge of the depth of
field.

27
The image at right, and the
one below make use of these
two factors wile highlighting
the different depth of field
created by the aperture.

The rhododendron in the

background is approximately 3
metres (9 feet) behind the
zebra, and the zebra itself is
about one metre (3 feet) from
the camera. By zooming a bit,
and selecting a wide aperture
of f2.2, the background
becomes suitably blurred.

The same subject captured

with an aperture of f11 shows
the background clearly, and
the difference between the two
images illustrates the
advantage of a shallow depth
of field for portraiture. With a
clearly defined background the
zebra's head looses its
dominance, as the busy
background detracts attention.

Often, the use of the zoom is

more important as a means to
frame the subject and avoid
any potential wide angle
distortion.
Although increasing the focal length used for the image can also be seen as a
means to decrease the depth of field, much depend on the particular camera used.
While some will have an aperture range that is sufficient to provide control over the
depth of field, others will exhibit little difference between an image captured at f2.8
and one shot at f8

28
Cameras tend to dust and fingerprint magnets, and cleaning them without causing
some accidental damage can be a bit worrisome. Yet, a good cleaning can be done
with some simple supplies and, if done carefully, will help keep a camera looking
new for years.

Many cameras come with little stickers on them. Witness the number of cameras
that can be seen, years old, still sporting their little oval "OK Passed" sticker, its
gold colour faded and its edges peeling. Many people avoid removing these things
because they worry that the attempt will damage the finish of the camera. In fact,
leaving those stickers on is often a mistake. As time passes, many surfaces exposed
to light change colour slightly — even metallic ones — and the adhesive of the
sticker may well become permanently etched into the finish. Moreover, they have
no value as they simply indicate that the camera was quality inspected after
assembly. Removing these and others like it doesn't invalidate a warrantee, nor
c ompromise the resale value of the camera.

To clean a camera properly, one has to adapt the products and methods used to the
specific camera. Different surface finishes require different handling. For example, a
plain plastic with a silver finish isn't very strong and any cleaning of the surface
should be done with great care to avoid rubbing off the finish; on the other hand, a
metal finish is usually quite rugged and can be cleaned easier.
This is why prior to any first-time cleaning, it is
important to determine with some degree of
certainty the composition of the surface. Most
camera bodies have some sort of compartment
which, when opened, can be used to determine the
finish of some the camera's surface.

A good place to look in is the battery compartment.

Often the cover will be made of plastic, but the body
may not be. A look inside the cavity for the battery
can reveal the type of finish used. In the case of the
photo at left, the camera has a silver finish on the
outside, but a look inside reveals a light grey plastic.
This is a surface where the exterior finish is like a
paint, and therefore a fragile surface.

29
The same thing can be done to determine if the
camera has a metal body and the type of finish it
has. In the photo at right, when the battery
compartment is opened, the metal casing of the
camera is visible (1), next to the plastic inner body
(2), and so it the fact that in this case, the metal
surfacing has a paint finish.

Once it has been determined how the body is

finished, cleaning it becomes a lot safer.

Some cleaning materials are required:

§ A good but mild liquid glass cleaner, the type

that has a pump bottle (not Ammonia!).
§ Cotton swabs.
§ A small bottle of Isopropyl alcohol
§ A compressed gas (or compressed air)
duster.
§ A lint-free cloth such as an old, but good
quality cotton, handkerchief or napkin (no
starch).
§ Some common sense and caution.

Cleaning the body surfaces:

Usually, all it takes is a soft, clean cotton cloth. Exhale gently on the part to be
cleaned and rub lightly. For a greasy stain, mix approximately 50% glass cleaner
and 50% water, dampen a bit of the cloth and rub lightly. To remove glue from a
sticker, use a few drops of Isopropyl alcohol on a clean cotton cloth. Be careful not
to rub hard; it could remove the finish. Never use Isopropyl alcohol on bodies with a
textured surface, or those made of plastic, the alcohol can dissolve the finish,
removing the paint or smoothing the texture.

Dust can be blown out of crevices and joints using a compressed gas or air can.
Always hold the can vertically and never bring the nozzle too close to the camera, or
use the spray on any surface with a mirror. Compressed gas is very cold and can
cause condensation while the strength of the jet can force humidity into the body.
Maintain a distance of 4 to 5 inches at all times, and use very short bursts.

Cleaning the lens:

There are a lot of gadgets to clean lenses on the market. The fact is a simple lint-
free cotton cloth works as well, if not better.

Be particularly wary of two cleaning products. One is a gadget with a small round

30
pad at one end for cleaning the lens. The cleaning pad is glued, and the glue can
start to melt if the lens cleaner has been in a warm place. The glue will then end up
on the lens and be difficult to remove without damaging the coating of the lens.

The other is lens tissues. Whatever the paper, it is best to avoid use of any kind of
paper product directly on the lens of a camera as the fibres can be quite abrasive.

Cleaning the lens of a digital camera can be difficult. Many models have very small
lenses, and others with zoom, are sensitive to lateral movement. Moreover, some
cameras have an automatic barrier that covers the lens when the camera is
powered off.

To clean the lens of a camera with a lens barrier, turn the camera on and remove
the battery or batteries. This prevents the camera turning itself off while the lens is
being cleaned, and prevents unnecessary wear on the battery.

Remember that lenses are fragile, do not push hard, and avoid putting any lateral
pressure on the lens.
Whether the lens has a large front element,
or a small one, the first step is to blow some
air on its surface to remove anything that
might scratch it when it is cleaned. Maintain
the compressed air can upright, and shoot
small burst of air at an angle from the lens.
Do not use long bursts and do not bring the
tip of the nozzle closer than 3 inches.

Use a cotton cloth to wipe the lens, while

exhaling directly on the glass. For the areas
that the cloth does not reach, use a clean
cotton swab to gently dislodge the dust. A
cotton swab must be used extremely gently,
and never press on the tip, always use it
at an angle, and never use a chemical.
For lenses with a larger front element, a
cotton cloth works best. Here again, after
spraying a burst of compressed air at the
lens, simply exhale lightly on the glass and
wipe with a good quality cotton cloth. This
should remove most stains. Water rings, from
rain or other moisture, can be quite stubborn.
Any water droplets should be dried right
away and not allowed to dry on the glass.

Afterwards, some compressed air should be

able to blow any remaining dust and lint
away.

31
 Cleaning the viewfinder:

Because it is so close to the eye when the camera is in use,

dust in the viewfinder can be quite noticeable, and cause
blurred areas in the image. For some cameras, the
viewfinder can also be the most difficult to clean because
the space is so small.

The most difficult viewfinders to clean are those that are

deeply recessed, when the lens of the exit pupil is far inside
the body.
The glass, or optical grade plastic, of most
viewfinders have no outside coating, and therefore it
is safe to use a mix of 50% glass cleaner and 50%
water to clean them. Touch the extreme tip of a
cotton swab to the mixture. The tip must be damp,
and not soaked. If it is too wet, squeeze out the
excess before gently touching it to the surface of the
viewfinder. Use a gentle side to side motion without
applying any pressure. Then, immediately use the
dry end of the swab to gently wipe the glass or
plastic. Do not allow the cleaned surface to air dry.
Any dirt or dust remaining in the corners can also be removed. Use a new cotton
swab dampened slightly with the same mixture on the tip and let it sit in the corner
for about 10 to 15 seconds. Then dry the area with a fresh swab and use
compressed air to blow away any remaining dust or lint.

Rubber eyecups and rubber grips:

The rubber used for some parts such as the grip, or

the viewfinder eyecup, attracts lint, dust etc. To
clean these parts, use Isopropyl alcohol. Dip a cotton
swab in the alcohol and squeeze its tip lightly
between the fingers to wring out excess alcohol.

Using the cotton swab, wipe the eyecup or grip

evenly. Do not use an excessive amount of Isopropyl
alcohol or the drying alcohol will leave streaks. Avoid
going to close to parts — such as a painted and
textured body surface — that might be stained or
damaged by the alcohol. As soon as the rubber part
is wet with the alcohol, dry it with compressed air.

32
Cleaning the LCD screen:

There are different types of surfaces for

LCD screens. Some are non- reflective
and lightly textured, some have a shiny
protective glass or plastic. Whatever the
case, the LCD screen is fragile. Any
strong pressure on its surface can
damage it.

The LCD screen should be cleaned the

way a lens is: with a soft lint-free cloth.
Exhale on the surface lightly and wipe
away fingerprints or nose prints. For
stains that don't come off with just a
cloth, use a cotton cloth moistened with
a mix of 50% glass cleaner and 50%
water. The cloth should be damp to the
touch, not soaked. Gently moisten the
stain, then wipe with a clean dry cloth.

Memory card compartment:

Never insert anything other than a card into the memory card compartment. There
are small and very fragile contacts inside that can be damaged easily.
If cleaning is required — for example the
camera has been used in a very dusty
environment — the best way to clean the
card slot is with compressed air.

When using compressed air or gas, the same

rule always applies: do not insert the nozzle
into the card slot; and do not spray from too
close a distance or otherwise moisture will
get into the camera. Maintain at least a
couple of inches between the tip of the spray
and the card slot; and clean dust out using
short, quick bursts.

33
 Battery compartment:

Battery contact can become soiled over time and affect

the performance of the batteries. The common way of
cleaning these is with the small eraser at the end of a
pencil. The eraser will remove most dirt and even some
light corrosion. Once the contacts are cleaned, then
blow air into the compartment to remove the remaining
bit of eraser and dirt.

A word of caution:

The cleaning methods presented here are based on experience and should work
with most cameras. However, if you decide to clean your camera yourself, be
careful, work slowly and gently as ultimately, you are responsible for your actions.
Remember that such things as cleaning solutions and alcohol are solvents and if
used inappropriately or carelessly can damage the camera.

If you are unsure what to do, have the camera cleaned by a technician. It is
better to spend a bit of money to have your camera cleaned than to damage it.

34
35