Land Administration System in India

Naresh C. Saxena
Contents
Executive Summary
1 Institutional Structure........................................................................................................................16
1.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................................16
1.2 Land tenure in the colonial period...............................................................................................18
1.2.1 Changes after Independence..................................................................................................19
1.3 Structure of land administration & its functionaries ...................................................................20
1.3.1 Village Level.........................................................................................................................21
1.3.2 Circle.....................................................................................................................................22
1.3.3 TalukTahsil...........................................................................................................................2!
1.3." #evenue Su$%divisi&ns..........................................................................................................2'
1.3.! (istrict...................................................................................................................................2)
1.3.' (ivisi&ns................................................................................................................................2)
1.3.) State ......................................................................................................................................2)
1.3.* Setup in Ta+il Nadu after the a$&liti&n &f the ,&ard &f #evenue........................................2*
1.4 Land administration for non-crop lands.......................................................................................29
1. Land !e"enue #ollection..............................................................................................................31
1.!.1 -h. has land tax l&st its i+p&rtance/...................................................................................3"
1.!.2 Can land tax $e revived as a s&urce &f revenue/...................................................................3'
1.6 Land !ecords................................................................................................................................3$
1.'.1 I+plicati&n &f a$sence &f land rec&rds in 0eghala.a...........................................................39
1.'.2 Surve. &f uplands in 1rissa..................................................................................................."2
1.'.3 Land #ec&rds in 3arnataka..................................................................................................."2
1.'." Land #ec&rds in (elhi ..........................................................................................................""
1.$ Sur"e% & Settlement......................................................................................................................4$
1.).1 Surve.4 5ssess+ent and C&llecti&n in 1rissa.......................................................................!2
1.).2 Surve. and Land #ec&rds in TN...........................................................................................!1
1.).3 -est ,engal..........................................................................................................................!2
1.)." 6ttar 7radesh 8679................................................................................................................!2
1.).! (ifficulties :nc&untered in Surve.s and Settle+ent.............................................................!3
1.).' #ec&++endati&ns $. 3arnataka 5d+inistrative #ef&r+s C&++issi&n 835#C9...............!"
1.8 !e&istration and titlin&.................................................................................................................
1.*.1 3arnataka...............................................................................................................................!*
2 Modernising Revenue Administration..............................................................................................63
2.1 'eterioration in re"enue administration .....................................................................................63
2.2 (armers) pass *oo+s ....................................................................................................................64
2.2.1 7ass $&&ks in ,ihar ..............................................................................................................'"
2.2.2 7ass $&&ks in Ta+il Nadu.....................................................................................................'!
2.3 #onsolidation of land holdin&s.....................................................................................................66
2.3.1 ;rag+entati&n........................................................................................................................'*
2.4 Stren&thenin& of !e"enue ,dministration and -pdatin& of Land !ecords .S!, & -L!/ ..........$0
2.".1 ,&ttlenecks in i+ple+enting the sche+e $. the State <&vern+ents...................................)1
2. #omputeri0ation of land records .#L!/ .....................................................................................$2
2.!.1 1$=ectives..............................................................................................................................)2
2.!.2 7r&gress s& far.......................................................................................................................)3
1
2.!.3 3arnataka...............................................................................................................................)!
2.!." Ta+il Nadu............................................................................................................................))
2.!.! ,ihar......................................................................................................................................)*
2.!.' 7r&$le+s................................................................................................................................*2
2.!.) 7il&t pr&=ects &n (igitisati&n &f Cadastral 0aps. .................................................................*3
2.6 1odernisation of land re&istration...............................................................................................84
2.'.1 0aharashtra...........................................................................................................................*'
2.'.2 C&+puter%5ided 5d+inistrati&n &f #egistrati&n (epart+ent 8C5#(9 in 5ndhra 7radesh
........................................................................................................................................................*)
2.'.3 IT 7ackage &f #egistrati&n in Ta+il Nadu ...........................................................................*9
2.'." 5ssess+ent............................................................................................................................91
3 olicy Issues.........................................................................................................................................!"
3.1 1ultiple a&encies..........................................................................................................................9
3.1.1 C&%existence &f #evenue and #egistrati&n S.ste+s ............................................................9!
3.2 Should the state &uarantee title2..................................................................................................9$
3.3 !estrictions on leasin&..................................................................................................................99
3.3.1 Land alienati&n > inde$tedness..........................................................................................122
3.3.2 7&lic. i+plicati&ns..............................................................................................................12!
3.4 3ther le&al restrictions in land mar+et.......................................................................................106
3.".1 C&+puls&r. ac?uisiti&n ......................................................................................................12)
3. 4omen and land.........................................................................................................................108
3.6 'isputes & in"ol"ement of pancha%ats.......................................................................................110
3.'.1 #&le &f pancha.ats..............................................................................................................111
3.$ ,ccounta*ilit% throu&h decentralisation....................................................................................112
3.).1 5udit &f pancha.ats.............................................................................................................11!
3.).2 C,1s and 7#Is...................................................................................................................11'
3.).3 C&ncuding re+arks..............................................................................................................11*
3.8 'ecline in &o"ernance................................................................................................................118
3.*.1 7&litical culture > its i+pact &n land ad+inistrati&n..........................................................122
2
Executive Summary
5$&ut )1@ &f the IndiaAs p&pulati&n still lives in the rural areas4 &f Bhich +&re than
three%f&urths derive their livelih&&d fr&+ land4 Bh&ll. &r partiall.. It see+s unlikel.
that the share &f pe&ple dependent &n land B&uld fall drasticall. in future. Theref&re
c&+pilati&n and updating &f land rights is the +&st i+p&rtant +easure f&r instilling a
sense &f securit. a+&ng land&Bners and f&r pr&+&ting invest+ent f&r higher land
pr&ductivit.. C&rrect rec&rds ena$le the+ t& &$tain credit +&re easil. and t& transact
in land +&re ?uickl.4 safel. and cheapl.. Lack &f secure title generates a great deal &f
litigati&n4 and the p&&rer secti&ns &f p&pulati&n4 particularl. $eneficiaries &f land
ref&r+s +easures4 are adversel. hit &n this acc&unt as the. are fre?uentl. dragged
int& disputes c&ncerning land all&tted t& the+. Inc&rrect land rec&rds als& cause dela.
in ac?uisiti&n &f land and c&nse?uent ti+e and c&st &verrun &f devel&p+ent pr&=ects.
Cha&s in land +anage+ent leads t& encr&ach+ents4 especiall. in ur$an areas4 and
ulti+atel. t& the e+ergence &f land +afia.
5lth&ugh changes in land tenure due t& legislati&n and its i+pact &n agrarian structure
has $een the f&cus &f c&nsidera$le p&lic. attenti&n in India4 the s.ste+ &f creating
land rec&rds and their +aintenance has n&t $een studied in depth. Si+ilarl.4 the
instituti&nal perf&r+ance &f the g&vern+ent depart+ents incharge &f land
ad+inistrati&n and changes in the last three decades has n&t received +uch attenti&n
&f the researchers. The purp&se &f this paper is t& pr&vide the necessar. $ackgr&und
&n the functi&ns perf&r+ed $. the land ad+inistrati&n s.ste+ in India at different
levels &f the hierarch.4 t& draB t&gether the experience fr&+ selected pil&ts4 and t&
use this as a $asis f&r +aking suggesti&ns f&r p&lic..
Structure # goal o$ land administration % The instituti&nal structure &f revenue
ad+inistrati&n is +&re &r less si+ilar in all the states 5t the l&Best level there is the
Village 5cc&untant 8V594 vari&usl. designated4 in charge &f a single village &r a
gr&up &f villages. 5t the district level the set up is headed $. the (istrict 1fficer. In
ever. pr&vince the hierarch. includes at least tB& functi&naries $etBeen the (istrict
1fficer and the V5. These are the Su$%divisi&nal 1fficer in charge &f the Su$%
divisi&n and $el&B hi+4 the Tahsildar in charge &f the tahsil &r taluk. ,el&B the taluk
level there are field &fficers designated as Inspect&rs &r 3anung&s t& supervise the
B&rk &f gr&ups &f V5s.
In the ancient and +edieval peri&ds and f&r several decades after the esta$lish+ent &f
,ritish p&Ber in India4 land revenue had $een the +&st i+p&rtant s&urce &f
g&vern+ent revenues. The assess+ent and c&llecti&n &f land revenue Bas theref&re
&ne &f the +&st i+p&rtant functi&ns &f g&vern+ent. In 1*"14 it c&nstituted '2@ &f
t&tal ,ritish g&vern+ent revenue4 th&ugh this pr&p&rti&n decreased &ver ti+e as the
,ritish devel&ped additi&nal tax res&urces. It Bas a$&ut 12 per cent &f state
g&vern+ent revenues at the ti+e &f Independence4 $ut has fallen t& less than &ne per
cent n&B.
5s land revenue Bas the +a=&r s&urce &f inc&+e &f the state in the pre%Independence
peri&d4 it Bas necessar. t& identif. th&se fr&+ Bh&+ it c&uld $e c&llected. Theref&re4
the land rec&rds prepared and +aintained $. the state g&vern+ents Bere pri+aril. f&r
revenue purp&ses. It is f&r this reas&n that the land rec&rds c&ntained details like
3
cultiva$le4 n&n%cultiva$le and cultivated area4 ?ualit. &f the s&il4 s&urces &f irrigati&n4
cr&pping pattern4 leases4 ease+ents and assess+ent &f land revenue4 etc. ;urther4 it
Bas assu+ed that the pers&ns lia$le t& pa. land revenue Bere the pr&priet&rs &f the
land. -ith decline in the i+p&rtance &f land revenue4 +aintenance &f land rec&rds t&&
l&st its significance $&th a+&ngst ad+inistrat&rs and p&liticians causing tre+end&us
har+ t& rural c&++unities.
&'e (resent situation
In +&st parts &f the c&untr.4 land ad+inistrati&n and rec&rds relating t& land are in a
ver. $ad shape. In +an. cases the land is rec&rded in the na+e &f a pers&n Bh& died
l&ng ag& and Bh&se legal success&rs are n&B the &Bners $ut their na+es are n&t
entered in the rec&rd. 5 si+ilar highl. unsatisfact&r. feature exists in respect &f
situati&n &f transfer &f lands $. acts &f parties. Land g&es &n $eing transferred Bith&ut
c&nse?uential +utati&n in the rec&rds Bith the result that the rec&rds as the. exist
t&da. hardl. reflect the present da. realit. regarding &Bnership &f land. This +a. $e
$&th $ecause land transfer due t& successi&n are n&t generall. registered4 and &ther
cases &f transfer4 such as due t& sale4 th&ugh registered4 d& n&t necessaril. result in
c&rrecti&n &f rec&rds4 as the tB& agencies dealing Bith sale registrati&n and its
+utati&n are under different (epart+ents. 0illi&ns &f cases &f +utati&n and
+easure+ent are pending in the c&untr..
N&t &nl. are the land rec&rds n&t up%t&%date4 in +an. cases the. are n&t availa$le at
all. This is particularl. true &f the n&rtheast4 ur$an areas4 and &f the $ackBard se+i%
arid regi&ns &f central tri$al India4 Bhere pr&per surve. and settle+ent Bas never
d&ne4 presu+a$l. $ecause these areas .ielded little revenue t& the c&l&nial
g&vern+ent.
The talukAs +ain resp&nsi$ilit. is t& ensure that #ec&rds &f rights are +aintained up t&
date4 s& that tenants kn&B exactl. Bhat their rights are in respect &f the land the. &Bn
&r p&ssess. In actual practice there is n& ad+inistrative &r p&litical pressure &n a
Tahsildar t& c&rrect land rec&rds &r disp&se &ff c&urt cases in ti+e. 5 l&ng pendenc.
&f cases in fact suits the l&cal laB.ers4 Bh& are p&liticall. ?uite p&Berful4 and can get
the Tahsildar int& tr&u$le4 if he $elieves in ?uick disp&sal &f cases. LaB.ers als&
$enefit fr&+ cha&tic land rec&rds4 as that gets the+ +&re clients. It is unf&rtunate that
the s.ste+ has devel&ped perverse incentives. 7&&r g&vernance and dist&rti&n in
pri&rities4 rather than technical capacit.4 is the +ain fact&r in deteri&rating land
ad+inistrati&n.
In the p&st Independence peri&d4 neglect &f land ad+inistrati&n has c&ntinued f&r
several reas&ns. ;irst4 the share &f land revenue in the &verall state revenues kept &n
declining4 thus reducing incentive f&r the state t& keep rec&rds up%t&%date. Sec&nd4 the
staff +eant f&r land ad+inistrati&n Bas given &ther +ultifari&us duties4 such as
c&nduct &f general electi&ns4 issue &f vari&us certificates4 i+ple+enting and
+&nit&ring devel&p+ent sche+es4 and pr&viding relief in natural cala+ities. Third4
neB pr&gra++es Bere taken up in land ad+inistrati&n4 such as i+ple+entati&n &f
tenanc. laBs4 and distri$uti&n &f ceiling surplus land and h&use%sites t& the p&&r4
Bhich diverted attenti&n &f the staff fr&+ r&utine $ut vital functi&ns &f +aintaining
"
land rec&rds. Village c&++&n lands have als& suffered si+ilar disregard4 leading t&
encr&ach+ents.
1ther fact&rs leading t& neglect &f land ad+inistrati&n areC
7aucit. &f funds4 as #evenue (epart+ents Bere categ&riDed as a n&n%plan
activit.
<eneral deteri&rati&n in discipline4 supervisi&n and g&vernance4 affecting all
depart+ents
L&B pri&rit. $. p&liticians t& activities4 Bhere there is n& i++ediate return
there is n& s.ste+ &f +&nit&ring &r +easuring the pr&gress &f pr&per
+aintenance &f rec&rds
The pr&$le+ is particularl. acute in ur$an and +etr&p&litan areas4 Bhere the value &f
land is ver. high. There is n& authentic and accurate +ap &f a single ur$an
aggl&+erati&n an.Bhere in the c&untr.. 1n a c&nservative esti+ate4 the price &f land4
at current +arket prices4 inv&lved in litigati&n in 0u+$ai al&ne is ar&und #s 124222
cr&re 82.3 $illi&n EF 1 cr&reG12 +illi&n4 1 6SEG"" Indian #upees in 0a. 222"9.
In +an. states there is a ,&ard &f #evenue Bith &ne &r +&re +e+$ers. In the
n&rthern states4 such as 674 +e+$ers &f ,&ard &f #evenue are ver. seni&r I5S
&fficers &n the verge &f retire+ent. Since p&sting in the ,&ard is n&t c&nsidered
attractive4 th&se Bh& are sent there c&nsider the+selves as $eing declared unfit $. the
p&litical s.ste+ f&r +&re gla+&r&us p&sts. Suffering fr&+ a sense &f hurt4 the. take
little interest in their B&rk4 and pr&vide n& leadership. <raduall. the ,&ard has
$ec&+e a +&ri$und &rganisati&n c&ntri$uting little t& pu$lic Belfare. It B&uld $e
useful t& a$&lish the ,&ard4 as has $een d&ne in 5ndhra 7radesh and Ta+il Nadu.
Survey # Settlement
5s alread. stated4 the practice &f updating &f land rec&rds at the village level $.
differentl. designated revenue &fficials in different states has $een $adl. neglected.
Ver. feB states have a Bell +anaged and efficient ad+inistrative surve. apparatus &f
peri&dical updating &f the land rec&rds. In +&st states4 village and field +aps4 rec&rd
&f rights and land +easure+ent rec&rds have $ec&+e unservicea$le&$s&lete. Several
states have tried revisi&nal surve.s in the past five decades $ut the experience has n&t
$een p&sitive. It has $ec&+e s.n&n.+&us Bith unsettling &f c&++unities4 Bhere
unscrupul&us ele+ents virtuall. Break hav&c in the na+e &f d&ing fresh surve.s. The
field staff has $ec&+e insensitive and lax. 1n the &ther hand4 the Surve. skills have
$ec&+e +&re and +&re scarce. -hile it Bas p&ssi$le t& keep all this g&ing Bith the
sheer Beight &f the state $ehind this activit. as it Bas the +ainsta. &f the state
revenues4 the gradual er&si&n in the i+p&rtance &f land revenue as the +ain s&urce &f
the State finances has +eant that the f&cus &n speed. settle+ent has $lurred.
5lth&ugh <&I initiated a centrall. sp&ns&red sche+e in the +id%eighties t& strengthen
Surve. and Settle+ent 1rganisati&ns f&r earl. c&+pleti&n4 preparati&n4 and updati&n
&f land rec&rds4 the sche+e failed t& +ake an. i+pact &n the ?ualit. &f land rec&rds
&r &n ph.sical &utput &f Surve. &rganiDati&ns. 0&st financial expenditure in this
sche+e has $een &n $u.ing e?uip+ent4 training4 &r &n $uildings4 and n&t &n
!
i+pr&ving land rec&rds. The sche+e is n&t ver. p&pular in the State ;inance
(epart+ents4 as it re?uires a +atching share &f !2@ $. the+4 as &pp&sed t& 122 per
cent funding $. <&I in the c&+puteriDati&n sche+e.
(espite these pr&$le+s &ne sh&uld c&ntinue Bith the sche+e4 as the State #evenue
(epart+ents4 $eing n&n%plan depart+ents4 have little access t& funds f&r neB
activities fr&+ the state plan. If n&t surve.4 &ther activities such as training d& get
funded. <&I sh&uld change the pattern &f assistance t& )!C2! s& as t& $ring this
sche+e at par Bith &ther centrall. sp&ns&red sche+es.
Modernising Revenue Administration
The &nl. Ba. &ut is t& discard the &ld +anual +eth&d&l&g. and c&+$ine c&+puter
techn&l&g. Bith privatisati&n and speed f&r getting accurate surve.sF translate the+
int& credi$le land rec&rds and then put this all t&gether in a Be$% $ased Service
(eliver. S.ste+. 3eeping in +ind the p&&r status &f g&vernance in +an. states4 it is
n&t practical t& expect that g&vern+ent staff B&uld d& pl&t $. pl&t surve. and
settle+ent pr&cess. H&Bever rec&rds can still $e c&rrected if Be put the+ &n the Be$4
and all&B pe&ple t& file &nline applicati&ns f&r c&rrecti&n. In the present envir&n+ent4
a strateg. Bhich increases pe&plesA dependence &n g&vern+ent servants is likel. t&
+isfire4 as did the tB& experi+ents &f issuing pass$&&ks4 &r c&ns&lidati&n in the
19*2s. 5part fr&+ ad+inistrative pr&$le+s there Bere c&nceptual faults the Ba. these
pr&gra++es Bere designed.
ass)oo*s % 6nder the pass$&&k pr&gra++e started in the +id%seventies and
c&ntinued till n&B4 each cultivat&r B&uld $e given a pass$&&k indicating his
statustitle t& descripti&n &f the land viD. area4 cess4 etc. al&ng Bith a c&p. &f
khasra+ap and &ther details that are c&nsidered necessar..
There have $een pr&$le+s Bith +aking the instituti&n &f pass$&&ks effective. ;irst4
the pass$&&ks +ust $e checked peri&dicall.4 sa. &nce in a six +&nths4 Bith the
rec&rds4 $&th in the taluk and registrati&n &ffice4 f&r an. p&ssi$le changes in
&Bnership4 area4 and landuse. Sec&nd4 the lending $ank B&uld still insist &n receiving
the +&st recent encu+$rance certificate t& check the rec&rds at the ti+e &f
sancti&ning l&ans4 n&tBithstanding the entries in the pass$&&ks Bhich +a. $e a feB
+&nths &ld. Theref&re the need t& &$tain encu+$rance and &Bnership certificate is
n&t &$viated4 =ust $ecause the far+er has $een issued the pass $&&k.
Lastl. there is a c&nceptual pr&$le+ ass&ciated in +aking pass$&&ks the $asis f&r
sancti&n &f l&ans. In the case &f $anks4 the sa+e c&unter perf&r+s three functi&nsF it
+aintains the acc&unt pass$&&ks4 accepts dep&sits and per+its BithdraBals. He can
verif. the entries &f the pass$&&ks Bith his rec&rd4 Bhich is kept up%t&%date. H&Bever4
Bhen it c&+es t& sancti&ning l&ans against land4 there are three agenciesF the $ank4
the taluk4 and the registrati&n &ffice. N&ne &f the+ has access t& the entries in the
rec&rds &f the &ther tB& &ffices. 1nl. Bhen all rec&rds $ec&+e Be$%ena$led4 such an
access can $e secured. Till then far+ers have t& +ake several r&unds t& these &ffices
t& c&+plete paper f&r+alities4 resulting in harass+ent and c&rrupti&n.
Consolidation # (revention o$ $ragmentation % C&ns&lidati&n &f frag+ented
agricultural land h&ldings has f&r+ed an integral part &f the Land #ef&r+ 7&lic. &f
'
<&vern+ent &f India. Land frag+entati&n is Bidel. perceived t& &perate as a $rake &n
agricultural pr&ductivit.. H&Bever n&t +uch pr&gress c&uld $e +ade except in the
states &f 6ttar 7radesh 86794 Har.ana and 7un=a$. In &ther states4 B&rk Bas c&ntinued
f&r s&+e .ears and l&st +&+entu+ thereafter. -hen <&I increased its pressure &n the
states t& i+pr&ve perf&r+ance4 the states gave several reas&ns Bh. c&ns&lidati&n Bas
n&t p&pular Bith the far+ers. #a=asthan Bent t& the extent &f clai+ing that far+ers
Bere spirituall. attached t& their ancestral h&ldings4 and B&uld n&t like t& exchange
the+I
It is interesting that c&ns&lidati&n has n&t $een p&pular in the s&uthern states4 Bhich
are generall. c&nsidered t& $e $etter g&verned. T& s&+e extent this can $e explained
due t& cr&pping pattern and lack &f irrigati&n Bhich increases risk and theref&re
de+ands lands &f different s&il characteristics f&r risk +itigati&n. :c&n&+ies &f large
scale cultivati&n in padd. and &ther cr&ps are n&t as su$stantial as in Bheat
cultivati&n. In undulating tracts4 padd. is gr&Bn &n terraced fields Bhich need t& $e
flat and re?uire a $und t& retain Bater. It is &$vi&usl. easier t& level and +aintain
s+aller pl&ts than &ne large frag+ent. ;urther4 given the la$&ur%intensive nature &f
padd. cultivati&n4 the far+ing efficienc. &f s+all fields can $e high4 given the l&B
&pp&rtunit. c&st &f fa+il. la$&ur in circu+stances &f li+ited n&n%far+ e+pl&.+ent
p&tential. Lastl.4 persistence &f land scattering is due t& the need t& h&ld land as a
li?uid asset4 Bhich +a. $e s&ld &ff in discrete parcels t& +eet c&ntingencies such as
+arriage &r funeral c&sts.
5 related pr&gra++e has $een preventi&n &f frag+entati&n &f h&ldings. Several states
passed laBs t& check divisi&n &f +arginal h&ldings 8var.ing $etBeen 2.! t& 1.2!
hectares9 $. transfer and partiti&n4 $ut these laBs d& n&t g&vern inheritance. Such
laBs have generall. acted against the interest &f the p&&r.
The pr&$le+ is ver. acute in such rural areas Bhich f&r+ the hinterland &f the cities.
In the rural areas &f (elhi this li+it is 1.2! hectares. Here land prices are increasing
ver. fast due t& pressure &f ur$aniDati&n4 and +an. s+all far+ers Bill like t& sell a
part &f their h&lding t& real estate agents t& $enefit fr&+ high prices. 5s the. cann&t
d& s& legall.4 the. have t& res&rt t& su$terfuges4 &r inv&lve land +afias in such deals4
Bhich depresses their pr&fits as Bell as enc&urages c&rrupti&n at all levels.
Such laBs are $ased &n the assu+pti&n that +arginal h&ldings are n&t s&ciall.
desira$le as the. are less pr&ductive than large h&ldings. H&Bever4 there is n&
the&retical &r e+pirical $asis f&r assu+ing that +arginal h&ldings are a s&cial
lia$ilit.. 5s capital and land are scarce c&++&dities in India4 pr&ductivit. sh&uld $e
=udged &n the $asis &f per unit &f capital and land used4 and n&t per unit &f hired
la$&ur Bhich is the Bestern c&ncept. The s+all far+er cultivates his land +&re
intensel. and puts in +&re la$&ur per unit &f land. Thus an agricultural strateg.
centered &n s+all rather than large far+s si+ultane&usl. increases the s&cial
efficienc. &f res&urce use in agriculture and i+pr&ves s&cial e?uit. thr&ugh
e+pl&.+ent creati&n and the +&re e?ual inc&+e distri$uti&n that s+all far+s
generate.
Com(uteri+ation o$ land records ,CLR-
)
1f all the neB interventi&ns4 this is the $est kn&Bn and +&st Bidespread pr&gra++e
&f the State #evenue (epart+ents. It has several advantages. It is 122@ funded $.
<&I4 is techn&l&g. $ased4 enc&urages transparenc.4 is l&B c&st4 l&B &n gestati&n
peri&d4 and its l&ng%ter+ sustaina$ilit. is n&t in d&u$t. There are n& c&nstraints &f
p&litical ec&n&+.. Since incepti&n &f the sche+e till 31.12.22224 <&I has released #s.
2.! $illi&n t& the states.
The (epart+ent &f #evenue in 3arnataka has c&+puteriDed 22 +illi&n rec&rds &f
land &Bnership &f '.) +illi&n far+ers in the State thr&ugh CL#4 l&call. kn&Bn as
5hoomi 8+eaning land9 pr&=ect. S&+e &f the p&sitive features &f ,h&&+i are
su++ariDed $el&BC
.utsourcing % The task &f data entr. Bas &uts&urced.
Instant in$ormation % The ti+e taken f&r pr&cessing #TC 8#ec&rd &f #ights4
Tenanc. and Cr&p Inspecti&n9 and J0utati&nJ re?uests has c&+e d&Bn dra+aticall..
5 re?uest f&r an #TC is addressed al+&st instantl. &r Bithin ! % 32 +inutes as
c&+pared t& the 3%32 da.s earlier. The far+er needs t& pa. a +ere #s. 1! f&r the
sa+e4 and d&es n&t need t& get the Village 5cc&untant inv&lved in the pr&cess.
Reducing de(endency on middlemen % If a piece &f land g&es thr&ugh a change in
&Bnership thr&ugh sale &r inheritance4 far+ers can n&B file f&r a +utati&n directl. at
the ,h&&+i centres.
Reducing /aiting time % 0&st ,h&&+i users 8)9@9 rep&rted a +ini+al Baiting ti+e
in the ?ueue &f 12 +inutes &r less4 in c&ntrast Bith 2)@ Bh& c&uld +eet the
c&ncerned &fficial in such sh&rt ti+e. The $igger issue is the nu+$er &f ti+es a citiDen
had t& visit these &ffices t& get the certificate. -hile +&st users g&t the #TC 8)2@9
Bith &ne visit t& the ,h&&+i ki&sk4 &nl. !@ g&t it that fast in the +anual s.ste+. The
+&st seri&us issue is that &f c&rrupti&n and $ri$er.. TB& thirds &f the users &f the
+anual s.ste+ paid a $ri$e % ''@ &f the+ rep&rted having t& d& s& ver. &ften. In
c&ntrast4 &nl. 3@ &f the users &f the ,h&&+i s.ste+ rep&rted pa.ing $ri$es 875C
22229.
H&Bever4 its ulti+ate success B&uld depend Bhether it is a$le t& reduce the
dependence &f the land&Bners &n pett. $ureaucrac.4 $. +aking rec&rds availa$le &n%
line thr&ugh a Be$%site. :ven in 3arnataka Bhere c&+puteriDati&n has satisfact&ril.
pr&gressed4 r&le f&r private ki&sks is still t& $e sufficientl. devel&ped. The far+ers
still have t& c&+e t& the tahsil 8su$%district9 f&r a c&p. &f land rec&rds. Since the
3arnataka g&vern+ent has $anned giving +anual c&pies4 dependence &f the &rdinar.
land &Bner &n g&vern+ent +achiner. has in n& Ba. declined. He has n&B t& travel
all the Ba. t& the tahsil as c&+pared t& the &ld s.ste+ &f getting it fr&+ the village
acc&untant. 1ften in a tahsil &nl. &ne clerk is auth&rised t& issue the certified c&p.. If
$. chance he is &n leave the =&urne. &f the land &Bner t& the tahsil Bill $e Basted.
(ela. als& takes place $ecause rural tahsils have fre?uent p&Ber failures.
(espite p&tential4 the sche+e has n&t +ade +uch headBa. in p&&rer states. There this
sche+e is $eing regarded as an. &ther centrall. sp&ns&red sche+e and is $eing
i+ple+ented in is&lati&n. ,ut the sche+e needs t& $e pr&perl. p&siti&ned in state
*
g&vern+ent fra+eB&rk Bith h&riD&ntal and vertical linkages. There sh&uld $e a clear
visi&n as t& h&B the present harass+ent and dela. is t& $e eli+inated.
The CL# sche+e has succeeded in states like 3arnataka4 5ndhra4 <u=arat4 and
#a=asthan. These are the states Bhich have created an &verall acceptance &r a+$iance
f&r a$s&r$ing IT in their B&rk culture. These states have als& taken steps t& i+pr&ve
ad+inistrative deliver. in &ther sect&rs. The sche+e &f CL# needs an ec&l&g. at the
field level t& gr&B up. In ,ihar it has n&t $een i+ple+ented even in &ne district at
the data entr. level. In general it +a. $e taken as reflecti&n &f the general state &f
affairs. In 674 data entr. has $een d&ne $ut deliver. &f #1# 8rec&rd &f rights9 is n&t
$eing d&ne at field level. (ue t& fre?uent changes in g&vern+ent and there$. in
$ureaucrac.4 67 has n&t $een a$le t& ad&pt a l&ng ter+ sustaina$le appr&ach f&r
i+ple+entati&n and +&nit&ring.
Land #ec&rds 0anuals in the states la. d&Bn detailed pr&cedure f&r creating and
sharing the rec&rds. ,ut these Bere designed fr&+ the p&int &f vieB &f +anual rec&rd
keeping. If Be are replacing +anual s.ste+ Bith the electr&nic s.ste+4 there is need
that all IT related issues sh&uld $e addressed in the revised Land #ec&rd 0anuals and
pr&cedures4 $ecause in da. t& da. B&rking4 the field level functi&naries adhere t&
the+ as standards. H&Bever4 this su$=ect has n&t received +uch attenti&n in +an.
states.
:ven Bhere s&+e states have c&+puterised land rec&rds4 the. are n&t &$serving
transparenc. in its sharing. Ta+il Nadu has still n&t given a free c&p. &f the
c&+puteriDed land rec&rd t& all far+ers t& facilitate eas. detecti&n &f err&rs4 as in
3arnataka. :ven pancha.ats have n&t $een given a free c&p.4 th&ugh this Bas &ne &f
the decisi&ns &f <&I. 5lth&ugh t&uch%screen ki&sks have $een pr&vided in 32 +&del
taluks4 there is n& arrange+ent &f far+ers &$taining an unsigned c&p. &f the rec&rd
fr&+ the ki&sk c&+puter. Th&ugh technicall. p&ssi$le t& take a c&p. fr&+ the ki&sk4
this feature has $een disa$led4 thus f&rcing the land&Bner t& Kappr&achA a functi&nar.
&f the data &perat&r. Heshe thus has t& appl. separatel.4 and &nl. a signed c&p. can
$e issued f&r a fee &f #s. 22. It is als& n&t p&ssi$le in TN f&r a far+er t& &$tain a c&p.
&f the rec&rd &f the entire village4 even if he Bere t& pa. f&r the eff&rt. The
depart+ental &fficials Bere als& n&t enthusiastic a$&ut fixing a special rate f&r the
rec&rd &f the entire village Bhich +a. help N<1s and citiDensA &rganiDati&ns in
increasing aBareness a$&ut land rights.
The TN revenue &fficials did n&t see+ keen t& share inf&r+ati&n Bith the villagers.
The +indset c&ntinues t& $e $elieving in the &ld feudal values. I re?uested the
(epart+ent t& issue data f&r a district &n C(s tBice a .ear and keep it at all internet
ki&sks 8&r sell it t& the+94 $ut there Bas n& taker f&r transparenc. and data sharing
even a+&ngst the seni&r &fficers.
C&+puteriDati&n &f land rec&rds is a +eans t& an end4 the end $eing a satisfact&r.
s.ste+ &f rec&rd%&f%rights Bhich serves the interests &f the pe&ple and the g&vern+ent
alike. N& atte+pt has $een +ade in an. State t& ensure t& check Bhether data input is
c&rrect &r n&t. CL# is n&t intended t& c&rrect rec&rd%&f%rights. It is +erel. intended t&
st&re Bhatever is c&ntained in the rec&rd%&f%rights. 6nless this aspect is given
pri+ac.4 the &utput fr&+ the c&+puter is n&t likel. t& result in an. $enefit.
9
Modernisation o$ land registration
The &ffice &f Sta+ps and #egistrati&n in the state g&vern+ents is n&t part &f the
#evenue (epart+ent4 and functi&ns under the ;inance (epart+ent &r under
C&++ercial Taxes (epart+ent4 Bith ver. little linkages Bith the land rec&rds secti&n
&f the #evenue (epart+ents. Its +ain functi&n is t& +axi+ise revenues f&r the state
g&vern+ents4 and it is n&t supp&sed t& g& int& ?uesti&ns &f title. The la$&ri&us
pr&cedures and lack &f transparenc. in pr&pert. valuati&n has resulted in a fl&urishing
$usiness &f $r&kers and +iddle+en Bh& expl&ited citiDens selling pr&pert.. In
additi&n t& registering sale4 pe&ple appr&ach the &ffice f&r tB& &ther related +attersF
the. &$tain :ncu+$rance Certificate 8:C9 and ask f&r c&pies &f registered d&cu+ents.
N& 0inistr. in <&I has taken interest in the +&dernisati&n &f registrati&n &ffice4 and
&nl. a feB state g&vern+ents have taken initiative in c&+puterising it.
The <&vern+ent &f 0aharashtra has strea+lined and upgraded service deliver. in the
StateAs 3'2 su$%registries4 Bhich generate an annual revenue strea+ &f appr&xi+atel.
E!22 +illi&n. The uni?ue features &f this neB +&del areF extensive c&nsultati&n Bith
e+pl&.ees4 eli+inati&n &f discreti&n $. su$%registrars4 +aking the StateAs #ead.
#eck&ner +&re precise $. pegging pr&pert. values at the su$%D&ne level4 &perati&n
and +aintenance $. private c&+panies f&r an initial c&ntract peri&d &f five .ears4
hiring &f private data entr. &perat&rs4 and finall. the i+p&rtance &f p&litical supp&rt
f&r service deliver. i+pr&ve+ents.
N& service can $e rec&nstructed Bith&ut the supp&rt &f a cha+pi&n Bh& is usuall. an
experienced +anager. ;&r cha+pi&ns t& succeed4 the. need p&litical supp&rt t&
insulate the+selves fr&+ pressures t& reverse changes that reduce rent%seeking
&pp&rtunities f&r p&liticians4 e+pl&.ees4 and4 in s&+e cases4 c&nsu+ers as Bell.
Str&ng supp&rt fr&+ the Chief 0inister in the case &f $&th 5ndhra 7radesh and
3arnataka has +ade it p&ssi$le f&r IT initiatives t& succeed Bith&ut +a=&r e+pl&.ee
resistance.
olicy suggestions
Registration % ,ecause &f lack &f c&&rdinati&n $etBeen #evenue and the registrati&n
depart+ent4 the latter is &ften n&t aBare &f the latest changes in &Bnership that +a.
have taken place4 f&r instance as a result &f private land having $een ac?uired $.
g&vern+ent under the Land 5c?uisiti&n 5ct. The issue is als& h&B t& achieve i+pact
&n &ther di+ensi&ns &f perf&r+ance4 such as inf&r+ati&n transparenc.4 staff
$ehavi&ur4 and the pa.+ent &f $ri$es t& secure d&cu+ent registrati&n L &r &n
&utc&+es L perceived changes in service deliver.. Several suggesti&ns can $e given
here.
:li+inate the use &f sta+p paper Bhich causes huge annual l&sses t& the state
g&vern+ent Bith the unchecked circulati&n &f fake sta+p pape.
Let citiDens pa. registrati&n and sta+p dut. fees at designated private and
state sect&r $anks 8s& that c&rrupti&n can $e reduced and electr&nic receipts
guaranteed9F
:li+inate (-s 8d&cu+ent Briters9 $. having Su$ #egistrar 1ffice staff Brite
d&cu+ents f&r citiDens using si+ple4 c&+puter%$ased te+platesF
12
7&pularise &nline encu+$rance certificates $. inv&lving private ki&sks.
The registrati&n d&cu+ent sh&uld have ph&t&graphs &f the $u.er and the
seller. This +a. check $ena+i 8illegal9 transacti&ns.
The #egistrar sh&uld have a list &f p&r&+$&ke 8c&++&n pr&pert.9 pl&t
nu+$ers s& that he +a. take precauti&ns t& ensure that encr&ached pl&ts are
n&t privatiDed and disp&sed &ff.
Instal ki&sks in Su$%registrar 1ffice f&r vieBing and taking print&uts &f :Cs.
Multi(le agencies % :xistence &f +ultiple agencies4 such as surve. depart+ent t&
prepare cadastral rec&rds4 revenue depart+ent t& prepare rec&rd &f rights in land and
registrati&n depart+ent t& register transacti&ns relating t& land c&+pr&+ises &n the
efficienc. &f updati&n &f land rec&rds. There sh&uld $e a single integrated agenc. in
ever. State Bhich is resp&nsi$le f&r the preparati&n and c&ntinu&us updating &f land
rec&rds $. e+pl&.ing +&dern techn&l&g..
0uaranteeing title % The pr&$le+ &f inade?uate attenti&n t& land ad+inistrati&n has
$een c&+p&unded $. the fact that the present rec&rds%&f%rights in land in India are
fiscal in nature and presu+ptive in character. 1ne sh&uld graduall. ad&pt the s.ste+
&f registrati&n &f title t& land in India as it has $een d&ne in &ther c&untries. The
pr&p&sed s.ste+ apart fr&+ re+&ving insecurit. and uncertaint. regarding title t&
land and landed pr&pert. is expected t& reduce litigati&n and theref&re ease the $urden
&f c&urts. In rural areas4 guaranteed title t& land B&uld ena$le far+ers t& get credit
easil. and cheapl. and thus re+&ve the greatest $&ttleneck in the sche+e &f patta
pass$&&k. 1$vi&usl. the radical change has t& c&+e a$&ut in stages4 Bhich areC
1. C&+puteriDati&n &f all ur$an and rural pr&pert. al&ng Bith their past hist&r. &f
rights and transacti&ns
2. C&+plete transparenc. $. putting the rec&rds &n the Be$4 and giving a c&p. t&
each land and pr&pert. &Bner ever. .ear $. laB f&r five .ears4 s& as t&
educate the+ a$&ut their title4 and later the. B&uld vieB it at the private
internet sh&ps
3. <iving a feB .ears &f ti+e t& land&Bners t& get the rec&rds c&rrected4 $.
si+plif.ing the pr&cedure &f c&rrecti&ns4 and $. inv&lving civil s&ciet. and
pancha.ats
". 7reparing Cadastral 0aps and putting the+ &n the Be$
!. 0erger &f registrati&n depart+ent Bith #evenue4 and
'. 0utati&n first4 and then registrati&nF t& $e f&ll&Bed $. &nl. +utati&n and n&
registrati&n
Land legislation and restrictions on leasing % Thus it is &$vi&us that
c&+puteriDati&n4 alth&ugh vital4 is n&t sufficient in itself t& ease land&BnersA
pr&$le+s. 1ne B&uld have t& g& deeper and l&&k at a large nu+$er &f p&licies
pertaining t& land that have inhi$ited tenurial securit. and land pr&ductivit.. ;&r
instance4 a pr&$le+ causing tenurial insecurit. is the n&n%rec&gniti&n in laB &f
tenanted land in +an. states. In regi&ns Bhere p&vert. has declined4 and +arkets are
11
+&re &r less c&+petitive4 legal restricti&ns &n leasing &perate t& the disadvantage &f
s+all &Bners and p&&r tenants. H&Bever4 even in these regi&ns it is n&t the intenti&n
t& suggest legalising reverse tenancies =ust n&B. 1nl. +arginal far+ers in irrigated
areas and s+all far+ers in &ther rainfed areas sh&uld $e per+itted leasing%in &f land4
as the $asic purp&se &f the pr&p&sed p&lic. change is t& i+pr&ve their c&ntr&l &ver
land. Theref&re in districts Bith high pr&ductivit.4 rapid agricultural gr&Bth and Bell%
devel&ped c&++ercial agriculture4 leasing sh&uld $e freel. all&Bed fr&+ the $ig t&
s+all and fr&+ s+all t& s+all. Si+ilarl. in districts Bhere tenanc. ref&r+s have taken
place and the &ld expl&itative relati&ns su$stantiall. Beakened4 such as in Bestern
states &f #a=asthan4 0aharashtra4 <u=arat4 and 3arnataka4 leasing%in $. the p&&r
sh&uld $e all&Bed Bith&ut an. restricti&ns. H&Bever4 in districts that c&ntinue t& $e
p&&r and feudal Bith p&&r agricultural gr&Bth and a high degree &f ine?ualit.4 the
p&lic. sh&uld $e ensure that land ine?ualities d& n&t increase4 and the p&&r are n&t
rendered landless due t& inde$tedness. 7r&visi&ns &f laB t& rest&re &Bnership and
p&ssessi&n t& tri$als sh&uld $e +&re rig&r&usl. pursued.
In regi&ns Bhere n&n%far+ sect&r has n&t Bell devel&ped4 lifting &f c&ntr&ls &n land
transacti&ns +a. result in distress sale &f land4 and increase c&ntr&l &ver land &f th&se
Bh& are p&Berful4 $ut n&t necessaril. efficient far+ers. Li$eralising land +arkets4
Bith&ut si+ilarl. Bell functi&ning credit and input +arkets c&uld $e pr&$le+atic.
Thus Bhile pr&+&ting ref&r+s se?uencing has t& $e kept in +ind. 7re+ature
pr&+&ting &f land +arkets Bith&ut first securing si+ilarl. &pen credit +arkets c&uld
lead t& land alienati&n fr&+ the p&&r t& the rich.
Restrictions on sale to non%agriculturists L In s&+e states4 such as 3arnataka and
0aharashtra4 land laBs pr&hi$it the sale &f land fr&+ a far+er t& a n&n%agriculturist.
The &ther restricti&n is that landuse cann&t $e changed unless per+issi&n &f the
c&llect&r is taken4 such as in Ta+il Nadu and 3arnataka. These restricti&ns stand in
the Ba. &f private industr. neg&tiating directl. Bith the land%&Bners f&r $u.ing land
f&r industrial &r c&++ercial purp&ses4 thus preventing a far+er t& get the $est value
f&r his land. Change in landuse sh&uld $e freel. all&Bed t& facilitate this and t&
re+&ve dist&rti&ns in land +arkets 8at least in areas Bhere far+ers are aBare &f
+arket c&nditi&ns9.
Com(ulsory ac1uisition % ,ecause &f several rigidities &perating &n land +arket
t&da.4 it is n&t p&ssi$le f&r an industr. t& $u. land directl. fr&+ a land&Bner. ;irst4 as
+enti&ned a$&ve4 n&n%agriculturists are pr&hi$ited fr&+ $u.ing agricultural land.
Then the. cann&t c&nvert its landuse. Third4 the. have n& access t& land rec&rds4 s&
d& n&t kn&B Bh& &Bns Bhich pl&t &f land. Theref&re the &nl. &pti&n f&r the industr.
is t& re?uest g&vern+ent t& ac?uire land f&r the+. The Land 5c?uisiti&n 5ct is a
c&l&nial 5ct4 c&nstructed essentiall. f&r pr&tecting the interests &f the state and the
p&Berful rather than the legiti+ate rights &f the far+ers. 1ften land f&r h&using is
$&ught at cheap rates fr&+ far+ers f&r c&l&nies4 and then the ur$an elite and
g&vern+ent servants +ake huge pr&fits in reselling the pl&ts4 &f Bhich n& share g&es
t& the &riginal far+ers. The pr&visi&ns &f the 5ct are such that ac?uisiti&n takes a l&t
&f ti+e and the c&+pensati&n paid t& far+ers is a pittance. ,esides4 there is n& legal
$inding &n g&vern+ent t& reha$ilitate the displaced pe&ple. 5s India industrialises4
there is need f&r ?uick ac?uisiti&n &f land plus satisfact&r. arrange+ents f&r far+ersA
12
c&+pensati&n. Its a$sence creates &pp&siti&n t& ac?uisiti&n &f land4 and ulti+atel. the
c&sts inv&lved in dela.ed ac?uisiti&n &f land is +uch +&re than the c&st that B&uld $e
incurred in case &f a satisfact&r. settle+ent. 5 Bell intended4 li$eral and
c&+prehensive land ac?uisiti&n p&lic. is theref&re re?uired n&t &nl. t& pr&tect the
interests &f the displaced &r adversel. affected pe&ple $ut als& in the pu$lic interest t&
ensure ?uick ac?uisiti&n and faster access t& such ac?uired land.
2omen3s rig'ts % 5n&ther fact&r leading t& ine?uit. in land &perati&n is n&n%
rec&gniti&n &f B&+enAs rights &ver inheritance &f agricultural land. 0an. n&rth
Indian states d& n&t rec&gniDe the rights &f B&+en in inheritance &f agricultural
pr&pert.. 1ther states4 Bhile n&t discri+inating against B&+en in laB d& n&t in actual
practice rec&rd their rights4 thus den.ing the+ &Bnership rights. These ine?uities
+ust $e seri&usl. addressed thr&ugh changes in laB and aBareness ca+paigns.
Role o$ (anc'ayats % If $ureaucrac. has n&t $een a$le t& pr&vide satisfact&r. service
t& the land&Bners $. Ba. &f pr&per rec&rd +anage+ent and facilitating pr&ductive
land +arkets4 sh&uld pancha.ats $e given +&re auth&rit. &ver land ad+inistrati&n/
The experience s& far has $een that pancha.ats have generall. $een indifferent t&
c&++&n land +anage+ent &r re+&val &f encr&ach+ents. It is difficult t& feel
&pti+istic a$&ut their +anage+ent &f ara$le land4 unless their capacit. can $e
i+pr&ved $. +aking the f&ll&Bing p&lic. changesC
;inance C&++issi&n and &ther (evel&p+ent funds t& l&cal $&dies sh&uld n&t
$e given t& states unless effective p&Bers are transferred t& the+.
#ather than pancha.ats get a share in taxes the. sh&uld have the right t& lev.
and c&llect taxes. :xternal funds Bith n& c&++it+ent t& raise internal funds
+ake 7#Is irresp&nsi$le and c&rrupt.
7ancha.ats sh&uld $e graded and the a+&unt &f funds plus the degree &f
aut&n&+. sh&uld $e linked t& their grading.
C&nstituti&n sh&uld $e a+ended t& ena$le the states t& a$&lish either the
district &r the $l&ck level tier &f the pancha.ats4 if the. s& Bish4 and retain
&nl. &ne &ut &f these tB&4 in additi&n t& the village tier4 Bhich has the highest
p&tential f&r direct de+&crac. and participati&n thr&ugh the instituti&n &f the
gra+ sa$ha.
Lastl.4 effective pancha.atsuser gr&ups B&uld als& re?uire effective district and
$l&ck level ad+inistrati&n4 hence changes f&r $etter g&vernance &n the lines suggested
$el&B sh&uld precede an. expectati&n that the elected M7 and $l&ck leaders B&uld
change their percepti&n &f the Indian state $eing an K&pen treasur.A.
0overnance re$orms
IndiaAs civil services4 the principal KfaceA &f the g&vern+ent t& the pu$lic and
resp&nsi$le f&r i+ple+enting g&vern+ent pr&gra+s4 +ust sh&ulder s&+e &f the
resp&nsi$ilit. f&r dissatisfacti&n Bith g&vern+entAs perf&r+ance in pr&viding a s&und
land +anage+ent s.ste+4 cur$ing c&rrupti&n4 and pr&viding pu$lic services. The
pr&$le+ is n&t initial capa$ilit. $ut instituti&nal deficiencies. N&n%transparenc.4
li+ited acc&unta$ilit.4 p&&r incentive structure4 and inade?uate perf&r+ance appraisal
13
Beaken the civil serviceAs ad+inistrati&n4 as d& the standard pr&$le+s &f p&litical
interference in specific situati&ns and g&vern+entAs Bidespread and intricate
interventi&ns that dela. acti&ns4 create unBarranted p&Ber and pr&vide &pp&rtunities
f&r c&rrupti&n. 5t the $est &f ti+es4 rules4 regulati&ns and pr&cedures4 rather than
c&ncern f&r &utc&+e and i+pact4 g&vern the da.%t&%da. B&rking &f the Indian civil
service s.ste+.
The seni&r p&siti&ns in the #evenue (epart+ent are &ccupied $. the I5S &fficers4 $ut
the. hardl. sta. in their =&$s f&r l&nger peri&ds. 0an. d& n&t Bish t& sta.4 as the. see
n& career pr&spects f&r the+selves in ac?uiring expertise in a su$=ect Bhich is n&t
c&nsidered i+p&rtant $. g&vern+ent &r $. d&n&rs. The. ?uickl. seek transfer4 &r are
shuffled after a sh&rt sta. $. g&vern+ent. The c&nse?uence is that the. hardl. get an
&pp&rtunit. t& devel&p an understanding &f technical aspects &f rec&rd +anage+ent
&r ac?uire pr&fessi&nal expertise a$&ut land laBs. States that pr&vide high levels &f
tenurial sta$ilit. d& have a $etter chance at i+pr&ving service deliver. than th&se that
d& n&t.
Im(roving accounta)ility % (epart+ents such as #evenue and #egistrati&n4 Bhich
have +&re dealings Bith the pe&ple4 sh&uld $e assessed &nce in three .ears $. an
independent C&++issi&n4 c&nsisting &f pr&fessi&nals such as =&urnalists4 retired
=udges &r +e+$ers &f the ar+ed f&rces4 acade+icians4 activists4 N<1s4 and even
retired g&vern+ent servants. These sh&uld l&&k at their p&licies and perf&r+ance4 and
suggest c&nstructive steps f&r their i+pr&ve+ent. 5t present the s.ste+s &f inspecti&n
are ela$&rate $ut &ften preclude the p&ssi$ilit. &f a Nfresh l&&kN as the. are t&tall.
g&vern+ental and rigid. 0&re&ver there is c&llusi&n $etBeen the superi&r and the
su$&rdinate that d&es n&t enc&urage h&nest supervisi&n. The s.ste+ sh&uld $e +ade
+&re &pen s& that the civil service can gain fr&+ the expertise &f &utsiders in the
+&de &f d&n&r agenc. evaluati&ns &f pr&=ects. The tea+s B&uld undertake surve.s &f
?ualit. &f service deliver. in ke. areasF scrutiniDe p&licies pr&gra+s and deliver.
+echanis+s. Seni&r +anagersA vieBs &n B&rk c&nstraints and rep&rting fraud and
c&rrupti&n sh&uld $e elicited. The revieBs c&nducted sh&uld als& f&r+ the $asis &f
ti+e $&und changes and i+pr&ve+ents Bhich sh&uld $e +&nit&red.
Needless t& sa. that such c&+prehensive ref&r+s need f&r their sustenance str&ng
p&litical and ad+inistrative Bill fr&+ the t&p. In its a$sence4 ref&r+s re+ain &nl. &n
paper. 5cc&unta$ilit. has t& $e inducedF it cann&t $e decreed $. fiat. 5cc&unta$ilit.
is a result &f a c&+plex set &f incentives4 transparenc. in pr&cesses and decisi&n
+aking4 and checks and $alances at vari&us levels &f g&vern+ent. Thus4 the t&p
p&litical leadership has t& put their Beight $ehind neB acc&unta$ilit. s.ste+s and
revieB it fr&+ ti+e t& ti+e.
In the +&re $ackBard n&rthern states Bhere c&+puteriDati&n has +ade little i+pact4
and g&&d g&vernance is generall. c&nsidered a p&litical lia$ilit.4 <&IAs strateg. has t&
$e different. 0an. states in India4 especiall. the p&&rer &nes4 have l&st the d.na+is+
and capacit. t& undertake ref&r+s &n their &Bn Bith&ut an. external pressure. In these
states neither p&litics n&r ad+inistrati&n has the capacit. f&r self%c&rrecti&n4 and
theref&re &nl. external pressure can c&erce the+ t& take hard decisi&ns that Bill hit at
their +&ne. +aking tactics. In the Indian situati&n 8Bhere f&reign d&n&rs pr&vide
1"
ver. little aid t& the states as c&+pared Bith Bhat is pr&vided $. the Centre9 this can
c&+e &nl. fr&+ the Centre4 $acked $. str&ng civil s&ciet. acti&n.
<&I +ust4 at the ver. least4 d& the f&ll&BingC
1. I+pr&ve incentive +echanis+ $. linking fund transfer Bith perf&r+ance
2. I+pr&ve +&nit&ring +echanis+s s& that authentic inf&r+ati&n is availa$le t&
planners a$&ut the ?ualit. &f i+ple+entati&n f&r all i+p&rtant sche+es
3. 5+end the 5ll India Services #ules t& c&ntr&l the fl&urishing transfer industr.
in the states
". I+pr&ve g&vernance in central g&vern+ent depart+ents4 especiall. th&se Bith
pu$lic interface4 $ef&re lecturing &n this t& the states. ;&r instance4 <&I asks
states t& pr&vide l&ng tenures t& seni&r &fficers4 $ut the average sta. &f a
Secretar. t& <&I 0inistr. Bas &nl. 11 +&nths in 22224 Bith &nl. six &ut &f *2
Secretaries having c&+pleted tB& .ears &n the sa+e p&st. <&I circulars t& the
states l&se their credi$ilit. if it cann&t de+&nstrate str&ng p&litical Bill t&
c&ntr&l sh&rt tenures.
5s <&I pr&vides 1!22 $illi&n #s t& states ever. .ear4 even the B&rst states can $e
$r&ught t& their senses if a part &f these funds is linked Bith perf&r+ance in i+p&rtant
sect&rs4 such as land ad+inistrati&n. Changing incentive +echanis+ is the $est Ba. t&
sustain the desired changes in p&lic. and g&vernance.
1!
1 Institutional Structure
1.1 Introduction
Land c&ntains +an. valua$le assets &f a c&untr.F agricultural res&urces like cr&ps4
pasture f&r cattle graDing4 &rchardsF +aterial res&urces such as f&rests4 rivers4
+inerals4 &ilF and industrial res&urces like fact&ries4 p&Ber generati&n plants4 etc.
Clearl. the Bealth &f a nati&n and its ec&n&+ic devel&p+ent are dependent &n the
state &f the land4 its dep&siti&n and its use. It is apparent that pr&per d&cu+entati&n &f
inf&r+ati&n c&ncerning land is valua$le f&r a nati&n t& assess its Bealth including
efficient and sustaina$le utilisati&n.
5$&ut )1@ &f the IndiaAs p&pulati&n still lives in the rural areas4 &f Bhich +&re than
three%f&urths derive their livelih&&d fr&+ land4 Bh&ll. &r partiall.. It see+s unlikel.
that the share &f pe&ple dependent &n land B&uld fall drasticall. in future. ,esides
pr&viding livelih&&ds4 land is als& a s&urce &f ec&n&+ic securit. f&r the s+all
land&Bner against vulnera$ilities. This B&uld h&Bever re?uire his rights t& $e
rec&rded4 fir+ in laB4 and free fr&+ d&u$t. Theref&re transparenc. and c&rrectness &f
land rights is the +&st i+p&rtant +easure f&r instilling a sense &f securit. a+&ng
land&Bners and f&r pr&+&ting invest+ent t&Bards higher land pr&ductivit.. C&rrect
rec&rds ena$le the+ t& &$tain credit +&re easil. and t& transact in land +&re ?uickl.4
safel. and cheapl.. Lack &f secure title generates a great deal &f litigati&n4 and the
p&&rer secti&ns &f p&pulati&n4 particularl. $eneficiaries &f land ref&r+s +easures4 are
adversel. hit &n this acc&unt as the. are fre?uentl. dragged int& disputes c&ncerning
land all&tted t& the+. Inc&rrect land rec&rds als& cause dela. in ac?uisiti&n &f land
and c&nse?uent ti+e and c&st &verrun &f devel&p+ent pr&=ects. Cha&s in land
+anage+ent leads t& encr&ach+ents4 especiall. in ur$an areas4 and ulti+atel. t& the
e+ergence &f land +afia.
;ast gr&Bth &f n&n%far+ ec&n&+. in India in the last tB& decades has pulled +an.
+arginal and s+all far+ers t& seek ur$an &ccupati&ns. Their transiti&n fr&+ land t&
n&n%far+ sect&r Bill $e facilitated if land +arkets L $&th rental and sale L are hassle
free. H&Bever the Bh&le pr&cess &f disp&sal &f land can $e stalled $. i+perfect
inf&r+ati&n4 high transacti&n c&sts4 and c&vert resistance fr&+ entrenched interests.
Separati&n &f Land #egistrati&n 1ffice fr&+ the Land #ec&rds (epart+ent4 and high
transfer fees 8$&th f&r+al and inf&r+al9 +a. create rigidities in pe&pleAs +&$ilit. and
enterprise4 $esides acting as a str&ng disincentive t& &fficial registrati&n. In additi&n4
there are restricti&ns i+p&sed in +an. states that prevent far+ers fr&+ changing t&
+&re pr&fita$le land use4 &r fr&+ selling land t& n&n%agriculturists 83arnataka94 &r
selling a p&rti&n &f land that leaves less than a +ini+u+ 82.! ha in 67 and 1.2! ha in
(elhi9 Bith the seller.
Creating a Bell functi&ning rental +arket in land%use rights Bill als& lead t& greater
efficienc. in agricultural pr&ducti&n $. per+itting efficient far+ers t& lease%in land4
seas&nall. &r f&r l&ng peri&ds4 and at the sa+e ti+e per+itting s+all &Bners a ch&ice
t& c&+e $ack t& land. Li$eral land +arkets Bill thus lead t& higher agricultural &utput4
$. taking acc&unt &f such fact&rs as far+ersA a$ilities4 supervisi&n c&sts &f hiring
la$&ur and the +icr&%ge&graphic &rganiDati&n &f land pl&ts.
1'
H&Bever4 it +a. $e argued that in regi&ns Bhere n&n%far+ sect&r has n&t Bell
devel&ped4 lifting &f c&ntr&ls &n land transacti&ns +a. result in distress sale &f land4
and increase c&ntr&l &ver land &f th&se Bh& are p&Berful4 $ut n&t necessaril. efficient
far+ers. Li$eralising land +arkets4 Bith&ut si+ilarl. Bell functi&ning credit and
&utput +arkets c&uld $e pr&$le+atic. Land laBs sh&uld theref&re $e regi&n specific
and $e sensitive t& changing envir&n+ent &f the $r&ader ec&n&+..
<&vern+ent c&ntr&ls &n land +arkets in tri$al and &ther such agriculturall. depressed
regi&ns4 h&Bs&ever =ustified &n e?uit. gr&unds4 B&uld achieve the desired &$=ective
&nl. Bhen the g&vern+ent functi&naries have the necessar. capacit. 8$acked $. the
legal s.ste+9 and Bill t& safeguard the interest &f the p&&r. Such c&ntr&ls in the face
&f $ad g&vernance 8discussed in secti&n 3.*9 and ill%functi&ning =udicial s.ste+ +a.
infact d& +&re har+ than g&&d. Theref&re the extent &f c&ntr&l &n land +arkets
sh&uld $e a functi&n &f $&th4 external ec&n&+ic envir&n+ent as Bell as internal
capacit. f&r pr&%p&&r &utc&+es. In additi&n4 urgent steps 8&utlined in the 3
rd
Chapter9
need t& $e taken f&r i+pr&ving pr&gra++e deliver. and g&vernance.
1verall4 the &Bnership and +anage+ent &f land has significant i+plicati&ns f&r
e?uit.4 gr&Bth and re+&val &f p&vert.. 5n efficient land ad+inistrati&n is
indispensa$le f&r the peace and pr&sperit. &f rural India and the pr&tecti&n &f the
rights &f +illi&ns &f p&&r pe&ple &Bning s+all areas &f land. Neither ec&n&+ic
li$eralisati&n n&r the intr&ducti&n &f 7ancha.ati #a= Bill +ateriall. alter the situati&n.
5lth&ugh changes in land tenure due t& legislati&n and its i+pact &n agrarian structure
has $een the f&cus &f c&nsidera$le p&lic. attenti&n in India4 the s.ste+ &f creating
land rec&rds and their +aintenance has n&t $een studied in depth. Si+ilarl.4 the
instituti&nal perf&r+ance &f the g&vern+ent depart+ents in charge &f land
ad+inistrati&n and changes in the last three decades has n&t received +uch attenti&n
&f the researchers. The purp&se &f this paper is t& pr&vide the necessar. $ackgr&und
&n the functi&ns perf&r+ed $. the land ad+inistrati&n s.ste+ in India at different
levels &f the hierarch.4 t& draB t&gether the experience fr&+ selected pil&ts4 and t&
use this as a $asis f&r +aking suggesti&ns f&r p&lic.. The paper is divided int& the
f&ll&Bing three chaptersC%
This chapter descri$es in detail the functi&ns &f the land ad+inistrati&n s.ste+
as Bell as its instituti&nal structure4 f&r $&th rural and ur$an areas. It assesses
the +ain Beaknesses that either +akes it +&re difficult t& pr&vide services &f
satisfact&r. ?ualit. in a c&st%effective +anner &r t& reach &ut t& the p&&r.
The next chapter4 $ased &n the existing Britten +aterial and field visits4
su++ariDes the rati&nale f&r the different pil&ts undertaken thus far and4
descri$es pr&gress &f i+ple+entati&n4 and assesses t& Bhat extent the. can $e
c&nsidered t& have $een successful.
,ased &n the a$&ve4 the last chapter +akes p&lic. rec&++endati&ns Bith
respect t& $&th land p&licies and land ad+inistrati&n4 such as land laBs4 the
instituti&nal arrange+ents f&r land ad+inistrati&n4 expansi&n &r +&dificati&n
&f existing pil&ts4 and identifies areas that sh&uld receive greater attenti&n in
the future.
1)
1.2 Land tenure in the colonial period
5cc&rding t& the traditi&nal cust&+ in India4 right t& the p&ssessi&n &f land is
ac?uired $. the first pers&n Bh& +akes $eneficial use &f the s&il. The Hindu
Scriptures vested &Bnership &f land in individuals4 and the S&vereign Bas entitled t&
&nl. a share &f the pr&duce &f the land f&r pr&tecting life4 li$ert. and pr&pert. &f the
pe&ple. The ,ritish <&vern+ent t&& in the c&l&nial peri&d in India clai+ed land
revenue n&t as rent $ut &nl. as tax4 t& +eet the necessities &f ad+inistrati&n. It Bas Sir
Th&+as 0unr&e Bh& later slightl. changed this p&lic. as t& +ake Baste and f&rest
lands vest in the State. N& S&vereign in India4 ancient &r +&dern4 ever clai+ed
pr&prietar. right t& cultivated lands.
The ,ritish intr&duced three $r&ad t.pes &f land revenue s.ste+ in India 80earns
199994 inc&rp&rating ele+ents &f the preceding agrarian structure. Tri$al areas4 in
particular4 Bere n&t c&vered $. an. &f these s.ste+s4 and s&+e tri$al areas re+ain t&
$e surve.ed even t&da.. 6nder the 0amindari &r Kper+anent settle+entA s.ste+4
intr&duced ar&und 1)934 feudal l&rds 80amindars4 6a&irdars etc9 Bere declared
pr&priet&rs &f the land &n c&nditi&n &f fixed revenue pa.+ents t& the ,ritish regi+e.
7easants Bere transf&r+ed int& tenant far+ers4 and rents Bere c&llected $.
inter+ediaries $el&B the level &f 0amindars. This s.ste+ prevailed &ver +&st &f
N&rth India4 including 1udh &f 6ttar 7radesh4 ,ihar4 -est ,engal4 +&st &f 1rissa4
and #a=asthan. In s&+e &f these areas4 the ,ritish declared the landl&rdsA revenue
c&++it+ents t& the g&vern+ent t& $e fixed in perpetuit. 8the K7er+anent Settle+entA
&f 1)939. In &ther areas4 a Kte+p&rar.A settle+ent Bas i+ple+ented Bhere$. the
revenue Bas fixed f&r a certain nu+$er &f .ears4 after Bhich it Bas su$=ect t& revisi&n.
The &ther +a=&r s.ste+ Bas the r%ot7ari s.ste+4 intr&duced in 0adras in 1)92 and in
,&+$a. in 1*1)%1*. In this case4 individual cultivat&rs 8r%ots &r rai%ats9 Bere
rec&gniDed as pr&priet&rs &f their land Bith rights t& su$%let4 +&rtgage4 and transfer
their land $. gift &r sale. Their tenure &f land Bas secure s& l&ng as revenue pa.+ents
Bere +ade directl. t& the c&llect&rs &f the c&l&nial ad+inistrati&n. The r%ot7ari
s.ste+ held sBa. &ver +&st &f S&uth India4 including present%da. 0aharashtra4
3arnataka4 Ta+il Nadu4 3erala4 5ndhra 7radesh4 and +&st &f 0adh.a 7radesh and
5ssa+. The princel. states &f Oaipur and O&dhpur in #a=asthan als& fell under the
r%ot7ari%t.pe s.ste+s. 7&ckets &f 0amindari%t.pe tenure existed Bithin these
r%ot7ari areas4 particularl. Bhere ad+inistered $. l&cal ra=as &r naBa$s.
In the r%ot7ari areas4 an extensive cadastral surve. &f the land Bas d&ne and a
detailed rec&rd &f% rights Bas prepared4 Bhich served as the legal title t& the land f&r
the cultivat&r. 6nlike the 7er+anent Settle+ent areas4 the revenue c&++it+ent Bas
n&t fixedF it Bas usuall. calculated as the +&ne. value &f a share &f the esti+ated
average annual &utput. This share t.picall. varied fr&+ place t& place4 Bas different
f&r different s&il t.pes and Bas ad=usted peri&dicall. in resp&nse t& changes in the
pr&ductivit. &f the land.
The third t.pe &f s.ste+ Bas the mahal7ari s.ste+4 in Bhich revenue settle+ent Bas
+ade Bith entire villages as c&llective units. The mahal7ari s.ste+ Bas intr&duced
$etBeen 1*22 and 1*"2 in 7un=a$ 8including $&th present%da. 7un=a$s in 7akistan
and India4 and the State &f Har.ana94 parts &f Bhat are n&B 0adh.a 7radesh and
1*
1rissa4 and parts &f 6ttar 7radesh. 7easant far+ers c&ntri$uted shares &f the t&tal
revenue de+and f&r the village 8mahal9 in pr&p&rti&n t& their respective h&ldings.
Village $&dies c&uld $e in charge &f var.ing areas4 fr&+ part &f a village t& several
villages. The c&+p&siti&n &f the village $&d. als& varied fr&+ place t& placeC In s&+e
areas it Bas a single pers&n &r fa+il. and hence ver. +uch like the ,engal landl&rd
s.ste+ 8Da+indari94 Bhile in &ther areas4 the village $&dies had a large nu+$er &f
+e+$ers Bith each pers&n $eing resp&nsi$le f&r a fixed share &f the revenue. This
share Bas either deter+ined $. ancestr. 8the pattidari s.ste+94 &r $ased &n actual
p&ssessi&n &f the land 8the $haiachara s.ste+94 the latter $eing ver. +uch like the
individual%$ased r.&tBari s.ste+. The revenue rates in these areas Bere deter+ined
&n fairl. ad%h&c gr&unds4 $ased &n a diverse set &f fact&rs including4 Kan exa+inati&n
&f rents rec&rded in the =a+a$andis4 the rates Bhich Bere actuall. paid $. the vari&us
classes &f tenants and the rates Bhich Bere c&nsidered fair &n each class &f s&il
...These esti+ates are $ased pri+aril. &n s&ils4 and sec&ndl. &n c&nsiderati&n &f the
caste &f the tenant4 capa$ilities &f irrigati&n4 c&++and &f +anure >c4 all &f Bhich
p&ints received attenti&nA 87&rter 1*)*9.
In al+&st all parts &f India4 th&se Bh& p&ssessed the superi&r%+&st rights in land 8and
c&uld $e thus called pr&priet&rs9 +&stl. leased &ut land4 and direct cultivati&n4 Bith &r
Bith&ut the help &f la$&urers4 Bas rare. ,ut su$%infeudati&n 8several la.ers &f tenants
and su$%tenants9 Bere the +&st c&++&n feature &f Da+indari areas4 thus i+p&sing the
highest direct $urden &n the direct pr&ducers. N&t &nl. this4 the ,ritish had the least
interest in +aking pu$lic invest+ents in these areas4 since the gains fr&+ higher
pr&ductivit. c&uld n&t translate int& higher revenue. It has $een suggested recentl.
8,aner=ee and I.er 22239 that areas in India in Bhich pr&prietar. rights in land Bere
hist&ricall. given t& landl&rds have significantl. l&Ber agricultural invest+ents and
pr&ductivit. in the p&st%Independence peri&d than areas in Bhich these rights Bere
given t& the cultivat&rs. These areas als& have significantl. l&Ber invest+ents in
health and educati&n. Thus it is argued that these differences arise $ecause different
hist&rical instituti&ns lead t& ver. different p&lic. ch&ices.
1.2.1 C'anges a$ter Inde(endence
5$&liti&n &f landl&rdis+ in the interest &f agrarian e?uit. and gr&Bth $eca+e &ne &f
the ke. p&licies &f the nati&nalist parties4 and &f the neBl. independent g&vern+ent.
Legislative pr&visi&ns Bere +ade in extensive areas &f the c&untr. in the 19!2s
pr&viding f&r c&nfer+ent &f &Bnership rights &n tenants &r all&Bing cultivating
tenants t& ac?uire &Bnership rights &n pa.+ent &f a reas&na$le c&+pensati&n t& the
landl&rds. S&+e &f the states ac?uired &Bnership &f land fr&+ the landl&rds and
transferred it t& the tenants Bh& paid certain a+&unt &f pre+iu+ t& the State. Su$%
tenancies Bere generall. pr&hi$ited except in certain cases viD. Bid&Bs4 +e+$ers &f
ar+ed f&rces4 +in&rs4 un+arried B&+en4 pers&ns suffering fr&+ disa$ilities etc.
-ith land ref&r+s4 the $ase &f &Bner%cultivat&rs has expanded in Indian agriculture.
5l+&st 92 t& 9!@ land is n&B cultivated $. &Bners. This als& helped ad&pti&n &f neB
techn&l&g.4 pr&fits thr&ugh Bhich further increased incentives f&r &Bner cultivati&n.
Thus significant changes have taken place in IndiaAs agrarian structure4 especiall.
19
Bhere the neB techn&l&g. has taken r&&ts and agriculture is generall. +&re capital
intensive transf&r+ing the &ld relati&nships.
H&Bever these changes have n&t led t& an. c&rresp&nding i+pr&ve+ent in the
ad+inistrati&n &f land +anage+ent. The evidence in fact p&ints t& deteri&rati&n and
in s&+e states al+&st c&llapse &f revenue ad+inistrati&n. In general4 land
ad+inistrati&n and rec&rds relating t& land are in a ver. $ad shape. 5 si+ilar highl.
unsatisfact&r. feature exists in respect &f situati&n &f transfer &f lands either $etBeen
private parties4 &r Bhen land is ac?uired $. g&vern+ent. N&t &nl. are the land rec&rds
n&t up%t&%date4 in +an. cases the. are n&t availa$le at all. 0an. far+ers are thus
deprived &f &$taining credit fr&+ f&r+al channels4 $ecause the. cann&t &$tain c&pies
&f rec&rds ?uickl.4 and at a reas&na$le price.
,ef&re Be suggest in the sec&nd chapter Bhat inn&vati&ns have $een tried in the past
tB& decades4 and Bhat i+pr&ve+ents sh&uld $e intr&duced in the s.ste+ 8in the third
chapter94 it is essential t& identif. functi&ns and resp&nsi$ilities &f different
instituti&ns in the area &f land ad+inistrati&n4 discuss the pr&cesses inv&lved in
carr.ing &ut these4 and identif. ke. sh&rtc&+ings that +a. prevent the+ fr&+
carr.ing &ut these functi&ns effectivel.. This is discussed $el&B under the f&ll&Bing
headsC
,asic structure &f land ad+inistrati&n fr&+ the village t& state g&vern+ent
C&llecti&n &f land revenue4 and its falling share in state revenues
0aintenance &f land rec&rds
Surve. and settle+ent
#egistrati&n and titling
1.3 Structure of land administration & its functionaries
In the ancient and +edieval peri&ds and f&r several decades after the esta$lish+ent &f
,ritish p&Ber in India4 land revenue Bas the +&st i+p&rtant s&urce &f g&vern+ent
revenues. The assess+ent and c&llecti&n &f land revenue Bas theref&re &ne &f the
+&st i+p&rtant functi&ns &f g&vern+ent. In 1*"14 it c&nstituted '2@ &f t&tal ,ritish
g&vern+ent revenue4 th&ugh this pr&p&rti&n decreased &ver ti+e as the ,ritish
devel&ped additi&nal tax res&urces 8,aner=ee and I.er 22239.
Thr&ugh&ut ,ritish India 8&utside the per+anentl. settled pr&vinces9 an ela$&rate
ad+inistrative structure Bas devel&ped t& deal Bith the assess+ent and c&llecti&n &f
land revenue. N&tBithstanding the differences in the designati&ns &f the functi&naries
and +in&r variati&ns in their duties4 the $asic features &f the structure Bere the sa+e
in ever. pr&vince. 5nd that structure4 except in the per+anentl. settled areas4
penetrated deep int& the re+&test areas.
In the per+anentl. settled pr&vinces there Bas n& need t& have such ela$&rate
ad+inistrative +achiner. as the land revenue pa.a$le had $een fixed f&r all ti+e. The
Ma+indars Bh& Bere re?uired t& +ake the pa.+ent Bere relativel. feB in nu+$er
and there Bas a stringent laB re?uiring pa.+ent $. a prescri$ed date. 5fter
independence4 as Da+indari g&t a$&lished and a direct relati&nship Bas esta$lished
$etBeen the state and land&Bners4 the sa+e t.pe &f ad+inistrative set up as prevailing
22
in r.&tBari states Bas +&re &r less esta$lished in the per+anentl. settled areas as
Bell.
The instituti&nal structure4 Bhich is +&re &r less si+ilar in all the states and descri$ed
$el&B is resp&nsi$le f&r several functi&ns that are discussed in secti&ns 1." and
$e.&nd.
5t the l&Best level there Bas the Village 5cc&untant 8V594 vari&usl. designated4 in
charge &f a single village &r a gr&up &f villages. 5t the district level the set up Bas
headed $. the (istrict 1fficer. In ever. pr&vince the hierarch. included at least tB&
functi&naries $etBeen the (istrict 1fficer and the V5. These Bere the Su$%divisi&nal
1fficer in charge &f the Su$%divisi&n and $el&B hi+4 the Tahsildar in charge &f the
tahsil &r taluk. ,el&B the taluk level there Bere field &fficers designated as Inspect&rs
&r 3anung&s t& supervise the B&rk &f gr&ups &f V5s. The nu+$er &f functi&naries at
vari&us levels f&r each State and 6ni&n Territ&r. is given at annex 1.
The functi&ns &f the #evenue (epart+ent and its hierarch. are descri$ed $el&B.
1.3.1 4illage Level
The instituti&n &f Village 5cc&untant is inherited fr&+ the village s.ste+ &f
+edieval da.s4 and c&ntinued $. the +&dern regi+es. V5 is the +ain%sta. and
$ack$&ne &f the (istrict #evenue 5d+inistrati&n. The V5 in charge &f &ne &r +&re
villages f&r+s the $ase &f the land revenue ad+inistrati&n. He is called the Village
5d+inistrative 1fficer in 5ndhra 7radesh4 Ta+il Nadu and 7&ndicherr.F Talati in
<u=arat4 0aharashtra4 and <&aF patBari in 7un=a$4 Har.ana4 Hi+achal 7radesh and
0adh.a 7radesh4 Village 1fficer in 3eralaF Lekhpal in 6ttar 7radesh4 3ar+achari in
,ihar and Tahsildar in Tripura. There is n& such p&st in 5ssa+ and -est ,engal
Bhere the B&rk at the village level is handled $. the Circle Inspect&r#evenue
Inspect&r. The V5 is a full ti+e g&vern+ent servant in all states except 5ndhra
7radesh. In 5ndhra 7radesh he is a part%ti+e e+pl&.ee Bith&ut an. pr&spects &f
pr&+&ti&n. 6p t& 19*24 village ad+inistrati&n in Ta+il Nadu Bas als& run Bith the
help &f part ti+e Village 1fficers. -ith a vieB t& reva+p the village ad+inistrative
set up an 1rdinance Bas pr&+ulgated &n 13.11.*2 f&r the a$&liti&n &f p&sts &f part%
ti+e Village 1fficers4 and in their place full ti+e Village 5d+inistrative 1fficers
Bere app&inted. 5 feature c&++&n t& 5ndhra 7radesh and Ta+il Nadu is the
existence &f part%ti+e village servants4 Bh& B&rk under the V5s.
V5As =urisdicti&n ranges $etBeen &ne and eight villages in the plains and $etBeen &ne
and f&urteen villages in the hills and Tri$al tracts. 5 V5 has t& deal Bith up t& 1"23*
cultivat&rs and a p&pulati&n var.ing fr&+ 24399 in Hi+achal 7radesh t& 1"4'3" in
,ihar. The =urisdicti&n &f V5 in +an. areas is large and unBield..
The nu+$er &f V5s in s&+e &f the states is given $el&B.
&a)le 15 6um)er o$ villages and 4illage Accountants in India
States Rural
(o(ulation in
millions in 2771
4illages 4As 6o. o$ 4As
(er 178777
rural (o(
5ndhra !!.23 292*1 22222 3.'2
21
7radesh
,iharP 9!.12 ))*"' '!22 2.'*
Har.ana 1".9) )2)3 111' 2.)!
Hi+achal
7radesh
!."9 1*)21 22** ".1)
Oa++u >
3ash+ir
).!) ')!* 113' 1.!2
3arnataka 3".*1 29392 *922 2.!'
0aharashtra !!.)3 "2*92 12"22 2.23
7un=a$ 1'.2! 12)9! "!9" 2.*'
#a=asthan "3.2' 2)12" 9'"! 2.23
Ta+il Nadu "3.2' 1'*12 12!22 2.*9
6ttar
7radeshP
13).*! 12"2"' 2*))2 2.29
P Includes success&r states t&&
,esides the pr&per +aintenance &f rec&rds4 the V5 is re?uired t& rep&rt t& the
Tahsildar an. cala+it. affecting land cr&ps4 cattle &r the agricultural classes4 and t&
$ring t& his n&tice alluvial acti&n &f rivers4 encr&ach+ents &n g&vern+ent land4 the
death &f revenue assignees and pensi&ners4 pr&gress &f B&rk +ade under the
agriculture l&ans and si+ilar laBs and the e+igrati&n &r i++igrati&n &f cultivat&rs.
1.3.2 Circle
The first supervis&r. level a$&ve the Village is the Circle. The functi&nar. in charge
is called #evenue Inspect&r4 Circle Inspect&r &r 3anung&. 1n an average the
Inspect&r3anung& supervises the B&rk &f * t& 22 V5s. His is a t&uring =&$4 $ut
during s&+e +&nths he sta.s in the Taluk &ffice4 generall. in the rain. seas&n t&
check =a+a$andis 8changes in rec&rd &f rights and land revenue9 received fr&+ V5s.
In the states &f 5ssa+4 1rissa and -est ,engal4 Circle is the l&Best functi&nar. &f the
#evenue (epart+ent. ;&r instance4 in -est ,engal there are
&a)le 25 Revenue Ins(ectors in 2est 9engal
Nu+$er &f (istricts 1*
Nu+$er &f Su$%(ivisi&n 1ffices '"
Nu+$er &f ,l&cks 3"1
Nu+$er &f #evenue Inspect&rs 332!
Nu+$er &f villages "112)
#ural p&pulati&n in 2221 !3." +illi&n
N& &f Inspect&rs per 124222 p&pulati&n 2.'2
22
Thus as c&+pared t& r&ughl. 2 V5s per 124222 rural p&pulati&n in +an. states4 there
are &nl. 2.'2 Inspect&rs at the l&Best level in -est ,engal.
The nature &f B&rk d&ne $. #evenue Inspect&r in 1rissa is descri$ed in Ta$le 3
80earns and Sinha 19999.
&a)le 35 Sco(e o$ res(onsi)ilities o$ Revenue Ins(ectors
Collection o$ dues :(dating land
records and
maintenance o$
ot'er records
Issue certi$icates8
attend courts
Res(ond to
miscellaneous
en1uiries $rom t'e
&a'sildar
"2@ 2!@ 12@ 2!@
23
(ece+$er t&
0arch and Oune4 is
the c&llecti&n
seas&n in Bhich the
#I ca+ps in
particular villages.
In spite &f f&cusing
&n the p&st%harvest
seas&n Bhen
c&llecti&n is likel.
t& $e eas.4 annual
arrears is ar&und
1!@. Half &f the
a+&unt is usuall.
pending f&r +&re
than 3 .ears.
5cc&rding t& the
0anual &n Tahsil
acc&unts4 the #I is
expected t& +aintain
1' registersC
Q Oa+a$andi
#egister4
Q TenantAs ledger4
Q #egister &f
changes in revenue
de+and4
Q #egister &f
encr&ach+ent
cases4
Q #egister &f Bater
rates4
Q #egister &f
g&vern+ent lands
te+p&raril. leased
&ut4
Q #egister &f sairat
s&urcesP
Q (e+and register &f
sairats
Q 0iscellane&us
revenue ite+s
Q #e+issi&ns
Q #egister &f receipt
$&&ks
Q #eceipt $&&k
Q Sadar sihaPP
Q Village%Bise siha
Q Cash $&&k
Q 0&nthl. de+and4
c&llecti&n4 etc.
T The #I is expected
t& pr&vide
inf&r+ati&n t&
c&ncerned
depart+ents &nC
Q inc&+e4
Q s&lvenc.4
Q caste status4
Q nati&nalit.4
Q residence4
Q legal heir4
Q pr&pert.
valuati&n4 and
Q pr&fessi&nal
status
t& relevant
depart+ents f&r
issue &f certificates
t& pe&ple Bithin the
#I circle.
The #I als& attends
revenue &r civil
c&urts as and Bhen
necessar..
The #I is
resp&nsi$le f&r
sending rep&rts t&
the Tahsildar &nC
Q ceiling surplus
cases under the
1rissa Land
#ef&r+s 5ct4
Q +utati&n cases
Bhere fracti&n
pl&ts are
inv&lved4
Q encr&ach+ent
cases4
Q lease &f
g&vern+ent
lands4
Q pr&pert.
state+ents f&r
executi&n &f
attach+ent
Barrants in
Certificate
casesPPP4
Q fire accidents4 and
Q natural haDards
P Sairat s&urces are th&se that are aucti&ned e.g. tanks4 +ines4 etc.
PP Siha refers t& the ledger &f pett. cash. Sadar siha is the ledger +aintained f&r
ur$an areas.
PPP Certificate cases relate t& late pa.+ent &f dues.
2"
The shaded p&rti&n suggests the tasks Bhich +ight $enefit fr&+
c&+puteriDati&n &f land rec&rds
1.3.3 &alu*;&a'sil
The sec&nd supervis&r. level is the taluk &r tahsil. The &fficer in charge &f the taluk is
called the 0a+latdar in <u=arat4 0aharashtra and <&a. He is called 5nchal 5dhikari
in ,ihar and Circle 1fficer in Tripura. He is kn&Bn as the Tahsildar in all the &ther
states. In 5ndhra 7radesh4 h&Bever4 taluks have $een a$&lished. In place &f the 329
taluks the State has created 1112 0andals4 Bhich are c&%ter+inus Bith Circles.
In the case &f taluks t&&4 there are Bide variati&ns $etBeen states in respect &f the
nu+$er &f villages4 area and p&pulati&n. The nu+$er &f villages varies $etBeen " and
3!1 Bhile the area varies $etBeen 1 and 2222 s? k+s. 7&pulati&n varies $etBeen
)4222 and !224222. 0an. taluks are unBield. in respect &f $&th area and p&pulati&n.
The Tahsildar is in charge &f the taluktahsil f&r revenue B&rk including disp&sal &f
=udicial cases in revenue laB. He c&ntr&ls the Village and Circle staff4 is resp&nsi$le
f&r punctual c&llecti&n &f revenue4 and p&ints &ut pr&+ptl. t& the c&llect&r an. failure
&f cr&ps &r seas&nal cala+it. Bhich renders suspensi&n &r re+issi&n &f land revenue
necessar.. He is a t&uring &fficer and his t&urs aff&rd hi+ a+ple &pp&rtunities t& deal4
&n the sp&t4 Bith partiti&n cases and &ther +atters c&nnected Bith village land +atters4
such as encr&ach+ents.
His +ain resp&nsi$ilities are t& ensure that
8a9 Land revenue4 cess and &ther dues are c&llected and credited int& the treasur. in
ti+e.
8$9 #ec&rds &f rights are +aintained up t& date4 s& that tenants kn&B exactl. Bhat
their rights are in respect &f the land the. &Bn &r p&ssess.
8c9 5ll revenue cases in Bhich land&BnersA rights t& p&ssess and &Bn land are in
dispute such as +utati&n4 encr&ach+ent4 Baste land lease4 land ac?uisiti&n etc. are
disp&sed &f.
8d9 5ll g&vern+ent pr&pert. 8including c&++&n lands9 in his =urisdicti&n is cared f&r.
8e9 In agricultural distress and in e+ergencies like fl&&d4 dr&ught4 scarcit.4 &ut $reak
&f epide+ic and pestilence4 pe&pleAs difficulties are a+eli&rated.
H&Bever4 in actual practice B&rk pertaining t& 8$94 8c94 and 8d9 re+ains neglected.
There is n& ad+inistrative &r p&litical pressure &n a Tahsildar t& c&rrect land rec&rds
&r disp&se &ff c&urt cases in ti+e. 5 l&ng pendenc. &f cases in fact suits the l&cal
laB.ers4 Bh& are p&liticall. ?uite p&Berful4 and can get the Tahsildar int& tr&u$le4 if
he $elieves in ?uick disp&sal &f cases. LaB.ers als& $enefit fr&+ cha&tic land rec&rds4
as that gets the+ +&re clients. It is unf&rtunate that the s.ste+ has devel&ped perverse
incentives. 7&&r g&vernance and dist&rti&n in pri&rities4 rather than technical capacit.4
is the +ain fact&r in deteri&rating land ad+inistrati&n. -e have discussed issues &f
g&vernance in secti&n 1.12.
1ver the .ears the +ain resp&nsi$ilit. &f the Tahsil staff has $ec&+e issuing &f
certificates t& citiDens. In Ta+il Nadu as +an. as 141224211 certificates Bere issued in
2!
2222%23. The Bide nature &f su$=ects c&vered in these certificates can $e seen fr&+
the list given in ,&x 1.
9ox 15 Certi$icates issued in &amil 6adu
The f&ll&Bing certificates are issued $. the #evenue 1fficials t& the pu$lic.
19 C&++unit. Certificate
29 Nativit. #esidential Certificate
39 Inc&+e Certificate
"9 Nati&nalit. Certificate
!9 Legal Heir Certificate
'9 S&lvenc. Certificate
)9 ,irth and (eath Certificate
*9 Certificate f&r (estitute Children
99 (estitute -id&B Certificate
129 Inter%Caste 0arriage Certificates
119 Certificate f&r the l&ss &f sch&&l Certificates
129 (eserted -&+en Certificate
5t present4 f&r getting vari&us certificates4 a citiDen has t& appl. and furnish vari&us
details t& supp&rt his clai+s. The village staff d&es the en?uir. and then the taluk staff
issues the necessar. certificate. This c&nsu+es a l&t &f ti+e4 and papers d& n&t +&ve
unless &fficials are $ri$ed. There is n& c&+prehensive individual data$ase availa$le in
the Village 1ffice. 1ne +a. als& +enti&n here that a large nu+$er &f g&vern+ent
depart+ents c&llect inf&r+ati&n &n the h&useh&lds. These are S&cial -elfare4 ;&&d >
Civil Supplies4 and #ural (evel&p+ent4 t& na+e a feB. These are parallel activities
Bhich c&nsu+e a great deal &f ti+e4 Bhich can $e reduced thr&ugh pr&per
c&&rdinati&n and sharing &f inf&r+ati&n thr&ugh c&+puters.
1.3." Revenue Su)%divisions
The &fficer in charge &f the #evenue Su$%(ivisi&n is kn&Bn as the Su$%(ivisi&nal
1fficer4 #evenue (ivisi&nal 1fficer &r Su$%C&llect&r. (istricts in +&st states are
divided int& su$%divisi&ns4 generall. ranging fr&+ 3 t& !. There are Bide variati&ns in
the =urisdicti&n &f the Su$ (ivisi&nal &fficer as Bell. The nu+$er &f villages varies
$etBeen 99 and 22)" and area varies $etBeen 1 and ')1) s? k+s. 7&pulati&n varies
$etBeen 22429) and 1243249!9. There is n& unif&r+it. in the nu+$er &f taluks in a
su$%divisi&n. In +an. states &n an average there are 2 t& ! taluks in a su$divisi&n. ,ut
in 6ttar 7radesh and 7un=a$ taluks and su$divisi&ns are c&%ter+inus. 5t the &ther
extre+e is 5ndhra 7radesh Bhere Circles 8+andals9 have replaced taluks. 1n an
average the Su$%(ivisi&nal 1fficer in 5ndhra 7radesh is re?uired t& supervise the
B&rk &f a$&ut 1" +andals.
2'
1.3.< =istrict
The district c&ntinues t& $e the +&st i+p&rtant unit &f land revenue ad+inistrati&n
since a ver. l&ng ti+e. The head &f the district ad+inistrati&n is designated as
C&llect&r4 (istrict 0agistrate &r (eput. C&++issi&ner. (uring the ,ritish rule
c&llecti&n &f land revenue Bas &ne &f the +&st i+p&rtant duties &f the head &f the
district ad+inistrati&n. That Bas Bh. he ca+e t& $e called the KC&llect&rA. The t&tal
nu+$er &f districts in the c&untr. is !9). The districts als& var. greatl. in their siDe
and p&pulati&n. The area varies $etBeen 1 and 194132 S?. 3+s. The nu+$er &f
villages varies $etBeen 1" and "!22. The variati&n in p&pulati&n is $etBeen )222 and
!242!4222.
5t the district level4 the C&llect&r is the principal &fficer in charge &f n&t &nl.
+aintenance &f LaB and 1rder and land related +atters4 $ut als& &f all devel&p+ental
activities and i+ple+entati&n &f vari&us sche+es. The C&llect&r $eing the Chief
#evenue 1fficer &f the district pr&vides leadership > directi&n t& the revenue
ad+inistrati&n at district level.
5s far as &ther &fficers &f the #evenue (epart+ent are c&ncerned4 apart fr&+
+aintaining laB and &rder4 the. are +ainl. resp&nsi$le f&r electi&n related +atters
including c&nduct &f general electi&ns t& the 5sse+$l. and 7arlia+ent4 c&llecti&n &f
land revenue and &ther related +atters4 issue &f vari&us certificates t& the pu$lic4
i+ple+enting 1ld 5ge 7ensi&n Sche+es4 +&nit&ring 7u$lic (istri$uti&n S.ste+4 and
the N&&n 0eal Sche+es f&r children. 1ne &f the f&re+&st activities &f the #evenue
(epart+ent is t& tackle effectivel. and efficientl. all t.pes &f natural cala+ities like
fl&&d4 dr&ught4 etc. ;urther4 the #evenue (epart+ent &fficials have direct c&ntact
Bith the general pu$lic and their +ain =&$ is t& redress their grievances. In the district
ad+inistrative set up if4 an. B&rk is n&t directl. assigned t& a particular depart+ent
$ut has a $earing &n the general pu$lic4 such B&rks B&uld ulti+atel. $e taken care &f
$. the #evenue (epart+ent.
1.3.6 =ivisions
In +&st states there are large ad+inistrative units called divisi&ns c&+prising a feB
districts. These are headed $. (ivisi&nal C&++issi&ners4 and his functi&ns are largel.
supervis&r. in nature. He has als& s&+e ?uasi%=udicial functi&ns. The C&llect&rAs
functi&ns in #evenue 5d+inistrati&n are su$=ect t& the general c&ntr&l and
supervisi&n &f the C&++issi&ner. In the past ver. seni&r &fficers used t& $e app&inted
as (ivisi&nal C&++issi&ners4 and the. functi&ned as friend4 phil&s&pher and guide t&
the C&llect&rs. H&Bever4 the practice has changed and &ften &fficers &n their first
pr&+&ti&n t& the higher scale are app&inted as C&++issi&ners. This ad+inistrative
unit d&es n&t4 h&Bever4 exist in s&+e states4 such as 5ndhra4 Ta+il Nadu4
0aharashtra4 <u=arat4 3erala and #a=asthan.
1.3.> State
5t the State level all B&rk relating t& Land #evenue 5d+inistrati&n is handled $. the
#evenue (epart+ent4 Bhich is the cust&dian &f all lands. The B&rk relating t& land
ac?uisiti&n4 land assign+ent4 land lease4 alienati&n &f land4 updating and +aintenance
&f land #evenue #ec&rds4 grant &f 7attas4 Land #ef&r+s4 Land Ceiling4 Lev. and
2)
C&llecti&n &f 6r$an Land Tax and 5gricultural Inc&+e Tax are all l&&ked after $. the
#evenue (epart+ent. 7&sts &f Land #ef&r+s C&++issi&ners have $een created in
s&+e states t& &versee the i+ple+entati&n &f land ref&r+s. 0an. states have als& a
p&st &f (irect&r &f Land #ec&rds and Surve. > Settle+ent.
In +an. states there is a ,&ard &f #evenue Bith &ne &r +&re +e+$ers. The p&Bers
and functi&ns &f the ,&ard &f #evenue var. greatl. $etBeen states. <u=arat and
0aharashtra d& n&t have a ,&ard4 $ut pr&vide f&r a #evenue Tri$unal as the highest
5ppellate auth&rit. in revenue cases. In the n&rthern states4 such as 674 +e+$ers &f
,&ard &f #evenue are ver. seni&r I5S &fficers &n the verge &f retire+ent. Since
p&sting in the ,&ard is n&t c&nsidered attractive4 th&se Bh& are sent there c&nsider
the+selves as $eing declared unfit $. the p&litical s.ste+ f&r +&re gla+&r&us p&sts.
Suffering fr&+ a sense &f hurt4 the. take little interest in their B&rk4 and pr&vide n&
leadership. <raduall. the ,&ard has $ec&+e a +&ri$und &rganisati&n c&ntri$uting
little t& pu$lic Belfare. It B&uld $e useful t& a$&lish the ,&ard4 as has $een d&ne in
5ndhra 7radesh and Ta+il Nadu.
1.3.? Setu( in &amil 6adu a$ter t'e a)olition o$ t'e 9oard o$ Revenue
The erstBhile ,&ard &f #evenue Bas f&r+ed in the .ear 1)*' t& advise the C&llect&rs
in respect &f ad+inistrative +atters. This ,&ard Bas a$&lished &n 1.12.19*2. The
functi&ns &f the ,&ard are n&B $eing l&&ked after $. different depart+ents fr&+
Chennai. These areC
#evenue 5d+inistrati&n (epart+ent4 headed $. the Special C&++issi&ner and
C&++issi&ner &f #evenue 5d+inistrati&n4 is in charge &f (istrict #evenue
5d+inistrati&n and general ad+inistrati&n4 lev. and c&llecti&n &f land revenue4
cesses and related levies4 relief and reha$ilitati&n &f the victi+s &f natural
cala+ities and i+ple+entati&n &f s&cial securit. +easures.
Land 5d+inistrati&n (epart+ent4 headed $. the Special C&++issi&ner and
C&++issi&ner &f Land 5d+inistrati&n is in charge &f land ac?uisiti&n4 alienati&n4
assign+ent &f lands and h&use site pattas4 +aintenance &f surve. and land rec&rds
and distri$uti&n &f land pattas.
Land #ef&r+s (epart+ent4 headed $. the Special C&++issi&ner and
C&++issi&ner &f Land #ef&r+s4 is entrusted Bith agrarian ref&r+s such as
agricultural land ceiling4 tenanc. rights4 assign+ent &f surplus lands f&r
agricultural purp&ses and c&llecti&n &f 5gricultural Inc&+e Tax and 6r$an Land
Tax.
The Surve. and Land #ec&rds (epart+ent4 headed $. the C&++issi&ner and
(irect&r &f Surve. and Settle+ents is in%charge &f Surve.4 C&+puteriDati&n &f
Land #ec&rds4 T&uch Screen C&+puter 3i&sks4 (igitiDati&n &f ;ield
0easure+ent4 <l&$al p&siti&ning s.ste+4 Strengthening &f #evenue
5d+inistrati&n and updating &f Land #ec&rds4 etc.
The &ther three revenue earning depart+ents &f Transp&rt4 C&++ercial Taxes and
:xcise4 previ&usl. Bith the ,&ard &f #evenue4 are n&B Bith their respective
Secretaries4 and n&t Bith the #evenue (epart+ent.
2*
5s alread. suggested4 &ther states sh&uld f&ll&B the exa+ple &f Ta+il Nadu4 and d&
aBa. Bith this +&ri$und &rganisati&n.
1.4 Land administration for non-crop lands
1ne &f the resp&nsi$ilities &f the #evenue (epart+ent is t& +anage and pr&tect n&n%
cr&p lands 8&utside f&rests9. The ad+inistrative pattern f&r these lands varies fr&+
State t& State. 5t the ti+e &f c&ns&lidati&n &f ,ritish :+pire in India in the +id%19th
centur.4 +&re than tB&%thirds &f the land +ass Bas l.ing uncultivated 8Saxena 199'9.
-hile uncultivated land re+&te fr&+ ha$itati&n Bas declared as g&vern+ent f&rests
and +anaged under the neB f&rest regulati&ns4 lands cl&se t& ha$itati&n Bere left as
village lands f&r c&++&n use $. the villagers. These Bere ter+ed as KBastelandsA in
the c&l&nial peri&d4 as the. did n&t earn an. revenue4 and Bere divided int& tB&
categ&riesF cultura$le 8n&t under cr&ps4 $ut fit f&r inferi&r cultivati&n such as grasses9
and uncultura$le 8Bhere n&thing gr&Bs4 such as r&cks9 Bastelands. 1ver the .ears n&t
&nl. has their area declined $ut these lands have further l&st their pr&ductivit. and are
t&da. highl. degraded f&r a variet. &f reas&ns.
Village lands have generall. $een a victi+ &f the Jtraged. &f the c&++&nsJ
phen&+en&n Bhere expl&itati&n is $. all4 $ut n& &ne c&nsiders hi+self resp&nsi$le f&r
+aintenance. 5 laisse0 faire p&lic. Bas f&ll&Bed $. the g&vern+ent Bith respect t&
these lands. There Bas n& fund all&cati&n f&r the reha$ilitati&n &f these lands. 5s
these lands c&uld n&t +eet pe&plesN needs $i&tic pressure &n f&rests increased4 leading
t& degradati&n &f f&rests t&&.
&a)le "5 C'anges in land use in India in million 'ectares
1!<7%<1 1!?"%?<
#ep&rting area 2*" 81229 32" 81229
6ncultura$le n&t availa$le f&r cultivati&nur$an areas ") 81'.'9 "2 813.19
5rea under ;&rests "1 81".!9 ') 822.29
Cultivated area 11* 8"1.'9 1"2 8"'.)9
Cultura$le area R graDing lands R gr&ves !2 81).'9 3* 812.!9
;all&B land 2* 829.99 1) 82!.'9
8ote9 (i&ures in parentheses sho7 percenta&es. :here has *een little chan&e in these
fi&ures after 1984-8
1ne &f the +&st critical aspects &f inf&r+ati&n a$&ut n&n%f&rest Bastelands pertains t&
&Bnership4 usufruct and +anage+ent Bhich c&uld each $e in private4 c&++unit. &r
g&vern+ent hands. -ith land ref&r+4 in the r.&tBari areas4 uncultivated lands Bhich
Bere n&t part &f the far+ers h&ldings Bere vested Bith the state4 Bhile in &ther areas4
Bhere such lands Bere settled Bith landl&rds their &Bnership and +anage+ent vested
after the a$&liti&n &f landl&rdis+ either Bith village c&++unities and the dul.
29
c&nstituted village $&dies4 &r Bith the state. There is little de facto distincti&n $etBeen
the tB& categ&ries L lands under village +anage+ent &r g&vern+entAs % as $&th are
used f&r graDing4 and are generall. ?uite degraded. These are als& referred as c&++&n
&r village lands4 c&nstituting4 in effect4 c&++&n pr&pert. res&urces 8C7#s9 and are
de+arcated in land rec&rds as c&++&n lands Bith vari&us l&cal na+es.

H&Bever4 village c&++&ns Bere su$=ect t& ver. su$stantial encr&ach+ents 8de fact&
privatisati&n9 Bhich is largel. und&cu+ented and n&t pr&perl. sh&Bn in land rec&rds
1
.
In additi&n4 +an. p&&r fa+ilies have $een all&tted lands under p&vert. reducti&n
pr&gra++es in the last 22 .ears. 6p t& 199*4 nearl. !.* + ha &f cultura$le Basteland
had $een distri$uted t& p&&r fa+ilies all &ver India4 led $. the states &f 5ndhra 81.) +
ha94 6.7. 81 + ha94 3arnataka and <u=arat 82.!! +. ha. each9. <raduall.4 Bith the
extensi&n &f the state c&ntr&l and&r privatisati&n4 and the resultant deca. &f
c&++unit. +anage+ent s.ste+4 the a+&unt &f C7#s availa$le t& the villagers4 as
Bell as their ?ualit. and pr&ductivit.4 has declined su$stantiall. &ver the .ears. ,ut
C7#s still pla. an i+p&rtant r&le in the life and ec&n&+. &f the rural p&pulati&n4
especiall. in the arid4 se+i%arid and hill regi&ns &f the c&untr.4 and their pr&per
+anage+ent and i+pr&ved pr&ductivit. Bill have su$stantial i+pacts &n the
pr&ducti&n s.ste+4 &n the envir&n+ent and &n livelih&&ds.
5cc&rding t& r&ugh calculati&ns4 8Cha+$ers et al. 19*9C "2%"!9 the t&tal area a+&ng
village lands n&B suita$le f&r vegetati&n has $een reduced t& &nl. 12 + ha. -ith
s&+e ' lakh villages in the c&untr.4 the average is a$&ut 22 ha per village4 $ut there is
+uch regi&nal variati&n as Bell as variati&n $etBeen neigh$&uring villages. In
villages &f intensive cultivati&n4 village lands are &f +arginal i+p&rtance4 $ut in hill.
and unirrigated tracts village lands still &ffer livelih&&d p&ssi$ilities f&r the p&&r. Thus
the villages can $e $r&adl. classified as JC7#%li+itedJ and JC7#%dependentJ 8,laikie
et al. 19*'C "*"9.
Management o$ /astelands )y village )odies % In +an. states 8especiall. in
n&rthern and central India9 +anage+ent &f village lands is vested in the pancha.ats
8village c&uncils9. This has h&Bever n&t i+pr&ved their pr&ductivit.4 as pancha.ats
are generall. n&t interested in the degraded res&urce that .ields n& revenues and
B&uld re?uire tre+end&us eff&rts and capital f&r reha$ilitati&n. Creati&n &f
pancha.ats in 1992 had raised h&pes initiall.4 as decentralisati&n Bas expected t&
achieve higher ec&n&+ic efficienc.4 $etter acc&unta$ilit.4 and larger res&urce
+&$ilisati&n4 l&Ber c&st &f service pr&visi&n and higher satisfacti&n &f l&cal
preferences. ,ut several studies sh&B that the. have n&t $enefited the pe&ple t& the
extent &f funds pr&vided $. g&vern+ent. 7ancha.ats t&&4 like g&vern+ent servants4
take interest in sche+es that are c&ntract&r &riented Bhere the elected &fficials can
earn illegal c&++issi&ns4 and n&t in sche+es that re?uire $uilding up &f s&cial capital
Bithin the c&++unit.. The c&nfusi&n &ver resp&nsi$ilities and duties &f +ulti%village
pancha.ats is c&+p&unded $. the $l&ss&+ing nu+$er &f single village%level user
gr&ups f&r+ed under different devel&p+ent sche+es4 such as village f&rest
1
:nc&r&achers B&uld like their adverse p&ssessi&n t& $e reflected in the &fficial rec&rds4 as it B&uld
help the+ in advancing their clai+ &ver such lands in future4 in anticipati&n &f a p&lic. t& regularise
their encr&ach+ents. ;&r the sa+e reas&n &fficials are l&athe t& rec&rd their na+es4 s& as t& den. the+
the $enefit &f future regularisati&n. This pr&$le+ is ver. acute &n f&rest lands4 Bhere the depth &f s&il
and its pr&ductivit. is higher than that &f n&n%f&rest Bastelands.
32
c&++ittees4 Bater users ass&ciati&ns4 and self%help gr&ups. These issues are discussed
in detail in secti&n 3.).
1.5 Land Revenue Collection
There is n& unif&r+it. in the principles $ehind fixati&n &f rates &f land taxati&n
a+&ng the states and in s&+e cases even Bithin the State. (ifferent states have
ad&pted different +eth&ds4 such as net asset &r ec&n&+ic rent +eth&dF net pr&duce &r
annual value &f land +eth&dF the e+pirical +eth&d Bhich takes int& acc&unt the
ec&n&+ic $ackgr&und &f the regi&n4 nearness t& the +arket4 and c&++unicati&n
facilitiesF and4 rental and gr&ss value +eth&ds. In spite &f variati&ns4 the +achiner. in
charge &f c&llecti&n &f land revenue is the sa+e4 as alread. descri$ed. The #evenue
(epart+ent als& c&llects +an. &ther g&vern+ent dues4 &ther than land revenue.
;&r instance4 in 674 the +ain dues c&llected $. the revenue +achiner. c&nsist &f land
revenue and irrigati&n4 $ut these are &nl. a$&ut 12@ &f the t&tal dues c&llected $. the
#evenue (epart+ent. It als& c&llects such g&vern+ent dues Bhich are passed &n $.
&ther g&vern+ent depart+ents and pu$lic sect&r $anks after the. fail t& rec&ver these
fr&+ the defaulters. The rec&ver. &f +ain dues and +iscellane&us dues in the last tB&
.ears in 67 Bas as f&ll&BsC
&a)le <5 Collection o$ government dues )y t'e revenue mac'inery in : 8in
+illi&n #s9
;inancial .ear (e+and &f +ain
dues
#ec&ver. &f
+ain dues
(e+and f&r
+isc dues
#ec&ver. &f
+isc dues
2221%22 21*2 1322 9232 *2)9
2222%23P 1222 *33 91"* *"!2
P It Bas a dr&ught .ear4 Bhich led t& suspensi&n and re+issi&n &f +ain dues.
The n&n%plan $udget pr&visi&n f&r the entire revenue ad+inistrati&n at the district
level in 67 is a$&ut 2192 +illi&n #s. Thus the rati& &f staff expenditure vs. t&tal
c&llecti&n is a$&ut 1C! 8figures $ased &n the 7erf&r+ance ,udget9.
The t&tal land revenue c&llected $. vari&us states in the last five .ears is given $el&B.
&a)le 65 Land Revenue recei(ts in million Rs
State 199*%99 1999%22 2222%21 2221%22 2222%23
57 123" 112" 11'3 19) *'2
5ssa+ ''2 '91 ')2 '33 '21
,ihar 2"' 2*) 3"3 3"1
<u=arat )22 11'' *1! *)2 9!2
Har.ana 39 "3 11) 193 99
Hi+achal 12 '! 39 !2 "'
Oharkhand 32 122
3arnat 3*2 3*) "31 "9! !9'
31
3erala 32) 3") 393 3"9 3*"
07 2)2 "33 3*! "*2 "2"
0ahar 112! 1))9 21") 2'2! 3*'"
1rissa !*' !2! !33 *"! *22
7un=a$ 29 "* )2 *' *)
#a=as 333 3!1 ""* )92 !*2
TN 2*3 ")2 !!) !2! *"
67 **3 11'1 '99 )29 '"2
-, 32!" 1"*" !12* )112 '!*3
T&tal 121)9 123"3 139!2 1'*!3 1''2'
Thus it +a. $e seen that there is a great deal &f c&ntrast in the incidence &f land
revenue c&llected $. the states. The -est ,engal figure includes r&.alt. &n c&al and
taxes &n tea gardens and is n&t c&+para$le Bith &ther states. 0aharashtra has a high
rate &f taxati&n &n land under sugarcane. 1n the Bh&le4 c&llecti&ns are ?uite p&&r
Bhen c&+pared t& the value &f agricultural pr&ducti&n. In Ta+il Nadu the $asic land
revenue Bas fixed in the 1932s4 since then &nl. cess and surcharge has $een added
Bhich g&es t& the l&cal $&diesF even this has n&t $een revised since the earl. 19'2s.
There is n& tax &n dr. lands up t& ! acres4 and lands irrigated Bith private tu$eBells
are treated as dr. lands f&r this purp&se.
The decline in the share &f land revenue as a pr&p&rti&n &f all tax revenues c&llected
$. the state can $e seen fr&+ Ta$le !.
32
&a)le >5 Land Revenue as a ercentage o$ t'e State@s ./n &ax Revenue
States 19!)%!* 19)2%)1 19*9%92
5ndhra 7radesh 2* 1) 1.1
5ssa+ 1! 1" 1.3
,ihar 32 11 2.2
<u=arat 22 "' 1.3
Har.ana 1' " 2.1
O > 3 ' 12 2.*
3arnataka 23 * 2.*
3erala * 3 1.'
0adh.a
7radesh
"3 9 1."
0aharashtra 22 "' 3.1
1rissa 33 9.' '.*
7un=a$ 1' 33 2.3
#a=asthan "2 1' 2.)
Ta+il Nadu 19 3 2.9
6ttar 7radesh "2 12 1."
-est ,engal 1" 3 1'.)
S&urceC 5ppu C&++ittee #ep&rt > Vari&us issues &f #,I
;r&+ the data in Ta$le ! &ne can draB the f&ll&Bing inferenceC%
1. (uring the peri&d &f 19!)%!* t& 19*9%924 this tax l&st its i+p&rtance in all the
states except -est ,engal Bhere its share in the t&tal StateAs &Bn tax revenue
increased fr&+ 3 per cent in 19)2S)1 t& 1'.) per cent in 19*9%92. This Bas $ecause
the tax &n tea gardens and r&.alt. &n c&al is included in the -est ,engal figures.
2. (uring 19!)%!* it Bas an i+p&rtant s&urce &f revenue in 0adh.a 7radesh 8"3 per
cent94 #a=asthan 8"2 per cent94 6ttar 7radesh 8"2 per cent94 1rissa 833 per cent94 and
,ihar 832 per cent94 i.e.4 in th&se states Bhich are relativel. under%devel&ped and less
industrialised. H&Bever4 it declined t& a$&ut 1 t& 2 per cent $. the end &f the 19*2s.
3. In respect &f Har.ana and 7un=a$4 the tB& +&st pr&sper&us states &f India Bith ver.
high agricultural pr&ductivit.4 land revenue is a$s&lutel. an insignificant s&urce &f
revenue4 c&ntri$uting n&t +&re than 2.1 per cent and 2.3 per cent respectivel. &f the
StateAs &Bn tax revenue.
". It Bas an i+p&rtant s&urce &f revenue f&r 1rissa4 an ad=&ining State4 and f&r ,ihar4
Bhere it c&ntri$uted a$&ut ) per cent &f the StateAs &Bn tax revenue in the late 19*2s.
33
,. the end &f the 1992s its share declined in these states t&&4 as can $e seen fr&+ the
f&ll&Bing Ta$leC
&a)le ?5 rinci(al sources o$ State revenues in 2777%71 in crore Rs
State Sales
Tax
State
:xcise
Land
#evenue
Sta+ps
and
#egistrati&
n ;ees
1ther
Taxes
T&tal Share &f
land
revenue in
t&tal
-est ,engal 3')1 "'2 !11 ")" *2) !9"! *.!9
,ihar 1*21 2"3 3" 322 "22 2*29 1.21
1rissa 13"2 13! !3 129 !"! 21*" 2.""
0aharashtra 1219' 1)*2 21! 2222 333' 19)2) 1.29
81 cr&re G12 +illi&n9
Since states get a share &f central taxes4 it +a. $e B&rthBhile t& calculate the share &f
land revenue in the &verall revenue receipts &f a State4 including central dev&luti&n.
-e d& s& f&r Ta+il Nadu 8taken fr&+ vari&us rep&rts &f C5< &n BBB.cagindia.&rg9C
&a)le !5 Revenues o$ &amil 6adu in 1!!!%2777 ,in )illion Rs-
Item amount
I #evenue raised $. the State <&vern+ent 122.)'
8a9 Tax revenue 129.19
8$9 N&n%tax revenue 13.!)
Land revenue &ut &f I 8a9 2.")
II #eceipts fr&+ the <&vern+ent &f India "2.!2
8a9 StateNs share &f divisi$le 6ni&n taxes 2'.')
8$9 <rants%in%aid 13.*!
III
T&tal receipts &f the State <&vern+ent
8I>II9 1'3.2*
7ercentage &f I t& III )!
@ &f land revenue t& State tax revenue 2."3
@ &f land revenue t& t&tal revenues 2.29
It needs t& $e exa+ined Bh. this tax has declined in i+p&rtance since Independence.
1.<.1 2'y 'as land tax lost its im(ortanceA
The r&le &f land taxati&n in the nati&nal plan eff&rt has declined pri+aril. $ecause &f
the trend &f a$&lishing land revenue &n the s&%called unec&n&+ic h&ldings4 fre?uent
exe+pti&ns &n acc&unt &f fl&&ds and dr&ughts4 increased land disputes4 and the lack
3"
&f p&litical Bill t& tax the agricultural and rural sect&r. ;&r instance4 in Ta+il Nadu4
Bith effect fr&+ 1.).')4 the $asic assess+ent &n all dr. lands Bas Baived. LikeBise4
fr&+ 1.).)1 &nBards4 the land revenue c&+p&nent &f the c&ns&lidated Bet assess+ent
Bas als& Baived in respect &f individual h&lding &f ! acres &f Bet land and less. N&
d&u$t4 Ta+il Nadu i+p&ses the 5gricultural Inc&+e%Tax &n agricultural inc&+e
derived fr&+ plantati&n cr&ps 8#u$$er4 C&ffee4 Tea4 Carda+&+4 5recanut4 Cl&ves
and 7epper94 $ut this d&es n&t appl. t& h&ldings &f less than ! acres.
Land revenue as it exists t&da. in +an. states is regressive since it is levied at flat
rates and is inelastic $ecause &f the failure in linking the rates Bith agricultural
pr&ductivit.. ;urther4 n& inn&vati&n Bas intr&duced in this tax $ecause &f the tax
$eing linked Bith the s.ste+ &f land revenue c&llecti&n Bhich Bas prevalent in a
particular area. In ex%Da+indari areas the land revenue pa.a$le &n different h&ldings
Bas fixed either &n an ad h&c $asis4 &r thr&ugh a t&rtu&us pr&cess &f $argaining
$etBeen the tenants and the inter+ediaries4 and seld&+ Bas an atte+pt +ade t& relate
it t& the relative pr&ductivit. &f land. The rates that e+erged in this Ba. c&ntinued
even after the a$&liti&n &f Da+indari. ,esides4 feB &f the princel. states that e+erged
in the federating units &f the Indian 6ni&n had a pr&perl. &rganiDed land revenue
s.ste+. Thus4 even Bithin a State4 there are 8as in #a=asthan4 0adh.a 7radesh and
6ttar 7radesh9 sharp variati&ns in the rates at Bhich land revenue is paid $.
landh&lders in respect &f h&ldings that are si+ilar in essential respects. In an atte+pt
t& $ring a$&ut unif&r+it. s&+e states like 3erala intr&duced a flat rate &f tax f&r all
lands. It scarcel. pr&vided the $asis f&r an ade?uate s.ste+ &f taxati&n &f agriculture
and certainl. had n& +&re degree &f pr&gressi&n.
In the r.&tBari areas4 the assess+ent Bas4 n& d&u$t4 related t& the p&tential
pr&ductivit. &f land $ased &n a detailed field t& field surve.. The pr&ductivit. &f land
under such settle+ent Bas vieBed essentiall. as a functi&n &f the s&il c&nditi&ns4 and
Bas deter+ined in relati&n t& a single cr&p. The pr&cedure itself is ti+e%c&nsu+ing
and the assess+ent g&t &utdated ?uickl. in areas &f rapid agricultural devel&p+ent.
The states did n&t take +easures t& +ake the tax itself pr&gressiveF instead the.
i+p&sed vari&us cess and surcharge &ver this tax in &rder t& c&llect additi&nal
revenue.
The flat tax rates vi&late the can&n &f a$ilit. t& pa.. The cultivat&r &f an unec&n&+ic
h&lding pa.s land revenue at the sa+e rate as that &f a large h&lding. 5s a result4 the
states su$se?uentl. exe+pted land revenue &n h&ldings $el&B five acres and the result
Bas a su$stantial l&ss &f revenue.
5n&ther fact&r Bhich Bent against this tax Bas the c&st &f c&llecti&n. -hile the .ield
fr&+ the tax declined4 the c&st &f c&llecti&n c&ntinued t& increase $ecause &f the
inflati&nar. fact&r and the need t& depl&. additi&nal staff. N& d&u$t4 at present4 the
land revenue &fficials are perf&r+ing vari&us &ther functi&ns $esides revenue
c&llecti&n4 $ut the c&st &f c&llecti&n is ?uite heav. and land revenue ad+inistrati&n is
cu+$ers&+e. 5s a result4 the principles &f ec&n&+. and si+plicit. d& n&t exist in the
case &f land tax.
3!
Hence &ver the .ears4 the land revenue s.ste+ pr&ved unpr&ductive4 inelastic4 lacked
diversit.4 and has $ec&+e regressive in effect. This has als& affected the ?ualit. &f
+aintenance &f land rec&rds4 as discussed in secti&n 1.'.
1.<.2 Can land tax )e revived as a source o$ revenueA
Land tax as a s&urce &f revenue has several advantagesC
1. It is a direct tax.
2. It is a tax &n the agriculture and rural sect&rSareas Bhich are generall. charged
Bith having relativel. l&Ber tax $urden.
3. ;&r the vast +a=&rit. &f s+all landh&lders surviving under the perpetual threat &f
$eing evicted fr&+ the &Bnership &f land4 the pa.+ent &f tax Bill pr&vide pr&&f &f
land &Bnership. 5part fr&+ pr&+&ting e?uit. and s&cial =ustice4 this pr&vides
securit..
". It is a ti+e%tested s&urce &f revenue Bith a str&ng hist&rical $ase and need n&t $e
discarded si+pl. $ecause the p&litical auth&rities find it difficult t& +ake the rates
pr&gressive and find the +eth&d &f c&llecti&n cu+$ers&+e.
!. In the interests &f res&urce +&$iliDati&n all s&urces &f revenue need t& $e tapped.
The functi&ns and financial c&++it+ents &f the states have expanded en&r+&usl. and
their need f&r revenue is increasing. It is a s&urce Bhich has the p&tential f&r .ielding
higher revenues.
'. The agriculture sect&r has experienced an increase in pr&ducti&n and pr&ductivit.
as a result &f a variet. &f devel&p+ental and techn&l&gical supp&rts4 and theref&re it
sh&uld c&ntri$ute its due share t& the state exche?uer. In 19!1%!24 land revenue Bas
$arel. #s "* cr&res and the agriculture sect&rNs pr&ducti&n Bas #s "4*22 cr&res 8at
current prices9. This Bas a$&ut &ne per cent &f the value &f the t&tal pr&duct. In 19*)%
** Bhile the .ield fr&+ land revenue increased t& #s ""* cr&res 8including land
inc&+es fr&+ n&n%cr&p lands such as c&al fields in s&+e states9F the value &f
agricultural pr&ducti&n st&&d at #s )*422' cr&res 8at current prices9. Thus the land
revenue .ield f&r+ed 2.!) per cent &f the agricultural pr&ducti&n. In 2221%2222 the
land revenue c&llecti&n Bas 1'*! cr&res4 Bhereas the value &f agricultural pr&ducti&n
Bas !!242)2 c&res4 and thus land revenue has further fallen t& 2.31 per cent. Thus
agriculture has n&t &nl. $een taxed at l&B rates4 it has als& $een spared fr&+
pr&gressive taxati&n.
). 5 nu+$er &f services have $een pr&vided $. g&vern+ent t& agriculturists free &r at
c&ncessi&nal rates4 such as distri$uti&n &f i+pr&ved seeds4 pesticides4 fertiliDers4
irrigati&n pu+psets4 i+ple+ents4 credit etc. f&r the purp&se &f increasing agricultural
pr&ducti&n. ,ut hardl. an. eff&rt has $een +ade t& exact surpluses fr&+ agricultural
sect&r t& +eet the gr&Bing fiscal needs f&r rapid ec&n&+ic devel&p+ent. It is als&
alleged that +&st &f the facilities pr&vided are $eing availed &f $. the $ig far+ers.
Taxing &f the $ig far+ers is needed4 theref&re4 n&t &nl. f&r +&$iliDing res&urces f&r
the gr&Bing needs &f the state4 $ut als& f&r the e?uita$le distri$uti&n &f inc&+es and
Bealth in the rural sect&r.
3'
States have a dis+al fiscal situati&n4 and need additi&nal res&urces. The. have t&
+ake all%&ut eff&rts fr&+ all p&ssi$le s&urces4 t& raise revenue f&r financing the future
plan. Land revenue is &ne such s&urce that can $e tapped pr&vided the states sh&B
str&ng deter+inati&n and i+pr&ve g&vernance. The task is definitel. a difficult &ne
$ut it is n&t a l&st cause.
1. Land Records
5s land revenue Bas the +a=&r s&urce &f inc&+e &f the state in the pre%independence
peri&d4 it Bas necessar. t& identif. th&se fr&+ Bh&+ it c&uld $e c&llected. Theref&re4
the land rec&rds prepared and +aintained $. the state g&vern+ents Bere pri+aril. f&r
revenue purp&ses. It is f&r this reas&n that the land rec&rds c&ntained details like
cultiva$le4 n&n%cultiva$le and cultivated area4 ?ualit. &f the s&il4 s&urces &f irrigati&n4
cr&pping pattern4 leases4 ease+ents and assess+ent &f land revenue4 etc. ;urther4 it
Bas assu+ed that the pers&ns lia$le t& pa. land revenue Bere the pr&priet&rs &f the
land. -ith decline in the i+p&rtance &f land revenue4 +aintenance &f land rec&rds t&&
l&st its significance $&th a+&ngst ad+inistrat&rs and p&liticians causing tre+end&us
har+ t& rural c&++unities. It is interesting that n&t a B&rd Bas said a$&ut this in the
recent 5sse+$l. and 7arlia+ent electi&ns $. the p&litical parties4 neither in their
p&litical +anifest&es n&r in their speechesF in fact as argued later4 an. ann&unce+ent
t&Bards a neB surve. &r settle+ent B&uld $e seen as a p&litical lia$ilit..
(espite variati&ns in their c&ntent and c&nstituti&n4 Indian land rec&rds %% as the. exist
t&da. in different states %% have +uch in c&++&n. The principal rec&rds $eing
+aintained areC
819 Village +apC 5 pict&rial f&r+ sh&Bing the village and field $&undariesF
829 ;ield $&&k &r KkhasraA Bhich is an index t& the +ap4 in Bhich changes in the field
$&undaries4 their area4 particulars &f tenure%h&lders4 +eth&ds &f irrigati&n4 cr&pped
area4 &ther uses &f land etc. are rec&rded.
839 #ec&rd &f #ights4 als& kn&Bn as KkhatauniA4 Bhich rec&rds the na+es and classes
&f tenure &f all &ccupants &f land.
5t the sa+e ti+e4 it is difficult t& treat the states alike &r t& gr&up all &f the+ t&gether
&Bing t& the differences in language and c&nn&tati&n4 variati&ns in land laBs4
pr&cedures &f c&nducting cadastral surve.s and +eth&ds &f land classificati&n. Land
related ter+in&l&g. used $. the c&++&n +an in India varies thr&ugh&ut the c&untr..
Land rec&rds +aintained +anuall. have different f&r+ats and use different ter+s t&
c&nve. the sa+e inf&r+ati&n. The nu+$er &f registers als& varies fr&+ State t& State.
There is need t& devel&p a unif&r+ ter+in&l&g. and generaliDed data$ase sche+e &f
land rec&rds4 s& as t& facilitate all India c&llati&n. H&Bever the regi&n specific l&cal
ter+s +a. als& c&ntinue4 as the l&cal pe&ple are fa+iliar Bith th&se ter+s.
5s regards staff4 the ad+inistrative +achiner. t&& differs fr&+ State t& State. It is n&t
unif&r+ even at the l&Best level. -hile s&+e states have rec&rds at the village level4
&thers have it at the $l&ck level. In additi&n t& the general field staff descri$ed in
secti&n 1.34 s&+e states have a separate (irect&rate f&r Land #ec&rds. ;&r instance4 in
-est ,engal the separate land rec&rds direct&rate is headed $. the (irect&r4 Land
#ec&rds and Surve. Bh& is als& the O&int Land #ef&r+s C&++issi&ner. He is assisted
3)
$. a O&int (irect&r Land #ec&rds4 f&ur (eput. (irect&rs4 f&ur 5ssistant (irect&rs and
&ther &ffice staff. In &rder t& expedite the updating &f land rec&rds4 the <&vern+ent &f
-est ,engal has +erged the surve. and the district land revenue and land ref&r+s
Bings. ,el&B the State level head?uarters4 there is an 5dditi&nal (istrict 0agistrate
rank &fficer Bh& l&&ks after $&th the land ref&r+s and surve. B&rk at the district
level. (&Bn $el&B hi+ is the Su$ (ivisi&nal 1fficer Bh& l&&ks after the sa+e
resp&nsi$ilit. at his level. 5t the f&urth level is the ,l&ck Land #ef&r+s 1fficer Bh&
l&&ks after $&th the preparati&n and +aintenance &f land rec&rds. The l&Best level
revenue functi&nar. is the #evenue Inspect&r Bh& functi&ns at the <ra+ 7ancha.at
level and is assisted $. &ne 5+in 8c&llecti&n assistant9 and ,hu+i Saha.ak 8land
assistant9.
In states like 5ssa+4 ,ihar4 1rissa4 -est ,engal and 3erala4 there is n& s.ste+ &f
peri&dical updating &f the land rec&rds. In r.&tBari states revisi&nal surve. has
$ec&+e &verdue4 $ut is n&t $eing undertaken4 as g&vern+ent has n& c&ntr&l &ver its
staff t& deliver the g&&ds. 0an. states have tried t& c&+e up Bith alternative
su$stitutes4 $ut in the a$sence &f the $acking &f up%t&%date land rec&rds4 these have
n&t B&rked. ;&r instance4 s&+eti+e in the earl.%nineties a TenantsA 7ass ,&&k
8 3hata 7ustika9 Bas intr&duced in ,ihar4 Bhich B&uld $e in the p&ssessi&n &f
far+ers and Bill descri$e the status &f their h&ldings. H&Bever4 the pr&gress &f the
sche+e is n&t ver. enc&uraging as the +istakes &f the &riginal rec&rds are repeated in
the 7ass ,&&ks t&&. Thus the a$sence &f c&rrect and up%t&%date land rec&rds has
in=ured the interests &f nu+er&us land&Bners4 the $ulk &f Bh&+ are s+all landh&lders
and it has led t& nu+er&us land disputes.
In fact the practice &f updating &f land rec&rds at the village level $. differentl.
designated revenue &fficials in different states has $een $adl. neglected. Ver. feB
states have a Bell +anaged and efficient ad+inistrative apparatus &f peri&dical
updating &f the land rec&rds. In +&st states4 village and field +aps4 rec&rd &f rights
and land +easure+ent rec&rds have $ec&+e unservicea$le&$s&lete. 5fter the
enact+ent &f the tenanc. laBs in different states t& pr&tect the interests &f the tenants4
the practice &f rec&rding the na+es &f the tenants in the register Bas given up in
several states. This Bas d&ne t& ensure that the tenants did n&t ac?uire the rights given
t& the+ under the laB. 0an. &f the+ Bere share cr&ppers Bh& failed t& get their
na+es rec&rded4 and thus c&ntinue as unpr&tected su$%tenants.
In several states4 the rec&rd &f right is invaria$l. &ut &f date $ecause +utati&ns are n&t
d&ne pr&+ptl.. The rules re?uire that as s&&n as inheritance4 partiti&n &r transfers take
place4 the na+es &f the neB &Bners sh&uld $e entered in registers. ,ut the na+es &f
the neB transferees are n&t $eing +utated regularl. and ti+el.. 5s a result the B&rk
&f the +utati&n has fallen in arrears. This is pri+aril. due t& increased B&rkl&ad4 lack
&f supervisi&n $. the superi&rs4 and l&B pri&rit. paid t& this task. 5s &pp&sed t& &ther
devel&p+ental sche+es4 there is n& s.ste+ &f +&nit&ring &r +easuring the pr&gress
&f pr&per +aintenance &f rec&rds. N& d&u$t4 the #evenue 0anuals prescri$e detailed
and peri&dical inspecti&ns $. the superi&rs4 $ut these are &$served +&re in their
$reach.
3*
Lack &f acc&unta$ilit. has pr&vided &pp&rtunities f&r unauth&rised changes t& land
rec&rds. ,ri$er. and c&llusi&n has resulted in the rightful &BnerAs na+e $eing
replaced $. s&+e&ne else. Litigati&n in India is expensive and ti+e c&nsu+ing.
It is als& true that heav. B&rkl&ad &f village acc&untants +akes the+ neglect s&+e &f
their duties. In states such as 67 and 074 V5s are expected t& rec&rd cr&ps three
ti+es a .ear. Since the. have +an. villages under their =urisdicti&n4 h&nest B&rk
B&uld re?uire at least 3 t& " +&nths each .ear =ust d&ing cr&p surve.s. In +an. states
the. are re?uired t& attend pancha.at +eetings4 Bhich +a. a+&unt t& a$&ut "2
+eetings a .ear.
5n&ther fact&r $ehind the dela. in updating &f land rec&rds is the lack &f pr&per
training particularl. in +&dern techni?ues. The revisi&n surve. $. c&nventi&nal
+eans n&B takes ten t& thirt. .ears. S&+e &f the states d& n&t have training facilities
at all Bhile &thers d& n&t have training facilit. f&r +&dern and advance techni?ues. 5t
present there is &nl. &ne training centre &f the +&dern and advanced techn&l&g. at
H.dera$ad $ut =ust &ne institute is n&t sufficient f&r the Bh&le &f India.
S&+e &f the states are facing acute sh&rtage &f printed f&r+s and +aps si+pl.
$ecause their printing presses have $ec&+e &utdated and are n&t pr&fessi&nall.
+anaged. 0an. &f such presses are headed $. ad+inistrative service &fficers and
+anned $. generalists Bh& are n&t trained in printing techn&l&g.. I++ediate
&verhauling &f printing press as Bell as the +anp&Ber is needed t& i+pr&ve the state
&f affairs &n this fr&nt.
;&r aut&+atic updating &f land rec&rds it is suggested that the &ffice &f the su$%
registrar sh&uld $e +erged Bith the &ffice &f the tahsildar s& that +utati&ns c&uld $e
effected as s&&n as a d&cu+ent is registered.
5s rec&rd keeping varies fr&+ State t& State4 Be discuss this $el&B f&r a feB states.
1.6.1 Im(lication o$ a)sence o$ land records in Meg'alaya
The n&rth eastern states &f Nagaland4 5runachal 7radesh4 0iD&ra+4 0eghala.a4 hill
areas &f 0anipur and s&+e tri$al tracts &f 5ssa+ have n& land rec&rds s.ste+. The
surve. and settle+ent c&uld n&t take place here $ecause &f the resistance &f the l&cal
pe&ple. -e descri$e $el&B the status &f land rec&rds in 0eghala.a4 a tri$al and
c&+parativel. peaceful State.
5 peculiar feature &f 0eghala.aAs rural ec&n&+. is its agrarian structure4
characteriDed $. insecurit. &f tenure4 rising tenanc. and landlessness4 increasing
c&ncentrati&n &f land &Bnership in the hands &f a feB4 and declining &utput fr&+
shifting cultivati&n. This structural c&nditi&n under Bhich land is cultivated c&+$ined
Bith the fact that the elite are a$le t& c&rner +&st g&vern+ent funds has intensified
p&vert. in 0eghala.a. C&hesive s&cial relati&ns theref&re c&%exist Bith increasing
ec&n&+ic disparities.
6nlike &ther parts &f India4 g&vern+ent in 0eghala.a did n&t clai+ &Bnership rights
&ver the uncultivated f&restlands &f the indigen&us pe&ple. 0&re&ver there is n&
s.ste+ &f pa.+ent &f land revenue4 n&r an. rec&rd &f land rights. 5lth&ugh
the&reticall. land $el&nged t& c&++unit.4 there Bere several Ba.s that it c&uld $e
39
privatiDed. 7erf&r+ing la$&r &r4 rather &rganiDing la$&r4 t& cut a terrace &r plant trees
in an &rchard4 Bas rec&gniDed as c&nferring exclusive and per+anent rights4 alth&ugh
n&t rec&rded. The lack &f a legal $ase +eans that tenanc. B&rks t& the disadvantage
&f the Beaker partners in the relati&nship4 the tenants. The a$sence &f an. legal
regulati&n B&rks t& the advantage &f th&se Bith ec&n&+ic and p&litical p&Ber.
0easures like a cadastral surve. t& rec&rd actual land h&lding p&siti&ns4 tenanc.4 etc.
have $een c&nsistentl. &pp&sed even $. the n&n%rich4 as there is deep suspici&n &f the
state4 and the likelih&&d &f i+p&sing land revenue pa.+ents &r &ther regulati&ns.
There has $een phen&+enal gr&Bth in the nu+$er &f agricultural la$&r due t&
increasing c&ncentrati&n &f land in the hands &f a feB. The pr&p&rti&n &f cultivat&rs t&
t&tal B&rkers has fallen fr&+ )3.3 in 19'1 t& !!.3 in 19914 Bhereas the pr&p&rti&n &f
agricultural la$&rers has increased fr&+ ".3 t& 12.!@ during the sa+e peri&d.
There are als& instances Bhere in the entire village the actual tillers d& n&t &Bn an.
land at all. The. are +erel. tenants &f landl&rds4 +an. &f Bh&+ reside in Shill&ng4
the State capital. The tenants have rights &nl. &ver the cr&ps4 $ut d& n&t have an.
rights t& f&rests.
The privatiDati&n &f land that is g&ing &n thr&ugh&ut 0eghala.a thr&ugh encl&sure &f
c&++&ns can hardl. $e vieBed as a p&sitive step $ecause its i+pact &n agrarian
relati&ns is retr&grade. Individuals are ac?uiring per+anent interest in the &ccupanc.
&f a pl&t &f land4 Bhich in turn is i+puting +&netar. value t& land. This +a. $e
resulting in the disp&ssessing &f the actual tiller &f the s&il and &Bner far+ing is
getting c&nverted int& tenant far+ing.
Thus 0eghala.a has c&ntinued t& $e a n&n%cadastral State4 Bith n& land rec&rds at all.
:ff&rts +ade in the earl. 19*2s t& prepare land rec&rds +et Bith stiff resistance fr&+
the pe&ple4 even the p&&r. The elite are a$le t& Bhip up tri$al senti+ents against
g&vern+ent4 and alth&ugh g&vern+ent clarified that it had n& intenti&ns &f i+p&sing
land tax &n the surve.ed land4 pe&ple Bere reluctant t& all&B g&vern+ent enter and
disrupt their c&++unit. c&hesiveness. The p&&r are n&t &rganiDed4 the. are tied up in
s&cial relati&ns t& the elite &f their clan4 and t& the+ large land&Bners are greater
$enefact&rs than a re+&te4 heartless and c&rrupt g&vern+ent. :ven Bhen surve.
B&uld have $enefited the p&&r4 the. ch&se t& supp&rt the clan leaders in &pp&sing
preparati&n &f land rec&rds.
1.6.2 Survey o$ u(lands in .rissa
In the states &f 5ndhra 7radesh4 5ssa+4 3arnataka4 3erala4 0anipur4 0adh.a
7radesh4 0aharashtra4 1rissa and Ta+il Nadu4 the &riginal surve. still re+ains t& $e
d&ne in s&+e p&ckets and in respect &f certain categ&ries &f the land. This is
particularl. true &f such districts that Bere part &f the princel. states4 and Bhere even
&riginal surve. Bas n&t d&ne. -e descri$e $el&B the situati&n in tri$al 1rissa.
0an. tri$als in s&uthern and Bestern 1rissa are cultivating hill sl&pe land4 under
shifting and settled cultivati&n4 $ut Bith&ut an. legal title. The settle+ent &perati&n in
the past Bas una$le t& capture the rights &f the tri$al c&++unities in the hill sl&pes
and their entitle+ents t& c&++&n pr&pert. res&urces4 as the guidelines pr&vided $.
the State f&r c&nduct &f these surve.s Bere unsatisfact&r. in identif.ing and rec&rding
"2
these rights. The plain ta$le +eth&d used &nl. addressed land $el&B 12
&
gradient and
all unsurve.ed land a$&ve 12
&
Bas categ&riDed as State &Bned uncultiva$le Basteland
alth&ugh +uch &f this land is &Bned and cultivated $. tri$al h&useh&lds. Cultivati&n
&f sl&pes has infact increased &ver the .ears $ecause &f displace+ent &f tri$als fr&+
l&B lands.
Inc&rrect rec&rding &f land rights4 &Bing t& indifference t& tri$al livelih&&ds4 has
deprived a large nu+$er &f tri$al h&useh&lds &f rights &ver land under their
&ccupati&n in al+&st all the hill. tracts &f the scheduled areas. -ith a vieB t& redress
these grievances4 g&vern+ent &f 1rissa decided in 0arch 2222 t& c&nfer &Bnership
rights t& all pers&ns in the scheduled areas cultivating land up t& 32
&
hill sl&pes and t&
carr. &ut a special surve. &f unsurve.ed hill sl&pes in the scheduled areas. This p&lic.
c&uld $e instru+ental in pr&viding title t& a significant nu+$er &f tri$al h&useh&lds.
6sing the T&tal Stati&n surve. inv&lving c&+puteriDed techn&l&g.4 the c&st &f these
surve.s c&uld $e reduced c&+pared Bith the previ&us +anual +eth&ds. H&Bever4 the
actual pr&gress s& far has $een sl&B due t& lack &f funds and $ureaucratic
indifference.
9ox 25 Leasing o$ cas'e/ (lantations in .rissa to rivate (arties
-ith a vieB t& arrest s&il er&si&n in 1rissa4 casheB plantati&ns have $een raised $.
the S&il C&nservati&n (epart+ent &n 1224222 hectares &f T<&vern+ent -astelandsU
in Schedule V areas 8these are pri+aril. inha$itated $. tri$als4 and special pr&visi&ns
exist in the C&nstituti&n f&r their pr&tecti&n9. Such lands in the past Bere under
cultivati&n $. tri$als $ut their rights Bere n&t rec&rded. In +an. districts &f 1rissa4
especiall. th&se that Bere part &f the princel. states up t& the 19!2s4 land rec&rds
Bere generall. in a $ad shape as land Bas &f p&&r ?ualit.4 and such lands did n&t have
the p&tential &f giving revenue inc&+e t& the state. :ven Bhen g&vern+ent carried &ut
settle+ent and rec&rd &perati&ns4 tri$als $ecause &f their ign&rance Bere n&t in a
p&siti&n t& get their p&ssessi&ns rec&rded4 and thus land under their p&ssessi&n g&t
rec&rded as g&vern+ent land and s&+eti+es transferred t& the ;&rest (epart+ent.
Thus the p&&r tri$als g&t descri$ed as encr&achers even &n lands Bhich Bere
cultivated $. their ancest&rs. In such cases4 Bhen tri$als Bere f&rci$l. disp&ssessed &f
their lands f&r raising casheB trees4 n& c&+pensati&n Bas given t& the+4 $ecause their
land rights Bere n&t rec&rded.
These casheB plantati&ns4 raised &n land that Bas supp&rting livelih&&d needs &f
tri$als4 Bere handed &ver t& the 1rissa State CasheB (evel&p+ent C&rp&rati&n and
1rissa ;&rest (evel&p+ent C&rp&rati&ns f&r +anage+ent. 5s the C&rp&rati&ns c&uld
n&t run pr&fita$l.4 the. started giving annual leases f&r harvesting &f casheB cr&ps t&
private parties thr&ugh &pen aucti&ns. 1ften such plantati&ns are in a degraded
c&nditi&n $ecause &f lack &f +aintenance.
;ive .ears $ack 1rissa g&vern+ent c&nte+plated giving l&ng ter+ leases t& private
parties f&r +anaging casheB plantati&ns. 1ne such advertise+ent appeared in the
:c&n&+ic Ti+es dated 22"99. The leases B&uld $e given f&r a peri&d &f 3! .ears
f&r a +ini+u+ area &f 2222 ha
2
. Thus lands that Bere &nce Bith tri$als B&uld n&B $e
Bith private c&rp&rati&ns4 Bith the tri$als getting n& c&+pensati&n4 &r reha$ilitati&n.
2
(ue t& criticis+ $. the N<1s and in the press4 the idea &f giving l&ng%ter+ leases Bas n&t pursued.
"1
0an. &f the+ shifted t& the hill sl&pes f&r cultivati&n4 and that resulted in +&re s&il
er&si&n4 the preventi&n &f Bhich Bas the &$=ective &f the &riginal sche+e. Ir&nicall.
these casheB plantati&ns that deprived the tri$als &f their ancestral lands Bere funded
$. a sche+e called4 K:c&n&+ic #eha$ilitati&n &f the #ural 7&&r 8:##79.
87lanning C&++issi&n4 2222F I;5( 22229
1.6.3 Land Records in Barnata*a
3
The initial rec&rds in 3arnataka Bere $uilt up &n the $asis &f the &riginal surve.s
undertaken during 1*'3%92 in the &ld 0.s&re area4 1*"2%'3 in ,&+$a.%3arnataka4
1*)!%** in H.dera$ad%3arnataka4 1*93%192" in 0adras 7residenc.4 and 1*2'%1' in
the 3&dagu areas. #evised surve.s Bere peri&dicall. undertaken 85DiD and 3rishna
199)9. 5 revisi&n settle+ent Bas undertaken in 19'! in the integrated 3arnataka
State. 5s the settle+ents have a prescri$ed peri&dicit. &f 32 .ears4 the next &ne Bas
due in 199!. H&Bever4 it has n&t $een undertaken as settle+ent is a ver. unp&pular
step. -ith the rapid pace &f s&ci&%ec&n&+ic devel&p+ents4 the status &f land has $een
underg&ing ver. rapid change4 necessitating a f&&lpr&&f +eth&d &f updating and
pr&per +aintenance &f rec&rds.
0aintenance &f land rec&rds is the =&int resp&nsi$ilit. &f the #evenue and the Surve.4
Settle+ent4 and Land #ec&rds 8SSL#9 depart+ents. The #evenue 5d+inistrati&n &f
the State is divided int& f&ur #evenue (ivisi&ns4 22 #evenue (istricts4 "9 Su$%
divisi&ns4 and 1)! taluks. The ad+inistrative set%up &f the SSL# depart+ent is such
that f&r each #evenue (ivisi&n there is a O&int (irect&r &f Land #ec&rds 8O(L#94 $ut
f&r &ne &r tB& #evenue districts there is a (eput. (irect&r &f Land #ec&rds4 and f&r
each #evenue Su$%divisi&n4 there is an 5ssistant (irect&r &f Land #ec&rds 85(L#9.
5t taluk level there is n& seni&r &fficer &f the SSL# depart+ent. There are Surve.&rs
e?uivalent in rank t& Seni&r Clerks4 Bith n& unified c&++and at taluk level.
The $asic d&cu+ent f&r land is the #TC 8#ec&rd &f #ights4 Tenanc. and Cr&p
Inspecti&n94 the &riginal &f Bhich is +aintained Bith the V5s and a duplicate at the
taluk &ffice. The #TC gives particulars such as surve. nu+$er4 area4 na+e &f the
&Bner8s94 rate &f assess+ent4 t.pe &f &Bnership4 s&il t.pe4 s&urces &f irrigati&n4
particulars &f trees4 rights and lia$ilities4 particulars &f tenanc.4 if an.4 and particulars
&f the cr&ps raised during each seas&n and their c&verage. This d&cu+ent c&nstitutes
pri+a facie pr&&f &f &Bnership.
The sec&nd i+p&rtant land rec&rd is the village +ap that delineates different surve.
nu+$ers. It is a ver. i+p&rtant t&&l in res&lving $&undar. disputes. This d&cu+ent is
+aintained $. the Surve. and Settle+ent (epart+ent.
The third i+p&rtant land rec&rd is the khata4 a ledger sh&Bing land revenue4 cess4
Bater rates4 and &ther g&vern+ent dues t& $e paid $. a cultivat&r and the a+&unt paid
in a given .ear. ;&r this purp&se4 each cultivat&r &r a gr&up &f cultivat&rs kn&Bn as
khatedars is given a uni?ue khata nu+$er and the annual assess+ent f&r all the pl&t
nu+$ers held $. hi+ &r the+ is t&talled and pa.+ent particulars entered. The khata
register is prepared &nce a .ear during the =a+a$andi &r rec&nciliati&n &f the annual
acc&unts. 3hatas are +aintained $. the V5s.
3
This secti&n4 as Bell as 1.*.1 draBs heavil. fr&+ a stud. &n 3arnataka availa$le at lande?uit..c&+.au
"2
There is an&ther i+p&rtant d&cu+ent kn&Bn as akar$and Bhich rec&rds the land
revenue assess+ent f&r each surve. nu+$er in the village al&ng Bith its extent and
t.pe. The &riginal d&cu+ent is +aintained $. the Surve. and Settle+ent (epart+ent
and the V5 +aintains a c&p. in &rder t& $e in a p&siti&n t& cr&sscheck Bhether the
c&rrectness &f the assess+ent sh&Bn in the #TC f&r+.
-henever there is an. change in &Bnership &r &ther status &f land thr&ugh sale4
inheritance4 gift4 exchange4 partiti&n4 +&rtgage4 and the like4 the interested part.
appr&aches the V5 f&r a +utati&n. The latter rec&rds the particulars in the 0utati&n
#egister and puts up a pu$lic n&tice and als& serves n&tices t& interested parties
asking f&r &$=ecti&ns4 if an.4 Bithin 32 da.s. If n& &$=ecti&n is received and the
#evenue Inspect&r is satisfied that the change is genuine4 he NcertifiesN the +utati&n. 5
c&nse?uent change is then +ade in the #TC $. the V5 and the taluk &ffice is n&tified
that c&rresp&nding changes sh&uld $e +ade in the duplicate #TC +aintained there. If
an. &$=ecti&n is filed4 the V5 rec&rds that in a #egister &f (isputed Cases and refers
it t& the taluk &ffice Bhere either the tahsildar &r a deput. tahsildar c&nducts a
su++ar. in?uir. after calling all the c&ncerned parties and gives his ruling. This
decisi&n can $e challenged at the level &f the 5ssistant C&++issi&ner &r (eput.
C&++issi&ner. 1nce the dispute is finall. settled4 necessar. changes are effected in
the #TC. If +utati&n inv&lves splitting an existing pl&t4 then the details are given t&
the Surve. and Settle+ent (epart+ent s& that necessar. changes can $e +ade in the
+ap.
This l&ng pr&cedure4 ev&lved $. the ,ritish4 Bas B&rka$le Bhen supervisi&n Bas
intense and c&rrupti&n Bas c&nfined t& the l&Best echel&ns. N&B4 in the face &f
c&llusi&n $etBeen su$&rdinates and superi&rs4 +&re supervis&r. acti&n +eans &nl.
sharing &f $ri$es4 thus increasing its scale and $urden &n the c&++&n +an. :ven the
si+ple acti&n &f +aking certified c&pies &f the #TC availa$le t& the land&Bners is
highl. unsatisfact&r.4 dilat&r.4 harassing4 and c&st a l&t &f +&ne. in the f&r+ &f
$ri$es and travel. 0an. V5s d& n&t live in their head?uarters4 and t& find the+ is a
$ig hassle. The ti+e taken $. the+ in issuing c&pies depends &n the a+&unt &f $ri$es.
,esides4 c&rrectness and accurac. &f the c&p. is als& n&t $e.&nd d&u$t.
Evaluations % 5 stud. 8IS:C undated9 &n land tenure and land%useland%c&ver &f
pu$lic lands in (akshina 3annada district 83arnataka9 f&und that the Oa+a$andi
8#ec&rd &f #ights9 is n&t pr&perl. +aintained. The t&tal &f different c&lu+ns &ften
d&es n&t add up t& the t&tal ge&graphical area &f the villageC &ut &f !*9 villages f&r
Bhich Oa+a$andi rec&rds Bere &$tained4 in 21 villages4 the extent &f this discrepanc.
Bas +&re than !22 acres4 Bhereas in !" &ther villages the discrepanc. Bas $etBeen
22 t& !22 acres. Then4 the Land #ec&rds &ffices d& n&t have the +aps f&r all the
villages in their d&+ain4 and virtuall. all the cadastral +aps are &ut &f date. ;&r
instance4 in ,elthangad. taluka4 village revenue 8cadastral9 +aps f&r &nl. 29 villages
&ut &f the t&tal &f *1 villages Bere availa$le Bith the &ffice &f the 5ssistant (irect&r
&f Land #ec&rds. Lastl.4 the village%Bise Oa+a$andi rec&rds are &nl. availa$le in the
taluka &ffices. Thus4 n& clear esti+ate &f extent &f pu$lic land in each land tenure
categ&r. is availa$le at the district level4 Bhether village%Bise &r aggregated. The
c&llective $&d. &f rights4 c&llated in the f&r+ &f rec&rd%&f%rights4 are $eing +anaged
+anuall. under a s.ste+ devised +&re than a centur. ag& and heavil. taxed under the
"3
altered l&ad &f B&rk and p&litical ec&n&+.. The. suffer Bith inaccuracies4
redundancies4 interp&lati&n4 and &pa?ueness and have supp&rted a rent seeking
ad+inistrative +&n&lith.
In cities the pr&$le+ &f +ultiplicati&n &f agencies $ec&+es even +&re acute. 5n
&fficial revieB 835#C 22219 &f the t&Bn &f ,angal&re sh&Bed that citiDens Banting
de+arcati&n &f their pl&ts had t& appr&ach tB& agenciesF the Cit. Surve. 1ffice f&r
the +ap &f their pl&t4 and the 0unicipal C&uncil f&r certificati&n &f their pa.ing h&use
tax f&r the pr&pert.. 5lth&ugh Surve. had $een &rdered $. g&vern+ent f&r "* t&Bns4
it had n&t $een c&+pleted an.Bhere even after a lapse &f three .ears. 5 +a=&r
draB$ack Bas that the Surve. B&rk Bas restricted t& the $uilt up area &n the pl&t &f
land. 5s a result4 tB& separate surve. nu+$ers have $een given t& &ne piece &f land.
0&re&ver4 alth&ugh +&st Surve.&rs are highl. ?ualified4 the. are ur$an pe&ple and d&
n&t like t& visit the villages4 &r take rural pe&ple int& c&nfidence. -hen the
C&++ittee visited the villages4 pe&ple c&+plained &f seri&us irregularities in the B&rk
&f Surve.&rs.
1.6." Land Records in =el'i
The s.ste+ &f +aintenance &f land rec&rds in (elhi is a classical exa+ple &f
a+$iguit.4 c&nfusi&n4 cha&s and +ultiplicit. &f auth&rities Bith each auth&rit. tr.ing
t& a$s&lve itself &f the resp&nsi$ilit.. (elhi is a 6ni&n Territ&r. and land is under the
c&ntr&l &f Central <&vern+ent. H&Bever land rec&rds in rural (elhi are +aintained
$. the state revenue auth&rities 8&ffice &f (ivisi&nal C&++issi&ner and (eput.
C&++issi&ners94 and in ur$an (elhi $. central g&vern+ent auth&rities4 such as (elhi
(evel&p+ent 5uth&rit. 8((594 Land and (evel&p+ent 1ffice 8L(19. ,ut n& agenc.
is +aintaining the land rec&rds in respect &f freeh&ld ur$an land. T& c&+plicate the
pr&$le+s further4 land in (elhi is $eing g&verned $. different 5cts4 each having
=urisdicti&n &n different parts &f (elhiC
1. (elhi Land #ef&r+s 5ct 19!" and (elhi Land #evenue 5ct 19!"
2. 7un=a$ Land #evenue 5ct 1**)
3. 6ttar 7radesh Land #evenue 5ct.
The 6ni&n Territ&r. &f (elhi has an area &f 1"*3 s? k+ Bith a t&tal land +easuring
1"*'39 hectares. In pre independence da.s the ur$an areas in (elhi c&+prised &f the
&ld Balled cit. &f Saha=ahan$ad and the i+perial cit. devel&ped $. the ,ritishers.
5fter independence4 the ur$an areas in (elhi have increased rapidl.. The (elhi Land
#ef&r+s 5ct Bas enacted in 19!". 5t that ti+e4 $esides the ur$an area4 there Bere 3!)
rural villages4 Bhich Bere $r&ught under this 5ct and &ther revenue laBs.
In &rder t& facilitate expansi&n &f ur$an areas &f (elhi4 g&vern+ent &f India ad&pted
in 19'1 the sche+e &f large scale ac?uisiti&n4 devel&p+ent4 and disp&sal &f land.
!34211 hectares &f land has $een ac?uired up t& 31
st
0arch 222" and handed &ver t&
((5 f&r utiliDati&n as per the pr&visi&ns &f 0aster 7lanM&nal (evel&p+ent 7lan &f
(elhi. (ue t& large scale ac?uisiti&n &f land4 the rural villages in (elhi l&st their
character and 13! &f the 3!) villages have $een declared ur$aniDed s& far. 1! +&re
villages are under the pr&cess &f ur$aniDati&n. The legal c&nse?uences &f ur$aniDati&n
""
&f a village are that the pr&visi&ns &f (elhi Land #ef&r+s 5ct cease t& &perate in
respect &f that land.
Maintenance .$ land records in rural areas % In case &f rural areas &f (elhi i.e. 222
villages Bhich have n&t $een declared ur$an s& far the traditi&nal s.ste+ &f
+aintenance &f land rec&rds as is prevalent in ad=&ining states 87un=a$ &r 679 is $eing
f&ll&Bed. These rec&rds are $eing +aintained $. the &ffices &f the nine (eput.
C&++issi&ners 8#evenue9 under the supervisi&n &f (ivisi&nal C&++issi&ner cu+
7rincipal Secretar. 8#evenue9. (eput. C&++issi&ner is head &f each district and
there are three su$%divisi&ns in each district headed $. the Su$%(ivisi&nal 1fficer
8S(1S(09. 6nder the S(14 there are Tahsildar4 (eput. Tahsildar4 3anung&
8Inspect&r9 and 7atBaris. The pr&$le+s in respect &f rural rec&rds are the sa+e as
ever.Bhere else4 such asC
a. Lac* o$ regular u(dation5 Land rec&rds +ust $e updated &nce ever. f&ur .ears
f&r each village after inc&rp&rating all the +utati&ns. ,ut in +an. cases the
patBaris d& n&t update the rec&rds regularl..
$. Lac* o$ regular settlement and consolidation5 ;&r +&st &f the villages4 the
surve. and settle+ent &perati&ns Bere undertaken in 192* and the field $&&ks
prepared at that ti+e are $eing used even n&B. These field $&&ks are in ver. $ad
shape and in s&+e villages the field $&&ks have $een +isplaced leading t& l&ss &f
a vital d&cu+ent and difficulties in de+arcati&n &f land.
c. Coloni+ation5 (ue t& p&pulati&n pressure and rise in prices &f land4 unauth&riDed
c&l&nies have c&+e up &n agricultural land. This is despite the fact that land use
c&nversi&n t& n&n%agricultural use is n&t per+itted. S& there is discrepanc.
$etBeen &Bner &f the land and the pers&n &ccup.ing the land.
d. Sale o$ land on 0eneral o/er o$ Attorney5 Sale &f land &n the $asis &f
d&cu+ents like agree+ent t& sell4 Bill and general p&Ber &f att&rne. has $ec&+e
prevalent. This is d&ne t& save the expenses &n sta+p dut. as Bell as t& sell the
land Bhich cann&t $e transferred under the pr&visi&ns &f the Land #evenue LaBs
and (elhi Lands 8#estricti&ns &n Transfer9 5ct 192". ;&r instance4 the laB
relating t& frag+entati&n &f h&ldings prevents an. h&lding t& fall $el&B 1.2!
hectares. Such $u.ers are n&t entitled t& get their na+es entered in T#ec&rd &f
#ightsU. 0an. transacti&ns are f&r s+all parcels f&r c&nstructi&n &f h&uses4 and
thus the land rec&rds d& n&t reflect the true picture.
Maintenance o$ land records in ur)an areas % The status &f +aintenance &f land
rec&rds in case &f ur$an areas &f (elhi is alar+ing. ;&r +&st &f the area n& rec&rds are
$eing +aintained4 and if n& steps are taken urgentl. t& set up s&+e agenc. t& prepare
and +aintain the rec&rds4 seri&us pr&$le+s are likel. t& surface in future. 5fter
ac?uisiti&n $. the ((54 parcels are s&ld t& individuals. -hen such sale Bas &n
leaseh&ld $asis4 ((5 +aintained c&+plete rec&rds &f the lessees in their pr&pert.
register. -henever4 a pr&pert. changed hands &n acc&unt &f sale &r inheritance etc4
the rec&rds Bere c&rrected t& reflect the &Bnership status $ased &n the applicati&n $.
the neB &Bner. Thus there used t& $e a rec&rd &f &Bnership &f pr&pert. in ur$an areas
&f (elhi.
"!
The 0C( 80unicipal C&rp&rati&n &f (elhi9 &r N(0C 8NeB (elhi 0unicipal
C&rp&rati&n9 als& +aintains separate rec&rds &f pr&pert. $ut f&r the purp&se &f
c&llecti&n &f pr&pert. tax &nl. and the. are n&t c&ncerned Bith the title &f pr&pert..
N&B the g&vern+ent has e+$arked &n the p&lic. &f +aking the private pr&perties
freeh&ld. -hen a pr&pert. is c&nverted fr&+ leaseh&ld t& freeh&ld4 a C&nve.ance
(eed is issued $. the land &Bning agenc. in the na+e &f the pers&n t& Bh&+ free
h&ld rights have $een given and the pr&pert. file &f the ((5 is cl&sed. Thereafter
((5 d&es n&t +aintain an. rec&rd &f the &Bnership status &f the pr&perties. 5n.
change in the &Bnership &f pr&pert. &n acc&unt &f sale4 inheritance etc is n&t $eing
reflected in an. rec&rd. Theref&re4 the &nl. +anner &f esta$lishing &Bnership &f a
pr&pert. in future B&uld $e the registered sale d&cu+ents4 as the &Bnership is n&t
reflected in an. &ther rec&rd. If such a situati&n is all&Bed t& c&ntinue4 in a peri&d &f
12 .ears g&vern+ent as Bell as p&tential $u.ers B&uld $e clueless &n the rightful
&Bnershiptransacti&ns &f the pr&pert..
S&+e ad+inistrative +echanis+ has t& $e set up t& create rec&rds &f &Bnership $.
enacting neB legislati&n &r taking the help &f existing pr&visi&ns &f 7un=a$ #evenue
5ct f&r +apping4 surve.4 preparati&n and +aintenance &f rec&rds &f ur$an pr&perties
in (elhi. ;&r +an. c&l&nies la.&ut plans dul. appr&ved $. +unicipal $&dies and
&ther auth&rities are availa$le and can f&r+ the $asis &f creati&n &f neB ur$an land
h&lding and rec&rd &f right in respect &f the sa+e. In case &f regulariDed unauth&riDed
c&l&nies4 +aps sh&Bing individual pl&ts4 area &f r&ad and &ther c&++&n
facilitiesa+enities are availa$le. ,ef&re regulariDing4 devel&p+ent plans are +ade
and passed $. the 0C(. Thus4 in this case t&& the $asic +aterial Bill $e availa$le.
;&r the rest &ne can use aerial surve. +aps f&r creating la.&ut plans and ph.sical
surve.s t& prepare rec&rd &f right. The t&tal land inv&lved in these tB& categ&ries is
?uite s+all.
5t the present there is t&tal cha&s in (elhi4 as it is ver. difficult t& esta$lish &Bnership
rights in respect &f ur$an pr&perties. This has led t& unnecessar. large scale litigati&n
n&t &nl. $etBeen the citiDens $ut als& $etBeen the private pers&ns and the
g&vern+ent. Ideall. speaking4 g&vern+ent &f India sh&uld get enacted a neB
legislati&n &n the pattern &f 0aharashtra Land #evenue C&de 19'' f&r carr.ing &ut
surve.4 settle+ent4 preparati&n and +aintenance &f rec&rds &f ur$an pr&perties. ,ut
Bith&ut Baiting f&r the neB enact+ent4 &ne can take the help &f legal pr&visi&ns
c&ntained in 7un=a$ Land #evenue 5ct4 Bhich used t& have =urisdicti&n &ver the
entire 6ni&n territ&r. &f (elhi. 5 full fledged (irect&rate &f Land #ec&rds cu+
Surve. C&++issi&ner4 &n the pattern &f 0aharashtra State sh&uld $e created in (elhi
f&r c&ns&lidating all the +aps prepared $. n&B $. the 0unicipal C&rp&rati&n and
((5 &f the c&l&nies and g& ahead Bith the surve. &f area falling &utside the c&l&nies
Bhich Bill include ur$an villages4 unauth&riDed c&l&nies etc4 f&ll&Bed $. creati&n &f
land rec&rds. The (irect&rate &f Land #ec&rds can $e created in the #evenue
(epart+ent and (ivisi&nal C&++issi&ner can $e designated a (irect&r &f Land
#ec&rds Cu+ Chief Settle+ent C&++issi&ner4 s& that B&rk can $e undertaken under
his &verall c&ntr&l and supervisi&n. 6se &f neB techn&l&g. f&r land rec&rd preparati&n
and +aintenance Bill increase accurac. and Bill reduce the +anp&Ber re?uire+ent.
6se &f digital the&d&lites 8aut&+atic surve. stati&n94 satellite i+ager.4 aerial
"'
ph&t&graph.4 and use &f specialiDed s&ftBare f&r preparati&n &f rec&rds ?uickl.
sh&uld $e ad&pted.
H&Bever4 the (epart+ent +ust +aintain c&+plete transparenc. and seek pe&pleAs
participati&n $&th f&r deciding its pr&cedure and during i+ple+entati&n.
1.! Surve" & Settlement
The earliest s.ste+atic surve. Bas c&nducted during the reign &f the 7athan 3ing
Sher Shah 81!"2%1!"! 5.(.9 f&r the purp&se &f fixati&n &f land revenue. Land Surve.
Bas taken up +&re extensivel. during the reign &f 0ughal :+per&r 5k$ar 81!!' L
1'2! 5.(.9 under the initiati&n &f his #evenue 0inister T&dar 0al. 0&dern
surve.ing Bas initiated $. the ,ritish in this c&untr. as earl. as in the 1)'2As.
5t the ti+e &f Independence different s.ste+s &f land revenue c&llecti&n existed in
the c&untr.. In 7un=a$4 0aharashtra4 0adras4 and 0.s&re practicall. all the land had
$een surve.ed and +easured and land revenue had $een settled &n s&+e definite
principles. 1n the &ther hand4 in states like #a=asthan4 part &f <u=arat and 0adh.a
7radesh4 there Bere large areas &f unsurve.ed and unsettled land. In $etBeen these4
there Bere states like 67 and part &f 074 Bhere there Bere regular settle+ents &f land
$ut &Bing t& the prevalence &f the Da+indari s.ste+ several neB inter+ediaries had
crept in. In -est ,engal4 ,ihar and 1rissa there Bas n& &rganiDed land revenue
s.ste+ at the l&Ber levels $ecause &f the 7er+anent Settle+ent 87rasad 19939. In a
feB princel. states4 the ,ritish s.ste+ Bas ad&pted $ut in &ther princel. states there
Bas n& regular s.ste+ &f assess+ent &f land revenue.
Land surve.s pr&vide inf&r+ati&n that +a. $e classified int& three gr&upsC%
1. ge&l&gical inf&r+ati&n Bith e+phasis &n the nature4 siDe4 shape and &rigin &f land
f&r+s4 r&cks +inerals and s&ilF
2. ec&n&+ic inf&r+ati&n Bhere the pri+ar. interest is in land classificati&n4 land use
and invent&r such as cr&ps4 pastures4 irrigati&n4 f&rests4 c&++unities4
c&++unicati&ns4 and transp&rt r&utes4 andF
3. Legal inf&r+ati&n &n land rights4 settle+ent4 land registrati&n4 and taxati&n.
Land surve.ing is a part &f the s.ste+ &f c&llecting and pr&cessing land inf&r+ati&n
f&r preparati&n &f land rec&rds. The first tB& gr&ups &f inf&r+ati&n are c&llected in
T&p&graphical Surve.. 5 c&+$inati&n &f sec&nd and third gr&up &f inf&r+ati&n is
c&llected in cadastral surve..
Cadastral survey % Cadastral Surve.s are executed f&r the purp&se &f s.ste+atic
rec&rding &f land rights4 pr&ducing registers &f land h&ldings &r an invent&r. &f land
areas4 land uses and classificati&n f&r deter+ining land tax assess+ents. The siDe4
shape and nature &f individual land h&ldings are +easured and ec&n&+ic uses &f the
land are rec&rded. The +ain &$=ects &f cadastral surve.s are as f&ll&BsC%
8i9 T& prepare a +ap &n the re?uired scale &f the pl&ts &f land in each village4 t&Bn &r
cit.4 sh&Bing their p&siti&n4 $&undaries and pl&t &r h&lding nu+$ers.
ii9 T& identif. and de+arcate village $&undaries.
")
iii9 T& &$tain nu+erical data like +easure+ents &f sides4 diag&nals and &ff%sets and
areas and the ?ualitative data like t.pe and nu+$er &f cr&ps gr&Bn4 irrigati&n facilities
availa$le4 ?ualit. &f s&il4 etc.
iv9 T& c&+pile pr&per Britten rec&rds &f the rights &f &Bnership and fix rates &f land
taxes.
Thus cadastral surve.s c&ver all categ&ries &f land inf&r+ati&n4 c&llecti&n &f Bhich
pla. +a=&r r&le in the ec&n&+ic devel&p+ent4 planning and pr&gress &f the c&untr..
The devel&ped c&untries have alread. esta$lished accurate4 dependa$le and
s.ste+atic surve.s Bithin their d&+ain.
The f&ll&Bing scales are used f&r cadastral surve.s in IndiaC
&a)le 175 Scales $or cadastral surveys
Scale :?uivalent
0etric S.ste+
1'U t& 1 +ile &r
1C39'2
1C"222 6sual scale f&r village surve.s
32U t& 1 +ile &r
1C19*2
1C2222 5d&pted f&r surve.s &f s+all t&Bns Bhere
pl&ts are s+aller
'"U t& 1 +ile &r
1C992
1C1222 5d&pted f&r $igger t&Bns and cities
12*U t& 1 +ile &r
1C"9!
1C!22 5d&pted f&r ver. large cities Bhere price &f
land is ver. high
The c&nventi&nal surve. +eth&ds are tedi&us4 ti+e c&nsu+ing and &ften n&t ver.
accurate. In 5ssa+4 ,ihar4 0adh.a 7radesh4 and -est ,engal Bhere revisi&nal
surve.s have $een undertaken in the past five decades the experience has n&t $een
p&sitive. These take a ver. l&ng ti+e. In -est ,engal sec&nd revisi&n surve.
&perati&ns are c&ntinuing since 19)". In ,ihar4 revisi&n surve. &perati&ns started in
19!2s and it t&&k &ver thirt. .ears t& c&+plete surve. in =ust tBelve districts. Ta$le
11 sh&Bs h&B surve. B&rk has re+ained neglected in the p&st%Independence peri&d
in India.
&a)le 115 Statement s'o/ing t'e years o$ original settlement # t'e years o$
revision settlement
State Vear &f
settle+ent
.ear &f last revisi&n
settle+ent
5ndhra 7radesh 1*'1%1*** 1*92%1911
5ssa+ 1922%192) 19914 still c&ntinuing
3arnataka 1*2'%192" 19''%19)*
3erala 1**'%193" %
0adh.a 7radesh 1921%19!2 19*2%1993
"*
0aharashtra 1*"2%1**2 191)%1922
1rissa 1922%1932 (&ne in a feB districts in
the last three decades
7un=a$ 1**9%1912 Surve. is +erged Bith
c&ns&lidati&n
6ttar 7radesh 193*
-est ,engal 1**9%19"2 19!'%19'14 2nd rev $egan
in 19)"
0&st &f the states still have different land +easure+ent s.ste+s resulting in surve.
+aps &f vari&us t.pes and vari&us scales. 5l+&st all the states differ in the +atter &f
siDe &f the +ap pr&p&rti&nate t& the pl&t &f the land t& Bhich the +ap $el&ngs. In
s&+e states4 there are $ig +aps f&r s+all land h&ldings Bhereas in &thers4 the siDe &f
the +ap is s+all c&+pared t& the pl&t &f land4 Bhich is $ig.
S&+e &f the states tried the aerial surve. t& &verc&+e the dela. Bith the assistance &f
the Surve. &f India. ,ut there are inherent li+itati&ns in the techn&l&g.. It is feasi$le
and suita$le &nl. in such areas Bhich d& n&t have an acute sl&pe &r hill. terrain.
5dded t& this is the sh&rtage &f ?ualified +anp&Ber in the hands &f user states. The
Surve. &f India d&es n&t have the re?uired infrastructure t& take up large areas in
different states si+ultane&usl.. The expertise p&ssessed $. the Surve. &f India
&fficials is .et t& $e disse+inated a+&ng the surve. staff &f different states. This is
the reas&n Bh. the 5ppu C&++ittee app&inted $. the <&vern+ent &f India in 199!
rec&++ended that the states sh&uld g& in f&r inter+ediate techn&l&g. rather than the
highl. s&phisticated &ne.
Land Inf&r+ati&n S.ste+ 8LIS9 is an&ther techni?ue Bhich Bas experi+ented in the
5ngul Nalc& 7r&=ect &f 1rissa. The s&ftBare f&r this pr&=ect Bas devel&ped $. the
Surve. &f India. This als& takes +&re ti+e than the +anual +eth&d. 0&re&ver the
c&st effectiveness is .et t& $e esta$lished. 5s a result it is n&t advisa$le t& appl. this
s&ftBare in large areas.
6ttar 7radesh and 0adh.a 7radesh have ad&pted an inn&vative appr&ach $. placing
the entire staff &f tahsildar 8except a feB hands f&r c&llecti&n &f land revenue9 under
the settle+ent &fficer as s&&n as an area is n&tified f&r settle+ent. This results in
c&nsidera$le ec&n&+. and i+pr&ves the speed and efficienc. &f the &perati&ns.
-e descri$e $el&B the experience &f s&+e states in surve. and settle+ent. This is
$ased &n discussi&ns Bith &fficials4 &r &n n&tes pr&vided $. the+4 and theref&re &ften
c&nceals the Beaknesses &f Bhat has $een d&ne s& far. There is als& n& descripti&n &f
the level &f pu$lic satisfacti&n achieved in these eff&rts. H&Bever it is clear fr&+
these n&tes that the pr&cedure is c&+plex4 and in the a$sence &f ade?uate supervisi&n
there are +assive &pp&rtunities f&r rent seeking &r f&r +aking +istakes4 thus causing
da+age t& the affected fa+ilies.
"9
1.>.1 Survey8 Assessment and Collection in .rissa
The present s.ste+ &f surve. in 1rissa is $. cadastral and traverse +eth&ds. (etails
&f the &perati&n f&ll&B the pattern laid d&Bn in the 1rissa Surve. and Settle+ent
0anual. The 1rissa Surve. and Settle+ent 5ct and #ules guide the detailed
i+ple+entati&n &f these principles.
5cc&rding t& the sche+e &f 1rissa Surve. and Settle+ent 5ct419!*4 land has t& $e
first surve.ed. Thereafter en?uiries are t& $e +ade &n the sp&t regarding p&ssessi&n4
right and title. 1n the $asis &f this en?uir. preli+inar. rec&rds%&f%right are prepared.
These tB& stages are c&+$ined t&gether and are kn&Bn as ;ist7ar-;hanapuri stage.
The +ap and rec&rds s& prepared are checked at the Head 1ffice t& ensure accuracies.
In the next stage Bhich is kn&Bn as the 5ttestati&n Stage4 c&pies &f the rec&rds%&f%
rights prepared during ;hanapuri are +ade &ver t& the parties and the. are asked t&
state their &$=ecti&ns4 if an.4 t& the entries +ade therein. 1$=ecti&ns4 if an. are
en?uired int& and decisi&ns are taken acc&rdingl.. The rec&rds are a+ended &n the
$asis &f these decisi&ns. The entries in the a+ended rec&rd%&f%rights are again read
&ver t& the parties and thereafter these are attested in t&ken &f their c&rrectness. Thus
the draft rec&rds%&f%rights are prepared.
In the third stage4 the attested rec&rds are checked again at the Head 1ffice. If the
rent settle+ent is &rdered4 then the rent is calculated as per the appr&ved rent p&lic.
and inc&rp&rated in the appr&priate c&lu+n &f the draft rec&rd%&f%rights. This draft
rec&rd is pu$lished f&r &$=ecti&ns4 if an.. If &$=ecti&ns are filed4 the. are heard and
disp&sed &f and the rec&rds are a+ended acc&rdingl.. 5fter the inc&rp&rati&n &f these
c&rrecti&ns the rec&rd is finall. pu$lished and entries +ade therein are dee+ed final.
Last &f all4 fair c&pies &f the rec&rd s& finaliDed are prepared and distri$uted t& all
c&ncerned.
Classificati&n &f villages f&r fixing land revenue is d&ne under the 1rissa Surve. and
Settle+ent 5ct4 19!* taking int& c&nsiderati&n the f&ll&Bing fact&rs na+el.C
8i9 situati&n &f the village4
8ii9 c&++unicati&n and +arketing facilities
8iii9 depredati&n $. Bild ani+als4 and
8iv9 lia$ilit. t& vicissitudes &f seas&n
5fter the villages are gr&uped under different classes4 classificati&n &f land is +ade
acc&rding t& cr&p &r cr&ps gr&Bn &n the land4 nature &f s&il4 situati&n &f the land in
village4 and s&urces &f irrigati&n.
Then assess+ent &f fair and e?uita$le rent is d&ne under the sa+e 5ct. ;&r the
purp&se &f surve. and preparati&n &f rec&rd%&f%rights each su$%divisi&n &f the district
is divided int& s+all units called circle &r ca+p in charge &f &ne 5ssistant Settle+ent
1fficer Bh& is assisted $. Inspect&rs in ;ist7ar and ;hanapuri circles and <es+ars
and 1unsarims in attestati&n and #ent Ca+ps. The 5+in B&rks at the village level in
3istBar and 3hanapuri circle and his B&rk is checked $. the Inspect&r4 5ssistant
Settle+ent 1fficer. The Charge 1fficer functi&ns as a Supervis&r. 1fficer under the
c&ntr&l &f Settle+ent 1fficer Bh& fra+es the pr&gra++e and Batches the pr&gress.
!2
He inspects the ca+ps and guides the &perati&n. 5t the State level4 (irect&r &f Land
#ec&rds and Surve.s c&ntr&ls the activities &f the &rganiDati&n.
1.>.2 Survey and Land Records in &6
Ta+il Nadu has 29 districts4 )3 #evenue Su$%(ivisi&ns4 22' Taluks4 1122 Circles4
and 1)2"" #evenue Villages. 5fter the a$&liti&n &f ,&ard &f #evenue in (ece+$er
19*24 #evenue and Land 5d+inistrati&n Bere entrusted t& three functi&nal
C&++issi&ners viD. C&++issi&ner &f #evenue 5d+inistrati&n4 C&++issi&ner &f
Land 5d+inistrati&n and C&++issi&ner &f Land #ef&r+s at the State level.
Last full Surve. in TN Bas d&ne in 1932. #evisi&n Bas c&+pleted in 19*2. ;ield
&fficials Bere instructed t& rec&rd su$divisi&ns &nl. Bhen all parties agreed. This +a.
have reduced the nu+$er &f disagree+ents. 5$&ut "222 te+p&rar. staff Bere
recruited4 $ut the. are still c&ntinuing in service as the. &$tained a c&urt &rder against
their ter+inati&n Bhich Bas t& c&+e in effect after the surve. Bas &ver.
The Surve. and Land #ec&rds (epart+ent is &ne &f the &ldest depart+ents &f the
State 5d+inistrati&n and is pri+aril. c&ncerned Bith all +atters pertaining t&
Cadastral Surve.ing and 0apping. The principal resp&nsi$ilit. &f the depart+ent
c&nsists &f c&nducting surve. $&th in rural and ur$an lands. The depart+ent is
charged Bith the task &f the deli+itati&n &f $&undaries &f villages and h&ldings and
the preparati&n &f Village 0aps4 ;ield 0easure+ent ,&&ks4 -ard 0aps4 ,l&ck
0aps4 T&Bn surve. #egister4 and Land #egisters. The depart+ent is als& resp&nsi$le
f&r the pr&per +aintenance &f Land #ec&rds and preservati&n &f Surve. fra+e B&rk.
The Surve. and Land #ec&rds (epart+ent is resp&nsi$le f&r undertaking surve.4 re%
surve. and supple+entar. surve. in rural and ur$an areas in Ta+il Nadu. This
(epart+ent is als& resp&nsi$le f&r +aintaining the land rec&rds4 and updating the
changes &n acc&unt &f land sale and partiti&n. The (epart+ent c&+piles district +aps4
taluk +aps4 village +aps and t&Bn +aps. In additi&n t& this4 the (epart+ent pu$lishes
+aps &f $l&cks and Bards c&+prised in t&Bns sh&Bing individual landfield
$&undaries and als& prepares c&+p&site +aps f&r the pancha.ats4 street field atlases
etc. The pr&gress &f surve. up t& 31
st
0arch 2223 is as f&ll&BsC
Taluk
T&tal N&. &f Taluks 22'
Taken up f&r Land Surve. 19*
-&rk c&+pleted 192
6nder pr&gress &f B&rk '
T& $e taken up f&r Land Surve. *
&o/n survey % In Ta+il Nadu4 there are 122 0unicipalities and ' 0unicipal
C&rp&rati&ns. C&nse?uent &n the c&nversi&n &f agricultural lands int& h&using
c&l&nies and industrial units4 the area &f 0unicipalities and C&rp&rati&ns has
!1
expanded and their $&undaries changed. The pr&gress &f surve. in the T&Bns up t&
31
st
0arch 2223 is as f&ll&BsC
0unicipalit. C&rp&rati&n
T&tal 122 '
Taken up f&r land surve. *3 '
C&+pleted *2 3
-&rk under pr&gress 3 3
T& $e taken up f&r land
surve.
19 %
T&Bn Surve. B&rk has $een c&+pleted in 14)3* s?.k+ s& far.
Maintenance o$ revenue records % The Surve. staff in the 0aintenance Bing attend
t& the da. t& da. changes in the #evenue #ec&rds4 such as +aking neB su$%divisi&ns
in lands that take place due t& transfer4 sale4 gift4 exchange4 relin?uish+ent $. private
pers&ns4 assign+ent4 and ac?uisiti&n. The. als& help in p&inting &ut the field
$&undaries t& the &Bner &f the pr&pert. as per their rec&rds &n pa.+ent &f the
prescri$ed fee. In additi&n4 vari&us kinds &f +aps such as Village +aps4 Taluk +aps4
(istrict +aps4 T&urist +aps and #&ad +aps are prepared and +ade availa$le t& the
pu$lic &n pa.+ent &f a n&+inal fee.
1.>.3 2est 9engal
The first series &f cadastral +aps4 c&vering the entire State4 Bas prepared during the
(istrict Surve. > Settle+ent 1perati&ns &f 1***%19"2 f&r i+ple+enting the
pr&visi&ns &f the ,engal Tenanc. 5ct 1**!. 5 #evisi&nal Surve. > Settle+ent
1perati&n Bas c&nducted +ainl. during 19!"%19'24 under the -est ,engal :state
5c?uisiti&n 5ct 19!34 in Bhich (istrict Settle+ent +aps and rec&rds Bere revised
and updated. 7resentl.4 Surve. > Settle+ent 1perati&n f&r Land #ef&r+s under the
-est ,engal Land #ef&r+s 5ct4 19!! has $een g&ing &n since 19)2 $. updating
#evisi&nal Surve. +aps and rec&rds. (ue t& rapid ur$aniDati&n and industrial
devel&p+ent4 fresh +apping is $eing carried &ut in +an. areas4 +ainl. in the ad=acent
area &f district t&Bns4 due t& change &f t&p&graph.. 5lth&ugh thirt. .ears have
elapsed4 the B&rk has still n&t $een c&+pleted. 7art &f the explanati&n is that this
&rganisati&n Bas given the resp&nsi$ilit. &f rec&rding sharecr&ppers in the 19*2As4
and the entire attenti&n &f the +achiner. g&t diverted aBa. fr&+ surve..
1.>." :ttar rades' ,:-
-hile surve.%settle+ent pr&ceeding and pr&visi&ns still re+ain &n the statute $&&k4
c&ns&lidati&n has virtuall. &usted surve. and settle+ent &perati&n in states like
Har.ana4 7un=a$4 and 67.
These states have said a virtual g&&d%$.e t& surve. and settle+ent in the usual sense
&f the ter+. Surve. B&rk has4 +&re &r less4 $een taken &ver $. c&ns&lidati&n
&perati&ns in 6ttar 7radesh. It is the dut. &f the (istrict (eput. (irect&r &f
C&ns&lidati&n t& get village +aps4 field $&&ks and rec&rds &f right th&r&ughl. revised
$ef&re the pr&visi&nal c&ns&lidati&n sche+e f&r a 6nit is prepared. 6p&n a
!2
n&tificati&n f&r c&ns&lidati&n4 all relevant land rec&rds are passed &n fr&+ Tahsil t&
the c&ns&lidati&n auth&rities. The sa+e4 after thr&ugh revisi&n and c&ns&lidati&n
revert $ack t& the Tahsil at the cl&se &f the c&ns&lidati&n &perati&ns.
;urther+&re4 after the lapse &f 12 .ears fr&+ the date &f cl&sure n&tificati&n under
Secti&n !2 &f the 67 C&ns&lidati&n 5ct4 there is t& $e launched a neB r&und &f
c&ns&lidati&n in the area c&ncerned t& take care &f su$%divisi&ns4 transfers4
successi&ns etc. in the interregnu+. C&ns&lidati&n is thus an &ng&ing pr&cess. #e%
surve. t&&4 there$.4 $ec&+es an &ng&ing pr&cess. This is a n&teB&rth. aspect &f the
67.
-hile c&ns&lidati&n has its &Bn +erit in the preventi&n &f frag+entati&n &f h&ldings4
the state is deprived &f the $enefits &f settle+ent entirel.. The c&ns&lidati&n
&perati&ns take due care &f surve. B&rk4 $ut there is n& settle+ent &perati&n inv&lved
therein. Thus c&ns&lidati&n is surve. +inus settle+ent in 67. The +&de currentl.
f&ll&Bed f&r rent enhance+ent is the perusal &f the field $&&k &f the last three .ears t&
deter+ine irrigated &r unirrigated nature &f the land in ?uesti&n.
1.>.< =i$$iculties Encountered in Surveys and Settlement
1ver the .ears4 the +anual surve. techni?ue has suffered $&th in ?ualit. as Bell as
speed &f executi&n. 0&re&ver4 Bith the increasing call&usness &f the surve. staff4 it
has $ec&+e +&re a t&&l f&r expl&itati&n &f the far+ers than an. genuine revisi&n4
Bhich had $ec&+e virtuall. the $ulBark &f $&th the 0ughal as Bell the ,ritish
5d+inistrati&n. The ele+ent &f expertise4 efficienc. and sincerit. sl&Bl. vanished
and gave Ba. t& a situati&n Bhere declarati&n &f settle+ent +eant difficulties all%
r&und. It has degenerated t& an extent that it $eca+e &ne &f the +&st unpleasant duties
&f the state t& declare Settle+ent in an area. The st&ries g& that the surest Ba. f&r an
incu+$ent <&vern+ent t& l&se an electi&n in an. area is t& ann&unce Settle+ent
&perati&ns in that 5rea. Settle+ent has $ec&+e s.n&n.+&us Bith unsettling &f
c&++unities4 Bhere unscrupul&us ele+ents virtuall. Break hav&c in the na+e &f
d&ing fresh surve.s. -hen the <&vern+ents B&ke up t& this4 the. predicta$l. f&und a
s&luti&n Bhich +eant that the existing rec&rd &f rights Bith all their deficiencies
$eca+e sacr&sanct and it $eca+e i+p&ssi$le t& +ake an. changes thr&ugh Surve.
$ased &n the gr&und situati&n.
Last 37 Cears D Thus the experience &f the last 32 .ears has n&t $een edif.ing. The
field staff has $ec&+e insensitive and lax. 1n the &ther hand4 the Surve. skills have
$ec&+e +&re and +&re scarce. 1f c&urse4 &n paper the +aintenance &f the Land
#ec&rd is t& $e d&ne in the sa+e ti+e%tested +anner Bhich Bas d&ne in the age &f
T&dar+al five centuries ag&. -hile it Bas p&ssi$le t& keep all this g&ing Bith the
sheer Beight &f the state $ehind this activit. as it Bas the +ainsta. &f the state
revenues4 the gradual er&si&n in the i+p&rtance &f land revenue as the +ain s&urce &f
the State finances has als& +eant that the f&cus &n speed. settle+ent has $lurred.
The +anifestati&ns are seen in the f&r+ &f extre+e expl&itative nature that the
Settle+ent pr&cess had ac?uired &ver the .ears leading t& a decisi&n $. the <&vt. &f
#a=asthan t& d& aBa. Bith the (epart+ent &f Settle+ent alt&gether and transf&r+ing
it int& a +uch thinner (epart+ent &f Land #ec&rds Bith n& s.ste+s f&r Bh&lesale
peri&dic revisi&n &f rec&rds in place.
!3
The +aintenance Bing under the C&llect&r has als& l&st skill in preparati&n &f +aps.
The surve. skill a+&ng the V5s see+s t& have disappeared c&+pletel.. The result is
that changes in the land rec&rd p&siti&n are n&t reflected in the +aps at all4 Bhich
have l&st their relevance &ver a peri&d &f ti+e. :ven Bhere the Surve. and Settle+ent
pr&cess is sancti&ned4 staff d&es n&t =&in in ti+e4 s& +uch s& that it is n&t unc&++&n
t& find tahsils Bhere Settle+ent pr&cess has $een g&ing &n f&r +&re than 12 .ears
Bith&ut an. tangi$le &utput. 5 ver. interesting case in p&int ca+e t& +. attenti&n
recentl. Bhen I f&und that even the first chain had n&t $een cast in a particular tahsil
even th&ugh the n&tificati&n f&r Surve. and Settle+ent has $een in f&rce f&r the past
six .ears.
In 0adh.a 7radesh4 settle+ent Bas &rdered in 2' districts in 19924 $ut had t& $e
suspended in 2222 due t& persistent c&+plaints fr&+ the pe&ple 8;51 22219. S&+e &f
the pr&$le+s arise $ecause &f the culture &f g&vern+ent depart+ents &f n&t c&nsulting
the pe&ple. Lack &f c&++unicati&n leads t& fears and ru+&urs. The p&tential f&r
+anipulati&n &f the pr&cess $. the +&re p&Berful and +&re +&ne.ed is great in such
circu+stances.
It is these kind &f instances Bhich are $ec&+ing &nl. t&& c&++&n &ver the .ears
Bhich has led +an. p&lic. +akers t& discard the &ld +eth&d&l&g. and c&+$ine
techn&l&g. Bith ec&n&+. and speed f&r getting accurate surve.sF translate the+ int&
credi$le land rec&rds and then put this all t&gether in a Be$% $ased Service (eliver.
S.ste+. 3eeping in +ind the p&&r status &f g&vernance in +an. states4 it is n&t
practical t& start surve. and settle+ent pr&cess. The sec&nd $est s&luti&n is t& i+pr&ve
transacti&n $ased +aintenance thr&ugh c&+puteriDati&n. Ideall. the sche+e sh&uld $e
self financing at the village level Bith ki&sks at the fr&nt% end t& disse+inate all the
inf&r+ati&n including pr&perl. digital%signature authenticated Land #ec&rds availa$le
f&r a fee.
1.>.6 Recommendations )y Barnata*a Administrative Re$orms Commission
,BARC-
<&vern+ent &f 3arnataka set up a c&++issi&n t& stud. ad+inistrati&n and pu$lic
interface. The &$servati&ns &f the C&++issi&n &n Surve. in 3arnataka are
su++arised $el&BC
Village +aps and land rec&rds are in the state &f disrepair and re?uire urgent
steps t& rest&re the+.
6se &f chain and cr&ss%staff +eth&ds $. the surve.&rs is &utdated and helps
the surve.&rs in +isleading the pu$lic.
The rec&rd &f rights is presentl. ad+inistered under Chapter VIII &f 3arnataka
Land #evenue #ules $. $&th the depart+ents &f #evenue and Surve.
Settle+ent. 1f the f&ur stages envisaged in #ule 3*4 1 and " stages are
attended t& $. the #evenue (epart+ent Bhile stages 2 and 3 are under the
purvieB &f the Surve. (epart+ent. In all the cases &f land grant4 +utati&n4
alienati&n4 partiti&n4 and ac?uisiti&n the sancti&ning auth&rit. and the
i+ple+enting auth&rit. are different. 7reli+inar. rec&rds are prepared $. the
!"
#evenue (epart+ent and the final rec&rds $. Surve. (epart+ent resulting in
transiti&nal dela.4 inc&+pati$le inf&r+ati&n and harass+ent t& the pu$lic.
Their rec&++endati&ns BereC
The surve. B&rk needs t& $e carried &ut Bith the latest e?uip+ents4 like t&tal
stati&n +eth&d.
(igitisati&n &f rec&rds needs t& $e taken up $. the depart+ent as a per+anent
s&luti&n t&Bards +aking land rec&rds safe and per+anent.
#esurve. can $e taken up thr&ugh private agencies $. inviting tenders etc.
There is a need t& pr&vide c&+prehensive integrated inf&r+ati&n and
d&cu+ents f&r land at a single place4 fr&+ &ne &ffice4 and signed $. &nl. &ne
&fficer.
5t the field level4 the depart+ent &f Surve. > Settle+ent needs t& $e +erged
Bith the #evenue (epart+ent and B&rk under the &verall supervis&r. and
ad+inistrative c&ntr&l &f the (eput. C&++issi&ner.
Village 5cc&untants sh&uld als& $e trained in surve. +eth&ds and sh&uld
functi&n as Sec&nd (ivisi&n Surve.&rs. This s.ste+ is alread. in v&gue in
Ta+il Nadu.
The (epart+ent has alread. taken initiatives t& issue licenses t& private
surve.&rsF this sche+e needs enc&urage+ent and it sh&uld $e put int&
i+ple+entati&n i++ediatel..
The Cit. Surve. 1ffices need t& $e a$&lished and surve. staff &f these &ffices
sh&uld $e redepl&.ed t& the districts Bhere there is acute sh&rtage &f Sec&nd
(ivisi&n and ;irst (ivisi&n Surve.&rs.
1nl. &ne training instituti&n B&uld $e sufficient f&r the depart+ent. The
training institute at <ul$arga +a. $e c&nverted int& a c&++&n training
institute f&r all revenue +atters.
It is h&ped that <&vern+ent &f 3arnataka Bill s&&n put these rec&++endati&ns int&
acti&n.
1.# Re$istration and titlin$
6nder the Indian laB4 title passes t& the $u.er after the registrati&n &f a legall. valid
deed4 Bhich pr&vides the incentive f&r registrati&n. ,. laB the registrati&n &f a deal is
c&+puls&r. 8except Bhere a transfer is t& an i++ediate +e+$er &f a fa+il.94 and that
&nl. $. registrati&n Bill title pass and the neB interests $e entered int& the rec&rds.
#egistrati&n d&es n&t include the ad=udicati&n &f rights and the res&luti&n &f disputes.
#egistrati&n serves t& pr&vide evidentiar. value in a c&urt &f laB. In the case &f
c&+puls&r. registrati&n4 registered instru+ents have pri&rit. &ver unregistered &nes.
1ver the .ears4 registrati&n has $ec&+e a +a=&r and gr&Bing s&urce &f revenue f&r
the states. The fees c&llected thr&ugh registrati&n &f d&cu+ents in the +a=&r states is
given $el&B.
&a)le 125 Registration $ees in million Rs
!!
Vear
State
199*%
99
1999%
22 2222%21
2221%
22 2222%23
57 "93! !91* ')29 *2"9 999'
5ssa+ 29' 3!2 3*' "22 !22
,ihar 2)93 32!* 3219 32""
<u=arat !2'2 !22" !3)" !39" '"99
Har.ana 29"! 3299 "192 "**3 !"1"
Hi+achal 21' 2") 292 3"3 3)"
Oharkhand 2"* '39
3arnat !"*1 !'!* '3*1 *!!2 111!"
3erala 3211 2)9) 3"12 39"3 "*'!
07 "222 ")21 "))1 ""!2 !3!1
0ahar 1'2)9 1939* 22221 2""2) 2*231
1rissa *)' 1222 12*! 129* 13!9
7un=a$ 2!*1 32!' "2"1 """3 !!*9
#a=as 3""" 3)'* "3') ")*9 !1!)
TN ')2! *1)' 9122 113)9 12)91
67 1231* 11))' 12'9* 1"232 22)*)
-, 3)22 "11) ")"2 !!!" )22"
The Indian #egistrati&n 5ct e+p&Bers Su$%#egistrars t& refer t& the C&llect&r
d&cu+ents f&r deter+inati&n &f +arket value &f the pr&pert.4 if there are reas&ns t&
$elieve that the +arket value &f the pr&pert. has n&t $een trul. set f&rth in the
d&cu+ent. C&st &f c&llecti&n
"
&f Sta+ps and #egistrati&n fee in s&+e &f the states and
the all India average in 1999%2222 has $een as f&ll&Bs 8C5< 222"9C
&a)le 135 Cost o$ collection $or some states $or t'e
maEor state taxes in 1!!!%77
Head &f #evenue
,ihar 67P
-est
,engal
5ll India
average
Sales > Trade Tax
1.' 2." 2 1.'
State :xcise
).3 1.! '.9 3.3
"
Si+ilar figures &f c&st &f c&llecti&n are n&t availa$le f&r land revenue4 as the +achiner. resp&nsi$le
f&r c&llecti&n &f land revenue c&llects a large nu+$er &f g&vern+ent dues. In additi&n it perf&r+s
+an. &ther ad+inistrative functi&ns4 and it is difficult t& app&rti&n c&st &f their ti+e spent &nl. &n
c&llecti&n &f taxes. ;igures f&r &ne State4 67 are given in para 1.!.
!'
Sta+ps and
#egistrati&n fee !.9 1.3 *.) ".'
Taxes &n Vehicles
3.' 3.2 ".2 3.'
P 67 figures are f&r 199*%99
It is the dut. &f the purchaser t& investigate the &Bnership clai+s &f the seller. 5n
inspecti&n &f the index &f transfers is necessar. t& esta$lish Bhether the seller has a
g&&d title. If title is clear4 the Su$%#egistrar B&uld issue a n&n%encu+$rance
certificate &f pr&pert.. Searching can $e ti+e c&nsu+ing 82%3 da.s9 $ecause &f the
large nu+$er &f rec&rds. ;&r instance4 the Su$%#egistrarAs &ffice in ,h&pal 8capital &f
0adh.a 7radesh9 has 134222 v&lu+es4 each Bith 122 pages. <reat reliance is placed
&n the rec&rd keeper t& l&cate the re?uired v&lu+es.
5s the +ere act &f registrati&n d&es n&t create &r esta$lish title t& a pr&pert.4 it is
p&ssi$le that n&t all transacti&ns are registered. Sta+ps and #egistrati&n is a tax that
lends itself t& a nu+$er &f a$uses and +alpractices n&t =ust in valuati&n &f pr&perties
$ut als& in ingeni&us +eth&ds and instru+ents devised f&r c&nve.ance &f pr&perties.
,ut Bhat generall. depresses the revenue fr&+ this lev. is suppressi&n &f the true
c&nsiderati&n f&r transacti&n in i++&va$le pr&pert.. It is theref&re $est t& have a
Kread. reck&nerA peri&dicall. revised ta$les &f presu+ptive values designed t& reflect
the values &f pr&perties depending &n their l&cati&n and &ther relevant fact&rs. This
als& results in least harass+ent &f assessees.
The Su$%#egistrars are supp&sed t& inf&r+ the Tahsildar &f all registered transacti&ns4
s& that necessar. changes in rec&rds +a. $e +ade. This inf&r+ati&n is either n&t sent4
&r sent late4 &r n&t acted up&n $. the Tahsildar4 Bith the result that necessar.
c&rrecti&n &f rec&rds d&es n&t take place. 0&stl. it is left t& the $u.er &f pr&pert. t&
ensure that his na+e is rec&rded in the revenue rec&rds. The $u.er spends a l&t &f his
ti+e and +&ne. in chasing papers t& get the pr&cess c&+pleted.
In the ur$an areas h&Bever4 there is &ften c&llusi&n $etBeen the seller and $u.er n&t
t& get the rec&rds c&rrected4 as in +&st 0etr&p&litan t&Bns 8such as ,&+$a.4 see
-adhBa 22239 h&use tax increases Bith each sale transacti&n4 $eing a pr&p&rti&n &f
the price &f pr&pert.. N&t &nl. is the inf&r+ati&n a$&ut sale and purchase &f pr&pert.
n&t pr&vided t& the H&use Tax (epart+ent &f the 0unicipal C&uncil4 the rule &f
linking h&use tax Bith the purchase value als& presents an incentive n&t t& declare the
true +arket value &f pr&pert.4 and thus the $u.er saves &n $&th sta+p fees and future
h&use tax.
The (elhi g&vern+ent has tried t& &verc&+e this pr&$le+ $. recentl. changing the
f&r+ula f&r assessing h&use tax4 Bhich fr&+ the 1
st
5pril 222" is linked Bith the
c&vered area and n&t Bith the price at Bhich pr&pert. Bas purchased.
The (epart+ent &f #egistrati&n has a large interface Bith pe&ple4 $ut has a p&&r
i+age $ecause &f lack &f transparenc. and unif&r+it. in &perati&ns4 and p&&r service
n&r+s. ,esides4 the (epart+ent is c&nsidered t& $e ver. c&rrupt.
-e descri$e $el&B the pr&cedure in detail f&r 3arnataka.
!)
1.?.1 Barnata*a
The (epart+ent &f Sta+ps and #egistrati&n4 Bhich Bas f&r+ed as an independent
(epart+ent in 19*94 is headed $. the Inspect&r <eneral &f #egistrati&n and
C&++issi&ner &f Sta+ps. 5t the (istrict level there are 2) (istrict #egistrars4 &ne f&r
each district. ,el&B the district level there are 199 Su$%#egistries4 Bhere land
registrati&n takes place4 at the Taluk and cit. levels4 each headed $. a Su$%#egistrar.
In additi&n4 there are Superintendents4 &ther clerical and assistant level staff +e+$ers.
The t&tal nu+$er &f staff B&rking in this depart+ent is 1!"' as &n 1st Oan 2222. The
(istrict #egistrars are als& the #egistrars &f ;ir+s and S&cieties Bhile the Su$%
#egistrars are als& the #egistrars under the Special 0arriages 5ct.
The #egistrati&n &ffice l&&ks after d&cu+entati&n registrati&n &nl.. There are n&
cadastral +aps in the su$%registries. Inf&r+ati&n &n rights in land is set &ut in the
#ec&rd &f #ights4 Tenanc. and Cr&p Inspecti&n 8#TC9. #egistrati&n pr&vides n&
veracit. &f the deed and4 in principle the #egistrar Bill register all deeds su$+itted in
the appr&priate f&r+. 5n. checks &n the deed Bill $e c&nducted after registrati&n.
Secti&n 133 &f the 3arnataka Land #evenue 5ct states that Kan entr. in the #ec&rd &f
#ights and a certified entr. in the #egister &f 0utati&n 8&r in the 7atta $&&k9 shall $e
presu+ed t& $e true until the c&ntrar. is pr&ved &r a neB entr. is laBfull. su$stituted
theref&reA. This clearl. $rings &ut the presu+ptive title &f the land. 1nce registered4
the deed is a definitive evidence in c&urt. The c&p. held $. the pr&pert. h&lder is
sec&ndar. evidence.
The registrati&n &f changes in rights &f land &ccurs at the su$%registr. level in the
Taluk in rural areas and cities in ur$an areas. 5 deed f&r a deal in land is prepared $.
a scri$e and appr&priate sta+ps attached. ,. laB this deed +ust $e presented t& the
su$%registr. $. $&th parties Bithin " +&nths &f the c&ntract signature. (eeds can $e
presented after the f&ur +&nths4 up until * +&nths after signature4 $ut a penalt. +ust
$e paid. (eeds cann&t $e registered $e.&nd * +&nths after signature. The deed +ust
$e presented t& the su$%registrar &n the appr&priate f&r+ Bith attached sta+ps and the
appr&priate fee paid. ,&th parties t& the deed and a Bitness +ust attend. The su$%
registrar sta+ps the deed rec&rding the date &f presentati&n. The registrar enters the
details &f the applicati&n f&r registrati&n in the (ail. #egister. The registr. als&
+aintains a Thu+$print register. The tB& parties certif. their agree+ent4 Bith
signatures and thu+$prints &n the deed and this is Bitnessed. The registrar Bill then4
if the land is declared t& $e &f value +&re than !224222 #s4 seek a N& 1$=ecti&n
Certificate 8N1C9 fr&+ the Inc&+e Tax (epart+ent and4 f&r land alienati&n4 a N1C
fr&+ the Tahsildar4 if these d&cu+ents have n&t $een su$+itted Bith the deed. The
#egistrar Bill then enter the details in the registrar $&&k.
The su$%registr. +aintains f&ur sets &f registersC
,&&k 14 rec&rding all dealings in i++&va$le pr&pert. L the full text &f the deed is
entered int& the register $&&k $. a scri$e in the su$%registr.
,&&k 24 rec&rding all dealings that have $een refused registrati&n
,&&k 34 rec&rding all Bills4 c&dicils and $e?uests L again4 the full text &f the
d&cu+ents are entered int& the register $&&k
!*
,&&k "4 rec&rding the full text &f p&Bers &f att&rne. and &ther +iscellane&us
d&cu+ents.
1nce the details have $een entered int& the $&&k4 the registrar sta+ps the deed Bith an
entr.4 rec&rding a chr&n&l&gical nu+$er.ear4 a reference t& the page nu+$er and
$&&k Bhere the details have $een entered4 and the date &f entr.. This entr. Bill $e
certified. If the pl&t c&ncerned is a ph&di 8su$%divisi&n9 it Bill $e passed t& the
Surve.4 Settle+ent and Land #ec&rds (epart+ent f&r surve.. There can $e
c&nsidera$le dela.s4 as there is a su$stantial $ackl&g in surve. re?uests. 1nce the
surve. is c&+pleted4 the inf&r+ati&n is passed $ack t& the Tahsildar5ssistant
(irect&r f&r preparati&n &f the #TC7r&pert. card.
5fter registrati&n there is a peri&d &f 32 da.s pu$lic n&tice and an ad+inistrative
pr&cess t& res&lve disputes. 5fter the peri&d &f pu$lic n&tice the land rec&rds are
updated. There is n& s.ste+atic registrati&n &f rights. The evidence t& pr&ve land title
in a c&urt &f laB re?uires the f&ll&Bing d&cu+entsC
1. #&# 8rec&rd &f rights9 fr&+ the #evenue 5uth&rities under secti&n 12) &f the
3arnataka Land #evenue 5ct.
2. The :ncu+$rance Certificate given $. the &ffice &f the #egistrar.
3. The :xtracts fr&+ the 0utati&n #egister +aintained $. the #evenue 5uth&rities.
1nce the deed has $een registered4 the registrar prepares a rep&rt 8O%Slip94 Bhich is
su$+itted t& the Tahsildar in rural areas &r the 5ssistant (irect&r Surve.4 Settle+ent
and Land #ec&rds in ur$an areas. These tB& &fficers Bill check the validit. &f the
deed4 and check rec&rds &f pu$lic land. The O%Slip Bill $e distri$uted t& the l&cal
&ffice4 Bhere the details Bill $e verified Bith the &riginal rec&rds. There is then a
pu$lic n&tice &f the transacti&n. In s&+e states4 such as 0adh.a 7radesh4 the +utati&n
register is pr&duced $ef&re the village pancha.at4 and &$=ecti&ns are heard in the &pen
+eeting &f the pancha.at. If n& &$=ecti&ns are l&dged in the specified ti+e4 the
Tahsildar 5ssistant (irect&r Bill certif. and +ake the appr&priate entries in the
rec&rds. In rural areas the Tahsildar Bill issue an #TC4 and in ur$an areas the
5ssistant (irect&r Bill issue a 7r&pert. Card. This pr&cess Bill take at least 32 da.s4
the peri&d set d&Bn f&r pu$lic displa.. If there is a dispute4 a rep&rt &n the dispute is
sent t& the Tahsildar5ssistant (irect&r4 and a su++ar. in?uir. is held. This su++ar.
in?uir. Bill result in an &rder. The parties t& the dispute can appeal against the &rder
t& the 5ssistant C&++issi&ner (eput. (irect&r4 Bh& Bill +ake an &rder. 5n&ther
appeal against this &rder lies t& the (istrict C&++issi&nerO&int (irect&r. This
c&+pletes the ad+inistrative dispute res&luti&n pr&cess. The parties are then free t&
take the dispute t& the three levels &f c&urt L the Civil C&urt4 the 3arnataka High
C&urt and the Indian Supre+e C&urt.
There is a ver. active land +arket in 3arnataka. #egistrati&n data f&r 3arnataka is set
&ut $el&BC
!9
&a)le 1"5 Revenue earned $rom registration o$ land in Barnata*a
Vear Nu+$er &f
#egistrati&ns
T&tal #evenue
8+illi&n #s9
#egistrati&n
:xpenditure 8+illi&n #s9
$. g&vt &n staff etc.
:xpenditure as @
&f #evenue
199!%199' !924222 !43'!.2 )3.1 1.3'
199'%199) !""4222 "493'.2 )!.* 1.!"
199)%199* !'"4222 '41'9.* *).2 1."1
199*%1999 !"24222 !4'"!.3 9).2 1.)2
1999%2222 !*94222 !4*"!.* 131.9 2.2'
The 3arnataka Sta+p 87reventi&n &f 6ndervaluati&n &f Instru+ents9 #ules &f 19))
sets &ut the principles f&r the deter+inati&n &f +arket value f&r land4 h&use sites4
$uildings and &ther lands. ;&r rural land a fact&r c&nsidered is the revenue assess+ent
esta$lished during the settle+ent surve.s4 Bhich sh&uld $e updated ever. 32 .ears. 5
pri+ar. reference is the sales hist&ries rec&rded $. the Su$%#egistries4 alth&ugh this
inf&r+ati&n has a nu+$er &f dist&rti&ns and there is &ften li+ited sales inf&r+ati&n in
rural areas. The area c&vered $. the Su$%#egistr. is gr&uped int& areas &f like
characteristics and a r&ll &f +arket values L in #ss?uare f&&t in n&n%agricultural areas
and #s5cre in rural areas L is prepared and pu$lished in the 3arnataka <aDette. 5
peri&d4 n&r+all. 32 da.s after pu$licati&n4 is all&Bed f&r the su$+issi&n &f
&$=ecti&ns. These &$=ecti&ns are c&nsidered and the valuati&n r&ll is appr&ved $. the
<&vern+ent and pu$lished in the <aDette. L&cal pu$lishers print c&pies &f the
valuati&n r&ll and this inf&r+ati&n is availa$le fr&+ l&cal $&&kst&res.
The f&ll&Bing fees and taxes appl. t& registrati&nC
5 2@ service fee L this fee varies fr&+ State t& State and s&+e states appl. a
ceiling t& the fee4 $ut in 3arnataka a fee &f 2@ applies and there is n& ceiling
Sta+p dut.4 Bhich is applied at *@ f&r agricultural land4 9@ f&r se+i%ur$an land
and 12@ f&r ur$an land
5n additi&nal dut. &f 3@ f&r agricultural land4 and 2@ f&r se+i%ur$an and ur$an
land that is c&llected &n $ehalf &f the l&cal g&vern+ent c&rp&rati&n
5n additi&nal cess L a tax%&n%tax L &f !@ &f the *@4 9@ &r 12@ sta+p dut.4
Bhich is c&llected t& supp&rt infrastructure.
5ll registrati&n charges are c&llected and passed t& the State <&vern+ent as revenues.
The fees are applied t& the declared value &f the pr&pert.4 Bhich is verified against
ta$les &f pr&pert. values thr&ugh&ut the State. The registrati&n fees listed a$&ve are
high and B&uld see+ c&nducive t& under%rep&rting &f pr&pert. values. The current
fees f&r surve.ing are 3!%!2 #s per parcel4 Bith <&vern+ent surve.&rs having a
target &f 22 surve.s a +&nth. ;ees and charges are an &$stacle t& registrati&n.
H&Bever4 as n&ted a$&ve4 +&st transacti&ns are registered L particularl. in ur$an
areas4 $ut sale prices are &ften under%declared.
'2
Evaluation % The registrati&n &ffice &f ,angal&re Bas studied 835#C 22219 $. the
C&++ittee &n 5d+inistrative #ef&r+s4 and their findings are su++ariDed $el&BC
(ela. in the suppl. &f d&cu+ents t& the pu$lic in the su$ registrarsN &ffice has $een
caused $ecause &f the dela. in the suppl. &f stati&ner. $. the g&vern+ent press.
#s.32 appr&xi+atel. is c&llected4 as fee t&Bards p&stage at the ti+e &f d&cu+ent
registrati&n fr&+ the pu$lic $ut the +&ne. is n&t given as advance $. the g&vern+ent
t& the registrati&n depart+ent. This has resulted in harass+ent &f the pu$lic $. asking
the+ either pa. f&r the p&stage &r having the+ c&llect the d&cu+ents $. hand.
The &ne%ti+e settle+ent sche+e &f the g&vern+ent $etBeen 1999%2222 and 2222%21
has negated the spirit &f detecti&n &f under valuati&n cases. Th&ugh it +ight have
resulted in +&$iliDing certain su+s &f +&ne.4 Bhich B&uld n&t have accrued t& the
g&vern+ent in the n&r+al c&urse. This indicates that there are a large nu+$er &f
under valuati&n cases in the depart+ent4 Bhich are disp&sed &f4 $ut c&llecti&n &f the
sta+p dut. is .et t& take place.
0&st su$ registrar &ffices d& n&t have ph&t&c&piers. ,ut the (istrict #egistrar insists
that d&cu+ents $e ph&t&c&pied. N& +&ne. is pr&vided f&r ph&t&c&p.ing expenses.
These expenses are t& $e paid &ut &f the pers&nal acc&unt &f the Su$%#egistrars.
There is n& staff t& carr. &ut the B&rk &f the valuati&n c&++ittee. 1fficials like
village acc&untants d& n&t pr&vide the re?uired inf&r+ati&n. The valuati&n is
generall. d&ne rather ar$itraril.. 4
The perf&r+ance &f the f&ur separate &ffices created f&r under valuati&n cases in
,angal&re is n&t satisfact&r.. #a=a=inagar has a pendenc. &f !2!! cases4 under Secti&n
"! 5 8I9 and 2*2! cases under "! 5 8III9. In respect &f Shiva=inagar it is '!1 and 2!2
cases respectivel..
-hile there are !2@ vacancies at the level &f su$ registrars including seni&r su$
registrars4 .et in the cit.4 there are als& p&stings exceeding the t&tal nu+$er &f p&sts
&f su$ registrars. Shiva=inagar su$ registrarNs &ffice has 2 su$ registrars as against &ne
p&st. Si+ilar is the case Bith Srira+apura &ffice. ,ut several su$ registrarsN &ffices at
Taluk level are +anaged $. a ;irst (ivisi&n 5ssistant &r Sec&nd (ivisi&n 5ssistant.
The i+$alance is due t& g&vern+ent servants Banting t& $e p&sted in t&Bns4 and n&t
B&rk in the rural areas4 especiall. re+&te fr&+ their h&+e t&Bns.
The guideline value as fixed $. the depart+ent is n&t scientific. This is $ecause the
values are fixed area Bise. 5s a result4 $&th the pu$lic and the &fficers are put t& great
difficulties. The pr&$le+ is +&re acute in the ur$an areas Bhere differential rates are
fixed acr&ss the areas.
The change in the nature &f the land use has n&t $een ade?uatel. rec&rded in the land
rec&rds 8fr&+ Betland t& dr. land9. This has theref&re4 caused unnecessar.
harass+ent t& the pu$lic.
-hen the guideline values Bere revised $. the ,angal&re 0etr&p&litan #egi&n
(evel&p+ent 5uth&rit. 8,0#(594 there Bas a 3*@ reducti&n in the registrati&n and
sta+p dut. c&llected. -hen the rates Bere revised during 199*4 the c&llecti&n &f
sta+p dut. and registrati&n fee n&t &nl. r&se $ut als& exceeded $. ".!'@ during
'1
2222%21. 5s a result &f this ar$itrar. change in guidelines4 g&vern+ent l&st su$stantial
revenues.
Several $uilders devel&pers av&id the registrati&n &f pr&pert.. 1n the &ther hand4
the. indulge in share transfers4 e.g. (ia+&nd (istrict in ,angal&re Cit..
The rec&rds in the su$ registrarsA &ffice are n&t preserved pr&perl.. 0&st &f the
&ffices d& n&t even have rec&rd r&&+s. 1nl. t&$acc& leaves and naphthalene $alls are
used t& pr&tect the d&cu+ents fr&+ insects and pests.
In all the &ffices &f the su$ registrars4 the rec&rds are handled $. &utside c&p.ists
p&pularl. kn&Bn as Jv&lunteersJ. These are hired $. the Su$%#egistrars fr&+ the &pen
+arket4 $ut paid &ut &f $ri$es c&llected fr&+ the pu$lic. Since these v&lunteers are n&t
acc&unta$le t& the depart+ent4 there have $een instances Bhere the. &verBrite the
d&cu+ents &r c&p. inaccuratel..
1ld rec&rds need t& $e $&und and this B&uld c&st appr&xi+atel. #s *2%122 f&r each
$inding. ,ut n& +&ne. is $eing +ade availa$le f&r this.
#ec&rds in parts &f 3arBar and &ther areas in the State are still in the N0&diN language4
Bhich is n&t a c&++&n language f&r the pu$lic t&da.. These d&cu+ents need t& $e
translated t& &ther language &therBise valua$le inf&r+ati&n B&uld $e l&st.
:ven in the c&+puterised &ffice4 the rec&rds are ph&t&c&pied and the expenses are
paid $. the cust&+ers. C&+puteriDati&n has n&t reduced the pressure &f B&rk in s&+e
&f the su$ registrarsN &ffice.
Recommendations - :ver. taluk sh&uld have &nl. &ne su$ registrar &ffice and &nl.
at the taluk level. The practice &f &pening the &ffices at the Circle level +ust $e
st&pped.
The p&st &f (istrict #egistrar sh&uld $e a$&lished. The excess staff c&uld $e p&sted t&
the su$ registrar &ffice. This B&uld result in the availa$ilit. &f 1!2%1)! p&sts f&r the
State.
The (eput. C&++issi&ner sh&uld $e designated as the (istrict #egistrar as it Bas
earlier.
<uideline Value C&++ittee sh&uld c&nsist &f technical pers&ns like Chartered
5cc&untants4 LaB.ers4 and #eal :state 5gents etc.4 Bhich B&uld ena$le the
c&++ittee t& &$tain a h&listic vieB &f the +arket value. <reater transparenc. in its
functi&ning c&uld $e $uilt thr&ugh the pu$licati&n &f the decisi&ns &f the c&++ittee
and circulating it in the &ffices &f the Mila 7ancha.at4 Taluk 7ancha.at etc. 5de?uate
&pp&rtunities have t& $e pr&vided t& ?uesti&n the values fixed $. the c&++ittee.
<uideline Value C&++ittee sh&uld $e asked t& $uild in elasticit. int& their value
fixati&ns. #ec&nstituti&n &f the <uideline Value C&++ittee and its st.le &f
functi&ning Bill $ring in greater transparenc. int& the functi&ning &f the depart+ent.
1fficials at all levels sh&uld $e +ade +&re acc&unta$le thr&ugh clear delegati&n &f
p&Bers and appr&priate checks and $alances.
'2
2 Modernising Revenue Administration
2.1 %eterioration in revenue administration
Significant devel&p+ents that have taken place since independence have led t& the
Land #evenue 5d+inistrati&n $eing saddled Bith a Bide variet. &f functi&ns. S&&n
after independence the i+ple+entati&n &f the vari&us land ref&r+ laBs led t& a
su$stantial additi&n t& the v&lu+e &f B&rk handled $. the #evenue (epart+ents. The
&ther ite+s &f B&rk handled $. the #evenue (epart+ents include ac?uisiti&n &f land
f&r pu$lic purp&ses4 distri$uti&n &f <&vern+ent land and ceiling%surplus land4
distri$uti&n &f h&use sites4 pr&tecti&n &f g&vern+ent lands fr&+ encr&ach+ent4
c&+pilati&n &f agricultural statistics4 issue &f vari&us per+its4 licences and
certificates4 &perati&n &f the pu$lic distri$uti&n s.ste+4 c&nducting electi&ns4 census4
pr&viding relief during natural cala+ities and disasters4 assistance t& all devel&p+ent
depart+ents and &rgans &f l&cal g&vern+ent4 and +an. &ther +iscellane&us
functi&ns. Th&ugh there has $een a su$stantial increase in the range and v&lu+e &f the
B&rk handled $. the #evenue (epart+ent there has $een n& c&rresp&nding increase
in the pers&nnel and the pr&visi&n &f infrastructure.
In recent .ears there has $een a shift in the f&cus &f the land revenue ad+inistrati&n4
land revenue has ceased t& $e an i+p&rtant s&urce &f g&vern+ent revenues. S&+e
states have exe+pted certain t.pes &f lands and h&ldings $el&B certain li+its fr&+ the
lia$ilit. t& pa. land revenue and s&+e have a$&lished it alt&gether. (eclining share &f
land revenue in &verall revenue receipts t&&k the incentive aBa. f&r the State t& keep
land rec&rds up%t&%date. 1ther fact&rs leading t& neglect &f land ad+inistrati&n areC
7aucit. &f funds4 as the B&rk &f #evenue (epart+ent Bas categ&riDed as a
n&n%plan activit.
<eneral deteri&rati&n in discipline4 supervisi&n and g&vernance4 affecting all
depart+ents
L&B pri&rit. $. p&liticians t& activities4 Bhere there is n& i++ediate return
(espite these negative fact&rs4 land c&ntinues t& $e an i+p&rtant +eans &f livelih&&d
f&r at least '2 per cent &f IndiaAs p&pulati&n. -ith the spread &f irrigati&n and
ad&pti&n &f high .ielding varieties &f seeds4 de+and f&r credit thr&ugh $anks 8there
Bas several f&ld increase in the $ank $ranches in rural areas in the 19)2s and *2s9
started increasing. This h&Bever re?uires getting a certificate &f land &Bnership fr&+
ad+inistrati&n. 5t the sa+e ti+e4 at least in the Bheat gr&Bing areas Bhere land is
+&re unif&r+ in ?ualit.4 far+ers felt the need f&r c&ns&lidating their scattered
h&ldings. Thus up t& the end &f 19*2s tB& inn&vati&ns Bere intr&duced in the land
ad+inistrati&n in +an. statesF distri$uti&n &f pass$&&ks 8&n the pattern &f $ank
pass$&&ks9 t& far+ers sh&Bing the extent &f their land4 and c&ns&lidati&n &f h&ldings.
These are descri$ed in secti&ns 2.2 and 2.3.
Later in the nineties4 Bith the spread &f pers&nal c&+puters in India4 +an.
inn&vati&ns Bere tried $ased &n c&+puteriDati&n &f rec&rds4 Bhich are discussed in
secti&ns 2." and $e.&nd.
'3
2.2 &armers' pass (oo)s
The need f&r agricultural credit fr&+ $anks started increasing since the $eginning &f
the 19)2s due t& c&++ercialisati&n &f agriculture and expanding de+and f&r
gr&undBater expl&itati&n thr&ugh private tu$eBells. Since instituti&nal credit c&uld $e
&$tained &nl. &n the $asis &f land &Bnership4 +an. state g&vern+ents +ade eff&rts t&
pr&vide eas. access t& far+ers t& pass$&&ks c&ntaining relevant extract fr&+ the
#ec&rd &f #ights +aintained at the taluk &ffice.
Individual pass$&&ks Bere first intr&duced in Ta+il Nadu in the late 19)2s4 and then
the experi+ent Bas tried in several &ther states. S&+e states passed a laB t&& t& +ake
pass$&&ks as legal d&cu+ents that c&uld $e taken as pri+a facie evidence &f the title
and rights &n land. The Sixth 7lan 819*2%*!9 had envisaged c&+pleti&n &f the
distri$uti&n and updati&n &f pass $&&ks Bithin the plan peri&d itself. T& ?u&te fr&+
the 7lan d&cu+ent4 K:ach cultivat&r B&uld $e given a pass$&&k indicating his
statustitle t& descripti&n &f the land viD. area4 cess4 etc. al&ng Bith a c&p. &f
khasra+ap and &ther details that are c&nsidered necessar.. 5ppr&priate pr&visi&n Bill
$e +ade in revenue laBs t& c&nfer legal status &n these d&cu+ents as pr&&f &f title
and rights in landA 87lanning C&++issi&n 19*29. 5 c&++ittee &f #evenue Secretaries
in 19*" rec&++ended 8<1I 19*!9 that Kit sh&uld c&ntain n&t &nl. descripti&n &f
&Bnership and cr&ps gr&Bn4 $ut als& a sketch +ap &f the h&lding. It sh&uld $e
end&rsed $. the #egistrati&n auth&rit. and attestati&n &f the revenue auth&rit. a$&ut
an. +utati&n etc.A
N&ne &f these expectati&ns Bere h&Bever fulfilled. -e descri$e the situati&n in tB&
states4 ,ihar and Ta+il Nadu.
2.2.1 ass )oo*s in 9i'ar
The ,ihar Tenants H&lding 80aintenance &f #ec&rd9 5ct4 19)3 Bas enacted Bith a
vieB t& issue pass$&&ks t& the far+ers. H&Bever4 n&t +uch headBa. has $een +ade
in the last three decades. 7ass$&&ks Bill c&ntain up%t&%date inf&r+ati&n &n far+ersA
h&ldings &nl. Bhen such inf&r+ati&n is authentic in the &riginal rec&rd &n the $asis &f
Bhich the pass$&&ks are prepared. In n&n%r.&tBari states the gap $etBeen actual field
situati&n and the rec&rds is s& Bide that a fresh surve. B&uld $e needed t&
authenticate the rec&rds.
In 7urnea f&r instance4 the B&rk &f updating &f land rec&rds Bas started in 19)* pri&r
t& issue &f pass $&&ks4 $ut it g&t stuck as it assu+ed the f&r+ &f a K+ini%surve.A4 and
$eca+e ver. unp&pular. 5$&ut "22%!22 &$=ecti&ns Bere filed in ever. village at the
stage &f the draft pu$licati&n &f the tenant ledger and +haitan 8e?uivalent &f #1#9.
The issue &f su$%tenants and Bhether their rights sh&uld $e rec&rded has alBa.s $een
a c&ntr&versial &ne in ,ihar. -hen a +eeting Bas called in 19*1 t& discuss the
reas&ns f&r p&&r pr&gress +an. civil servants felt that 7ass $&&ks sh&uld $e
intr&duced &nl. after revisi&nal surve. &r c&ns&lidati&n has $een c&+pleted
8<&vern+ent &f ,ihar4 19*19. Thus the Bh&le sche+e Bas put &n the $ack$urner.
The surve. pr&cedure &n the &ther hand is ti+e c&nsu+ing4 c&nsisting &f the
f&ll&Bing stepsC
'"
1. 0apping the area
2. :ntering na+es &f tenants
3. Checking area &f the village as su+ &f the individual h&ldings
". 5ttestati&n &f rec&rds $. checking in the field
!. (raft 7u$licati&n and inviting &$=ecti&ns
'. (isp&sal &f &$=ecti&ns $. su++ar. trial4 then revisi&ns
). ;inal pu$licati&n
In ,ihar c&+pleting the Bh&le pr&cedure B&uld take a$&ut 22 .ears4 Bhereas
g&vern+ent expected pass$&&ks t& $e distri$uted in three +&nthsI 5 recent revieB $.
the ,ihar #evenue Secretar. 8his letter dated 1'
th
N&v 2222 t& all C&llect&rs9 ad+its
that the pr&gress &f pass$&&k distri$uti&n and updati&n is ver. unsatisfact&r. in
al+&st all districts &f ,ihar.
Surve. re?uires huge staff and realistic ti+e fra+es. It cann&t $e achieved Bith&ut
ade?uate supervisi&n and +&nit&ring. -ith&ut interest and c&++it+ent fr&+ seni&r
&fficials the surve. staff 8+an. &f the+ are p&sted t& the depart+ent against their Bill
and theref&re are de%+&tivated9 runs a+uck and seiDes ever. &pp&rtunit. t& +ake
+&ne. &r grant fav&urs. The end result is that the rec&rds that are ever finalised are n&
$etter than the previ&us &nes4 and add n& value t& far+ersA tenurial securit.4 $esides
causing harass+ent t& a large nu+$er &f land&Bners Bh& have t& file c&urt cases t&
get the rec&rds c&rrected.
2.2.2 ass )oo*s in &amil 6adu
The Ta+il Nadu 7atta 7ass ,&&k 5ct4 19*3 85ct "*'94 pr&vides f&r issue &f 7atta
8+eans land &r pl&t9 7ass ,&&k t& h&lders &f agricultural land. It Bas h&ped that the
7ass ,&&k4 as evidence &f &Bnership4 Bill ena$le the financial instituti&ns and C&%
&perative ,anks t& sancti&n l&an Bith&ut insisting &n encu+$rance certificate 8the
$anks h&Bever still insisted &n this certificate9. 5 7atta 7ass ,&&k Bas s&ught t& $e
issued t& each pattadar 8land&Bner9 indicating the details &f all the lands &Bned $.
hi+ in the taluk. The l&ans granted $. the credit agencies4 Bith &r Bith&ut securit.
acc&rding t& the eligi$ilit. and the details &f repa.+ent etc. are als& registered in the
7atta 7ass ,&&k. The ,&&k has t& $e pr&duced at the ti+e &f registrati&n &f an. deed
in the Su$%#egistrarNs &ffice s& as t& ena$le hi+ t& +ake entries there&n Bith the
rec&++endati&n &f taluk Tahsildar. In cases &f land dispute it pr&vides f&r the
petiti&ner t& pr&duce certified c&p. &f 7atta 7ass ,&&k &r the 7atta 7ass ,&&k relevant
t& such land f&r supp&rt.
The sche+e has $een i+ple+ented in phasesF initiall. in 9 districts in Vell&re4
Than=avur4 3arur 82 taluks94 7era+$alur4 Tiruchirapalli4 C&i+$at&re4 Theni4 0adurai
and Th&&thukudi. 5s a f&ll&B up4 in 7hase II this sche+e has $een $r&ught int& f&rce
in all the re+aining 22 districts Bith effect fr&+ 1.).2222. ;&r i+ple+entati&n &f the
sche+e the <&vern+ent have &rdered t& utilise the services &f the existing revenue
and surve. staff as n& additi&nal staff Bas sancti&ned. The Statut&r. f&r+s Bhich are
+enti&ned in the 7atta 7ass ,&&k 5ct have $een supplied t& the c&ncerned districts.
'!
H&Bever4 in actual practice4 pass $&&ks Bere given &nl. t& th&se Bh& applied f&r
the+. This li+ited the sc&pe &f the sche+e. Inf&r+al discussi&ns Bith the &fficers
als& $r&ught t& light the fact that Bith the c&+pleti&n &f c&+puteriDed land rec&rds4
and its $eing availa$le thr&ugh a ki&sk 8descri$ed in secti&n 2.!94 ad+inistrati&n is n&
l&nger pursuing this sche+e4 n&r is there de+and an. l&nger fr&+ the land&Bners f&r
a pass$&&k. Theref&re a feB .ears fr&+ n&B4 the sche+e &f pass$&&k B&uld
disappear int& the &$livi&n &f hist&r..
5lth&ugh Ta+il Nadu has a $etter s.ste+ &f updating land rec&rds than +an. &ther
states4 there have $een pr&$le+s Bith +aking the instituti&n &f pass$&&ks effective.
;irst4 the pass$&&ks +ust $e checked peri&dicall.4 sa. &nce in a six +&nths4 Bith the
rec&rds4 $&th in the taluk and registrati&n &ffice4 f&r an. p&ssi$le changes in
&Bnership4 area4 and landuse. Sec&nd4 the lending $ank B&uld still insist &n receiving
the +&st recent encu+$rance certificate t& check the rec&rds at the ti+e &f
sancti&ning l&ans4 n&tBithstanding the entries in the pass$&&ks Bhich +a. $e a feB
+&nths &ld. Theref&re the need t& &$tain encu+$rance and &Bnership certificates is
n&t &$viated4 =ust $ecause the far+er has $een issued the pass $&&k.
Lastl. there is a c&nceptual pr&$le+ ass&ciated in +aking pass$&&ks the $asis f&r
sancti&n &f l&ans. In the case &f $anks4 the sa+e c&unter perf&r+s three functi&nsF it
+aintains the acc&unt pass$&&ks4 accepts dep&sits and per+its BithdraBals. He can
verif. the entries &f the pass$&&ks Bith his rec&rd4 Bhich is kept up%t&%date. H&Bever4
Bhen it c&+es t& sancti&ning l&ans against land4 there are three agenciesF the $ank4
the taluk4 and the registrati&n &ffice. N&ne &f the+ has access t& the entries in the
rec&rds &f the &ther tB& &ffices. 1nl. Bhen all rec&rds $ec&+e Be$%ena$led4 such an
access can $e secured. Till then far+ers have t& +ake several r&unds t& these &ffices
t& c&+plete paper f&r+alities4 resulting in harass+ent and c&rrupti&n.
2.3 Consolidation of land holdin$s
5 large nu+$er &f h&ldings in the c&untr. are in the f&r+ &f Bidel.%scattered
frag+ented structures. In 1rissa4 f&r instance4 there are &n an average five parcels per
h&lding 80earns and Sinha 19999. The frag+entati&n &f land h&ldings int& tin.4
scattered pl&ts is a c&nse?uence &f the cust&+ &f inheritance4 due t& Bhich each
individual pl&t is su$divided a+&ng vari&us heirs. There is thus a lifec.cle effect4 in
Bhich neBl. f&r+ed h&useh&lds ac?uire ver. s+all h&ldings &n the su$divisi&n &f
f&r+erl. =&int fa+il. h&ldings.
Land frag+entati&n is Bidel. perceived t& &perate as a $rake &n agricultural
pr&ductivit.. 7lanners in India $elieve that scattered h&ldings ha+pers full and pr&per
land utiliDati&n4 and renders the+ unec&n&+ic and unpr&fita$le f&r cultivati&n. Land
c&ns&lidati&n4 theref&re4 is c&nsidered essential f&r increasing pr&ductivit..
C&ns&lidati&n &f frag+ented agricultural land h&ldings has f&r+ed an integral part &f
the Land #ef&r+ 7&lic. &f <&vern+ent &f India. ;ive Vear 7lans have acc&rdingl.
$een la.ing stress &n its i+ple+entati&n. The c&ns&lidati&n &f h&ldings started in
al+&st all the states during the ;irst 7lan 7eri&d. C&ns&lidati&n +easures Bere
designed t& re+ed. tB& distinct c&nditi&ns prevailing in Indian agricultureF firstl.4 the
divisi&n &f land int& under%siDed units n&t suita$le f&r pr&per cultivati&n and
sec&ndl.4 the excessive dispersal &f parts &f a single far+. This &perati&n is
''
c&nsidered necessar. f&r planned devel&p+ent &f villages and achieving efficienc.
and ec&n&+. in agriculture. Intr&ducti&n &f gr&undBater $ased private tu$eBells
increased the need f&r c&ns&lidati&n &f frag+ented parcels. The idea Bas t& $ring
scattered parcels in c&+pact $l&cks s& that de+and f&r private irrigati&n and
+echanisati&n can $e induced in the rural ec&n&+..
In pursuance &f this4 +an. states 8674 ,ihar4 1rissa4 7un=a$9 had enacted legislati&ns4
Bhile s&+e &thers 80aharashtra4 <u=arat4 #a=asthan4 074 5ndhra9 $elieved in
carr.ing &ut c&ns&lidati&n &n a v&luntar. $asis. H&Bever n&t +uch pr&gress c&uld $e
+ade except in the states &f 6ttar 7radesh 86794 Har.ana and 7un=a$. In &ther states4
B&rk Bas c&ntinued f&r s&+e .ears and l&st +&+entu+ thereafter. In the State &f 674
even n&B annuall. a$&ut 922 t& 1222 villages are $eing c&vered under this activit..
The t&tal nu+$er &f villages is a$&ut 924222 in the State.
6p t& the end &f 19*2s states rep&rted that "1 +illi&n ha &f cultivated land 8the net
cultivated area in India is 1"3 +illi&n ha9 had $een c&ns&lidated4 &ut &f Bhich *2@
Bas in 674 7un=a$4 Har.ana4 and 0aharashtra4 $ut n& significant i+pr&ve+ent t&&k
place &n the gr&ss figure in the last tBent. .ears. -hen <&I increased its pressure &n
the states t& i+pr&ve perf&r+ance4 the states gave several reas&ns Bh. c&ns&lidati&n
Bas n&t p&pular Bith the far+ers. #a=asthan Bent t& the extent &f clai+ing that
far+ers Bere spirituall. attached t& their ancestral h&ldings4 and B&uld n&t like t&
exchange the+I
The sche+e Bas evaluated $. the 7lanning C&++issi&n 819'994 and it gave the
f&ll&Bing reas&ns f&r p&&r pr&gress &f the sche+eC
1. The a+&unt &f B&rk expected &f the staff Bas +&re than the. c&uld d&. The staff4
theref&re4 res&rted t& sh&rt cut +eth&ds in &rder t& achieve targets in ter+s &f ti+e.
The detailed attenti&n that the B&rk re?uired c&uld n&t $e given.
2. N&t &nl. Bas the staff in p&siti&n f&und inade?uate $ut als& n& arrange+ents f&r
training &f the staff f&r c&ns&lidati&n existed in s&+e states like 0adh.a 7radesh4
0.s&re and <u=arat.
3. The actual expenditure &n ad+inistrati&n Bas fairl. $el&B the a+&unt all&tted. This
Bas $ecause &f the dela. in recruit+ent and app&int+ent &f the staff.
". In the ,i=apur district &f 0.s&re and the 5h+eda$ad district &f <u=arat4 9! per cent
and *2 per cent &f the intervieBed far+ers did n&t feel the need f&r c&ns&lidati&n. In
all &ther selected districts4 there Bas an apprecia$le nu+$er &f resp&ndents Bh& did
n&t feel the need f&r c&ns&lidati&n.
!. 6nfav&ura$le attitudes t& c&ns&lidati&n Bas a reflecti&n &f the Beak pu$licit. B&rk
d&ne $ef&re and during the c&ns&lidati&n &perati&ns.
'. In <u=arat and 0aharashtra4 the sche+e Bas initiall. started in l&B pr&ductivit.
areas4 Bhere there Bas n& felt need f&r c&ns&lidati&n. This criteri&n Bas4 after a feB
.ears4 revised in fav&ur &f +&re devel&ped areas4 areas under the Batershed &f +a=&r
and +ediu+ irrigati&n B&rks and areas c&vered $. the intensive agricultural
pr&gra++es.
')
). In +a=&rit. &f selected areas4 the #ec&rd &f #ights $&&k Bas n&t upt&date and the
B&rk inv&lved in updating it Bas tre+end&us. The cultivat&rs4 in +an. cases $eing
illiterate4 Bere una$le t& understand the neB entries in the #ec&rd &f #ights.
5d+inistrati&n t&&k n& pains t& $rief the+ a$&ut the changes in #&# $&&ks. 5s a
result4 in +an. cases the cultivat&rs Bere una$le t& l&dge their &$=ecti&ns in ti+e.
This increased the unp&pularit. &f the sche+e.
*. ;uture devel&p+ental re?uire+ent &f the villages had n&t alBa.s $een kept in +ind
Bhile draBing up the sche+e f&r c&ns&lidati&n. ,esides4 c&rrect valuati&n &f the land
Bas an extre+el. intricate pr&$le+ $ecause in certain cases4 inferi&r lands Bere
deli$eratel. valued at higher rates s& that there Bas a gain in the exchange &f land.
5n&ther fact&r Bhich led t& inc&rrect valuati&n &f the land Bas that &f pr&ductivit. &f
the s&il taken int& c&nsiderati&n Bhile fixing the value &f the land Bas the sa+e that
had $een entered int& rec&rds .ears earlier. N& c&nsiderati&n Bas given t& p&ssi$le
i+pr&ve+ent that had increased pr&ductive capacit. &f the land.
1n the Bh&le4 the sche+e failed t& generate de+and f&r c&ns&lidati&n a+&ng the
far+ers. It is interesting that c&ns&lidati&n has n&t $een p&pular in the s&uthern states4
Bhich are generall. c&nsidered t& $e $etter g&verned. T& s&+e extent this can $e
explained due t& cr&pping pattern and lack &f irrigati&n Bhich increases risk and
theref&re de+ands lands &f different s&il characteristics f&r risk +itigati&n.
:c&n&+ies &f large scale cultivati&n in padd. and &ther cr&ps are n&t as su$stantial as
in Bheat cultivati&n. In undulating tracts4 padd. is gr&Bn &n terraced fields Bhich
need t& $e flat and re?uire a $und t& retain Bater. It is &$vi&usl. easier t& level and
+aintain s+aller pl&ts than &ne large frag+ent. ;urther4 given the la$&ur%intensive
nature &f padd. cultivati&n4 the far+ing efficienc. &f s+all fields can $e high4 given
the l&B &pp&rtunit. c&st &f fa+il. la$&ur in circu+stances &f li+ited n&n%far+
e+pl&.+ent p&tential.
;indings fr&+ 1rissa 80earns and Sinha 19999 suggest that land frag+entati&n is
perceived $. far+ers t& $e a +&re seri&us pr&$le+ &n the c&astal plains4 Bhere land is
+&re relia$l. Batered and s&ils are +&re unif&r+ in ?ualit.4 than in the hill areas &f
Bestern 1rissa4 Bhere there has $een c&nsidera$le resistance t& the g&vern+entAs land
c&ns&lidati&n pr&gra+. T& the extent that $&th p&&rer and $etter%&ff far+ers Bish
v&luntaril. t& c&ns&lidate their h&ldings in the interests &f raising pr&ductivit.4 the
+&st effective pu$lic interventi&ns are likel. t& $e th&se that reduce transacti&n c&sts
in the land +arket.
Lastl.4 an&ther reas&n f&r persistence &f land scattering is the need t& h&ld land as a
li?uid asset4 Bhich +a. $e s&ld &ff in discrete parcels t& +eet c&ntingencies such as
+arriage &r funeral c&sts.
2.3.1 Fragmentation
5 related pr&gra++e has $een preventi&n &f frag+entati&n &f h&ldings. Several states
passed laBs t& check divisi&n &f +arginal h&ldings 8var.ing $etBeen 2.! t& 1.2!
hectares9 $. transfer and partiti&n4 $ut these laBs d& n&t g&vern inheritance.
;&r instance4 in 674 if a far+er p&ssesses =ust a$&ve 2.! ha4 he cann&t sell part &f his
land4 as it Bill reduce his h&lding t& less than 2.! ha4 Bhich is n&t per+issi$le under
'*
laB. Land d&es n&t get rec&rded in the individual na+es &f his children 8unless the.
file a suit f&r partiti&n4 Bhich entails expenses94 and the h&lding Bill c&ntinue t& $e
sh&Bn either in their fatherAs na+e &r in the =&int na+es &f the children. In +an.
cases4 land c&ntinues t& $e sh&Bn in the na+e &f grandfather and great grandfather4
th&ugh it +a. $e in the p&ssessi&n &f sc&res &f success&rs. In such cases far+ers
cann&t &$tain $ank l&an f&r Bant &f clear title.
The pr&$le+ is ver. acute in such rural areas Bhich f&r+ the hinterland &f the cities.
In the rural areas &f (elhi 8see secti&n 1.'."9 this li+it is 1.2! hectares. Here land
prices are increasing ver. fast due t& pressure &f ur$aniDati&n4 and +an. s+all
far+ers Bill like t& sell a part &f their h&lding t& real estate agents t& $enefit fr&+
high prices. 5s the. cann&t d& s& legall.4 the. have t& res&rt t& su$terfuges4 &r
inv&lve land +afias in such deals4 Bhich depresses their pr&fits as Bell as enc&urages
c&rrupti&n at all levels.
In ,ihar an &Bner &f frag+ent +a. transfer his h&lding t& his c&%sharer &r t& a pers&n
having land ad=&ining such frag+ent. Transfer &f an. land &r frag+ent in
c&ntraventi&n shall $e v&id and the transferer shall pa. a penalt. n&t exceeding #s 2!.
The a+&unt +a. l&&k negligi$le4 $ut the harass+ent &f attending the TahsildarAs
c&urt Bith its attendant c&rrupti&n +a. result in expenditure that is several ti+es the
penalt..
Such laBs are $ased &n the assu+pti&n that +arginal h&ldings are n&t s&ciall.
desira$le as the. are less pr&ductive than large h&ldings. The 19*! +inutes &f the
#evenue 0inisterAs C&nference sa.4 Kthe $enefits &f c&ns&lidati&n Bill $e set at
naught if the pr&cess &f frag+entati&n $. inheritance and &therBise g&es &n
una$ated.A H&Bever4 there is n& the&retical &r e+pirical $asis f&r assu+ing that
+arginal h&ldings are a s&cial lia$ilit.. 5s capital and land are scarce c&++&dities in
India4 pr&ductivit. sh&uld $e =udged &n the $asis &f per unit &f capital and land used4
and n&t per unit &f hired la$&ur Bhich is the Bestern c&ncept. It is Bell esta$lished
that +arginal h&ldings +axi+ise $&th pr&ducti&n and e+pl&.+ent per unit &f capital
used. In s& far as pr&ducti&n per unit &f land is c&ncerned4 there are +an. ec&n&+ists
8;aru?ue and Care. 199)F #a& 19999 Bh& $elieve that inverse relati&nship $etBeen
far+%siDe and pr&ductivit. is still valid in India. The s+all far+er cultivates his land
+&re intensel. and puts in +&re la$&ur per unit &f land. The ?ualit. &f supervisi&n as
Bell as &f land and irrigati&n is als& $etter &n s+aller h&ldings. Since the neB
techn&l&g. is siDe%neutral and it is $&th la$&ur and capital intensive4 there is n& reas&n
Bh. the s+all far+ers cann&t full. expl&it the neB techn&l&g.4 pr&vided capital is
+ade availa$le t& the+ at a reas&na$le rate &f interest.
Thus an agricultural strateg. centered &n s+all rather than large far+s si+ultane&usl.
increases the s&cial efficienc. &f res&urce use in agriculture and i+pr&ves s&cial
e?uit. thr&ugh e+pl&.+ent creati&n and the +&re e?ual inc&+e distri$uti&n that
s+all far+s generate.
-est ,engalAs land ref&r+ experience suggests 8Hanstad 22219 that field pl&ts &f a
fracti&n &f an acre pr&vide i+p&rtant livelih&&d $enefits t& &therBise landless
h&useh&lds. In recent .ears4 the state has $een all&cating ceiling%surplus lands in ver.
s+all pl&ts %% averaging less than &ne%third &f an acre %% t& land ref&r+ $eneficiaries.
'9
In a field stud.4 intervieBs Bith 3" erstBhile landless land ref&r+ $eneficiaries fr&+
tB& districts Bh& had received pl&ts averaging 2.1' acres 8ranging fr&+ 2.2) t& 2.3*
acres9 f&und that such h&useh&lds rep&rted significant increases in h&useh&ld f&&d
intake and inc&+e fr&+ such pl&ts. The great +a=&rit. &f resp&ndents Bere far+ing
their pl&ts ver. intensivel. and +&st rep&rted increases in relative status Bithin their
village. 1ther +&re c&+prehensive studies have f&und that -est ,engal land ref&r+
$eneficiaries have realiDed i+p&rtant $enefits fr&+ pl&ts &f land +uch s+aller than an
acre.
S&+e have ?uesti&ned the success &f distri$uting such s+all pl&ts $. n&ting that the
inc&+e earned fr&+ the pl&t is n&t sufficient 8$. itself9 t& $ring the $eneficiar.
h&useh&lds a$&ve the p&vert. line. 5cc&rding t& a livelih&&ds perspective4 h&Bever4
this is n&t the relevant issue. The $eneficiar. h&useh&lds t.picall. 8c&ntinue t&9
pursue &ther livelih&&d strategies such as B&rking as agricultural la$&urers. #eceiving
land thr&ugh the land ref&r+ has n&t4 in +&st cases4 changed their pri+ar.
T&ccupati&nU4 $ut it has pr&vided the+ an &pp&rtunit. t& supple+ent their nutriti&n
and inc&+e4 in additi&n t& increasing their status and credit B&rthiness.
Thus fr&+ the perspectives &f $&th e?uit. and pr&ductivit. the restricti&n &n far+ers
&Bning and selling s+all pieces &f land +ust $e d&ne aBa. Bith.
2.4 Stren$thenin$ of Revenue *dministration and +pdatin$ of Land Records
,SR* & +LR-
-ith a vieB t& assisting the states6Ts in the task &f updating &f land rec&rds4 a
Centrall. Sp&ns&red Sche+e f&r Strengthening &f #evenue 5d+inistrati&n and
6pdating &f Land #ec&rds 8S#5 > 6L#9 Bas started $. <&I in 19*). The +ain
&$=ectives &f the sche+e areC%
8i9 Strengthening &f Surve. and Settle+ent 1rganisati&ns f&r earl.
c&+pleti&n and preparati&n &f land rec&rds in areas Bhere this B&rk still
re+ains t& $e d&ne.
8ii9 Setting up &f Surve. and Settle+ent 1rganisati&ns4 especiall. in the
N&rth% :astern #egi&n4 Bhere n& land rec&rds exist.
8iii9 I+parting pre%service and in%service training t& revenue4 surve. and
settle+ent staff and strengthening &f training infrastructure f&r this
purp&se.
8iv9 7r&viding facilities f&r +&dernisati&n &f surve. and settle+ent &perati&ns4
printing &f surve. +aps rep&rtsd&cu+ents4 st&rage facilities4 c&p.ing and
updating &f land and cr&p rec&rds $. ad&pting latest science and
techn&l&g. inputs.
8v9 Strengthening &f revenue +achiner. at village and i++ediate supervis&r.
levels &n a selective $asis t& +ake the B&rkl&ad &f these functi&naries
+anagea$le.
Initiall.4 the sche+e Bas appr&ved f&r the states &f ,ihar and 1rissa in 19*)%** and
extended t& &ther states6Ts4 during 19*9%92. The sche+e is $eing i+ple+ented $.
the State <&vern+ents thr&ugh their #evenueLand #ef&r+s (epart+ents. It is
)2
financed $. the centre and the states &n !2C!2 funds sharing $asis. H&Bever4 6ni&n
Territ&ries are pr&vided full central assistance.
;&r receiving central assistance under the sche+e4 states and 6Ts are re?uired t&
prepare sche+es c&vering &ne &r +&re &f the a$&ve &$=ectives. These pr&p&sals are
c&nsidered $. a <&I Technical C&++ittee Bhich c&nsiders the pr&p&sals &n the $asis
&f the re?uire+ents pr&=ected $. the c&ncerned State6T4 utilisati&n &f funds released
during the previ&us .ears and the pr&gress +ade under the sche+e. 1n the $asis &f the
rec&++endati&ns +ade $. the Technical C&++ittee4 funds are released t& the states
6Ts.
6nder this sche+e4 assistance is given f&r purchase &f 0&dern Surve. :?uip+ents
like <l&$al 7&siti&ning S.ste+ 8<7S94 :(04 T&tal Stati&ns4 The&d&lites4 -&rk
Stati&ns4 5erial Surve.4 &ffice e?uip+ents like 7h&t&c&piers4 La+inating 0achines4
,inding 0achines and $asic facilities t& i+pr&ve B&rk efficienc. at the l&Ber st&rage
&f land rec&rds4 c&nstructi&n &f &ffice%cu+%residence &f V5s4 c&nstructi&nrepair
ren&vati&n &f Training Institutes and e?uip+ents f&r Training4 etc. 6pt& 31
st
0arch
222"4 financial assistance t& the tune &f #s 2.! $illi&n has $een pr&vided t& the State
<&vern+ents6Ts t&Bards central share under the sche+e.
2.".1 9ottlenec*s in im(lementing t'e sc'eme )y t'e State 0overnments
The sche+e is n&t ver. p&pular in the states4 as it re?uires a +atching share &f !2@ $.
the+4 as &pp&sed t& 122 per cent funding $. <&I in the c&+puteriDati&n sche+e
descri$ed in the next secti&n. In +&st &ther devel&p+ent sche+es Bhich are initiated
$. the centre4 statesA c&ntri$uti&n is generall. 2! per cent. Theref&re the State ;inance
(epart+ents are reluctant t& c&ntri$ute !2@ &f their share t& this sche+e4 Bhen the.
are hard pressed t& find +atching funds &f 2!@ f&r &ther centrall. sp&ns&red
sche+es. The unp&pularit. &f surve. has alread. $een discussed at several places in
this paper. (ue t& this even Bhen states are a$le t& finding +atching funds4 these are
hardl. used f&r surve. and settle+ent4 Bhich Bas the &riginal purp&se &f the sche+e4
$ut funds are $eing used f&r e?uip+ent4 c&nstructi&n4 training4 &r staff salaries $. the
states.
5 recent revieB $. <&I su++ariDed the vari&us c&nstraints in its i+ple+entati&n as
f&ll&BsC
(ela. in release &f +atching State share $. state g&vern+ents.
(ela. in undertaking c&nstructi&n B&rks such as c&nstructi&n &f $uildings f&r
Training Institute4 #ec&rd #&&+s4 h&uses f&r V5s4 Circle Inspect&rAs &ffice%
cu+%residences etc. $. 7-( &f the state g&vern+ent.
(ela. in selecti&nidentificati&n &f latest technical e?uip+ents and training &f
#evenue Staff f&r &perati&n &f the sche+e.
(ela. in purchase &f +&dern &ffice e?uip+ents etc. due t& prevailing s.ste+
&f centralised purchase prevailing in s&+e states.
(ela. in c&llecting inf&r+ati&n fr&+ the field4 and its c&+pilati&n $. the State
f&r re+itting the sa+e t& the nati&nal level. (ue t& such dela.s4 further release
&f funds is affected.
)1
(ela. in getting the sche+es appr&ved $. the Technical C&++ittee.
(espite these pr&$le+s &ne sh&uld c&ntinue Bith the sche+e4 as the State #evenue
(epart+ents4 $eing n&n%plan depart+ents4 have little access t& funds f&r neB
activities fr&+ the state plan. If n&t surve.4 &ther activities such as training d& get
funded. In s&+e states4 such as ,ihar4 +anual t.peBriters are still $eing used as the
State d&es n&t have +atching funds f&r $u.ing c&+puters and printers. 5 l&t &f
assistance fr&+ <&I is thus surrendered. Theref&re4 <&I sh&uld change the pattern &f
assistance t& )!C2! s& as t& $ring this sche+e at par Bith &ther centrall. sp&ns&red
sche+es. In additi&n4 it sh&uld change the &$=ectives &f the sche+e4 fr&+ surve. t&
+&re $r&ad $ased +&dernisati&n &f #evenue (epart+ents4 and leave the f&r+ulati&n
&f actual pr&p&sals t& the states. The states sh&uld als& $e asked t& use part &f these
funds f&r i+pact anal.sis &f all activities under the #evenue (epart+ents.
2.5 Computeri.ation of land records ,CLR-
5s discussed in secti&n 1.'4 the c&llective $&d. &f rights4 c&llated in the f&r+ &f
#ec&rd &f #ights4 are $eing +anaged +anuall. under a s.ste+ devised +&re than a
centur. ag& and heavil. taxed under the altered l&ad &f B&rk and p&litical ec&n&+..
The. suffer Bith inaccuracies4 redundancies4 interp&lati&n4 and &pa?ueness and have
supp&rted a rent seeking ad+inistrative +&n&lith. The <&vern+ent &f India tried an
instituti&nal upgradati&n $. c&+puteriDati&n &f the land data in f&r+ &f 7il&t 7r&=ects
in 19*9. 1f all the neB interventi&ns4 this is the $est kn&Bn and +&st Bidespread
pr&gra++e &f the State #evenue (epart+ents. It has several advantages. It is 122@
funded $. <1I4 is techn&l&g. $ased4 enc&urages transparenc.4 is l&B c&st4 l&B &n
gestati&n peri&d4 and its l&ng%ter+ sustaina$ilit. is n&t in d&u$t. There are n&
c&nstraints &f p&litical ec&n&+.. Since this sche+e has $een tried in al+&st all the
states4 and has a high p&tential f&r success4 Be descri$e it in detail.
2.<.1 .)Eectives
The sche+e &f c&+puteriDati&n &f land rec&rds Bas started in 19**%*9 Bith 122@
financial assistance as a pil&t pr&=ect in eight districts viDF #angaredd. 85.7.94
S&nitpur 85ssa+94 Singh$hu+ 8,ihar94 <andhinagar 8<u=arat94 0&rena 80.7.9
-ardha 80aharashtra94 0a.ur$han= 81rissa9 and (ungarpur 8#a=asthan9 Bith a vieB
t& re+&ving the pr&$le+s inherent in the +anual s.ste+s &f +aintenance and
updating &f land rec&rds and t& +eet the re?uire+ents &f vari&us gr&ups &f users. It
Bas decided that eff&rts sh&uld $e +ade t& c&+puterise c&re data c&ntained in land
rec&rds4 t& assist devel&p+ent planning and t& +ake rec&rds accessi$le t& pe&ples4
planners and ad+inistrat&rs.
The +ain &$=ectives &f the sche+e are as f&ll&BsC
i9 T& i+ple+ent a c&+prehensive and transparent Land Inf&r+ati&n S.ste+ capturing
the entire B&rk fl&B &f land rec&rds +aintenance Bith a pr&visi&n t& st&re4 retrieve
and pr&cess land rec&rds data c&ntaining &Bnership4 tenanc. rights4 cr&p details4 land
revenue4 s&urce &f irrigati&n4 +utati&n4 its updati&n and dispute res&luti&n.
)2
ii9 (istri$uti&n &f c&+puteriDed c&pies &f #ec&rd &f #ights t& the land&Bner &n
de+and4 at reas&na$le charges Bith the pr&visi&n &f &nline +utati&n +&dule f&r
&Bnership changes4 seas&nal cr&p updati&n4 etc. at tahsil level.
iii9 7r&visi&n &f legal sanctit. t& c&+puter generated certificates &f land rec&rdstitle
d&cu+ents after authenticati&n $. auth&riDed revenue &fficial.
iv9 T& strengthen the pu$lic deliver. +echanis+s f&r disse+inati&n &f land &Bners
data t& the <&vern+ent (epart+ent4 7ancha.ati #a= Instituti&n4 N<1s and pu$lic f&r
vari&us purp&ses.
v9 T& generate and integrate vari&us level &f data f&r purp&ses &f planning4
+&nit&ring4 evaluati&n &f devel&p+ental pr&gra++es.
2.<.2 rogress so $ar
(uring the *th ;ive Vear 7lan 81992%9)94 the t&tal expenditure under the sche+e Bas
#s. 2.' $illi&n. (uring the 9th ;ive Vear 7lan 8199)%222294 the 0inistr. &f #ural
(evel&p+ent released a su+ &f #s. 1.) $illi&n f&r c&vering 2!9 +&re districts under
the sche+e. 5t present4 the sche+e is $eing i+ple+ented in !*2 districts &f the
c&untr. leaving th&se districts Bhere there are n& land rec&rds4 such as in the n&rth%
eastern states. The centre has pr&vided ar&und #s 2." +illi&n per tahsiltaluk f&r
installati&n &f hardBare and s&ftBare in 24"2' tahsilstaluks &ut &f a$&ut '4222 in the
c&untr.. Since incepti&n &f the sche+e till 31.12.22224 <&I has released #s. 2.!
$illi&n. The utilisati&n &f funds rep&rted $. the states6Ts is #s. 1.! $illi&n 8upt&
31.1.22239 Bhich is appr&xi+atel. '2@ &f the t&tal funds released.
The general pr&gress &f the pr&=ect is satisfact&r. in 3arnataka44 -est ,engal4 Ta+il
Nadu4 #a=asthan4 <u=arat4 Sikki+4 7&ndicherr.4 and <&a. In these states #1#s are
$eing issued t& pu$lic &n de+and at least in s&+e Tahsils.
The pr&gress is average in 5.74 3erala4 1rissa4 6.74 Har.ana4 0adh.a 7radesh4 and
Tripura. (ata entr. and verificati&n B&rk is g&ing &n in these states. N&t +uch
pr&gress has $een +ade in H74 ,ihar4 0aharashtra4 7un=a$4 5ssa+4 and 0iD&ra+.
0oa $eca+e the first State in the c&untr. t& have c&+pleted the c&+puteriDati&n &f
#1#s &f all villages in the eleven taluks &f the State. The reas&n f&r the success areC
8i9 c&%&perati&n and c&%&rdinati&n $etBeen all (epart+ents and pe&ple inv&lved in
this exercise 8ii9 7&sitive attitude &f &fficers and &fficials inv&lved in the task &f
c&+puteriDati&n 8iii9 #egular +&nit&ring and peri&dical revieB &f the sche+e at the
field as Bell State Secretariat level 8iv9 (eter+inati&n and c&++it+ent &f all
(irect&rate staff4 NIC staff4 field staff and the pers&nnel &f the private agencies. 8v9
0&tivati&n and leadership fact&rs4 and 8vi9 5vaila$ilit. &f p&Ber and &ther
infrastructure.
<&a still needs t& c&+puteriDe the +utati&n pr&cess s& that &nline +utati&n is
p&ssi$le. In the field &f c&+puteriDati&n &f Cadastral 0aps4 the State undert&&k pil&t
pr&=ect f&r the digitisati&n &f Cadastral Surve. 0aps in technical c&lla$&rati&n Bith a
private agenc. inv&lved in the B&rk &f <IS.
The c&+puteriDati&n B&rk in Mad'ya rades' has $een c&+pleted f&r *3 per cent
tahsils &f the State. 0&re than tB& hundred th&usand c&pies have $een distri$uted t&
)3
land&Bners and #s 2.! +illi&n has $een c&llected as user charges. The c&nstraints areF
inade?uate trained staff4 pr&$le+ in +aintenance &f hardBare4 sl&B speed &f input4
inade?uate nu+$er &f ter+inals4 and lack &f enthusias+ $ehind this pr&=ect. 0adh.a
7radesh has als& successfull. i+ple+ented a pil&t pr&=ect &f (igitiDati&n &f Cadastral
+aps f&r #agh&garh tahsil &f <una district and Shivpuri tahsil &f Shivpuri district.
In RaEast'an8 data entr. and verificati&n &f data f&r 9' per cent tahsils &f the State
has $een c&+pleted. 7resentl.4 &ut &f 2"1 tahsils in the State c&+puterised extracts
are $eing distri$uted in 192 tahsils.
In 2est 9engal4 the sche+e has $een extended t& all the 3"1 $l&cks Bherein
c&+puter centres have $een set up and validati&n &f data entr. B&rk is g&ing &n. In
s&+e &f the $l&cks4 c&+puterised c&pies are $eing distri$uted t& land&Bners &n
de+and.
In 0uEarat4 c&+puterised c&pies &f #ec&rd &f #ights are $eing issued t& the
land&Bners in 1" taluks. (ata is $eing validated in &ther taluks. (ata entr. in <u=arat
is d&ne Bith private agencies4 and checked $. the talathi 8village acc&untant9.
The sche+e &f CL# sh&uld $e assessed in ter+s &f the extent t& Bhich
a s.++etric inf&r+ati&n fl&B has $een created4
it has c&ntri$uted t& reducti&n in l&Ber level c&rrupti&n4
transparenc. in decisi&n +aking
reduced B&rkl&ad f&r revenue &fficials4 as Bell as dela.s f&r land&Bners
i+pr&ved fl&B &f instituti&nal finance
$etter c&nve.ancing
has i+pr&ved the ?ualit. &f rec&rd +anage+ent and4
has c&ntri$uted t& the reducti&n &f disputes.
The district &f 0&rena in 0adh.a 7radesh4 &nce n&t&ri&us f&r its dac&it. +enace4 Bas
the first t& $e c&+pleted 819929 and &perati&nalised. 5n evaluati&n &f the
i+ple+entati&n &f a pil&t pr&=ect &n CL# in 0&rena 8Sinha 199*9 c&ncluded that
CL# hasC
L increased fl&B &f inf&r+ati&n t& the pu$lic thr&ugh i+pr&ved access t& rec&rds4 and
L increased aBareness &f their rights4 alth&ugh these $enefits have accrued +&re t&
th&se situated near district &r tahsil head?uartersF *ut
L led t& the e+ergence &f the data%entr. &perat&r as a neB rent%seeking agent4
L $een resp&nsi$le f&r &nl. a +arginal reducti&n in the B&rkl&ad &f the V5s4
L failed t& reduce rent%seeking $. V5s as the. perf&r+ nu+er&us functi&ns $esides
pr&viding c&pies &f the #1# 8Krec&rd%&f%rightsA9 that are unaffected $.
c&+puteriDati&n &f land rec&rds4
L n&t resulted in $etter i+ple+entati&n &f land ref&r+s4
L n&t led t& an. significant i+pr&ve+ent in land rec&rd +anage+ent4 and
)"
L n&t led t& an. apprecia$le reducti&n in land disputes.
-e discuss $el&B the pr&gress &f the sche+e in 3arnataka and Ta+il Nadu4 Bhere it
has $een +&st successful. 5s a c&ntrast the situati&n in ,ihar is descri$ed then4 Bhere
practicall. n&thing has happened. This is then f&ll&Bed $. a general discussi&n &n
pr&$le+s and pr&spects &f c&+puteriDati&n &f land rec&rds in India.
2.<.3 Barnata*a
The (epart+ent &f #evenue in 3arnataka has c&+puteriDed 22 +illi&n rec&rds &f
land &Bnership &f '.) +illi&n far+ers in the state thr&ugh CL#4 l&call. kn&Bn as
5hoomi 8+eaning land9 pr&=ect. In the past4 under the +anual s.ste+4 land rec&rds
Bere +aintained $. 94222 Village 5cc&untants4 each serving a cluster &f 3%" villages.
;ar+ers had t& seek &ut the Village 5cc&untant t& get a c&p. &f the #ec&rd &f #ights4
Tenanc. and Cr&ps 8#TC9 % a d&cu+ent needed f&r +an. tasks such as &$taining
$ank l&ans. Village 5cc&untants Bere n&t easil. accessi$le4 as their duties entailed
traveling. The ti+e taken $. Village 5cc&untants t& pr&vide #TCs ranged fr&+ 3 t&
32 da.s depending up&n the i+p&rtance &f the rec&rd f&r the far+er and the siDe &f
the $ri$e. 5 t.pical $ri$e f&r a certificate c&uld range fr&+ #s.122 8E1G #s "'9 t& #s.
24222. If s&+e details Bere t& $e deli$eratel. Britten in an a+$igu&us fashi&n4 the
$ri$e c&uld g& up t& #s. 124222. Land rec&rds in the cust&d. &f Village 5cc&untants
Bere n&t &pen f&r pu$lic scrutin..
0utati&n re?uests t& alter land rec&rds 8up&n sale &r inheritance &f a land parcel9 has
t& $e filed Bith the Village 5cc&untant. The Village 5cc&untant is re?uired t& issue
n&tices t& the interested parties and als& paste the n&tice at the village &ffice. 1ften
neither &f these acti&ns Bas carried &ut4 n&r an. rec&rd &f the n&tices Bas +aintained.
If n& &$=ecti&ns Bere received Bithin a re?uired 32%da. peri&d4 an update t& the land
rec&rds Bas t& $e carried &ut $. a #evenue Inspect&r 8Bh& is the auth&riDed pers&n t&
pass &rders in the +utati&ns in the field9. In practice4 h&Bever4 it c&uld take 1%2 .ears
f&r the rec&rds t& $e updated.
,h&&+i has reduced the discreti&n &f pu$lic &fficials $. intr&ducing pr&visi&ns f&r
rec&rding a +utati&n re?uest &nline. ;ar+ers can n&B access the data$ase and are
e+p&Bered t& f&ll&B up. In the ,h&&+i pr&=ect4 a printed c&p. &f the #TC can $e
&$tained &nline $. pr&viding the na+e &f the &Bner &r pl&t nu+$er at c&+puteriDed
land rec&rd ki&sks in 1)) taluk &ffices4 f&r a fee &f #s.1!. 5 sec&nd c&+puter screen
faces the clients t& ena$le the+ t& see the transacti&n $eing perf&r+ed. 5 far+er can
check the status &f a +utati&n applicati&n &n a T&uch Screen pr&vided &n a pil&t $asis
in tBent. &f the c&+puteriDed ki&sks. If the revenue inspect&r d&es n&t c&+plete the
+utati&n Bithin !2 da.s4 a far+er can n&B appr&ach a sec&nd pers&n in the district
Bh& has $een designated t& auth&riDe a +utati&n. N&B4 +utati&n re?uests are t& $e
handled strictl. &n a first%c&+e%first%served $asis. These +easures li+it &pp&rtunities
f&r c&llecting $ri$es. 1perat&rs &f the c&+puteriDed s.ste+ are +ade acc&unta$le f&r
their decisi&ns and acti&ns $. using a $i&%l&gin s.ste+ that authenticates ever. L&gin
thr&ugh a thu+$print. 5 l&g is +aintained &f all transacti&ns in a sessi&n.
In the next phase &f the pr&=ect4 all the taluk data$ases Bill $e upl&aded t& a Be$%
ena$led central data$ase. #TCs Bill then $e availa$le &nline at Internet ki&sks in the
)!
rural areas4 Bhich Bill $e linked t& the district ad+inistrati&n. (ata &n cr&p surve. is
currentl. c&llected +anuall. and updated in the taluk data$ase in a $atch +&de three
ti+es a .ear. In a pil&t experi+ent4 a l&call. designed handheld c&+puter 8Si+puter9
has $een pr&vided t& 222 V5s f&r capturing the cr&p data live in the field. The. f&und
it eas. t& learn the &perati&ns &f the Si+puter.
S&+e &f the p&sitive features &f ,h&&+i are su++ariDed $el&BC
.utsourcing % The task &f data entr. Bas &uts&urced. :ver. district Bas pr&vided
Bith a c&nsultant trained &n 0icr&s&ft techn&l&gies and the applicati&n4 t& act as an
inter+ediar. $etBeen the ad+inistrati&n and the data entr. agencies.
Instant in$ormation % The ti+e taken f&r pr&cessing #TC and J0utati&nJ re?uests
has c&+e d&Bn dra+aticall.. 5 re?uest f&r an #TC is addressed al+&st instantl. &r
Bithin ! % 32 +inutes as c&+pared t& the 3%32 da.s earlier. The far+er needs t& pa. a
+ere #s. 1! f&r the sa+e4 and d&es n&t need t& get the Village 5cc&untant inv&lved in
the pr&cess. The re?uest f&r a change in the land rec&rd4 a pr&cess that +anuall. t&&k
up t& tB& .ears is t&da. $eing c&+pleted in a rec&rd f&rt. da.s. The inf&r+ati&n
c&llected fr&+ &ne ur$an Taluk indicates that earlier4 3222 +utati&n re?uests Bere
handled annuall.4 a figure that has alread. g&ne up t& "!22.
Reducing de(endency on middlemen % If a piece &f land g&es thr&ugh a change in
&Bnership thr&ugh sale &r inheritance4 far+ers can n&B file f&r a J+utati&nJ directl.
at the J,h&&+iJ centers. The s.ste+ aut&+aticall. assigns a nu+$er f&r the re?uest4
Bhich can then $e used $. the far+er t& check &n its status at an. given ti+e.
Sel$ sustaining model % ,. charging a n&+inal fee &f #s. 1! the ad+inistrati&n has
ensured that the pr&=ect d&es n&t face an. hurdles due t& the sh&rtage &f funds &r
pri&rities in the future. The su+ c&ntri$utes t& the &perati&n &f specific ki&sks4 and is
als& invested int& the setting up &f additi&nal J,h&&+iJ centers. The t&tal pr&=ect c&st
Bas #s 222 +illi&n and the <&vern+ent esti+ates the pa.$ack peri&d t& $e less than
three .ears.
Reducing /aiting time % 0&st ,h&&+i users 8)9@9 rep&rted a +ini+al Baiting ti+e
in the ?ueue &f 12 +inutes &r less4 in c&ntrast Bith 2)@ Bh& c&uld +eet the
c&ncerned &fficial in such sh&rt ti+e. The $igger issue is the nu+$er &f ti+es a citiDen
had t& visit these &ffices t& get the certificate. -hile +&st users g&t the #TC 8)2@9
Bith &ne visit t& the ,h&&+i ki&sk4 &nl. !@ g&t it that fast in the +anual s.ste+. The
+&st seri&us issue is that &f c&rrupti&n and $ri$er.. TB& thirds &f the users &f the
+anual s.ste+ paid a $ri$e % ''@ &f the+ rep&rted having t& d& s& ver. &ften. In
c&ntrast4 &nl. 3@ &f the users &f the ,h&&+i s.ste+ rep&rted pa.ing $ri$es 875C
22229. 0&st ,h&&+i users 8*!@9 rated staff $ehavi&ur at the ,h&&+i ki&sks as
Kg&&dAF n&ne &f the users &f the +anual s.ste+ rated staff $ehavi&ur as Kg&&dA.
There are still s&+e sh&rtc&+ings. 5 stud. $. 3e.a 5char.a 822239 &$served that the
state g&vern+ent has n&t $&thered t& tackle fraudulent land rec&rds that Bent &nline
in the ,h&&+i pr&=ect. In &ther B&rds4 village t& village verificati&n has n&t $een d&ne
&f the entires +ade in the c&+puterised rec&rds. Sec&ndl.4 its ulti+ate success B&uld
depend Bhether it is a$le t& reduce the dependence &f the land&Bners &n pett.
$ureaucrac.4 $. +aking rec&rds availa$le &n%line thr&ugh a Be$%site. :ven in the
)'
states such as 3arnataka Bhere c&+puteriDati&n has satisfact&ril. pr&gressed4 r&le f&r
private ki&sks is still t& $e sufficientl. devel&ped. The far+ers still have t& c&+e t&
the taluk f&r a c&p. &f land rec&rds. Since the 3arnataka g&vern+ent has $anned
giving +anual c&pies4 dependence &f the &rdinar. land &Bner &n g&vern+ent
+achiner. has in n& Ba. declined. He has n&B t& travel all the Ba. t& the taluk as
c&+pared t& the &ld s.ste+ &f getting it fr&+ the village acc&untant. 1ften in a taluk
&nl. &ne clerk is auth&rised t& issue the certified c&p.. If $. chance he is &n leave the
=&urne. &f the land &Bner t& the taluk Bill $e Basted. (ela. als& takes place $ecause
rural taluks have fre?uent p&Ber failures. 5ll such pr&$le+s can easil. $e addressed
$. putting land rec&rds &n the Be$4 Bhich is still t& $e d&ne in 3arnataka.
2.<." &amil 6adu
<&TN has c&+pleted the pr&cess &f c&+puteriDing land rec&rds in all the stateAs 212
taluks. In &rder t& ensure the satisfact&r. B&rking &f the s.ste+ and av&id the
c&nfusi&n arising fr&+ +aintaining $&th a c&+puteriDed and +anual set &f land
rec&rds4 <&TN issued an &rder4 dated Septe+$er 34 22234 $anning the use &f +anual
rec&rds in the State4 as did 3arnataka.
Ta+il Nadu has als& pr&vided internet access t& a selected rural B&+enAs self help
gr&ups. This initiative is kn&Bn as #ural 5ccess t& Services thr&ugh the Internet
8#5SI9. #5SI inv&lves delivering a variet. &f services t& rural villages using Bireless
techn&l&g.. ,&th hardBare and s&ftBare is pr&vided free%&f%charge4 Bhile &perat&rs
B&rked &ut &f their &Bn h&+es t& save rental c&sts. Vet4 it see+s that these ki&sks are
via$leC inc&+e is derived partl. fr&+ villagers surfing the net4 sending e+ails4 and
printing d&cu+ents4 as Bell as fr&+ c&nducting c&+puter classes in the evenings.
,asicall.4 pr&fita$ilit. appears t& $e a functi&n &f p&pulati&n siDe4 a pr&x. f&r usageF
villages Bith a p&pulati&n siDe greater than !22 are pr&fita$le.
Thirt. ki&sk +achines are alread. in use in taluks4 Bhere far+ers can see their land
&Bnership details. 5n&ther ') have recentl. $een installed. )9 +&re are t& $e installed
in the current financial .ear. The. B&rk &n Beekda.s during &ffice h&urs &nl.4 as
s&+e&ne has t& sign the patta.
<&TN has sent a pr&p&sal t& <&I t& link taluk data Bith the central &ffice4 s& that the
entire data c&uld $e centrall. st&red. 5cc&rding t& seni&r &fficials4 this B&uld $e the
pre%c&nditi&n f&r intr&ducing Be$ ena$led data in the State.
-hat <&TN has n&t d&ne4 and +ight c&nsider d&ing4 is t& &ffer a free c&p. &f the
c&+puteriDed land rec&rd t& all far+ers t& facilitate eas. detecti&n &f err&rs4 as in
3arnataka. :ven pancha.ats have n&t $een given a free c&p.4 th&ugh this Bas &ne &f
the decisi&ns &f <&I. 5lth&ugh t&uch%screen ki&sks have $een pr&vided in 32 +&del
taluks4 there is n& arrange+ent &f far+ers &$taining an unsigned c&p. &f the rec&rd
fr&+ the ki&sk c&+puter. Th&ugh technicall. p&ssi$le t& take a c&p. fr&+ the ki&sk4
this feature has $een disa$led4 thus f&rcing the land&Bner t& Kappr&achA a functi&nar.
&f the data &perat&r. Heshe thus has t& appl. separatel.4 and &nl. a signed c&p. can
$e issued f&r a fee &f #s. 22. It is als& n&t p&ssi$le in TN f&r a far+er t& &$tain a c&p.
&f the rec&rd &f the entire village4 even if he Bere t& pa. f&r the eff&rt. I suggested t&
the (epart+ent t& fix a special rate f&r the entire village Bhich +a. help N<1s in
))
increasing aBareness a$&ut land rights4 $ut again the &fficials Bere n&t enthusiastic
a$&ut this.
The TN revenue &fficials did n&t see+ keen t& share inf&r+ati&n Bith the villagers.
The +indset c&ntinues t& $e $elieving in the &ld feudal values. I re?uested the
(epart+ent t& issue data f&r a district &n C(s tBice a .ear and keep it at all internet
ki&sks 8&r sell it t& the+94 $ut there Bas n& taker f&r transparenc. and data sharing
even a+&ngst the seni&r &fficers.
In ') taluks Bired c&nnectivit. has $een pr&vided $etBeen the taluk and su$%
registrarAs &ffice4 $ut as the. rep&rt t& different &rganiDati&ns in Chennai4 the B&rk &f
effecting +utati&ns at the taluk &ffice after a deed registrati&n is still dependent &n the
initiative &f the $u.er &f the pr&pert.. In the taluk I visited4 I f&und that &ld
applicati&ns f&r +utati&ns received fr&+ the registrati&n &ffice Bere n&t disp&sed &ff4
Bhereas neB &nes Bere $eing taken up f&r c&rrecti&n &f rec&rds. This adh&cis+
s+acks &f c&rrupti&n4 and +ust $e st&pped $. strictl. f&ll&Bing the &rder in Bhich
such applicati&ns are received fr&+ the registrati&n depart+ent4 as it is d&ne in
3arnataka.
C&+puteriDati&n d&es n&t link different pl&ts &f an individual in different revenue
villages &r taluks4 as the rec&rding in c&+puters has $een d&ne f&r each revenue
village in is&lati&n. There is a facilit. f&r KsearchA4 $ut it has t& $e pr&cessed
+anuall.4 and is n&t aut&+atic. The patta pass$&&ks4 &n the &ther hand4 listed all the
pl&ts &f a far+er in the district. The practice &f issuing patta pass$&&ks Bill h&Bever
$e graduall. phased &ut in TN4 as c&+puteriDati&n &f land rec&rds catches
+&+entu+.
There are f&ur C&++issi&ners at Chennai in the revenue set up incharge &f different
functi&ns &f the #evenue (epart+ent4 $ut n&ne &f the+ have c&ntr&l &ver the district
C&llect&r. There is a c&&rdinati&n c&++ittee $ut it +eets infre?uentl.. The last
+eeting in Oul. 222" t&&k place after a gap &f six +&nths. (irect&r Surve. is
supp&sed t& rep&rt t& C&++issi&ner4 Land 5d+inistrati&n 8CL594 $ut he is &ften
seni&r in service t& the CL54 thus +aking c&&rdinati&n difficult. C&++issi&ner4 Land
#ef&r+s d&es n&t have full ti+e B&rk4 as n&t +uch is $eing d&ne in land ref&r+s
n&B. 0&st &f the+ feel Kdu+pedA4 and lack enthusias+ f&r inn&vative B&rk. Since
199!4 there have $een 12 CL5s in the State. 7&sting in the #evenue (epart+ent is
generall. n&t c&nsidered gla+&r&us. The nu+$er &f c&++issi&ners can easil. $e
reduced fr&+ " t& 24 as the CL5 c&uld handle Surve. and Land #ec&rds4 and the
B&rk relating t& land ref&r+s can $e entrusted t& the C&++issi&ner4 #evenue
5d+inistrati&n.
2.<.< 9i'ar
5s c&uld Bell $e expected4 the sche+e &f c&+puteriDati&n has re+ained a n&n%starter
in ,ihar. The p&&r pr&gress &f the State is reflected in the fact that funds f&r
c&+puteriDati&n a+&unting t& #s 32 +illi&n Bere given t& ,ihar in 199*%994 $ut as
the state g&vern+ent c&uld n&t give acc&unt &f expenditure n& +&ne. Bas released t&
,ihar in the su$se?uent .ears. Thus the p&&rest State l&st a g&&d &pp&rtunit. t&
+&derniDe its land rec&rds Bith central funding.
)*
In the last six .ears ,ihar has $een a$le t& spend &nl. !!@ &f Bhat Bas all&tted in the
first .ear4 199*%99F pr&gress in ter+s &f ph.sical achieve+ent is even p&&rer. There
are "!4299 revenue villages in ,ihar4 data in c&+puters has $een entered &nl. f&r
'42*1 villages upt& 0arch 222". ,ased &n inf&r+al discussi&ns Bith s&+e C&llect&rs4
the f&ll&Bing see+s t& $e the +ain reas&ns f&r p&&r pr&gress in c&+puteriDati&n.
The p&st &f (irect&r Surve. 8Bh& is incharge &f this pr&gra++e9 is c&nsidered t& $e a
punish+ent p&sting. N& I5S &fficer Bishes t& $e &n that p&st. 5verage tenure has
&ften $een as sh&rt as three +&nths. 1nl. th&se Bh& are &ut &f fav&ur Bith the
p&litical regi+e have l&ng tenures &n that p&st. Theref&re there is n& leadership &r
interest fr&+ the t&p4 either ad+inistrative &r p&litical.
5s the ,ihar secretariat functi&ns ver. inefficientl. and there is n& certaint. &f ti+el.
release &f funds4 such sche+es that are t& $e c&vered in several .ears d& n&t attract
the attenti&n &f C&llect&rs and seni&r +anagers4 especiall. Bhen their &Bn tenure in
the district is sh&rt and uncertain.
(istricts Bere t& select private agencies f&r data entr. B&rk in c&+puteriDati&n. In
s&+e districts4 such as #&htas4 3hagaria and 5urnaga$ad n& such selecti&n has $een
d&ne in the last six .ears &n &ne pretext &r the &ther. :ven in districts4 such as 7atna
and Vaishali4 Bhere a large nu+$er &f private agencies are availa$le4 C&llect&rs have
taken n& interest t& app&int agencies f&r data entr.. 5d+inistrative Bill t& $u.
hardBare is als& lacking in ,ihar f&r fear &f vigilance en?uiries in future. In districts
such as 0&tihari and Oa+ui expenditure is +&re than 92@ &f the all&tted )!24222 #s4
$ut it is &nl. &n salaries and e?uip+ent4 ph.sical pr&gress in ter+s &f villages c&vered
is al+&st nil. In s&+e &ther districts c&+puters and 5C generat&rs $&ught Bith the
<&I funds are $eing used in the pers&nal &ffice &f the C&llect&rs f&r +iscellane&us
B&rk4 and n&t f&r land rec&rds c&+puteriDati&n.
Till Septe+$er 2222 the C&llect&rs did n&t kn&B Bhat sh&uld $e the rate f&r pa.+ent
t& private vend&rs f&r data entr.. #evenue Secretar. vide his letter dated 32
th
Septe+$er 2222 clarified that the rates applica$le in -est ,engal 8#s 2.*2 per
kil&$.te9 +a. $e ad&pted.
There is .et an&ther seri&us pr&$le+ in ,ihar4 Bhich is als& prevalent in +an. &ther
states4 especiall. the ex%Da+indari states. In the a$sence &f surve.4 land rec&rds have
n&t $een updated f&r decades4 and d& n&t reflect the realit.. (iscrepanc. $etBeen
rec&rds and the gr&und situati&n is als& $ecause the state g&vern+ents have n&t
clarified its stand as t& h&B t& deal Bith the f&ll&Bing sensitive situati&ns 8&r lack
p&litical Bill t& f&ll&B the legal re?uire+ent4 Bhich is &ften in fav&ur &f the p&&r9C
1. -hen land is $eing cultivated $. p&Berful land &Bners4 $ut is &Bned $. the
scheduled castes 8SC9 &r the scheduled tri$es 8ST9. In +an. such cases the
SCST &Bners have n&n%transfera$le rights 8t& prevent land alienati&n94 $ut
$ecause &f inde$tedness have l&st c&ntr&l and p&ssessi&n &ver their pl&ts.
;r&+ ti+e t& ti+e <&I has issued instructi&ns t& rest&re p&ssessi&n t& the
disp&ssessed p&&r4 $ut such &rders have re+ained &nl. &n paper 8see als&
3.3.19.
)9
2. -hen c&++&n lands and f&rests have $een encr&ached up&n $. $&th the p&&r
and the rich. In s&+e cases the encr&aches are keen t& get their p&ssessi&n
rec&rded s& that in the event &f future regulariDati&n their clai+s can $e
fav&ura$l. c&nsidered4 $ut &ften the revenue auth&rities are under pressure
either fr&+ the pancha.at &r &ther clai+ants &ver c&++&n pr&pert. 8graDiers4
NT;7 users94 &r fr&+ the ;&rest (epart+ent n&t t& rec&rd adverse p&ssessi&n.
Such cases are p&tential s&urce &f c&rrupti&n &r legal disputes that linger f&r
decades. The state neither has the Bill t& regularise encr&ach+ents4 n&r
re+&ves the adverse p&ssessi&n. Such a+$ivalence $reeds c&rrupti&n.
3. The third t.pe &f c&ntenti&us cases refer t& de+arcati&n &f $&undaries4 and
rec&rding &f lands +eant f&r passage and transp&rt &f tract&rs. -ith increasing
+echaniDati&n &f agriculture4 there are &ften inf&r+al agree+ents $etBeen
far+ers f&r carr.ing their +achiner. t& their fields &ver the pl&ts &f &thers.
H&Bever4 pr&$le+ arises Bhen such agree+ents need f&r+aliDati&n and
sh&Bn in revenue rec&rds Bhich +a. $e &pp&sed $. &ne &f the parties.
Since the gap $etBeen actual field p&siti&n and the rec&rds is ver. Bide4 +&st
C&llect&rs see n& great value additi&n in getting the &utdated rec&rds c&+puteriDed.
Lastl.4 there is n& p&litical c&++it+ent t& this sche+e4 as n& p&litician ever takes
interest in the pr&gra++e.
2.<.6 ro)lems
(espite p&tential4 the sche+e has n&t +ade +uch headBa. in +an. states. In +&st &f
the states4 this sche+e is $eing regarded as an. &ther centrall. sp&ns&red sche+e and
is $eing i+ple+ented in is&lati&n. ,ut the sche+e needs t& $e pr&perl. p&siti&ned in
state g&vern+ent fra+eB&rk Bith h&riD&ntal and vertical linkages. There sh&uld $e a
clear visi&n as t& h&B the present harass+ent and dela. is t& $e eli+inated.
The CL# sche+e has succeeded in states like 3arnataka4 5ndhra4 <u=arat4 and
#a=asthan. These are the states Bhich have created an &verall acceptance &r a+$iance
f&r a$s&r$ing IT in their B&rk culture. These states have als& taken steps t& i+pr&ve
ad+inistrative deliver. in &ther sect&rs. The sche+e &f CL# needs an ec&l&g. at the
field level t& gr&B up. In ,ihar it has n&t $een i+ple+ented even in &ne district at the
data entr. level. In general it +a. $e taken as reflecti&n &f the general state &f affairs.
In 674 data entr. has $een d&ne $ut deliver. &f #1# 8rec&rd &f rights9 is n&t $eing
d&ne at field level. (ue t& fre?uent changes in g&vern+ent and there$. in
$ureaucrac.4 67 has n&t $een a$le t& ad&pt a l&ng ter+ sustaina$le appr&ach f&r
i+ple+entati&n and +&nit&ring.
Land #ec&rds 0anuals in the states la. d&Bn detailed pr&cedure f&r creating and
sharing the rec&rds. ,ut these Bere designed fr&+ the p&int &f vieB &f +anual rec&rd
keeping. If Be are replacing +anual s.ste+ Bith the electr&nic s.ste+4 there is need
that all IT related issues sh&uld $e addressed in the revised Land #ec&rd 0anuals and
pr&cedures4 $ecause in da. t& da. B&rking4 the field level functi&naries adhere t&
the+ as standards. H&Bever4 this su$=ect has n&t received +uch attenti&n in +an.
states.
*2
Th&ugh since 1991 +an. g&vern+ents carried &ut $asic c&+puteriDati&n &f rec&rds at
the district level4 &nl. &ne%ti+e entr. Bas d&ne int& the s.ste+4 Bith n& pr&visi&n t&
keep the s.ste+ updated &r t& keep it &n%line. S& the disse+inati&n &f these rec&rds t&
the far+ers acr&ss the state is $eing carried%&n in the traditi&nal &ffline +anner. 5ll
the +istakes &f the &riginal rec&rds Bere repeated in the c&+puteriDed versi&n t&&.
0&re&ver4 neB +utati&ns are n&t $eing d&ne &nline4 Bith the result the data B&uld
$ec&+e &$s&lete s&&n.
In +an. states 8s&uthern and Bestern9 B&+en are legall. entitled t& a share in
inherited pr&pert.4 $ut such lands are under the p&ssessi&n and +anage+ent &f their
$r&thers4 and there are n& clear instructi&ns fr&+ g&vern+ent4 as t& Bhether rec&rds
sh&uld reflect the gr&und realit.4 &r sh&uld f&ll&B the laB 8see secti&n 3.!9.
T& t&p it all4 +an. states 8679 have ad+inistrativel. decided n&t t& rec&rd adverse
p&ssessi&n4 thus negating the ver. purp&se &f surve. and c&rrecti&n &f rec&rds.
<&I has &ften suggested that these pr&gra++es sh&uld first $e taken up &n a pil&t
$asis in &ne district. This h&Bever leads t& an&ther ad+inistrative pr&$le+. Since staff
f&r such pil&ts is l&cal4 the. fear the. B&uld $e transferred &nce B&rk is c&+pleted4 s&
the. ensure that the B&rk c&ntinues f&r ever. The s&luti&n is n&t t& recruit the+ as
g&vern+ent servants4 $ut &n c&ntract.
Ado(t an Enter(rise a((roac'C The deliver. &f a +a=&rit. &f g&vern+ent services
inv&lves the c&lla$&rative eff&rt &f several related depart+ents and4 s&+eti+es4 tiers
&f g&vern+ent. ,ut since $udgets in g&vern+ent are &rganiDed ar&und depart+ents4
&nl. the e%services Bithin depart+ents tend t& get funded4 and there is a c&nspicu&us
lack &f funding f&r cr&ss%depart+ental4 cr&ss%tier e%services. Thus in the n&rthern
states4 funds spent &n CL# have little $enefit as there is n& pr&gra++e f&r
c&+puteriDati&n &f registrati&n.
;urther4 it is a Baste &f ti+e4 eff&rt and +&ne. f&r each depart+ent t& devel&p an
applicati&n aneB Bhen it is &$vi&us that certain Kc&re applicati&nsA 8e.g. &nline tax4
$ill4 fee and fine pa.+entsF filing &f c&+plaintsF e%pr&cure+entF registrati&nsF etc9 can
$e used acr&ss several depart+ents Bith slight +&dificati&n. It f&ll&Bs4 theref&re4 that
the $enefits &f carr.ing &ut :%<&vern+ent initiatives Bithin an is&lated depart+ent
Bill $e su$%&pti+al L feBer e%servicesF unnecessar. duplicati&n &f eff&rtsF n& sharing
&f inf&r+ati&n fr&+ the +ultitude &f data$asesF and n& speed &r efficienc. gains. The
:nterprise appr&ach e+phasiDes the g&vern+ent%Bide as &pp&sed t& a single
depart+ent perspective. It tries t& identif.4 fund4 and i+ple+ent cr&ss%depart+ental4
cr&ss%tier :%<&vern+ent initiatives.
5 c&++&n +istake is t& entrust the :%<&vern+ent pr&=ect t& a tea+ narr&Bl. staffed
$. techn&l&gists Bith&ut the auth&rit. needed t& influence 8&r &verc&+e the resistance
&f9 fr&nt%line e+pl&.ees and &ther stakeh&lders4 and Bith&ut the skills t& achieve K$u.
inA thr&ugh c&nsulting civil servants pr&perl. a$&ut their current pr&cesses and sc&pe
f&r i+pr&ve+ent. Successful i+ple+entati&n re?uires a diverse tea+ under a
respected pr&=ect +anager Bith &rganiDati&nal auth&rit. and Kchange +anage+entA
skills. Since :%<&vern+ent pr&=ects call f&r cr&ss%depart+ental c&&rdinati&n and
integrati&n &f services4 the pr&=ect +anager in a State <&vern+ent setting needs t&
*1
rep&rt directl. t& the Chief Secretar. &r the Chief 0inister4 and if p&ssi$le4 functi&n
fr&+ the &ffice &f either &f the+.
E1uity considerations % The ke. $enefits &f :%<&vern+ent % greater ch&ice4 +&re
c&nvenience4 $etter accessi$ilit.4 faster and +&re efficient deliver.4 and enhanced
civic participati&n L +a. still n&t $e availa$le even in the $est states t& the p&&r4 the
une+pl&.ed4 the elderl.4 and pe&ple living in re+&te areas. These are precisel. the
gr&ups +&st likel. t& need g&vern+ent assistance $ut least likel. t& have access t& the
Internet. 1ther fact&rs c&ntri$uting t& the digital divide areC ps.ch&l&gical issues 8e.g.
techn&ph&$iaF need t& transact even the si+plest $usiness in pers&n9F cultural issues
8language and literac. $arriers9F ph.sical disa$ilitiesF etc. 5lth&ugh these
disadvantaged secti&ns Bill c&ntinue t& have access t& g&vern+ent services thr&ugh
the traditi&nal channels4 ?uesti&ns &f e?uit. are inv&lved since the ?ualit. &f services
the. receive Bill $e c&+parativel. p&&rer.
The suppl. &f c&+puterised land rec&rds sh&uld theref&re $e acc&+panied $. a
de+and fr&+ the p&&r pr&spective users f&r the rec&rds. This is likel. t& happen &nl.
Bhen pe&ple are aBare &f their rights4 kn&B h&B t& access inf&r+ati&n4 and kn&B
h&B t& press their clai+s. 5 user%friendl. K0anual &n #evenue LaBs and #ights in
LandA that pr&vides si+ple inf&r+ati&n in a K;re?uentl. 5sked Wuesti&nsA 8;5W9
f&r+at and prepared in the l&cal language can greatl. assist in raising aBareness &n
such issues a+&ng land users.
:%g&vernance cann&t $e a su$stitute f&r g&&d g&vernance. Hard%c&re =&$s like
c&rrecting land rec&rds4 rec&rding encr&ach+ents4 verif.ing +utati&ns in the field4
and &$serving changes in landuse re?uires dedicated field eff&rt Bith pr&per
supervisi&n. :xcessive dependence &n s&phisticated t&&ls +a. help us t& +ake an
i+pact in +eetings and se+inars4 $ut d&es n&t i+pr&ve the gr&und situati&n.
0an. pe&ple4 particularl. in the p&&rer states4 have l&B expectati&ns a$&ut Bhat :%
<&vern+ent can d& unless the B&rk culture in g&vern+ent % inefficienc.4 c&rrupti&n
and rent% seeking $ehavi&ur &n the part &f pu$lic servants L is ref&r+ed first.
<&vern+ent sh&uld theref&re articulate a visi&n. Leaders in :%<&vern+ent are
invaria$l. th&se Bh& articulated a visi&n earl. L a visi&n that is citiDen%centred and
n&t $ureaucrac. centred4 and is the shared v&ice &f all the stakeh&lders.
In the ulti+ate anal.sis +&derniDati&n &f land ad+inistrati&n has achieved &nl.
+&dest i+pr&ve+ent in India4 $ecause g&vern+ent has little c&ntr&l &ver its staff.
7&&r g&vernance and declining i+ple+entati&n capacit. are the +ain causes &f
p&vert.4 $ackBardness and l&B hu+an devel&p+ent f&r all s&cial sect&r plans in
India4 including land ad+inistrati&n. <r&Bing indiscipline a+&ng staff and
p&liticiDati&n have further er&ded B&rk culture. -e have discussed these issues in
s&+e detail in secti&n 3.*.
T& su+ up4 c&+puteriDati&n &f land rec&rds is a +eans t& an end4 the end $eing a
satisfact&r. s.ste+ &f rec&rd%&f%rights Bhich serves the interests &f the pe&ple and the
g&vern+ent alike. N& atte+pt has $een +ade in an. State t& ensure t& check Bhether
data input is c&rrect &r n&t. CL# is n&t intended t& c&rrect rec&rd%&f%rights. It is
+erel. intended t& st&re Bhatever is c&ntained in the rec&rd%&f%rights. 6nless this
aspect is given pri+ac.4 the &utput fr&+ the c&+puter is n&t likel. t& result in an.
*2
$enefit. This aspect is n&t g&ing t& $e s&rted &ut $. c&+puteriDati&n &f land rec&rds.
0&re&ver4 c&+puteriDati&n d&es n&t change the legal character &f the land rec&rds
Bhich is presu+ptive 8see secti&n 3.29. 5lth&ugh <&I has laid d&Bn c&nditi&n that
$ef&re data are entered int& the c&+puter4 it sh&uld $e ensured that rec&rd%&f%rights
are updated4 $ut this has n&t happened in the states f&r practical reas&ns &f
unp&pularit. &f surve.. The &nl. ansBer is t& put land rec&rds &n the Be$4 si+plif.
the pr&cedure f&r c&rrecti&n &f rec&rds4 +ake it transparent4 and inv&lve civil s&ciet.
in the entire pr&cess.
2.<.> ilot (roEects on =igitisation o$ Cadastral Ma(s.
The pr&cedure f&r rec&rding transfer and &Bnership &f lands4 shares and inheritance is
generall. $ased &n a particular identit. nu+$er f&r each pl&t &f land. #evenue
assess+ent and agricultural .ield related data are als& rec&rded against that specific
identificati&n nu+$er. The Cadastral Surve. 0ap depicts the $&undaries &f a revenue
village and the $&undaries &f individual pl&ts &f land therein. <enerall. the pl&t f&r+s
a separate area &n tB& c&nsiderati&nsC &Bnership and landuse. The +aps are prepared
during regular surve. &perati&ns t& capture the gr&und realities Bith regards t&
frag+entati&n &f parcels &r c&ns&lidati&n &f $&undaries. The +ap is used t& identif.
&Bnership as Bell as cr&pping patterns and usage &f land n&t under cultivati&n. The
+aps4 Bhich Bere prepared during the ,ritish da.s sh&B &nl. the pl&t $&undaries4
especiall. in the n&rthern states4 and lack &ther details. (igitisati&n Bill help t&
integrate the +ap data +&re cl&sel. Bith &Bnership and data availa$le in land rec&rds
c&+puteriDati&n.
<&vern+ent &f India re?uested in 199*%99 all the State <&vern+ents t& su$+it
pr&p&sals f&r 7il&t 7r&=ects f&r (igitisati&n &f Cadastral Surve. 0aps in 2 &r 3 tahsils
&f an. district in their states. S& far 32 7il&t 7r&=ects &n (igitisati&n &f Cadastral
Surve. 0aps c&vering 21 states viD. 5.7.4 0.7.4 0aharashtra4 0anipur4 0eghala.a4
0iD&ra+4 <u=arat4 <&a4 Har.ana4 Oa++u > 3ash+ir4 ,ihar4 3erala4 3arnataka4
Ta+il Nadu4 Tripura4 Nagaland4 1rissa4 7un=a$4 6.7.4 -est ,engal and 7&ndicherr.
have $een sancti&ned $. the 0inistr.. In Ta+il Nadu4 f&r instance4 the pr&gra++e &f
digitiDati&n &f cadastral +aps 8;0,s9 Bas taken up under tB& pil&t pr&=ects c&vering
f&ur taluks na+el. Chengalpattu4 3&davasal4 :r&de and <&$ichettipala.a+ Bith the
122@ financial assistance fr&+ the <&vern+ent &f India t& the tune &f #s.12."
+illi&n under the Centrall. Sp&ns&red Sche+es. 1ut &f this a+&unt a su+ &f #s.12.2
+illi&n has $een spent s& far and 1224222 field +aps have $een c&+puteriDed.
7r&p&sals have $een sent t& <&vern+ent &f India f&r 122@ financial assistance f&r
expansi&n &f digitiDati&n &f cadastral +aps t& all the re+aining taluks in the State at
an esti+ated c&st &f #s.2'2%2*2 +illi&n.
There have $een tB& pr&$le+s Bith this pr&gra++e. ;irst4 122@ funding fr&+ <&I
d&es n&t $ring a sense &f participati&n and &Bnership &n the part &f state
g&vern+ents. Sec&ndl.4 pr&=ects sh&uld have $een sancti&ned &nl. t& th&se districts
Bhere c&+puteriDati&n &f land rec&rds has $een satisfact&ril. c&+pleted. States have
n&t taken this precauti&n Bhile sancti&ning pr&=ects.
*3
2. /odernisation of land re$istration
5s alread. +enti&ned in secti&n 1.*4 the &ffice &f Sta+ps and #egistrati&n in the state
g&vern+ents is n&t part &f the #evenue (epart+ent4 and functi&ns under the ;inance
(epart+ent &r under C&++ercial Taxes (epart+ent4 Bith ver. little linkages Bith the
land rec&rds secti&n &f the #evenue (epart+ents. Its +ain functi&n is t& +axi+ise
revenues f&r the state g&vern+ents4 and it is n&t supp&sed t& g& int& ?uesti&ns &f title.
The registrati&n s.ste+ is g&verned $. anti?uated pr&cedures4 Bhich include the
la$&ri&us c&p.ing and indexing &f d&cu+ents as Bell as their unscientific space%
c&nsu+ing preservati&n in ill%+aintained $ackr&&+s. The registers take a l&t &f
ph.sical space and als& deteri&rate ?ualitativel. Bith age and repeated handling.
The c&+plicated pr&cedures are n&t &nl. ti+e and energ. c&nsu+ing and pr&ne t&
err&rs and +anipulati&ns $ut als& n&t easil. c&+prehensi$le $. citiDens. The la$&ri&us
pr&cedures and lack &f transparenc. in pr&pert. valuati&n resulted in a fl&urishing
$usiness &f $r&kers and +iddle+en Bh& expl&ited citiDens selling pr&pert.. S&+e&ne
selling a s+all pl&t &f land cann&t g& thr&ugh this cu+$ers&+e pr&cedure unless he
c&ntacts sta+p vend&rs4 d&cu+ent Briters 8(-94 and registrati&n agents.
In additi&n t& registering sale4 pe&ple appr&ach the &ffice f&r tB& &ther related
+attersF the. &$tain :ncu+$rance Certificate 8:C9 and ask f&r c&pies &f registered
d&cu+ents. 5n :ncu+$rance Certificate is a d&cu+ent listing the transacti&ns that
&ccurred in relati&n t& a pr&pert. &ver a peri&d preceding the date &f applicati&n f&r
such certificate. It is re?uired $. the financial instituti&ns $ef&re granting a l&an &n
+&rtgage &f a pr&pert. and als& $. pr&spective purchases &f pr&pert. t& ascertain the
nature &f charges &n the pr&pert.. :ncu+$rance Certificates are t.picall. s&ught f&r
the preceding 13 .ears 812 .ears $eing the peri&d f&r getting title $. adverse
p&ssessi&n9. It inv&lves +anual search &f the indexes and v&lu+es relating t& the
preceding 13 .ears.
C&pies &f registrati&n d&cu+ents certified $. the su$%registrars are &ften re?uired $.
litigants t& $e pr&duced $ef&re the c&urts. It inv&lves retrieving the c&p. &f the
&riginal d&cu+ent fr&+ the relevant v&lu+e kept in the rec&rd r&&+ &f the Su$%
#egistrar 1ffice. C&p.ing it +anuall.4 c&+paring Bith the v&lu+e t& edit +istakes4
attesting and delivering t& the applicant is tedi&us4 and generall. d&ne $. inf&r+all.
hired dail. Bage B&rkers4 paid &ut &f the $ri$e funds.
N& 0inistr. in <&I has taken interest in the +&dernisati&n &f registrati&n &ffice4 and
&nl. a feB state g&vern+ents have taken initiative in c&+puterising it. The significant
and increasing c&ntri$uti&n &f sta+p revenues t& the exche?uer has perhaps led these
state g&vern+ents t& tB& c&nclusi&nsC
X I+pr&ve+ents in the ad+inistrati&n &f the dut. thr&ugh +&derniDati&n4
c&+puteriDati&n and taxati&n ref&r+ is likel. t& .ield siDa$le +&netar. results and
fav&ra$le c&st%$enefits.
X Creati&n &f a fairl. Bell defined4 e?uita$le and transparent s.ste+ &f lev. B&uld
result in a high degree &f satisfacti&n a+&ng the &therBise unBilling and grudging
taxpa.ers.
*"
The sta+p dut. in +an. states4 such as 3arnataka4 Ta+il Nadu4 and (elhi has $een
reduced s& as t& enc&urage +&re transacti&ns4 rather than t& res&rt t& su$terfuges such
as p&Ber &f att&rne.. :ven after such a reducti&n registrati&n fees in India is high
Bhen c&+pared Bith &ther c&untries. The f&ll&Bing Ta$le 8Land :?uit. 22239
c&+pares 3arnataka Bith Thailand in s&+e functi&ns &f land registrati&nC
*!
&a)le 1<5 Functionality o$ t'e Land Registration Systems
;uncti&n Thailand 3arnataka
#ati& as @ &f transacti&ns t& t&tal
pr&pert. units.
21.2@ in 2221 12@
#ati& &f staff nu+$ers t&
transacti&ns per da..
2.! staff per
registrati&n per da. in
2221
1.'" staff per
registrati&n per da.
5verage ti+e taken t& pr&duce an
&fficial title search certificate
2.! h&urs 0axi+u+ &ne da.
5verage ti+e taken t& c&+plete
registrati&n.
2.! h&urs 1!%22 da.s
5verage registr. running
c&sttransacti&n.
6SE9.*9 in 2221 E12.)2 in 1999%22
5verage revenue per transacti&n Y6SE** in
2221
Y6SE229 in
2222
#ati& &f revenue t& t&tal running
c&sts.
!.2* in 2221 22.') in 2222
C&st &f average transfer as a @ &f
value.
12.'@ 13%1!@
-e descri$e $el&B the pr&gress in 0aharashtra4 5ndhra 7radesh4 and Ta+il Nadu.
2.6.1 Ma'aras'tra
The <&vern+ent &f 0aharashtra 8<&09 has upgraded service deliver. in the stateAs
3'2 su$%registries4 resp&nsi$le f&r registering d&cu+ents relating t& pr&pert. and
&ther transacti&ns4 and sta+pregistrati&n duties. This neB +&del Bas $ased &n
extensive c&nsultati&n Bith e+pl&.ees acr&ss the state4 $lunting resistance and
i+pr&ving the chances f&r e+pl&.ee $u.%in $. &ffering the+ $etter &ffice space and
facilities in exchange f&r c&%&perati&n. The +&del stressed understanding the
pr&$le+s in the existing $usiness pr&cess first and &nl. then devel&ping an e%
g&vernance s&luti&n. The discreti&nar. p&Ber &f su$%#egistrars a$&ut Bhen and
Bhether t& register a d&cu+ent &r return it Bas eli+inatedF n&B d&cu+ents that +eet
specified re?uire+ents 8and these have als& $een si+plified9 Bill aut&+aticall. $e
accepted f&r registrati&n and returned Bithin a specified ti+e. The stateAs #ead.
#eck&ner4 a +anual used f&r deter+ining pr&pert. values and the resultant sta+p
dut.4 has als& $een +ade +&re precise4 and full. c&+puteriDed4 +aking it p&ssi$le t&
generate sta+p value in a +atter &f +inutes. In additi&n4 franking +achines have $een
installed in 222 &ffices4 and cust&+ers all&Bed t& purchase sta+p paper &n the sp&t
rather than g& thr&ugh the +&re cu+$ers&+e pr&cedure &f $u.ing it separatel. fr&+
sta+p vend&rs4 saving <&0 a 3@ c&++issi&n fee. ;inall.4 su$%registrars are n&B
re?uired t& sign registrati&n d&cu+ents4 i++ediatel. after the. are generated and in
full vieB &f the Baiting pu$lic4 rather than in a cl&sed &ffice later &n.
The changes Bere $ased &n a realistic and sustaina$le revenue +&delC Sta+ps and
#egistrati&n charges its cust&+ers #s. 22 f&r ever. page &f paper handled $. it. In
*'
additi&n4 the &ffices are &perated and +aintained $. private c&+panies f&r an initial
c&ntract peri&d &f five .ears. ,ecause data entr. &perat&rs are privatel. hired4 the. act
as a p&tential check &n +isuse &f auth&rit. $. g&vern+ent e+pl&.ees. 7enalties are
levied &n the &perat&rAs revenue strea+ if transacti&ns inv&lving less than 32 pages
take +&re than 2! +inutes4 $ut n& reBards Bill $e pr&vided if the. take less ti+e at
this stage. (ata entr. &perat&rs digitall. scan all thu+$prints and ph&t& i+ages
re?uired f&r applicati&ns.
1verall the reva+ping &f sta+ps and registrati&n in 0aharashtra represents a p&ssi$le
+&del n&t &nl. f&r transf&r+ing this particular agenc. in &ther states4 $ut a useful
case stud. &f h&B t& g& a$&ut i+pr&ving service deliver. generall.4 Bith several
less&ns applica$le acr&ss servicesagencies. 1ne such less&n4 f&r exa+ple4 has t& d&
Bith tacticsC 5fter an initial pil&t in 7une4 &fficials decided t& r&ll%&ut all the changes
in earl. 2221 8including c&+puteriDati&n9 si+ultane&usl. rather than in a phased
+annerC This had the advantage &f standardiDing service deliver. acr&ss su$%registries
at &ne ti+e4 +axi+iDing the i+pact &f p&litical and pu$lic supp&rt f&r ref&r+4 Bhich
+ight have dissipated had the appr&ach $een sl&Ber4 and n&t giving &pp&siti&n t&
ref&r+ ti+e t& cr.stalliDe and stall the pr&gra+. 5n&ther less&n is the i+p&rtance &f
p&litical supp&rt f&r service deliver. i+pr&ve+ents as an essential c&unterBeight t&
the vested interests that Bill &pp&se an. ref&r+ &f this natureC the 0aharashtra
Ca$inet gave its $acking t& the ref&r+ &f sta+ps and registrati&n &n several
&ccasi&ns. This Bas due +ainl. t& the persistence &f the head &f the agenc. L and
ref&r+ cha+pi&n %% in his p&st f&r +&re than three .ears.
I+pr&ve+ents in registrati&n in 0aharashtraC
The ti+e re?uired t& register a d&cu+ent has dr&pped fr&+ Beeks t& an average &f
32 +inutes per transacti&n.
The nu+$er &f d&cu+ents registered per da. has increased su$stantiall. 8e.g. $.
32@ in s&+e &ffices9.
#evenue has =u+ped $. 2!@ fr&+ #s.24222 cr&re in 222122 t& #s.24!22 cr&re
currentl..
1pp&rtunities f&r c&rrupti&n have $een vastl. reduced in the (epart+ent.
;eed$ack f&r+s c&llected $. the (epart+ent indicate greater pu$lic satisfacti&n
ste++ing fr&+ the greater transparenc. and speed &f its &perati&ns.
In rec&gniti&n &f these eff&rts4 the 0aharashtra #egistrati&n (epart+ent Bas given a
priDe $. the C&+puter S&ciet. &f India in 2222 as Bell as a priDe $. the <&vern+ent
&f 0aharashtraAs VeshBantra& Chavan 5cade+. &f (evel&p+ent 5d+inistrati&n.
2.6.2 Com(uter%Aided Administration o$ Registration =e(artment ,CAR=- in
And'ra rades'
In 57 there are 3*) Su$%#egistrar &ffices that register a$&ut 1.2 +illi&n d&cu+ents a
.ear. The B&rk &f the Su$%registrar is supervised $. (istrict #egistrars 82*94 (eput.
Inspect&rs 8'9 and the Inspect&r <eneral 819 Bh& f&r+ a p.ra+idal hierarch.. 5 pil&t
pr&=ect f&r c&+puteriDing tB& Su$%#egistrar 1ffices Bas sancti&ned at a c&st &f a$&ut
#s 2." +illi&n. :nc&uraged $. the success &f the pil&t pr&=ects4 the <&vern+ent &f
*)
5ndhra 7radesh sancti&ned appr&xi+atel. #s 1!.! +illi&n in Septe+$er 199) f&r
extending the pr&=ect t& 212 &ther Su$%#egistrar 1ffices.
The first step Bas t& a+end the #egistrati&n 5ct. The #egistrati&n 5ct &f 192*4 is a
legislati&n &f the 6ni&n &f India4 and d&es n&t pr&vide f&r handling the registrati&n
pr&cess &n c&+puters. The 5ct t&gether Bith the #ules and Standing 1rders4 pr&vide
in +inute detail4 the +anner &f presentati&n &f d&cu+ent4 its scrutin.4 the registrati&n
pr&cess4 c&p.ing &f the d&cu+ents int& v&lu+es &f $&&ks4 the ink t& $e used f&r
c&p.ing4 etc. C&pies &f d&cu+ents preserved in an. &ther Ba. B&uld n&t have the
legal sancti&n and s& B&uld n&t $e ad+issi$le as evidence. T& &verc&+e this
situati&n4 the #egistrati&n 5ct4 192*4 in its applicati&n t& the state &f 57 has $een
a+ended t& pr&vide f&r the f&ll&BingC
X The pr&cess &f registrati&n &f an. categ&r. &f d&cu+ents +a. $e c&+pleted and
c&p.ing d&ne Bith the help &f electr&nic devices like c&+puters4 scanners and C(s
and c&pies preserved and retrieved Bhen re?uired.
X C&pies &f d&cu+ents registered and st&red electr&nicall.4 retrieved4 printed and
certified $. the su$%registrar shall $e received as evidence.
X The s&ftBare t& $e used f&r registrati&n shall $e prescri$ed $. the Inspect&r <eneral.
It t&&k &ver a .ear f&r the a+end+ent t& $ec&+e effective fr&+ !.2.99. The
g&vern+ent &f 57 n&tified 21" su$%registrar &ffices4 Bhere the registrati&n can $e
d&ne using electr&nic devices. The pr&cedure &f sp&t inspecti&n4 Bhich is &ften a
discreti&nar. pr&cess4 has $een dispensed Bith. It is replaced $. a s.ste+ &f p&st%
registrati&n inspecti&n &f pr&perties. The s.ste+ &f +arket value assistance acr&ss the
c&unter is a direct &ffsh&&t &f this eff&rt.
Nearl. 1'22 e+pl&.ees at vari&us levels have $een trained in the technical and
&perati&nal aspects re?uired t& +aintain and run the s.ste+s. 5 cadre &f )! (71As
8(ata 7r&cessing 1fficers9 has $een $uilt fr&+ a+&ng the e+pl&.ees &f the
depart+ent4 t& f&r+ the c&re tea+ resp&nsi$le f&r the transfer &f skills t& the
&perati&nal staff &n an &ng&ing $asis. The. f&r+ the +&st i+p&rtant hu+an res&urce4
s& critical f&r the sustained &perati&n and success &f the C5#( pr&=ect.
,enefits &f the C5#( S.ste+
7r&vides a transparent +eth&d &f valuati&n &f pr&perties > calculati&n &f
sta+p duties
Si+plifies registrati&n pr&cedures
:nhances speed4 relia$ilit. and c&nsistenc. &f the s.ste+
Cuts dela.s $. replacing the +anual s.ste+s &f c&p.ing4 indexing and
acc&unting
Intr&duces state%&f the%art d&cu+ent4 +anage+ent s.ste+
Scanning &f d&cu+ents replaces +anual c&p.ing
I+ages &f d&cu+ents are preserved &n C(Ns in f&ur c&pies
#etrieval &f the d&cu+ents and &$taining c&pies is +ade instantane&us
**
7r&vides acr&ss%the%c&unter services
The ?ualit. &f registrati&n services is expected t& g& up su$stantiall. under the C5#(
s.ste+4 as can $e seen fr&+ the f&ll&Bing ta$leC
&a)le 165 &ime ta*en to (rovide t'e service
(escripti&n &f the Service 0anual S.ste+ C5#( S.ste+
0arket Value 5ssistance NeB Service ! 0inutes
Sale &f Sta+ps 32 0inutes 1! 0inutes
#egistrati&n 1 t& ) da.s 1 H&ur
(&cu+ent Briting NeB service 1! 0inutes
:ncu+$rance Certificates 1 t& ! da.s ! 0inutes
5 recent assess+ent &f C5#( 8Casele. 222"9 appreciated the B&rk d&ne in 574
KC&nverting 212 S#1s int& C5#( &ffices in such a sh&rt peri&d &f ti+e Bas a +a=&r
achieve+ent and credit +ust $e given t& Sat.anara.ana and Naidu4 $&th &f Bh&+
pla.ed critical r&les during the 1!%+&nth C5#( r&ll%&ut peri&d. Sat.anara.ana 8I<9
Bas the ref&r+ cha+pi&n4 +&$ilising depart+ent staff t& take up the ref&r+s Bith
enthusias+ and c&++it+ent4 Bhile Naidu 8Chief 0inister9 Bas active in +eeting
Sat.anara.ana &n a regular $asis4 and issuing specific instructi&ns t& the revenue
depart+ent t& clear an. C5#(%related files i++ediatel.. This sent a clear +essage t&
g&vern+ent &fficials that n&thing Bas t& get in the Ba. &f this ref&r+ initiative.A
The article h&Bever &$served that K<&vern+ent sh&uld have c&+puteriDed the entire
depart+ent4 Bith special e+phasis &n a str&ng c&+puter%$ased +anage+ent
inf&r+ati&n s.ste+ 80IS9 f&r effective head &ffice +anage+ent and supervisi&n4 $ut
$ack%&ffice c&+puteriDati&n and a netB&rked 0IS Bere put &n h&ld. This decisi&n
seri&usl. under+ined the C5#( ref&r+s fr&+ the ver. $eginning.A
2.6.3 I& ac*age o$ Registration in &amil 6adu
In Ta+il Nadu4 there are !'2 #egistrati&n &ffices that register appr&xi+atel. 1."
+illi&n d&cu+ents and issue 1.' +illi&n :ncu+$rance Certificates 8:C9 per .ear. The
c&+puteriDed s.ste+ Bas initiated t& eli+inate the +aladies affecting the
c&nventi&nal registrati&n s.ste+ and t& +eet the f&ll&Bing ke. &$=ectivesC
(e+.stif. the registrati&n pr&cess and +ake the s.ste+ transparent
,ring in speed4 efficienc.4 c&nsistenc. and relia$ilit.
Su$stantiall. i+pr&ve the citiDen interface
These g&als Bere t& $e achieved $.C
Intr&ducing a transparent s.ste+ &f valuati&n &f pr&perties4 easil. accessi$le
t& citiDens
#eplacing the +anual s.ste+ &f c&p.ing and filing &f d&cu+ents Bith a
s&phisticated d&cu+ent +anage+ent s.ste+ using i+aging techn&l&g.
*9
#eplacing the +anual s.ste+ &f indexing4 acc&unting and rep&rting thr&ugh
the intr&ducti&n &f electr&nic pr&cessing
#eplacing the +anual s.ste+ &f registrati&n &f s&cieties > chits Bith
electr&nic pr&cessing
Sharing inf&r+ati&n acr&ss the &ffices and gl&$aliDe inf&r+ati&n f&r pu$lic use
thr&ugh Be$site
C&+puteriDati&n Bas initiated in the .ear 2222 &n a pil&t $asis in 1' Su$ #egistrar
&ffices. Currentl.4 this applicati&n is running in 3!2 &ffices. The pr&=ect enc&untered
+a=&r challenges in $uilding up $asic value data and the :C data f&r the last 13 .ears.
The data c&nsisted &f a$&ut 13 +illi&n rec&rds c&vering all !'2 Su$%#egistrar 1ffices.
The validati&n &f data $. the &fficials &f the depart+ent t&&k al+&st 22 t& 2! Beeks.
The success &f the netB&rking can $e gauged $. the nu+$er 83342229 &f :Cs issued
&nline upt& 2)th ;e$. 222". H&Bever4 the nu+$er is still insignificant. In a .ear a$&ut
13 lakh encu+$rance certificates are issued $. the S#1s4 &ut &f Bhich &nl. !2
applicati&ns per da. are $eing disp&sed%&ff &nline.
The pr&cess &f registrati&n &f pr&pert. has $een si+plified t& c&+plete the entire
&perati&n in less than an h&ur. 5ll the re?uired inf&r+ati&n &f registrati&n pr&cess are
availa$le &n the Be$site Bith regular updates &f the c&ntent. 1ther achieve+ents areC
(&&r deliver. &f :Cs4 certified c&pies &f registered d&cu+ents4 +arriage
certificate etc. &n su$+issi&n &f applicati&ns &nline
StateBide inf&r+ati&n &n guideline values.
1nline valuati&n &f pr&perties.
7u$lic utilit. f&r+s and +&del draft d&cu+ents as d&Bnl&ads.
Latest status &f +&re than 1.2 lakh registered s&cieties
The depart+ent c&llects #s.122 per registrati&n &f d&cu+ent and #s.122% per
encu+$rance certificate as user charges fr&+ the applicants. The user charges fr&+
the applicants are sufficient t& +eet the recurring expenditure &n pr&cure+ent4
+aintenance and &perati&n &f hardBare and s&ftBare. The t&tal c&llecti&n fr&+ user
charges f&r the .ear 2222%2223 Bas #s.1'2 +illi&n.
5s a part &f future plan it is pr&p&sed t& pr&vide c&nnectivit. Bith the revenue rec&rds
t& ena$le +utati&ns &nline.
The (epart+ent has netB&rked all &f ChennaiAs 22 su$%registries4 all&Bing a
cust&+er t& &$tain encu+$rance certificates4 certified deed c&pies4 &r guideline values
f&r an. pr&pert. at an. &ffice in the cit.F netB&rking has facilitated central
perf&r+ance +&nit&ring $. the Inspect&r%<eneral 8I<9. 5 Be$site
8httpCigregn.tn.nic.in9 pr&vides inf&r+ati&n &n guideline values4 fre?uentl. asked
?uesti&ns4 fees4 and i+p&rtant circulars and <1As4 as Bell as sa+ple deeds t& $reak
the strangleh&ld &f &fficial deed%Briters in the pr&cessF the Be$site all&Bs cust&+ers
t& appl. &n%line f&r an encu+$rance &r +arriage certificate4 and file c&+plaints
vieBed $. the I<. There have $een +&re than !4"24222 hits t& the I< registrati&n
Be$site4 sh&Bing its p&pularit..
92
C&+puteriDati&n $. itself has reduced the ti+e re?uired t& issue an encu+$rance
certificate fr&+ * da.s t& five +inutesF value a pr&pert. fr&+ 32 t& five +inutesF
pr&vide certified c&pies fr&+ " da.s t& '2 +inutesF and register a d&cu+ent fr&+ "
da.s t& &ne h&ur. The depart+ent has cl&sed f&rt. re+&te &ffices Bith ver. l&B
v&lu+es &f $usinessF and reduced the discreti&n &f Special (eput. C&llect&rs in
revising rates &n appeal $. pr&viding the+ Bith data &n pri&r land transacti&ns and
asking f&r reas&ns t& =ustif. an. reducti&n $el&B the esta$lished $ase rate. These
ref&r+s4 acc&rding t& the I<4 $&&sted revenue fr&+ the (epart+ent $. "2@ $etBeen
222122 and 22232" fr&+ #s. 12.'" t& #s. 1).)2 $illi&n.
6nlike 0aharashtra and 3arnataka4 Bhich have $&th &uts&urced the running &f Su$%
#egistries4 Ta+il Nadu has ch&sen t& ref&r+ the depart+ent in%h&use4 as there is a
great deal &f surplus staff Bith the (irect&rate. The t&tal nu+$er &f Su$%#egistrarAs
&ffice in TN is !!2. The present I<4 Bh& has $een &n his =&$ f&r three .ears4 feels that
the nu+$er is high and needs t& $e reduced t& 322. Then each centre Bill have
ade?uate staff t& Brite the deeds the+selves4 and the private Birters can $e d&ne aBa.
Bith.
;urther ref&r+s that sh&uld $e c&nsidered4 and pr&p&sed $. the Tax #ef&r+s and
#evenue 5ug+entati&n C&++ittee4 include the creati&n &f a Central Valuati&n
C&++ittee t& esta$lish guidelines f&r valuati&n $. (istrict C&++ittees t& reduce
+anipulati&nF revaluing &nl. &nce in three .earsF drasticall. si+plif.ing the criteria
f&r assessing $uildingF and eli+inating the use &f sta+p paper4 except f&r l&B%value
transacti&ns4 thr&ugh the use &f franking +achines 8several states have faced
racketeering in fake sta+p paper4 including 0aharashtra4 5ndhra 7radesh and
3arnataka4 Bhich recentl. $anned its use &ver the &$=ecti&ns &f the p&Berful sta+p
vend&rs l&$$.9.
2.6." Assessment
C&+puteriDati&n has +ade B&rk easier f&r depart+ent staff $. re+&ving tB& ti+e%
c&nsu+ing and +undane &ffice tasks4 na+el.4 c&p.ing inf&r+ati&n int& =&urnals $.
hand fr&+ registered sale deeds4 and hand searching and Briting :ncu+$rance
Certificates. Intr&ducing c&+puters has n&Bhere in Indian g&vern+ent $een &pp&sed
$. +inisterial l&Ber staff $ecause the. see in c&+puters an &pp&rtunit. t& upgrade
their skills4 Bhile reducing their drudger.. The +anual s.ste+ f&rced the Su$%
#egistrar &ffice t& app&int a large nu+$er &f private hands t& help the+ in the task &f
l&cating4 checking and c&p.ing d&cu+ents Bh& had t& $e paid &ut &f the $ri$e fund4
and +an. Su$% #egistrars +ust have th&ught that thr&ugh c&+puters the. B&uld $e
a$le t& reduce their expenses.
In additi&n t& these private hands4 there are )4222 &fficial d&cu+ent Briters in Ta+il
Nadu. 5lth&ugh fresh licensing has $een st&pped4 the practice &f using their services
still c&ntinues in Ta+il Nadu4 as pe&ple feel that their B&rk B&uld $e d&ne
expediti&usl. if the. appr&ach the &ffice via the deed Briters. The. c&llect the
necessar. fees fr&+ the pu$lic Bhich includes a part as $ri$es. Th&ugh the &verall
peri&d taken in registering a d&cu+ent has c&+e d&Bn4 the practice &f $ri$es still
c&ntinues. -hether the a+&unt has c&+e d&Bn &r n&t is difficult t& sa.. 5s &pp&sed
t& c&llecting a c&p. &f #1# Bhich far+ers &$taining $ank l&ans c&llect fre?uentl.
91
8sa. &nce in tB&%three .ears94 registering a sale deed is &nce%in%a%life%ti+e event4 and
theref&re pe&ple are n&t fa+iliar Bith the neB pr&cedure. The. still find it c&nvenient
t& rel. &n laB.ers and private vend&rs Bh& act as inter+ediaries $etBeen the pu$lic
and the #egistrarAs &ffice.
Su$registrarAs &ffice and the c&+puter r&&+ are &ften in different r&&+s in Ta+il
Nadu4 Bith the result that applicati&ns c&llected fr&+ the pu$lic are first checked4 and
then sent in $ulk t& the c&+puter r&&+. This results in dela.s4 Bhich c&uld $e av&ided
if checking &f applicati&ns and the re?uired c&+puter B&rk Bere d&ne in a se?uence
f&r each applicati&n.
,ecause &f lack &f c&&rdinati&n $etBeen #evenue and the registrati&n depart+ent4 the
latter is &ften n&t aBare &f the latest changes in &Bnership that +a. have taken place4
f&r instance as a result &f ac?uisiti&n $. g&vern+ent under the Land 5c?uisiti&n 5ct.
In such a case4 an :C +a. $e issued4 Bhereas the &Bnership has changed. This
pr&$le+ is ver. acute in the ur$an areas Bhereas &ften land that is under the 6r$an
Ceiling LaB 8and theref&re likel. t& $ec&+e g&vern+ent pr&pert. in future9 has $een
s&ld t& an unsuspecting $u.er Bh& is n&t aBare &f the pr&ceedings under the Ceiling
5ct.
The +ain issue h&Bever is als& h&B t& achieve i+pact &n &ther di+ensi&ns &f
perf&r+ance4 such as inf&r+ati&n transparenc.4 staff $ehavi&ur4 and the pa.+ent &f
$ri$es t& secure d&cu+ent registrati&n L &r &n &utc&+es L perceived changes in
service deliver.. Several suggesti&ns can $e given here.
:li+inate the use &f sta+p paper Bhich causes huge annual l&sses t& the state
g&vern+ent Bith the unchecked circulati&n &f fake sta+p paperF
Let citiDens pa. registrati&n and sta+p dut. fees at designated private and
state sect&r $anks 8s& that c&rrupti&n can $e reduced and electr&nic receipts
guaranteed9F
:li+inate (-s $. having S#1 staff Brite d&cu+ents f&r citiDens using
si+ple4 c&+puter%$ased te+platesF
7&pularise &nline encu+$rance certificates $. inv&lving private ki&sks.
The registrati&n d&cu+ent sh&uld have ph&t&graphs &f the $u.er and the
seller. This +a. check $ena+i transacti&ns.
The #egistrar sh&uld have a list &f p&r&+$&ke 8c&++&n pr&pert.9 pl&t
nu+$ers s& that he +a. take precauti&ns t& ensure that encr&ached pl&ts are
n&t privatiDed.
Instal ki&sks in Su$%#egistrar 1ffice f&r vieBing and taking print&uts &f :Cs.
The +&st i+p&rtant ref&r+ B&uld $e t& strengthen acc&unta$ilit. relati&nships
$etBeen the #egistrati&n staff and external act&rs4 such as citiDens4 civil s&ciet.
gr&ups4 and the +edia. This B&uld $e $est achieved thr&ugh esta$lishing f&r+al
acc&unta$ilit. +echanis+s4 thr&ugh Bhich external act&rs can h&ld depart+ent staff
8$&th seni&r +anagers and fr&nt%line S#1 staff9 t& acc&unt f&r transparent and
resp&nsive service deliver.. 1ne such +echanis+ c&uld inv&lve the esta$lish+ent &f
t&ll%free4 district%$ased cust&+er call centres4 thr&ugh Bhich citiDens c&uld access
92
inf&r+ati&n &n h&B t& register their d&cu+ents 8as Bell as &ther services9F find &ut the
exact sta+p and registrati&n fees the. sh&uld pa.F and l&dge f&r+al c&+plaints
regarding c&rrupti&n &r p&&r treat+ent $. S#1 staff. 1nl. Bhen such a transparent
instituti&nal +echanis+ is esta$lished4 Bill it $e p&ssi$le f&r ke. stakeh&lders 8the
state g&vern+ent4 +edia4 p&liticians4 and citiDens9 t& effectivel. +&nit&r the
perf&r+ance &f fr&nt%line S#1 staff and reduce the high levels &f c&rrupti&n that are
diverting scarce h&useh&ld res&urces fr&+ vital s&ci&%ec&n&+ic devel&p+ent in the
states.
93
3 olicy Issues
Land ad+inistrati&n has l&ng $een &ne &f the c&re functi&ns &f state g&vern+ents in
India. ;&r vari&us reas&ns descri$ed in the last tB& chapters the s.ste+ has n&t $een
a$le t& adapt t& changing de+ands &f the changing ti+es and re?uire+ents. The
failure &f the state t& +aintain authentic rec&rds thr&ugh ti+el. surve. activities has
led t& a c&nsidera$le discrepanc. $etBeen Bhat is f&und &n the gr&und and Bhat is
actuall. rec&rded in the s.ste+. Lack &f secure title generates a great deal &f
litigati&n4 and the p&&rer secti&ns &f p&pulati&n4 particularl. $eneficiaries &f land
ref&r+s +easures4 are adversel. hit &n this acc&unt as the. are fre?uentl. dragged
int& disputes c&ncerning land all&tted t& the+. 5s it is n&t eas. f&r s+all far+ers t&
secure individual titles Bith&ut g&ing thr&ugh partiti&n suits4 Bhich are ti+e
c&nsu+ing and c&st +&ne.4 the. are f&rced t& $&rr&B fr&+ inf&r+al s&urces at high
rates &f interest4 leading s&+eti+es t& far+ersA suicides that have $een rep&rted
Bidel. in the neBspapers in the last c&uple &f .ears. :ven Bhen their title is clear4 it is
n&t eas. t& get :C &r c&p. &f #&# fr&+ the taluk Bith&ut greasing +an. pal+s.
Th&ugh s&+e states have taken ad+ira$le ad+inistrative +easures t& i+pr&ve
c&+puteriDati&n &f land rec&rds and registrati&n4 the &verall satisfacti&n t& far+ers
even in these states is patch. f&r lack &f c&&rdinati&n $etBeen sale registrati&n and its
+utati&n4 and n&n%inv&lve+ent &f private internet service pr&viders. It is significant
that $&th per capita agricultural pr&ducti&n and f&&dgrain availa$ilit. in India has
fallen steepl. in the last eight .ears. It is te+pting t& $elieve that &ne &f the +ain
reas&ns f&r stagnant pr&ductivit. &f land is the steep deteri&rati&n in the ?ualit. &f
land ad+inistrati&n.
1n Septe+$er '4 22214 0c3inse. and C&+pan.4 an 5+erican C&nsultanc. fir+4
su$+itted t& the 7ri+e 0inister &f India a three%v&lu+e rep&rt entitled KIndiaC The
<r&Bth I+perative L 6nderstanding the ,arriers t& #apid <r&Bth and :+pl&.+ent
Creati&nA. The rep&rt states that Kunclear pr&pert. rights f&r rural and ur$an land
re+ain a +a=&r issue thr&ugh&ut India. It is a c&+plex and kn&tt. pr&$le+ and has
$een exacer$ated $ecause &f variet. &f reas&ns.A It is further stated in this rep&rt that
Kland +arket dist&rti&ns acc&unt f&r cl&se t& 1.3 per cent &f l&st gr&Bth a .ear4 $ut
largel. re+ain excluded fr&+ pu$lic de$ate. Z 0&st land parcels in India L 92 per
cent $. &ne esti+ate L are su$=ect t& legal disputes &ver their &Bnership. The pr&$le+
+ight take Indian c&urts a centur. t& res&lve at their current rate &f pr&gress. This
lack &f clarit. &ver Bh& &Bns Bhat +akes it i++ensel. difficult t& $u. land f&r retail
and h&using devel&p+ent. 7r&pert. devel&pers als& have tr&u$le raising finance4 since
the. cann&t &ffer an. land t& Bhich the. d& n&t have a clear title as c&llateral f&r
l&ans.A
Thus it is &$vi&us that c&+puteriDati&n4 alth&ugh vital4 is n&t the &nl. s&luti&n. 1ne
B&uld have t& g& deeper and l&&k at a large nu+$er &f p&licies pertaining t& land that
have held $ack tenurial securit. and land pr&ductivit.. In this chapter Be l&&k at s&+e
&f these p&lic. issues and l&&ph&les in land laBs that inhi$it devel&ping a health.
lease and sale +arket in land.
9"
3.1 /ultiple a$encies
:xistence &f +ultiple agencies4 such as surve. depart+ent t& prepare cadastral
rec&rds4 revenue depart+ent t& prepare rec&rd &f rights in land and registrati&n
depart+ent t& register transacti&ns relating t& land c&+pr&+ises &n the efficienc. &f
updati&n &f land rec&rds. There sh&uld $e a single integrated agenc. in ever. State
Bhich is resp&nsi$le f&r the preparati&n and c&ntinu&us updating &f land rec&rds $.
e+pl&.ing +&dern techn&l&g.. It sh&uld $e designated as the Land 5d+inistrati&n
(epart+ent4 Bhich shall B&rk in tande+ Bith the 7ancha.ati #a= Instituti&ns. It shall
have unif&r+ ad+inistrative set up in all the states. Its functi&ns shall $eC
C&nducting cadastral surve.s t& generate accurate land rec&rds and
+aintaining the+ upt&dateF
I+ple+entati&n &f all land related laBs including land ref&r+ laBsF
C&llecti&n &f land revenue4 n&n%agricultural land assess+ent4 irrigati&n dues4
agricultural l&ans and all &ther dues under the 7u$lic (e+ands #ec&ver. 5ctF
C&llecti&n &f agricultural statisticsF
#egistrati&n &f land transacti&nsF
Safeguarding &f pu$lic interest4 pu$lic pr&pert. and pu$lic assets including
c&++&n pr&pert. res&urces
Irrespective &f &Bnership &f lands4 land rec&rds &f an. village sh&uld $e readil.
accessi$le t& an. individual4 privatev&luntar. &rganiDati&ns4 and pu$lic spirited
$&dies. The secrec. shr&uding land rec&rds in the f&r+ &f regulated access and
restricti&ns shall $e d&ne aBa. Bith and the landh&lder shall $e +ade aBare &f its
&penness.
Taluk and (istrict +aps in all the states shall $e freel. availa$le Bith&ut restricti&ns
t& all. In a +a=&rit. &f states4 the restricti&ns i+p&sed s&+eti+e during 19'' $. the
0inistr. &f (efence4 <&vern+ent &f India are still c&ntinuing.
Land 5d+inistrati&n (epart+ents shall n&t $urden the+selves Bith c&nducting the
cadastral surve. &perati&ns either in the rural &r in the ur$an tracts. Instead4 these
B&rks shall $e entrusted t& c&+petent surve.ing &rganiDati&ns and s&luti&n%pr&viders
in the private sect&r. ,. c&nducting all future surve.s this Ba.4 including resurve.s4 it
Bill $ec&+e p&ssi$le t& get the final rec&rds in c&+puteriDed f&r+at and read. f&r
+aintenance. ;urther4 privatisati&n Bill help arresting c&st and ti+e &ver%runs.
3.1.1 Co%existence o$ Revenue and Registration Systems
The c&%existence &f #evenue and #egistrati&n rec&rd s.ste+s creates c&sts and
c&+plicati&ns4 Bith&ut &$vi&us c&untervailing $enefits. The hist&rical reas&ns f&r the
creati&n &f tB& s.ste+s &f land rec&rd keeping S #evenue and #egistrati&n S are n&
l&nger c&+pelling t&da.. 5n. sale &f land technicall. re?uires f&ll&Bing tB& sets &f
laBs and pr&cedures. ,&th instituti&ns c&ntain rec&rds pr&viding evidence &f land
&Bnership4 .et neither is definitive. 7&&r integrati&n &f the tB& s.ste+s results in
duplicati&n &f eff&rt and &ccasi&nal +is+atch &f inf&r+ati&n regarding the sa+e
piece &f land. There is thus lack &f c&&rdinati&n $etBeen the line depart+ents &f Land
#ec&rds and #egistrati&n.
-ere &ne designing a neB s.ste+ fr&+ the gr&und up t&da.4 the +erging &f the
rec&rd keeping functi&ns carried &ut $. these tB& instituti&ns B&uld al+&st certainl.
9!
$e rec&++ended4 and in the l&ng ter+4 states sh&uld c&nsider +&ving in this
directi&n. In the +eanti+e4 $etter c&&rdinati&n is re?uired4 including Bith respect t&
c&+puteriDati&n4 putting rec&rds &n the Be$4 and sharing Bith private ki&sks4 as n&ted
in the sec&nd chapter.
The pr&$le+ &f c&&rdinati&n $ec&+es even +&re acute Bhen it c&+es t& preparing
rec&rds f&r the ur$an areas. The ur$an areas in +&st t&Bns Bere previ&usl. part &f a
village4 and rec&rds Bere +aintained in the tahsiltaluk &ffice. Land f&r extensi&n &f
t&Bns is ac?uired first $. the T&Bn (evel&p+ent 5uth&rit. and then after
devel&p+ent is passed &n t& the cit. 0unicipal C&uncil. In additi&n t& these three
agencies4 there are +an. &ther g&vern+ent depart+ents such as 7u$lic -&rks4 Land
> (evel&p+ent 1ffice4 8in (elhi4 f&r instance94 Bh& c&ntr&l land4 $ut n&ne &f the+
+aintain pl&t%Bise inf&r+ati&n. The 0unicipal C&uncil l&ses all interest in the
+aintenance &f rec&rds4 &nce a pr&pert. is declared freeh&ld4 as their interest is
li+ited t& c&llecti&n &f h&use tax. (espite the price &f land in the capital cit. &f (elhi
$eing &ne &f the highest in the -&rld4 as discussed in secti&n 1.'."4 lack &f pl&t%Bise
inf&r+ati&n reflects p&&rl. &n the status &f g&vernance.
I+p&rtantl.4 CL# sh&uld acc&+pan. c&+puteriDati&n &f the land registrati&n s.ste+
and $e c&&rdinated t& reduce transacti&n c&sts. The present registrati&n s.ste+ is
+anual and dependent up&n age%&ld +eth&ds and pr&cedures. The increasing v&lu+e
&f transacti&ns has led t& in&rdinate dela.s and inefficiencies. ;urther4 d&cu+ents are
su$=ect t& deca. and the retrieval &f d&cu+ents is la$&ri&us and pr&ne t& dela.s. 5t
the sa+e ti+e4 valuati&n &f pr&pert.4 essential t& c&nfir+ that the sale price is n&t
$el&B the prevailing +arket price4 takes a great deal &f ti+e in +anuall. searching
thr&ugh the previ&us three .earsA rec&rds t& find the highest value.
C&+puteriDati&n &f the registrati&n ad+inistrati&n s.ste+ 8Bhich is unf&rtunatel. n&t
supp&rted financiall. $. <&I4 and hence n&t atte+pted in +&st states9 and its
$ackBard integrati&n Bith land rec&rds c&+puteriDati&n BillC
L reduce sc&pe f&r the +anipulati&n &f rec&rds4 and the ti+e re?uired t& c&+plete
registrati&n4
L ena$le the su$%registrar t& ascertain the validit. &f the transacti&n at the ti+e &f
registrati&n $. linking t& the tahsil c&+puter4 there$. reducing su$se?uent dela.s and
unnecessar. c&sts4
L reduce dela.s as inf&r+ati&n pertaining t& land transacti&n Bill $e sent directl. $.
the su$%registrar t& the c&ncerned tahsildarAs c&+puter4 and
L assist the tahsildar at the ti+e &f +utati&n t& ascertain relevant facts directl. $.
+eans &f a link t& the su$%registrarAs c&+puter f&r speedier disp&sal &f +utati&n cases
and updating &f #1#s.
Thus4 Bhile CL# is a p&sitive devel&p+ent it al&ne is insufficient f&r i+pr&ving land
ad+inistrati&n in the c&untr.. Its i+pact Bill $e +axi+ised Bhen it is Bidel. used and
different g&vern+ent depart+ents use it t& transfer inf&r+ati&n and data$ases. 5
c&+puter link $etBeen the su$%registrarAs &ffice and the tahsil head?uarters B&uld $e
&f c&nsidera$le $enefit t& agents transacting in land.
9'
It +a. $e useful t& verif. the c&+puterised entries Bith the field &n a pil&t $asis $.
&uts&urcing such a task t& get an idea &f the extent &f variati&n $etBeen the tB& sets.
This Bill ena$le ad+inistrati&n t& assess the res&urces re?uired t& replicate such
verificati&n f&r the entire State.
3.2 Should the state $uarantee title0
The pr&$le+ &f inade?uate attenti&n t& land ad+inistrati&n has $een c&+p&unded $.
the fact that the present rec&rds%&f%rights in land in India are fiscal in nature and
presu+ptive in character. The pers&n sh&Bn in the rec&rd as resp&nsi$le f&r pa.ing
land revenue f&r a particular piece &f land is presu+ed t& $e the pr&priet&r &f that
piece &f land unless it is pr&ved &therBise. Title t& land is &nl. incidental and springs
fr&+ the presu+pti&n that he Bh& pa.s land revenue is the &Bner. ,ut the entries in
such rec&rds are n&t c&nclusive. -hatever $e the entr. in the rec&rd%&f%rights in land4
it is per+issi$le t& challenge it in an appr&priate c&urt &r tri$unal.
Si+ilarl.4 the laB relating t& registrati&n &f d&cu+ents 8deeds9 als& la.s d&Bn that
Bhile accepting a d&cu+ent f&r registrati&n4 the registering auth&rit. need n&t c&ncern
itself a$&ut the validit. &f the d&cu+ent. This p&siti&n arises $ecause in India
pr&pert. legislati&n and legislati&n relating t& registrati&n &f d&cu+ents Bere never
fra+ed Bith the &$=ective &f pr&viding a state guarantee &f title t& land. The tB&
depart+ents Bere deli$eratel. kept separate fr&+ each &ther s& the registrati&n c&uld
c&nfine itself &nl. t& sta+p dut.4 and B&uld n&t $e held resp&nsi$le f&r registrati&n a
deed in Bhich title Bas n&t clear &r disputed. The laB pr&vides f&r the registrati&n &f
d&cu+ent &nl. and n&t f&r the registrati&n &f title. Theref&re4 a deed d&es n&t in itself
pr&ve title4 it is +erel. a rec&rd &f an is&lated transacti&n. It sh&Bs that a particular
transacti&n t&&k place4 $ut it d&es n&t pr&ve that the parties t& the transacti&n Bere
legall. entitled t& carr. &ut the transacti&n and theref&re it d&es n&t pr&ve the validit.
&f the transacti&n. It is left exclusivel. t& the pers&n entering int& a transacti&n
c&ncerning an i++&va$le pr&pert. t& investigate hi+self a$&ut the s&undness &f the
title t& that pr&pert. &f the pers&n.
There are instances in Bhich the g&vern+ent4 the pu$lic $&dies and the private
pers&ns in Bh&se na+es the lands stand in the rec&rds are n&t in p&ssessi&n &f th&se
lands Bhich is evident fr&+ the large%scale encr&ach+ent &f such lands in all parts &f
the c&untr.. 1n the &ther hand4 the na+es &f pers&ns Bh& p&ssess th&se lands d& n&t
exist in the rec&rds. Such dishar+&n. $etBeen the rec&rds and the realit. n&t &nl.
destr&.s the utilit. &f the rec&rds L Bhich thus $ec&+es a negative defect L $ut als&
+isleads an. pers&n Bh& has t& deal Bith land. The all&ttees &f land have KpattasA &f
all&t+ents &f land in their p&ckets $ut n& lands are in their p&ssessi&n in +an. states.
-adhBa has adv&cated 822229 that Be sh&uld als& graduall. ad&pt the s.ste+ &f
registrati&n &f title t& land in India as it has $een d&ne in &ther c&untries. It B&uld
see+ fr&+ his stud. that the B&rld &ver4 there is an increasing acceptance &f the
KT&rrens S.ste+A 8s& called after the na+e &f Sir #&$ert T&rrens Bh& initiated it in
5ustralia9 Bhere state guarantees title t& land rather than this $eing left t& the private
c&+panies and c&rp&rati&ns t& investigate it at their &Bn risk and c&st. The ad&pti&n
&f T&rrens S.ste+ B&uld n&t &nl. c&rrect an i+p&rtant lacuna in &ur legal fra+eB&rk
c&ncerning &Bnership &f land $ut B&uld als& have the p&tential &f radicall. ref&r+ing
9)
the existing s.ste+ &f land registrati&n4 surve. and settle+ent &perati&ns and land
rec&rds +anage+ent. The pr&p&sed s.ste+ apart fr&+ re+&ving insecurit. and
uncertaint. regarding title t& land and landed pr&pert. is expected t& reduce litigati&n
and theref&re ease the $urden &f c&urts. It B&uld als& pr&tect the interest &f general
pu$lic4 particularl. the res&urceless p&&r4 against f&rger.4 fraud and cheating n&t
unc&++&n in land transacti&ns. <uaranteed title B&uld ena$le dealing in land and
landed pr&pert. t& $e affected Bith securit.4 expediti&n and cheapness $&th in ur$an
and rural areas. It B&uld $e Belc&+ed $. pr&spective $u.ers and credit agencies alike
as it B&uld enhance the +arketa$ilit. and eas. transfera$ilit. &f land.
In rural areas4 guaranteed title t& land B&uld ena$le far+ers t& get credit easil. and
cheapl. and thus re+&ve the greatest $&ttleneck in the sche+e &f patta pass$&&k. In
case &f a large nu+$er &f rural p&&r Bh& have $een all&tted g&vern+entceiling
surplus K$h&&danA land under vari&us sche+es4 the intr&ducti&n &f this s.ste+ Bill
prevent illegal and unauth&rised transfer &f their land $ecause the title t& such lands
Bill $e rec&rded in the register Bith all the stipulated restricti&ns. ;&r precisel. the
sa+e reas&n4 the pr&p&sed +&ve B&uld als& facilitate +&re effective i+ple+entati&n
&f legal restricti&ns regarding alienati&n &f tri$al land. The intr&ducti&n &f this s.ste+
Bill facilitate expediti&us updating &f land rec&rds $ecause there Bill $e n&
registrati&n Bith&ut +utati&n. The finalit. &f title t& land B&uld reduce litigati&n4 $&th
civil and cri+inal4 $etBeen the state and the citiDens4 $etBeen the citiDens and the
pu$lic $&dies as Bell as $etBeen the citiDens the+selves and B&uld pr&vide sta$ilit.
regarding the en=&.+ent &f rights in land.
The state is at present una$le t& pr&tect rights &f its citiDens in respect &f their land
Bhich are threatened $. e+ergence &f +uscle p&Ber. It is n&t even a$le t& pr&tect its
&Bn rights in its &Bn lands Bhich have $een seri&usl. er&ded $. large%scale
encr&ach+ent and resulting litigati&n pending $ef&re vari&us c&urts. The registrati&n
&f title t& land Bill eli+inate uncertaint. and pr&vide necessar. securit. and
pr&tecti&n t& citiDens4 pu$lic $&dies as Bell as the state. ;inanciall.4 the neB s.ste+
c&uld $e a self funding +echanis+4 particularl. in ur$an areas4 Bhere transacti&ns are
larger in nu+$er and the parties entering int& these transacti&ns +a. $e prepared t&
pa. the re?uisite fee in return f&r the $enefit &f an authentic title t& land. The s.ste+
B&uld als& g& Bell Bith c&+puteriDati&n &f land rec&rds and c&nsidera$l. help in
$uilding up a c&+prehensive land inf&r+ati&n s.ste+ using advanced techn&l&g..
The s.ste+ &f guaranteeing title t& land is $ased &n three principles4 na+el.4 the
+irr&r principle4 the curtain principle and the assurance principle. The +irr&r
principle +eans that the register &f title t& land +aintained $. the g&vern+ent is a
+irr&r Bhich reflects accuratel. and c&+pletel. and $e.&nd all argu+ents the
existing facts that are +aterial t& a particular piece &f land and the title is free fr&+ all
encu+$rances n&t +enti&ned in the register. 5cc&rding t& the curtain principle4 a
$u.er &f land need n&t and4 indeed4 +ust n&t +ake searches a$&ut the past hist&r. &f
the title t& that land. In &ther B&rds4 he need n&t g& $ehind the curtain and sh&uld rel.
s&lel. &n the curtain4 that is4 the inf&r+ati&n c&ntained in the land title register. The
assurance principle sa.s that if in a case the +irr&r fails t& give a$s&lutel. c&rrect
reflecti&n &f a title t& land and if a pers&n rel.ing s&lel. &n the inf&r+ati&n c&ntained
in the register &f title t& land suffers l&ss4 the state Bill inde+nif. hi+ t& the full
9*
extent &f the l&ss suffered $. hi+ $ecause the +irr&r is prepared and +aintained $.
the state.
1$vi&usl. the radical change has t& c&+e a$&ut in stages4 Bhich areC
1. C&+puteriDati&n &f all ur$an and rural pr&pert. al&ng Bith their hist&r. &f
rights
2. C&+plete transparenc. $. putting the rec&rds &n the Be$4 and giving a c&p. t&
each far+er ever. .ear $. laB
3. <iving a feB .ears &f ti+e t& land&Bners t& get the rec&rd c&rrected4 $.
si+plif.ing the pr&cedure &f c&rrecti&ns4 and $. inv&lving civil s&ciet. and
pancha.ats
". 0erger &f registrati&n depart+ent Bith #evenue4 and
!. 0utati&n first4 and then registrati&n4 t& $e f&ll&Bed $. &nl. +utati&n and n&
registrati&n
1nl. after f&ll&Bing these stages India B&uld $e cl&se t& guaranteeing title4 even then
at least f&r five .ears g&vern+ent sh&uld $e c&ntent if it c&uld adhere t& =ust tB& &f
the three principlesF the +irr&r principle4 and the curtain principle4 $ef&re it c&uld
ann&unce t& the land&Bners that it B&uld give assurance &f a guaranteed title $ased &n
g&vern+ent rec&rds.
3.3 Restrictions on leasin$
5n&ther pr&$le+ causing tenurial insecurit. is the n&n%rec&gniti&n in laB &f tenanted
land in +an. states. (espite their greater efficienc. in using scarce land and capital
res&urces4 s+all far+ers face great difficult. in expanding their h&lding siDe. Credit
c&nstraints appear t& $e the $iggest single &$stacle in $u.ing +&re land4 $ut
&perati&nal h&lding siDe c&uld $e i+pr&ved if the. Bere per+itted t& lease%in land.
This is n&t per+itted in +an. states4 surprisingl. as a part &f land ref&r+s laBs t&
disc&urage landl&rdis+ and pr&tect the p&&rI
5 $an &n leasing Bas i+p&sed after Independence in al+&st all states t& enc&urage
&Bner%cultivati&n and t& give securit. &f tenure t& sharecr&ppers and tenants. The
discrepanc. $etBeen the &Bnership and &perati&n &f land Bas regarded as &ne &f the
$asic +aladies &f agrarian structure that acted as a N$uilt%in%depress&rN. It led t& n&t
&nl. inefficient utilisati&n &f given scarce res&urces $ut als& st&&d in the Ba. &f
aug+enting these res&urces. Thus in ever. state the p&lic. &f a$&lishing all
inter+ediar. interests and giving land t& the rec&rded tenants Bas ad&pted s&&n after
Independence. It Bas envisaged that c&nfer+ent &f &Bnership right t& tenants B&uld
lead t& a +&re e?uiti&us distri$uti&n &f land4 increase e+pl&.+ent per unit &f land
and i+pr&ve c&nsu+pti&n standards &f the rural p&&r4 thus enlarging the siDe &f the
+arket f&r c&nsu+er pr&ducts. It Bill i+pr&ve the B&rld vieB &f the p&&rest and Bill
+ake the+ invest in their future.
Tenanc. ref&r+s during the first tB& decades after Independence ai+ed at giving the
tenants per+anent rights t& the land the. cultivate su$=ect t& a li+ited right &f
resu+pti&n t& the land&BnersF and at ending the landl&rd tenant relati&nship $.
99
c&nferring &Bnership rights &n tenants in respect &f n&n%resu+a$le lands. This
resulted in a dra+atic fall in the area under tenanc.4 fr&+ 23.3"@ during the .ear
19!2%!3 t& 12.)@ in 19'1%'2 and then t& ).1*@ in 19*2.
The neB agricultural techn&l&g. has su$stantiall. changed the nature and extent &f
tenanc.. This decline is &$served in all states and is $ecause the neB techn&l&g.
fav&urs &Bner%&perati&n4 re?uires pers&nal supervisi&n4 and c&+pels &Bner%&perat&rs
t& take ?uick entrepreneurial decisi&ns. Theref&re after the neB techn&l&g. has taken
r&&ts there is n& risk &f a drastic increase in the tendenc. t& lease &ut lands and revert
t& Da+indari culture &f the feudal era4 even if the $an &n leasing is lifted. 1ther
features &f agriculture Bhich have a $earing &n this issue are discussed $el&B.
Gig'er su(ervision and ca(ital investment )y t'e lando/ner % 1Bners are n&B
+&re inv&lved in the &perati&ns and c&st%sharing as a part &f the tenanc. c&ntract.
This phen&+en&n is +&st c&++&n in the +&re TadvancedU villages Bhere there has
$een a large%scale ad&pti&n &f neB seeds4 fertilisers and tu$eBell irrigati&n. The
nature &f tenancies in green rev&luti&n areas is ver. different fr&+ regi&ns
characterised $. se+i%feudal la$&ur relati&ns. The neB f&r+s &f sharecr&pping
arrange+ents in these regi&ns inv&lve high c&st and &utput shares f&r the land%&Bner4
and a high degree &f c&ntr&l $. the landl&rd &ver the pr&cess &f pr&ducti&n. Like
traditi&nal leasing4 the tenant participating in these arrange+ents is a s+all peasant4
Bh& is resp&nsi$le f&r all +anual tasks4 $ut is n&t re?uired t& &Bn an. +eans &f
pr&ducti&n4 Bhich are supplied $. the land%&Bner
!
. The tenant is virtuall. a piece%
rated la$&urer4 $ut his inv&lve+ent helps the land%&Bner save &n supervisi&n.
Seasonal rat'er t'an li$e%long and cro(%s(eci$ic D Leasing &ut is n& l&nger due t&
cultural fact&rs. 0ediu+ and large far+ers +anage la$&ur intensive cr&ps such as
padd. and p&tat& $. hiring tenants t& d& specific =&$s4 $ut indulge in self%cultivati&n
f&r la$&ur extensive cr&ps4 such as sugarcane. Thus tenants are l&cated f&r a sh&rt
peri&d4 Bh& r&tate fr&+ &ne far+er t& &thers like casual la$&ur.
Reverse tenancy D 5lth&ugh there has e+erged a trend after green rev&luti&n
Bhere$. the s+all land&Bner leases &ut t& a large land&Bner4 &n the Bh&le leasing in
is still res&rted $. the s+all land&Bner. The neB techn&l&g. is $&th capital and la$&ur
intensive. -here Bages and the rate &f +echanisati&n are high4 the +ediu+ far+ers
Bh& are leasing%in area B&uld $e a$le t& +ake a fuller use &f their fixed e?uip+ent.
H&Bever4 the area inv&lved in reverse tenanc. is rather insignificant4 as the advantage
&f cheap fa+il. la$&ur fav&urs the p&&r t& lease%in land. In such cases the pure tenants
as Bell as the s+all and +arginal far+ers B&uld $e a$le t& aug+ent their &perati&nal
h&ldings $. leasing%in area. This +a. als& c&ntri$ute t& the +&re efficient use &f land4
la$&ur and &ther res&urces. S&ciall. it is a desira$le trend4 as s+aller h&ldings
+axi+ise &utput per unit &f capital. :ven Bhere the +arginal far+ers lease &ut4 it is
&ften t& an&ther +arginal far+er. The f&r+er gains $. leasing &ut area and taking up
n&n%far+ e+pl&.+ent4 and the latter is a$le t& increase his &perati&nal h&lding4 this
resulting in gains t& $&th 8Hanu+anthara& and <ulati :7- (ec. 314 199"9.
!
#utten4 0ari& 19*' S&cial 7r&file &f 5gricultural :ntrepreneursC :c&n&+ic ,ehavi&ur and Life%St.le
&f 0iddle%Large ;ar+ers in Central <u=arat =conomic and <olitical 4ee+l% 218139C 51!%523.
122
&rend in land concentration5 o/ned and o(erated land % ;igure 1 presents the
C&ncentrati&n 8&r <ini9 #ati& f&r &Bned area and &perated area at the all%India level.
There Bas a decline in the c&ncentrati&n in &Bnership &f land during 19!2s. The rati&
has sh&Bn s+all changes thereafter4 Bith a s+all decline in the 19'2s and a s+all
increase during the 19*2s.
The distri$uti&n &f &perated area happens t& $e less une?ual than &Bned area at all
p&ints &f ti+e since s+aller h&ldings pred&+inate as lessees. 5t the all%India level the
<ini rati& f&r &perati&nal h&ldings declined during 19!2s and re+ained sta$le during
19'2s. H&Bever during 19)2s and 19*2s there has $een a significant and stead.
increase in the c&ncentrati&n rati& &f &perated area. The <ini rati& increased fr&+
2.!*) in 19)1 t& 2.'2" in 19*1 and further t& 2.'"1 in 1991. The c&ncentrati&n in
&perated area thus has increased at faster rate during the 19)2s4 f&ll&Bed $. the
19*2s4 Bhich
c&incided Bith
techn&l&gical change in agriculture in India and changes in tenanc. patterns.
The data theref&re sh&Bs that alth&ugh tenanc. is even t&da. $. and large fr&+ the
$ig t& the s+all4 $ut the tendenc. &f reverse tenanc. is increasing4 the ine?ualit. in
&perati&nal h&ldings +ight s&&n reach the level &f ine?ualit. &f &Bnership h&ldings.
These changes in the nature &f leasing practices are descri$ed in the f&ll&Bing ta$leC%
&a)le 1>5 C'anges in t'e nature o$ leasing (ractices in t'e last t'irty years
Se+i%feudal
'
tenanc. Capitalist
)
tenanc.
7eri&d &f lease 6suall. lifel&ng &r f&r several
.ears
C&uld $e &nl. f&r a cr&p4 esp. la$&ur
intensive cr&p
Supervisi&n $.
the land&Bner
Negligi$leF all entrepreneurial
decisi&ns are taken $. the
Intensive4 land&Bner decides the cr&pping
'
:le+ents &f se+i%feudal agriculture are c&nsidered t& $e high incidence &f share%cr&pping4
inde$tedness &f the s+all tenants4 c&ncentrati&n &f land&Bnership and usur. in the sa+e pers&n4 and
inaccessi$ilit. &f +arkets t& the tenants.
)
Capitalist agriculture has several features4 such as land&Bner is the entrepreneur4 pr&ducti&n is f&r the
+arket and thr&ugh Bage la$&ur4 surplus is generated thr&ugh pr&ducti&n rather than rent4 and is
reinvested in aug+enting pr&ducti&n4 and free and +&$ile la$&ur. 0an. &ther features &f capitalist
agriculture such as techn&l&g. &perates under increasing returns t& scale4 increases in c&ncentrati&n &f
land4 and industrial capital penetrates agricultural sect&r have n&t $een Bitnessed in India s& far &n a
significant scale.
121
Figure 1: C o ncent rat io n R at io s o f Owned and Operat ed Land
in India
0.5
0.55
0.6
0.65
0.7
0.75
0.8
1953-54 1960-61 1971-72 1981-82 1991-92
Y ear
Ownership Hol ding Oper at ional Hol ding
tenant pattern4 and ti+ing &f applicati&n &f inputs
Share &f
land&Bner in
invest+ent
Negligi$le4 seed4 ani+al
p&Ber and la$&ur is pr&vided
$. the tenant
0&st capital c&st is $&rne $. the land
&Bner4 the tenant pr&vides fa+il. la$&ur
and ani+al p&Ber
Share &f
land&Bner in
&utput
Traditi&nall. !2@ )! t& *!@4 depending up&n capital c&sts
Identificati&n &f
lessee Bith the
pl&t
Ver. high4 as tenanc. is life
l&ng4 &ften hereditar.
Nil4 as su$%tenant keeps changing his pl&t
T&tal
invest+ent in
agriculture
#estricted t& la$&ur and h&+e
gr&Bn inputs4 little capital
Cash invest+ent c&uld $e $etBeen !2 t& )2
@ &f the t&tal invest+ent
1pp&rtunities &f
e+pl&.+ent
&utside
agriculture
Little4 and de+and f&r land is
ver. acute leading t& high
rents
Increasing &pp&rtunities f&r e+pl&.+ent
&utside land4 leading t& +&re land c&+ing
t& the +arket and sta$ilisati&n &f de+and
f&r land
7r&ductivit. &f
land
Higher &n +arginal h&ldings
as fa+il. la$&ur is free &n
such h&ldings
0arginal h&ldings see+ t& l&se the
advantage and pr&ductivit. see+s t& $e
highest &n s+all%+ediu+ siDe h&ldings4
h&Bever +arginal h&ldings +axi+ise
pr&ducti&n per unit &f capital
The separati&n &f &Bnership fr&+ &perati&n is n&t alBa.s regulated $. +arket. In
tri$al areas4 f&r instance4 extra%ec&n&+ic c&erci&n has &ften led the tri$als t& l&se
p&ssessi&n &ver their lands4 as discussed in the next secti&n.
3.3.1 Land alienation # inde)tedness
Tri$al land alienati&n is the +&st i+p&rtant cause &f the pauperisati&n &f tri$al pe&ple4
rendering their ec&n&+ic situati&n4 Bhich is extre+el. vulnera$le even at the $est &f
ti+es4 even +&re precari&us. The access &f tri$als t& f&rests and c&++&ns f&r their
livelih&&ds has shrunk $&th $ecause f&rests the+selves have shrunk4 and $ecause the
regulat&r. regi+e c&ntinues t& restrict tri$als fr&+ c&llecting and pr&cessing n&n%ti+$er
f&rest pr&duce f&r their livelih&&ds. Shifting cultivati&n has als& $een severel.
restricted. The +&st i+p&rtant livelih&&d &pti&n &f the tri$al t&da. is settled agriculture.
H&Bever4 as tri$als are s.ste+aticall. deprived &f their cultiva$le h&ldings4 $. n&n%
tri$als and even $. g&vern+ent itself4 the. are reduced t& assetless destituti&n.
The (epart+ent &f #ural (evel&p+ent4 0inistr. &f #ural 5reas and :+pl&.+ent4
<&vern+ent &f India c&++issi&ned in 199)%9* a nu+$er &f state% specific studies &f
the pr&$le+4 and rep&rts Bere received fr&+ ,ihar4 5ndhra 7radesh4 0adh.a 7radesh4
<u=arat4 #a=asthan and 0aharashtra.
122
The rep&rts paint a gri+ and distur$ing picture4 Bhich c&nfir+ that +assive alienati&n
&f tri$al lands c&ntinues in tri$al regi&ns in all parts &f the c&untr.. The +agnitude &f
the pr&$le+ can $e assessed in the 5ndhra 7radesh rep&rt f&r instance4 fr&+ the fact
that t&da. n&n%tri$als &Bn +&re than half the land in Scheduled 5reas &f the state. The
figure is !2 per cent in 3ha++an district4 '2 per cent in 5dila$ad district and )1 per
cent in -arangal district. It +a. $e n&ted that these are &fficial figures $ased &n land
rec&rds4 and B&uld n&t include K$ena+iA 8c&ncealed9 h&ldings in the na+e &f tri$als $ut
held $. n&n%tri$als.
The c&ntinuing gravit. &f the pr&$le+ in 0adh.a 7radesh has $een assessed $. the
Census Bhich reveals that the percentage &f Scheduled Tri$e cultivat&rs t& t&tal
Scheduled Tri$e B&rkers fell fr&+ )'."! per cent in 19'1 t& '*.29 per cent in 1991.
C&rresp&ndingl. the percentage &f Scheduled Tri$e agricultural la$&urers t& t&tal
Scheduled Tri$e B&rkers r&se fr&+ 1).)3 per cent t& 2!.!2 per cent. Si+ilar e+pirical
evidence is availa$le fr&+ &ther states as Bell.
The studies c&++issi&ned $. the <&vern+ent &f India have revealed the causal chain
that leads t& this state &f affairs and c&nfir+ed that the funda+ental reas&n f&r tri$al
land alienati&n is the fragile4 c&nstantl. shrinking ec&n&+ic $ase &f the tri$als. Their
traditi&nal skills in the gathering &f f&rest pr&duce l&st significance Bith the
intr&ducti&n &f state &Bnership &f f&rests4 s& that fr&+ f&&d%gatherers the. Bere
reduced t& Bage%earners &r encr&achers. 7rivate pr&pert. in land extinguished the
erstBhile right &f tri$al c&++unities t& free access t& land in c&ns&nance Bith their
needs. Settled agriculture $r&ught Bith it its inevita$le linkages Bith credit4 inputs and
+arkets4 rendering the tri$al even +&re dependent and vulnera$le.
5s the tri$als have an innate fear $ased &n $itter past experience &f $anks4 c&&perative
instituti&ns and &ther g&vern+ent s&urces &f creditF the. prefer the predicta$ilit. &f the
+&ne.lender despite his usuri&us interest rates. In an. case4 +&st $anks and c&&perative
instituti&ns are unBilling t& pr&vide c&nsu+pti&n l&ans4 and +&ne.lenders are the &nl.
s&urces &f c&nsu+pti&n credit.
5 c&+$inati&n &f these fact&rs leads t& an extre+e dependence &n +&ne.lenders &n the
part &f the tri$al4 keeping hi+ in perpetual de$t and resulting in the +&rtgage and
ulti+ate l&ss &f his land. Th&ugh this phen&+en&n is c&++&n en&ugh4 an&ther
particularl. tragic &utc&+e &f this inde$tedness is the phen&+en&n &f $&ndage4 Bherein
pe&ple pledge their pers&n and s&+eti+es even that &f their fa+ilies against a l&an.
#epa.+ents are c&+puted in such ter+s that it is n&t unusual f&r $&ndage t& persist
until death4 and t& $e passed &n as a $urdens&+e inheritance t& su$se?uent generati&ns.
The studies als& esta$lish the sad fact that g&vern+ent p&lic. itself has4 directl. &r
indirectl.4 c&ntri$uted t& the phen&+en&n &f tri$al land alienati&n. It has $een n&ted in
several states that tri$al land is $eing legall. aucti&ned $. c&%&perative credit s&cieties
and $anks t& rec&ver dues. 5ucti&ned land is purchased $. n&n%tri$als as Bell as rich
tri$als. 5uth&rities resp&nsi$le f&r regulating sale &f tri$al lands t& n&n%tri$als have
$een f&und t& fre?uentl. c&llude Bith n&n%tri$als t& defraud the tri$al land&Bners. The
sa+e c&llusi&n has deprived tri$als &f their rights t& land in ti+es &f land settle+ent4 &r
i+ple+entati&n &f laBs giving &Bnership rights t& &ccupanc. tenants.
123
5n i+p&rtant stud. $. the Tri$al #esearch Institute4 0adh.a 7radesh c&ncluded that
KBhile &n the &ne hand secti&n 1'!8'9 &f the 0.7. Land #evenue C&de pr&hi$its
transfer &f land fr&+ a$&riginals4 the later part &f the sa+e secti&n per+its it under
certain c&nditi&nsZ 5ll &ther clauses in the interest &f the a$&riginals see+ t& $e
&vershad&Bed $. this and transfer &f the land fr&+ the tri$al t& the n&n%tri$al is a
regular featureA.
The stud. n&tes that "'.3 per cent &f cases in Bhich the C&llect&r gave per+issi&n t&
the tri$al land&Bner t& sell land Bas f&r the repa.+ent &f g&vern+ent l&ans. The
rep&rt states KInde$tedness is the +ain cause &f land alienati&n. 5ctuall. Bhat
happens in the area is that tri$als +&rtgage their land t& n&n%tri$als and take l&ans......
The. B&uld then take l&an fr&+ <&vern+ent and use it f&r repa.+ent &f the private
de$ts. Having failed t& pa. the l&an due t& <&vern+ent4 the. appl. f&r per+issi&n t&
sell land Bhich is granted. In fact the sale is t& the +&rtagagee4 Bhile &n paper it
assu+es the shape &f inn&cent transfer f&r repa.+ent &f <&vern+ent l&ansA. The
stud. further n&tes that Kthe ?uantu+ &f illegal 8*enami9 land alienati&n fr&+ tri$als
t& n&n%tri$als is like that part &f the ice$erg that re+ains under the surface &f Bater.
See+ingl. th&ugh the ?uantu+ &f legal transfers is n&t ver. +uch4 the incidence &f
illegal transfers n&t easil. detecta$le is ver. highA.
The studies c&++issi&ned $. the <&vern+ent &f India Bith regard t& &ther states4
referred t& earlier4 als& esta$lish that transfers &f land fr&+ tri$al land&Bners t& n&n%
tri$als c&ntinued despite the vari&us enact+ents4 f&r a variet. &f reas&ns. C&llect&rs &r
&ther agencies resp&nsi$le f&r pr&tecting the interests &f tri$als Bhile regulating such
transfers4 in +&st cases did n&t appl. their +inds t& issues &f vital i+p&rtance t& the
tri$als. These include Bhether &r n&t4 the tri$al had an. &ther alternative livelih&&d4 &r
sufficient land f&r via$le cultivati&n even after sale4 Bhether sufficient price Bas
$eing paid4 Bhether the sale Bas actuall. t& ena$le repa.+ent f&r usuri&us l&ans fr&+
a +&ne.lenders etc. Legal transfers als& t&&k place $. acti&ns f&r rec&ver. &f dues
and +&rtgages4 $. decrees &f civil c&urts4 +isuse &f pr&visi&ns f&r settle+ent &f
&ccupanc. tenants4 settle+ent &perati&ns etc.
9ox 35 Situation in And'ra rades'
The lush green =ungles &f the :astern <hats4 spread &ver nine districts &f 5ndhra
7radesh and c&+prising 114!9! s?. +iles &f the State4 are n& l&nger a secure haven f&r
nearl. 33 tri$al c&++unities4 including seven pri+itive gr&ups4 inha$iting these
highlands. In the f&ur decades since Independence4 the tri$als have steadil. l&st their
h&ld &n +uch &f this area. -hile +an. have l&st their s&urces &f livelih&&d4 &thers
have s&ught refuge in deep f&rests.
5cc&rding t& the 1991 census4 the regi&nNs tri$al%n&n%tri$al rati& had dr&pped t& 2C1
fr&+ the 19!2 pr&p&rti&n &f 'C1. 5nd this de+&graphic change has $een largel.
$r&ught a$&ut $. &fficial p&licies. Thanks t& a+end+ents +ade t& the land transfer
regulati&ns in the tri$al $elt $. the g&vern+ent4 the n&n%tri$als are h&lding al+&st !!
per cent &f tri$al lands either $ena+i &r thr&ugh clandestine +eans.
The setting up &f +in&r and +ediu+ irrigati&n pr&=ects in areas +eant f&r tri$als has
$een an&ther Ba. t& disp&ssess the l&cals. 5lth&ugh such pr&=ects ca+e under tri$al
12"
su$%plans4 the e+phasis Bas &n cultivating cr&ps alien t& the 5divasis. ;&r exa+ple4
the tri$al su$%plan f&r -arangal district is ai+ed at $ringing 1.!' lakh hectares under
cultivati&n4 th&ugh tri$als h&ld &nl. 2"4222 hectares. 5pparentl.4 the g&vern+ent has
$een sancti&ning t&& +an. reserv&irs4 +in&r irrigati&n sche+es4 lift irrigati&n and
+ediu+ canals in the tri$al $elt &nl. t& facilitate the cultivati&n &f land &ccupied $.
pe&ple fr&+ the plains. -hile the n&n%tri$al is h&lding the rich lands4 the tri$al has t&
depend &n podu 8hill sl&pe9 cultivati&n.
3.3.2 olicy im(lications
In regi&ns Bhere p&vert. has declined4 far+ers are aBare4 and +arkets are +&re &r
less c&+petitive4 legal restricti&ns &n leasing &perate t& the disadvantage &f s+all
&Bners and p&&r tenants. ;irstl. $ecause the leasing is illegal4 the rent that he gets is
less than the +arket rent. Sec&ndl.4 in s&+e places he runs the risk &f l&sing his land
if the tenanc. is detected. Tenanc. restricti&ns have als& ha+pered the +&$ilit. &f
la$&ur fr&+ the rural t& the ur$an areas $ecause s+all h&lders are increasingl.
reluctant t& lease &ut lands under the present ter+s. H&Bever4 even in these regi&ns it
is n&t the intenti&n t& suggest legalising reverse tenancies =ust n&B. 1nl. +arginal
far+ers in irrigated areas and s+all far+ers in &ther rainfed areas are $eing pr&p&sed
t& $e per+itted leasing%in &f land4 as the $asic purp&se &f the pr&p&sed p&lic. change
is t& i+pr&ve their c&ntr&l &ver land. Theref&re in districts Bith high pr&ductivit.4
rapid agricultural gr&Bth and Bell%devel&ped c&++ercial agriculture4 leasing sh&uld
$e freel. all&Bed fr&+ the $ig t& s+all and fr&+ s+all t& s+all. Si+ilarl. in districts
Bhere tenanc. ref&r+s have taken place and the &ld expl&itative relati&ns
su$stantiall. Beakened4 such as in Bestern states &f #a=asthan4 0aharashtra4 <u=arat4
and 3arnataka4 leasing%in $. the p&&r sh&uld $e all&Bed Bith&ut an. restricti&ns.
H&Bever4 in districts that c&ntinue t& $e p&&r and feudal Bith p&&r agricultural gr&Bth
and a high degree &f ine?ualit.4 the p&lic. sh&uld $e t& rig&r&usl. i+ple+ent the
existing laBs4 and even +ake the+ +&re stringent. 7r&visi&ns &f laB t& rest&re
&Bnership and p&ssessi&n t& tri$als sh&uld $e +&re rig&r&usl. pursued.
T& put it +&re precisel.4 the secti&ns pertaining t& the definiti&ns &f KtenantA4
Kpers&nal cultivati&nA4 Kresu+pti&nU and Kfair rentA4 Bill have t& $e a+ended in
selected districts &n the $asis &f indicat&rs4 like land h&lding pattern4 degree &f
c&ncentrati&n &f land &Bnership4 agricultural gr&Bth4 agricultural pr&ductivit. and
existing tenanc. arrange+ents. Secti&ns related t& the pr&hi$iti&n &f tenancies Bill
have t& $e deleted in such areas. ;&r exa+ple4 Secti&n ! &f the 3arnataka Land
#ef&r+s 5ct4 Bhich pr&hi$its the leasing &f land except $. s&ldiers and sea+en4 Bill
have t& $e a+ended t& include leasing $. all landless agricultural B&rkers and
+arginal far+ers. The result &f a+ending tenanc. laBs t& all&B leasing in &f land Bill
ensure greater accessi$ilit. &f the rural p&&r t& agricultural land Bhich in ter+ shall
enhance e+pl&.+ent &pp&rtunities.
1n the &ther hand4 the present restricti&ns &n leasing sh&uld c&ntinue in areas
characterised $. se+i%feudal +&de &f pr&ducti&n and sh&uld even $e strengthened in
tri$al areas Bhere p&vert. is high4 and agricultural +arkets are n&t Bell devel&ped.
The spurt in the significance &f large far+ers in the lease +arket $etBeen 19*1%*2
and 1991%924 n&ticea$le fr&+ the NSS data4 is a dis?uieting devel&p+ent. ,. taking
12!
advantage &f the laBs4 the far+ers can get c&nferred &Bnership &r &ccupanc. rights
&n the tenanted lands under their c&ntr&l4 cause hardship t& pett. less&rs4 displace
pett. peasants fr&+ the lease +arket and exp&se p&&r tenants t& a pr&cess &f self%
expl&itati&n $. v.ing Bith the+ f&r land in the lease +arket. Large far+ers als&
c&ntri$ute t& increasing capital c&sts in agriculture4 and then petiti&n g&vern+ent f&r
su$sid.4 Bhich is n&t desira$le fr&+ a nati&nal p&int &f vieB. In additi&n4 capitalist
relati&ns +a. lead t& pr&letarianisati&n &f large secti&ns &f the rural B&rking classes.
There is a need t& rid the large far+er &f the lease +arket in the interest &f the pett.
peasant. It see+s i+p&rtant t& +ake tenanc. laBs sufficientl. stringent t& restrict
entr. int& the lease +arket &nl. t& pett. peasants.
T& su+ up4 in regi&ns Bhere n&n%far+ sect&r has n&t Bell devel&ped4 lifting &f
c&ntr&ls &n land transacti&ns +a. result in distress sale &f land4 and increase c&ntr&l
&ver land &f th&se Bh& are p&Berful4 $ut n&t necessaril. efficient far+ers.
Li$eralising land +arkets4 Bith&ut si+ilarl. Bell functi&ning credit and input +arkets
c&uld $e pr&$le+atic. Thus Bhile pr&+&ting ref&r+s se?uencing has t& $e kept in
+ind. 7re+ature pr&+&ting &f land +arkets Bith&ut first securing si+ilarl. &pen
credit +arkets c&uld lead t& land alienati&n fr&+ the p&&r t& the rich. Land laBs
sh&uld theref&re $e regi&n specific and $e sensitive t& changing envir&n+ent &f the
$r&ader ec&n&+.. :ven Bhere tenanc. is li$eraliDed4 it +ust $e &nl. in fav&ur &f
s+all and +arginal far+ers. 1verall4 the &Bnership and +anage+ent &f land has
significant i+plicati&ns f&r e?uit.4 gr&Bth and re+&val &f p&vert.4 Bhich needs t& $e
kept in +ind Bhile f&r+ulating p&licies.
3.4 1ther le$al restrictions in land mar)et
Sale o$ land )y SC;S& $armers % Secti&n "2 8,9 &f the #a=asthan Land Tenanc. 5ct
$ans the sale &f land &Bned $. SCST far+ers t& far+ers &f &ther castes4 and declares
such transacti&ns null and v&id. This creates a pr&$le+ f&r th&se SCST fa+ilies
living cl&se t& a t&Bn Bh& Bish t& sell their land at the &pen +arket price f&r a
h&using c&l&n. etc. The. are thus deprived the &pp&rtunit. &f changing their
pr&fessi&n and +igrating t& t&Bns in fav&ur &f a $etter pr&fessi&n. Si+ilar restricti&ns
exist in +an. state laBs. H&Bever4 this is a ticklish issue4 and as &$served a$&ve4 &ne
+ust pr&ceed carefull.4 Bhile full. safeguarding the interests &f the p&&r and illiterate
pe&ple.
Restrictions on sale to non%agriculturists L In s&+e states4 such as 3arnataka and
0aharashtra4 land laBs pr&hi$it the sale &f land fr&+ a far+er t& a n&n%agriculturist.
The &ther restricti&n is that landuse cann&t $e changed unless per+issi&n &f the
c&llect&r is taken4 such as in Ta+il Nadu and 3arnataka. These restricti&ns stand in
the Ba. &f private industr. neg&tiating directl. Bith the land%&Bners f&r $u.ing land
f&r industrial &r c&++ercial purp&ses4 thus preventing a far+er t& get the $est value
f&r his land. Change in landuse sh&uld $e freel. all&Bed t& facilitate this and t&
re+&ve dist&rti&ns in land +arkets 8at least in areas Bhere far+ers are aBare &f
+arket c&nditi&ns9.
12'
3.".1 Com(ulsory ac1uisition
,ecause &f several rigidities &perating &n land +arket t&da.4 it is n&t p&ssi$le f&r and
industr. t& $u. land directl. fr&+ a land&Bner. ;irst4 as +enti&ned a$&ve4 n&n%
agriculturists are pr&hi$ited fr&+ $u.ing agricultural land. Then the. cann&t c&nvert
its landuse. Third4 the. have n& access t& land rec&rds4 s& d& n&t kn&B Bh& &Bns
Bhich pl&t &f land. S& the &nl. &pti&n f&r the industr. is t& re?uest g&vern+ent t&
ac?uire land f&r the+. The Land 5c?uisiti&n 5ct is a c&l&nial 5ct4 c&nstructed
essentiall. f&r pr&tecting the interests &f the state and the p&Berful rather than the
legiti+ate rights &f the far+ers. 1ften land f&r h&using is $&ught at cheap rates fr&+
far+ers f&r c&l&nies4 and then the ur$an elite and g&vern+ent servants +ake huge
pr&fits in reselling the pl&ts4 &f Bhich n& share g&es t& the &riginal far+ers. The
pr&visi&ns &f the 5ct are such that ac?uisiti&n takes a l&t &f ti+e and the
c&+pensati&n paid t& far+ers is a pittance. ,esides4 there is n& legal $inding &n
g&vern+ent t& reha$ilitate the displaced pe&ple. The f&ll&Bing a+end+ents t& the
Land 5c?uisiti&n 5ct c&uld take care &f s&+e &f these pr&$le+sC
1. Change the na+e t& Land 5c?uisiti&n and #eha$ilitati&n 5ct.
2. (efine pu$lic purp&se as Jpu$lic g&&dJ Bhich +ust include Belfare &f the
affected pe&ple.
3. N& land shall $e ac?uired under the 5ct unless the pr&cess &f land ac?uisiti&n
is acc&+panied Bith reha$ilitati&n &f affected pe&ple.
". 7rinciple &f land f&r land f&r tri$als in all pr&=ects and f&r all agricultural
fa+ilies in the irrigati&n pr&=ects sh&uld $e inc&rp&rated in the 5ct itself.
!. 0ini+u+ 12@ &f the pr&=ect c&st sh&uld $e spent &n ## 8reha$ilitati&n and
resettle+ent94 n&t including c&+pensati&n.
'. The Land 5c?uisiti&n ,ill sh&uld n&t &nl. c&+pensate f&r assets ac?uired4 $ut
als& c&+pensate f&r l&ss &f livelih&&ds. This B&uld +ean that the assetless
pe&ple such as landless la$&urers4 encr&achers &f <&vern+ent land4 artisans
and gatherers sh&uld als& $e c&+pensated $. giving the+ either land &r a
c&+pensati&n &f at least tB& .ears &f +ini+u+ Bage. The definiti&n &f
Kpers&ns having interest in landA in sec 9 &f the 5ct B&uld include
sharecr&ppers4 tenants and su$%tenants4 encr&achers4 and attached agricultural
B&rkers4 s& that the. +a. als& get c&+pensati&n.
). The principle &f +arket value as laid d&Bn in Secti&n 23 819 8Bhich is the
$asis f&r deter+ining c&+pensati&n9 sh&uld $e su$stituted $. replace+ent
value.
*. In &rder t& ensure that land in excess &f the pr&=ect re?uire+ent is n&t
ac?uired4 C&llect&r sh&uld have the auth&rit. t& decide the t&tal land
re?uire+ent &f the pr&=ect in c&nsultati&n Bith 7ancha.ati #a= Instituti&ns4
N<1s as Bell as the pr&=ect auth&rities. The c&ncurrence &f the pr&=ect
auth&rities sh&uld n&t $e necessar..
12)
9. There is a pr&visi&n in Secti&n 2" &f the present Land 5c?uisiti&n 5ct that
future value &f land B&uld n&t $e taken int& c&nsiderati&n Bhile deter+ining
c&+pensati&n. This pr&visi&n sh&uld $e deleted.
12. ;&r deter+ining the +arket value &f land the C&llect&r Bill take rec&urse t&
three different +&des &f assess+ent. ;irstl.4 &n the $asis &f existing sale deeds
as has $een d&ne in +&st cases s& far. Sec&ndl.4 the C&llect&r +a. take int&
acc&unt the scheduled rates f&r that categ&r. &f land fixed under the Indian
Sta+ps 5ct f&r registrati&n &f sale deeds. Thirdl.4 the C&llect&r +a. calculate
the gr&ss annual pr&ducti&n fr&+ each pl&t and fix the c&+pensati&n as 22
ti+es the gr&ss value &f annual pr&ducti&n. The final +arket value f&r
assess+ent Bill $e the highest a+&ng the three a+&unts arrived at $. these
three +eth&ds.
11. C&nsent aBard B&uld $e the pri+ar. +&de &f settling the a+&unt &f
c&+pensati&n4 Bhich sh&uld n&t $e less than the value calculated &n the $asis
&f the principle enunciated in the a$&ve para.
12. The value &f s&latiu+ shall $e increased fr&+ the present value &f 32@ t&
122@ &f c&+pensati&n.
13. There sh&uld $e a pr&visi&n in laB that pr&=ects sh&uld $e a$le t& take land &n
lease fr&+ the far+ers $. pa.ing an annual lease rent &f tBice the gr&ss
annual pr&duce. This Bill &$viate the need f&r land ac?uisiti&n.
1". C&nsultati&n Bith the gra+ sa$hapancha.at sh&uld $e +andat&r. $&th f&r
scheduled and n&n%scheduled areas.
1!. It sh&uld $e p&ssi$le f&r the C&llect&r t& give a +&nthl. &r a ?uarterl. stipend
in place &f lu+psu+ pa.+ent f&r the a+&unt &f c&+pensati&n that can $e put
in the $ank4 in a =&int acc&unt.
1'. -henever land ac?uired f&r a pu$lic purp&se is transferred t& an individual &r
a c&+pan. f&r a c&nsiderati&n4 2! per cent &f the difference $etBeen such
c&nsiderati&n and the c&+pensati&n Bill $e given t& the &riginal land &Bners.
The previ&us land&Bners and th&se Bh& Bere dependent &n ac?uired land f&r
livelih&&ds sh&uld $e +ade shareh&lders in the c&+pan. that gets land.
3.5 2omen and land
5n&ther fact&r leading t& ine?uit. in land &perati&n is n&n%rec&gniti&n &f B&+enAs
rights &ver inheritance &f agricultural land.
There are f&ur different patterns in state laBs as regards B&+enAs inheritance &f
agricultural pr&pert.. ;irst4 in the tenurial laBs &f Har.ana4 Hi+achal 7radesh4
Oa++u and 3ash+ir4 7un=a$4 (elhi and 6ttar 7radesh 8all l&cated in n&rthBest India94
the specified rules &f dev&luti&n sh&B a str&ng preference f&r agnatic successi&n4 Bith
a pri&rit. f&r agnatic +ales. In all these states land dev&lves in the first instance &n
+ale lineal descendants in the +ale line &f descent. The daughter inherits land &nl. in
the a$sence &f these +ale heirs. T& give an exa+ple4 acc&rding t& the secti&n 1)1 &f
the 67 Ma+indari 5$&liti&n and Land #ef&r+s 5ct4 19!2 after a land&BnerNs death4
his land Bill dev&lve t& the Bid&B and +ale issues in e?ual shares. 5 +arried
12*
daughter B&uld $e entitled t& a share in the a$sence &f the a$&ve clai+ants4 &nl.
Bhen the deceased had n& father4 Bid&Bed +&ther4 un+arried daughter4 $r&ther &r
un+arried sister. 1ne B&nders Bhether such $latantl. unfair pr&visi&ns &f laB are n&t
vi&lating the e?ualit. pr&visi&ns &f the Indian C&nstituti&n.
Sec&nd4 states Bhere the tenurial laBs explicitl. +enti&n that the dev&luti&n &f
tenanted land Bill $e acc&rding t& pers&nal laB are ver. feB4 and include #a=asthan
and 0adh.a 7radesh Bhere the pers&nal laB applies f&r all c&++unities. 5ls& in the
Telangana regi&n &f 5ndhra 7radesh4 the c&++entar. f&ll&Bing Secti&n "2 &f the
relevant 5ct clarifies that f&r Hindu tenants the Hindu Successi&n 5ct Bill appl.. In
practice4 h&Bever4 even in #a=asthan daughters have $een rec&gnised as heirs &nl. in
s&+e =udge+ents4 Bhile in &thers +ale heirs al&ne have received rec&gniti&n. Land
rec&rds in these states B&uld sh&B insignificant pr&p&rti&n &f land rec&rded in the
na+e &f B&+en4 and actual p&ssessi&n B&uld $e even less.
The third pattern is in states that d& n&t specif. the &rder &f dev&luti&n in their laBs4
such as <u=arat4 the ,&+$a. regi&n &f 0aharashtra4 -est ,engal4 3arnataka4 3erala4
the 5ndhra regi&n &f 5ndhra 7radesh and Ta+il Nadu. In these states Be can presu+e
that the pers&nal laBs aut&+aticall. appl.. ;&urthl.4 there are states such as ,ihar and
1rissa f&r Bhich the tenanc. 5cts specif. that &ccupanc. rights shall dev&lve in the
sa+e +anner as &ther i++&va$le pr&pert.4 Tsu$=ect t& an. cust&+ t& the c&ntrar.U.
This leaves &pen the p&ssi$ilit. &f ad+itting gender%inegalitarian cust&+s if
esta$lished4 especiall. f&r the tri$al c&++unities in these regi&ns.
;&r the *2 percent &f IndiaAs p&pulati&n that is Hindu4 the Hindu Successi&n 5ct4
19!' g&verns rights relating t& intestate successi&n4 i.e.4 inheritance in the a$sence &f
a Bill. The Successi&n 5ct pr&vides f&r the dev&luti&n &f separate 8usuall. self%
ac?uired9 pr&pert. in e?ual shares t& the +ale and fe+ale children and Bid&B &f the
deceased4 and if the deceased is +ale4 his +&ther. In c&ntrast4 =&int fa+il. pr&pert.4
i.e.4 ancestral pr&pert. and pr&pert. &Bned $. the fa+il. as a unit4 dev&lves $.
surviv&rship. Traditi&nall.4 +ale fa+il. +e+$ers $eca+e Tc&%parcenarsU and
received an undivided share &f the =&int fa+il. pr&pert. at $irthF fe+ale fa+il.
+e+$ers Bere excluded fr&+ sharing in the =&int fa+il. pr&pert..
S&+e states acted t& e?ualiDe the intestate inheritance rights &f B&+en under the
Successi&n 5ct. 3arnataka4 5ndhra 7radesh4 Ta+il Nadu4 and 0aharashtra extend
c&%parcenar rights at $irth t& daughters4

and 3erala a$and&ned the c&ncept &f =&int
fa+il. pr&pert. alt&gether. H&Bever4 the a+end+ents d& n&t reach daughters Bh&
+arried $ef&re the a+end+ents ca+e int& effect4 and Bives are n&t granted an. right
t& =&int fa+il. pr&pert.. ;urther+&re4 n&thing in the Successi&n 5ct precludes a
testat&r fr&+ disinheriting his Bives and daughters $. BillF the rights these state
a+end+ents intended t& $est&B can $e circu+vented and +a. ulti+atel. $e illus&r..
:ven these ine?uities +ust $e seri&usl. addressed thr&ugh changes in laB and
aBareness ca+paigns.
-&+enNs right &f access t& land and &ther +aterial res&urces is n&t a legal issue al&ne.
5s their c&ntr&l &ver l&ans4 inc&+e and assets g&es d&Bn4 their access t& s&cial
res&urces such as kn&Bledge4 p&Ber and prestige di+inishes. (isparit. in gender
129
status gets intensified Bith the e+ergence and deepening &f &ther f&r+s &f
stratificati&n.
3. %isputes & involvement of pancha"ats
Land related disputes are pervasive4 and existing +eth&ds &f res&lving the+ are
c&stl.4 ti+e%c&nsu+ing and c&+plex. I+pr&ve+ents in land rec&rds and
ad+inistrati&n practices Bill +&st likel. reduce the incidence &f disputes4 $ut
attenti&n is als& re?uired t& i+pr&ve dispute res&luti&n pr&cesses. Traditi&nall.4
inf&r+al dispute res&luti&n +echanis+s &perated at the village%level t& res&lve such
disputes and li+ited the nu+$er &f disputes reaching the revenue and =ustice c&urts.
It is difficult t& sa. Bhether gra+ pancha.ats and gra+ pancha.at +e+$ers can pla. a
r&le in res&lving land disputes and c&nflicts at the village level. 1ne needs t& l&&k at
their +&tivati&ns as Bell as their capacit. f&r d&ing s&.
In the case &f revenue disputes4 the nature &f the dispute deter+ines the c&urt &f first
instanceC
The TahsildarNs c&urt is the &riginal c&urt f&r revenue cases relating t& +utati&n4
partiti&ns4 de+arcati&ns4 re+&val &f encr&ach+ents4 and rec&ver. &f dues. Title
dispute cases can &riginate either at the tahsil level &r in the civil c&urt.
The c&urt &f the Su$%(ivisi&nal 1fficer is the &riginal c&urt f&r land disputes
regarding g&vern+ent land4 diversi&n &f land use4 and reservati&n &f land f&r
pu$lic use.
The C&llect&rNs c&urt hears cases related t& the finalisati&n &f land c&ns&lidati&n
and +ining disputes.
Cases heard at the Tahsil level can $e appealed t& the Su$%(ivisi&nal 1fficer4 (istrict
C&llect&r4 (ivisi&nal C&++issi&ner4 and then t& ,&ard &f #evenue. 7arties can
su$se?uentl. appeal t& the State High C&urt and then t& the Supre+e C&urt &f India.
0&st revenue cases relate t& disputes &ver +utati&ns rather than titles. Inheritance
disputes are the +ain cause &f such cases. 6p&n the death &f a parent4 &Bnership &f
the fa+il. land parcel is usuall. entered in the na+e &f all the s&ns entitled t& that
land. (isputes arise Bhen &ne &f the &Bner atte+pts t& sell the fa+il. parcel Bith&ut
the c&nsent &f &thers. The laB relating t& preventi&n &f frag+entati&n &f h&ldings4
$esides $eing ini?uit&us4 adds t& increased c&nflicts Bithin the fa+il..
Cases relating t& rights &f Ba. thr&ugh cultivated land are arising as a result &f
changes in techn&l&g.. -hen cr&ps Bere head%carried fr&+ the field t& the village
r&ad4 access al&ng $unds $etBeen c&ntigu&us parcels sufficed. The ad&pti&n &f
tract&rs and &ther +echanised e?uip+ent is raising de+ands f&r Bider rights &f
access.
In ur$an areas4 disputes &ften relate t& $&undaries4 a fact attri$uted t& the s+all scale
&f +aps. ;&r $&undar. disputes4 the V5 has t& +easure fr&+ the nearest $ench+ark
&r reference p&ints t& deter+ine the p&siti&n &f the $&undar. &n the gr&und. 7r&$le+s
have $een experienced4 particularl. in ur$an areas4 Bith the destructi&n &f
$ench+arks.
112
The extent &f disputes appears t& var. c&nsidera$l. $etBeen villages. In s&+e cases
&f c&ns&lidati&n &perati&ns in 67 a$&ut !%12@ decisi&ns &f the Settle+ent 1fficer are
disputed. This translates int& "22 t& 1222 cases per taluk4 Bhich is ver. high and
greatl. $enefits laB.ers. The legal pr&cess is pr&tracted and expensive as a ver. high
nu+$er &f cases heard in each c&urt are appealed t& a higher c&urt.
3.6.1 Role o$ (anc'ayats
The )3rd a+end+ent t& the C&nstituti&n in 1992 envisages setting up &f l&cal
g&vernance structures Bith the intenti&n &f intensif.ing de+&crac. at the grass r&&ts.
The 5+end+ent +andated regular five%.ear l&cal electi&ns and granted B&+en and
+e+$ers &f Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tri$es reserved seats.This affir+ative
acti&n Bas t& $ring +arginalised gr&ups t& the +ainstrea+ p&litical pr&cess.
In +atters &f land4 states can assign pancha.ats the p&Bers and duties necessar. f&r
land i+pr&ve+ent4 i+ple+entati&n &f land ref&r+s4 land c&ns&lidati&n4 rural h&using4
and +aintenance &f c&++unit. assets. 0an. states pr&vide pancha.ats resp&nsi$ilit.
f&r +aintenance &f c&++unit. assets4 re+&val &f encr&ach+ents &n pu$lic pr&perties4
devel&p+ent and +aintenance &f graDing lands and Bastelands4 distri$uti&n &f h&use
sites4 and +aintenance &f rec&rds related t& h&use sites. H&Bever4 the experience has
n&t $een enc&uraging. 7ancha.ats have generall. $een indifferent t& c&++&n land
+anage+ent &r re+&val &f encr&ach+ents. 7r&per +anage+ent &f these lands is
criticalF c&++&n lands pr&vide su$stantial $enefits t& rural pe&ple4 especiall. landless
and +arginal land&Bners. 7ressure &n c&++&n lands is high and &n the increase4 and
the a+&unt &f c&++&n land in India has c&rresp&ndingl. declined.
:ven Bhen under the S&cial ;&restr. 7r&gra++e &f the 19*2s funds Bere pr&vided
$. g&vern+ent t& raise trees &n Bastelands4 it Bas seen that 7ancha.ats c&uld n&t
enf&rce the discipline re?uired f&r pr&tecting and +anaging plantati&ns. Village
pancha.ats perceived the B&&dl&ts as s&urces &f c&++unal inc&+e4 rather than as
s&urces &f fuelB&&d t& +eet village needs. In s&+e states4 like 5ndhra 7radesh and
Ta+il Nadu4 revenue lands 8called para+$&ke in Ta+il Nadu9 have still n&t $een
transferred t& the pancha.ats4 thus +aking their l&cal +anage+ent an i+p&ssi$ilit..
7ancha.ats represent several villages4 Bhereas single village &rganiDati&ns4 as su$%
units &f pancha.ats c&uld perhaps $e +&re effective4 Bhere the land in ?uesti&n is
appurtenant t& &ne village &nl.. If +an. villages are sharing a res&urce4 c&nflict
+anage+ent +a. $e difficult.
1ne &f the p&Bers given t& the states under the )3
rd
a+end+ent t& the C&nstituti&n is
t& set up c&urts c&nsisting &f villagers t& s&rt &ut l&cal disputes. Ver. feB states have
+ade use &f this pr&visi&n.
It B&uld $e B&rthBhile t& descri$e here a legislati&n that p&tentiall. has i+plicati&ns
&n the dispute res&luti&n +echanis+ &f the village c&uncils. 0adh.a 7radesh has
+ade legal pr&visi&n f&r setting up &f village c&urts at the Circle level. :he 1< >ram
8%a%ala%a ,dhini%am 1996 .?illa&e #ourt La7/ has $een enacted t& pr&vide f&r the
disp&sal &f si+ple cases in rural areas. 5 <ra+ N.a.ala.a 8village c&urt9 +a. $e
esta$lished in an. area &f 12 &r +&re pancha.ats c&nstituting a circle f&r the purp&se
&f this 5ct. The <ra+ Na.a.ala.a is dee+ed t& $e a Civil C&urt Bith a pecuniar.
=urisdicti&n Bith &ne th&usand rupees Bhere it +a. tr. &ffences under Indian 7enal
111
C&de4 Cattle Trespass 5ct4 0adh.a 7radesh Land #evenue C&de etc. It is als&
re?uired t& +ake ever. endeav&ur t& $ring a$&ut rec&nciliati&n $etBeen parties $ef&re
pr&ceeding t& hear an. case. In such C&urts4 Legal 7ractiti&ners are n&t all&Bed. :ach
C&urt Bill c&nsist &f seven +e+$ers n&+inated $. the $l&ck pancha.at4 &ut &f Bhich
&ne sh&uld have kn&Bledge &f laB. These c&urts Bill have the p&Bers &f a TahsildarAs
c&urt f&r +anaging c&++&n pr&pert.4 f&r i+p&sing penalties f&r unauth&riDed
p&ssessi&n &f land4 and f&r rest&ring p&ssessi&n t& the land&Bner Bh&se land has $een
encr&ached up&n.
The perf&r+ance &f such c&urts has n&t $een studied. TB& issues are &f particular
interest here. 1ne4 pe&ple in India have greater faith in c&ercive instru+ents &f c&urts
than in participative instru+ents4 such as pancha.ats. This +a. $e the reas&n Bh.
&ther states have n&t +ade use &f this pr&visi&n &f the C&nstituti&n. Sec&nd4 given
that these f&r+al structures such as gra+ pancha.ats 8<7s9 are neBl. created l&cal
level instituti&ns4 it is l&gical t& expect that there +a. $e resisted $. cust&+ar.
instituti&ns at the l&cal level &ver Bhich these neB instituti&ns have $een
superi+p&sed. The +&st i+p&rtant a+&ng these are the cust&+ar. pancha.ats 8still
active in re+&te and tri$al villages94 Bhich are essentiall. dispute res&luti&n $&dies.
S&+e researchers have charged pancha.ats Bith ineffective +anage+ent &f c&++&n
lands4 and $e+&an the disappearance &f +&re traditi&nal village%level +anage+ent.
These critics &f the pancha.at s.ste+ argue that the shift t& de+&craticall. elected
$&dies under+ined the traditi&nal auth&rit. &f elders4 resulting in &veruse &r
encr&ach+ent &f c&++&n land4 and capture &f the land $. elites f&r c&++ercial
purp&ses 8such as selling B&&d4 using s&il f&r $rick +aking &r &ther pr&duce9. Th&se
supp&rting the traditi&nal g&vernance &f c&++&n land c&ntend that village elders are
$etter a$le t& enf&rce unp&pular c&++&n land +anage+ent steps4 such as user fees
and use restricti&ns.
;&rest pr&tecti&n c&++ittees4 Bater users ass&ciati&ns4 and &ther c&++unit. $ased
user gr&ups4 Bhich are s+aller than pancha.ats and share a c&++&n interest in
+anaging and using the res&urces4 are &ften +&re successful res&urce +anagers than
pancha.ats.
*
H&Bever4 these user gr&ups als& add c&nfusi&n $ecause their auth&rit.
in relati&n t& gra+ pancha.ats is ill%defined.
Several issues arise here. 1ne4 sh&uld pancha.ats $e given +&re auth&rit. &ver land
+anage+ent/ TB&4 in Bhat +anner their capacit. can $e i+pr&ved/ 5nd lastl.4 Bhat
sh&uld $e the delineati&n &f duties $etBeen the +ulti%village pancha.ats and the
single village inf&r+al gr&up/
3.! *ccounta(ilit" throu$h decentralisation
C&nse?uent &n the )3
rd
and )"
th
C&nstituti&nal 5+end+ent 5ct p&litical
decentralisati&n has taken place in al+&st all the states Bhere electi&ns have $een
held. Th&ugh pr&viding a fra+eB&rk f&r decentraliDed devel&p+ent4 trends s& far
suggest that the pancha.ati ra= and the +unicipal s.ste+ have n&t $een a$le t&
enhance participati&n and e+p&Ber+ent. (espite the fact that s&+e village level
*
Harr. -. ,lair4 'emocrac%@ =Auit% and #ommon <ropert% !esource 1ana&ement in the Indian
Su*continent4 (:V:L170:NT 5N( CH5N<:4 v&l. 2) 8199'9 at "91.
112
pancha.at leaders have d&ne c&++enda$le B&rk4 &n the Bh&le the 7#Is have n&t
$enefited the pe&ple t& the extent &f funds pr&vided $. g&vern+ent. Several e+pirical
studies &n the B&rking &f pancha.ats have $r&ught &ut the f&ll&Bing features a$&ut
the functi&ning &f these $&dies.
<ra+ Sa$ha +eetings Bere regularl. held &nl. in a feB places4 and in +&st
cases4 participati&n in gra+ sa$ha +eetings Bas l&B. 1ften such +eetings
Bere &nl. &n paper.
There Bas little kn&Bledge in the villages4 &f the a+&unts &f funds received $.
the pancha.ats and the heads under Bhich expenditure had $een incurred.
The criteria f&r the selecti&n &r re=ecti&n &f $eneficiaries Bas n&t clear t& the
p&&r. In +an. cases4 it Bas &$vi&us that lists Bere +anipulated $. the village
chief and&r &fficials4 and that &nl. th&se Bh& had the a$ilit. t& pa. $ri$es
Bere selected as $eneficiaries.
:lected village sarpanches have spent huge a+&unts4 &ften up t& several lakhs
in electi&ns.
The ?ualit. &f deliver. &f $enefits t& the p&&r Bas l&B and leakages ranged
fr&+ 22 t& )2 percent. 0&st elected &fficials had the pr&pensit. t& +ake
+&ne.4 and al+&st in all cases4 pancha.at sarpanch$eneficiaries paid
Nc&++issi&nsN t& &fficials. In effect4 there Bere &nl. a s+all pr&p&rti&n &f
cases % perhaps 2!%32 percent Bhere the deliver. &f pr&gra+s had i+pr&ved
after the recent spell &f decentralisati&n.
5lth&ugh n&t h&stile t& the pr&cess4 l&cal and ,l&ck level &fficials Bere still
n&t facilitat&rs &f the dev&luti&nar. pr&cess.
#eas&ns f&r li+ited i+pr&ve+ent are +an..
;irstl.4 the c&ntr&l Bhich is exercised $. the ,l&ck level &fficials &ver the village
pancha.ats and gra+ sa$has 8Bhich rarel. +eet9 has n&t &nl. $uttressed c&rrupti&n
and diluted acc&unta$ilit.4 $ut it has als& led t& pessi+is+ that villagers at their &Bn
level cann&t change and i+pr&ve perf&r+ance. The C&nstituti&nal 5+end+ent
+andates p&litical decentralisati&n4 leaving issues &f design and i+ple+entati&n &n
sect&ral4 ad+inistrative and fiscal aspects t& the states. The transfer &f sect&ral4
ad+inistrative and fiscal resp&nsi$ilities t& 7#Is has n&t taken place in +&st states.
The State 5cts have n&t clarified p&Bers and resp&nsi$ilities &f the different tiers &f
7#Is n&r the =urisdicti&nal issue $etBeen 7#Is and ad+inistrati&n. The latter has $een
left a gre. area deli$eratel. s& that in the a$sence &f clear =urisdicti&ns the state
ad+inistrati&n retains the p&Ber. T&da. 7#Is are n&t .et 3
rd
tier &f the g&vern+ent4
$ut an extensi&n &f the 2
nd
tier. The. are n&t functi&ning as instituti&ns &f self%
g&vernance4 $ut &nl. as agencies f&r executing a feB pr&gra+s &f the state
g&vern+ent<&I.
Sec&ndl.4 the s.ste+ &f reservati&ns 8th&ugh desira$le fr&+ e?uit. p&int &f vieB9
adversel. affects the sustaina$ilit. &f these instituti&ns. The seats held $. B&+en and
scheduled castesscheduled tri$es are t& $e all&tted $. r&tati&n t& different
c&nstituencies. In practice4 this i+plies that a B&+an &r a scheduled castetri$al
113
elected t& a pancha.at Bill n&r+all. have a ter+ &f five .ears4 Bith n& pr&spect &f re%
electi&n 8In 3arnataka the ter+ is &nl. f&r 22 +&nths9. This g&es against the spirit &f
de+&crac.4 as pe&ple B&rk hard f&r their c&nstituencies in the expectati&n that the.
B&uld $e returned t& p&Ber in the next electi&ns.
Thirdl.4 the elected +e+$ers &f the 7#Is at the $l&ck and district level $ehave +&re
&r less as c&ntract&rs4 Bith n& instituti&n &f the gra+ sa$has at that level t& put +&ral
pressure &n the+. M7 and pancha.at sa+iti +e+$ers l&&k up&n dev&lved funds as
e?uivalent t& 07 &r 0L5 ?u&ta funds4 and the 5dh.akhsha and the $l&ck 7resident
have $een c&erced t& distri$ute these funds e?uall. $etBeen all +e+$ers. The. in turn
ch&&se the c&ntract&r and the nature &f sche+es. 1$vi&usl. sche+es that &ffer
+axi+u+ c&++issi&n and least risk &f verificati&n 8such as earth B&rk4 Bhich &f
c&urse is d&ne $. +achines $ut sh&Bn t& $e perf&r+ed $. fake la$&urers9 are
preferred.
;&urthl.4 heter&gene&us and une?ual village s&cieties &ften thr&B up leaders Bh&
have little c&ncern f&r the p&&r.
;ifthl.4 facti&nal fights at the l&cal levels divert the energies &f the elected &fficials
fr&+ B&rking f&r pu$lic Belfare t& c&ns&lidating the p&Ber &f their gr&up.
Sixthl.4 pancha.ats are +&stl. $us. i+ple+enting c&nstructi&n &riented sche+es4
Bhich pr&+&te c&ntract&r % Bage la$&r relati&nship. These d& n&t re?uire participati&n
&f the p&&r as e?uals4 &n the &ther hand these f&ster dependenc. &f the p&&r &n
Sarpanch and $l&ck staff. In such a situati&n pancha.at activities get reduced t&
c&llusi&n $etBeen Sarpanch and $l&ck engineers. 7ancha.ats are n&t active in
educati&n4 health4 SH<s4 Batershed4 pastures and f&restr. pr&gra+s4 Bhich re?uire
pe&ple t& c&+e t&gether as e?uals and achieve c&nsensus.
5nd lastl.4 7#Is are excessivel. dependent &n the State and Central <&vern+ents f&r
funds. #ather than receiving a share in taxes and Central grants the pancha.ats sh&uld
have the right t& lev. and c&llect taxes &n their &Bn in &rder t& reduce their
dependence &n state and central g&vern+ents. T&da. the 7#Is hesitate t& lev. and
c&llect taxes4 as the. prefer the s&ft &pti&n &f receiving grants fr&+ <&I &r state
g&vern+ents. This +ust $e disc&uraged and the l&cal $&dies $e enc&uraged t& raise
l&cal res&urces f&r devel&p+ent and then receive +atching grants fr&+ the
Centerstates. Theref&re pancha.ats sh&uld n&t &nl. c&llect taxes &n land4 irrigati&n
drinking Bater4 p&Ber4 and h&uses4 $ut als& $e given the auth&rit. t& lev. taxes &n
p&liticall. unp&pular su$=ects such as agricultural inc&+e tax &n large h&ldings. :ven
if &ne percent pancha.ats start d&ing it4 the fear that c&llecting such taxes is a p&litical
lia$ilit. Bill disappear.
The +&re dependent a 7#I is &n the +ass &f its citiDens f&r financial res&urces4 the
+&re likel. it is t& use scarce +aterial res&urces t& pr&+&te hu+an devel&p+ent and
reduce p&vert.. :xternal funds Bith n& c&++it+ent t& raise internal funds +ake 7#Is
irresp&nsi$le and c&rrupt. ;l&B &f funds fr&+ the State<1I sh&uld $e dependent &n
g&&d B&rk &r +&$iliDati&n d&ne $. the+. ;&r instance these c&uld $e linked t& the
eff&rts +ade $. pancha.ats in p&pulati&n and disease c&ntr&l4 cleanliness4 sch&&l
attendance &f fe+ales and their perf&r+ance4 and negativel. Bith hunger deaths4
cri+e4 and civil and revenue suits.
11"
,ecause &f the fact&rs stated a$&ve4 pancha.ats have n&t e+erged as resp&nsive and
e?uita$le &rganisati&ns. 0echanis+s &f acc&unta$ilit. and in particular <ra+ Sa$has
are n&t B&rking4 and neither are the right &f recall4 the vigilance c&++ittees &r
rec&urse t& higher auth&rit.. 7e&ple d& n&t see 7ancha.ats +aking decisi&ns that are
relevant t& their lives4 pr&$a$l. $ecause 7#Is have neither the res&urces t& undertake
devel&p+ent4 n&r the p&Ber t& influence existing pr&gra+s. <ra+ 7ancha.ats 8<7s9
have $ec&+e +ulti%village instituti&ns and the res&luti&n &f c&+peting village
de+ands is +ade thr&ugh less than perfect4 s&+eti+es &pa?ue decisi&n pr&cesses.
V&ting and rules &f v&ting pr&cedures Bithin 7#Is are n&t specified as +andat&r. in
the 7ancha.at 5cts. 5nd caste and gender $ias pervade the B&rkings &f 7#Is4 despite
the reservati&ns.
Li+ited pr&gress s& far d&es n&t +ean that pancha.ats &r &ther pe&plesA &rganisati&ns
have n& p&tential. The f&ll&Bing steps +a. i+pr&ve their perf&r+anceC
;inance C&++issi&n and &ther (evel&p+ent funds t& l&cal $&dies sh&uld n&t
$e given t& states unless effective p&Bers are transferred t& the+.
5s alread. argued4 rather than pancha.ats get a share in taxes the. sh&uld
have the right t& lev. and c&llect taxes. :xternal funds Bith n& c&++it+ent t&
raise internal funds +ake 7#Is irresp&nsi$le and c&rrupt.
7ancha.ats sh&uld $e graded and the a+&unt &f funds plus the degree &f
aut&n&+. sh&uld $e linked t& their grading.
C&nstituti&n sh&uld $e a+ended t& ena$le the states t& a$&lish either the
district &r the $l&ck level tier &f the pancha.ats4 if the. s& Bish4 and retain
&nl. &ne &ut &f these tB&4 in additi&n t& the village tier4 Bhich has the highest
p&tential f&r direct de+&crac. and participati&n thr&ugh the instituti&n &f the
gra+ sa$ha.
3.>.1 Audit o$ (anc'ayats
Large expenditures are n&B $eing incurred $. 7#Is. Their acc&unts are t& $e audited
$. L&cal ;und 5udit4 $ut there are several pr&$le+s. ;irst4 there are huge arrears4 and
in s&+e cases acc&unts have n&t $een audited f&r +&re than ten .ears. Sec&ndl.4 the
?ualit. &f their rep&rts is ver. p&&r4 theref&re the utilit. &f such audits is d&u$tful4 the
i+pact it +akes &n i+pr&ving s.ste+s is at $est +arginal4 perhaps negative. Thirdl.4
there are c&+plaints &f c&rrupti&n4 and the general i+pressi&n is that audit rep&rts can
$e $&ught. Lastl.4 elected &fficials are n&t held acc&unta$le f&r an. lapses n&ticed in
their rep&rts4 &nl. &fficials are4 Bhich $reeds irresp&nsi$le $ehavi&r &n the part &f
n&n%&fficials.
The ?ualit. &f B&rk d&ne $. pancha.ats sh&uld $e cl&sel. +&nit&red $. a tea+ &f
=&urnalists4 civil s&ciet. +e+$ers4 pancha.at leaders fr&+ the neigh$&uring districts
8Bh& have alread. d&ne excellent B&rk94 and stakeh&lders. ,ased &n these rep&rts4
pancha.ats sh&uld $e graded4 and future funds sh&uld $e linked Bith their grade.
Strengthening financial +anage+ent and audit pr&cedures Bill als& strengthen
acc&unta$ilit. &f the l&cal $&dies4 their standing c&++ittees and its representatives.
11!
In fact their capa$ilit. f&r achieving transparenc.4 participati&n4 inclusi&n and
&Bnership can $e enhanced $. sustained B&rk a+&ng the p&&r and +arginaliDed
pe&ple f&r increasing their aBareness. N&n%g&vern+ental and v&luntar. &rganisati&ns
have a particularl. ke. r&le in &$taining and disse+inating inf&r+ati&n &n the
B&rking &f g&vern+ent 8including l&cal g&vern+ent94 +aking pe&ple aBare &f their
entitle+ents and &$ligati&ns4 and ena$ling the+ t& vent their grievances and seek
redress. Theref&re t& supp&rt pancha.ats in India <&I and d&n&rs sh&uld +ainl.
invest in tB& t.pes &f initiativesC 8i9 eff&rts t& $uild the capacit. &f pancha.ats and &f
citiDens4 especiall. fr&+ disadvantaged gr&ups4 and 8ii9 adv&cac. eff&rts t& persuade
state g&vern+ents t& dev&lve +&re resp&nsi$ilit. especiall. f&r tax c&llecti&n t&
pancha.ats.
#ural decentralisati&n and 7#Is are a pr&f&und change in the Indian rural instituti&nal
scene. The. +a. ulti+atel. &ffer a $etter &pti&n f&r rural devel&p+ent and p&vert.
alleviati&n. (isadvantaged =urisdicti&ns c&uld then $e the +ain Binners. It is an
i+p&rtant &pp&rtunit.. H&Bever4 it Bas a +istake t& think that 7#Is Bill e+erge as
caring instituti&ns in an envir&n+ent &f rent%seeking p&litics and unresp&nsive and
inefficient $ureaucrac.. If district level civil servants and p&liticians are indifferent t&
pu$lic Belfare4 it is t&& +uch t& expect that village and $l&ck level p&liticians Bill $e
an. different. T& h&ld that the directl. elected 0L5 is Bil.4 c&rrupt4 and
irresp&nsi$le4 Bhile the indirectl. elected 5dh.aksha &r Sa+iti 7resident can $e
trusted Bith cr&res4 is h&nest4 and c&++itted t& pu$lic Belfare is neither a g&&d
the&retical argu+ent4 n&r has an. e+pirical validit..
Thus there are $ig risks in pre+ature pr&+&ti&n &f 7#Is. 7ast atte+pts at
decentralisati&n failed in India4 in part $ecause &f resistance &f the vested interests &f
the $ureaucrac. and state level p&liticians. These vested interests re+ain. Steep
deteri&rati&n in p&litical +&ralit. has further dist&rted the scene. If n&t carefull.
designed4 se?uenced and i+ple+ented4 decentralisati&n can increase the fiscal $urden
&n the states and lead t& a $reak%d&Bn in service deliver.
9
4 in particular t& the p&&r.
Strengthening 7#Is4 instituti&nal ref&r+s4 and civil service ref&r+s sh&uld all g&
t&gether.
T& su+ up4 effective pancha.atsuser gr&ups B&uld als& re?uire effective district and
$l&ck level ad+inistrati&n4 hence need f&r $etter g&vernance &n the lines indicated in
this paper sh&uld precede an. expectati&n that the elected M7 and $l&ck leaders B&uld
change their percepti&n &f the Indian state $eing an K&pen treasur.A.
3.>.2 C9.s and RIs
In s&+e sect&rs there is pe&pleAs inv&lve+ent thr&ugh parallel instituti&ns like the
O&int ;&rest 0anage+ent C&++ittees4 Village :ducati&n C&++ittees4 -ater 6ser
<r&ups4 etc. In such devel&p+ent pr&=ects4 g&vern+ent has relied up&n c&++ittees
that are independent &f pancha.ats. 1ften in the sa+e regi&n4 such as 67 hills4 the
-&rld ,ank has pr&+&ted different c&++ittees4 &ne f&r f&rests4 the sec&nd f&r
drinking Bater4 and the third f&r educati&n4 and these +a. $e all distinct fr&+
pancha.atsI
9
5 c.nic re+ark is that 7#Is have &nl. succeeded in decentralisati&n &f c&rrupti&n.
11'
(ifficulties tend t& arise in the inter%relationship $etBeen +ulti%purp&se elected
$&dies and single%purp&se user c&++ittees. The tB& t.pes &f $&dies &ften exist at
slightl. different levels L Bith4 f&r exa+ple4 &ne c&vering a single village and the
&ther a cluster &f villages L Bhich +akes s.nerg. $etBeen the+ difficult. There is
&ften c&nfusi&n a$&ut Bhich &f the tB& t.pes &f $&dies has =urisdicti&n &ver a
particular t&pic L Bater use4 educati&n4 etc. Such c&nfusi&n is s&+eti+es deli$eratel.
s&Bn $. p&liticians and&r $ureaucrats at higher levels4 t& Beaken $&tt&+%up
devel&p+ent pr&cesses.
0&st &r all +e+$ers &f user c&++ittees are &ften ch&sen $. n&+inati&n fr&+ a$&ve
rather than $. electi&ns 8thr&ugh Bhich +e+$ers &f +&st +ulti%purp&se c&uncils are
selected9. ,ureaucrats +a. n&+inate plia$le l&cals as user c&++ittee +e+$ers4 &r
p&liticians +a. pack the+ Bith l&.alists &f the ruling part.. This difference in +&des
&f selecti&n &ften pr&duces diss&nance $etBeen the tB& t.pes &f $&dies L and
s&+eti+es p&liticians set these $&dies against &ne an&ther4 again t& Beaken $&tt&+%
up devel&p+ent pr&cesses.
The &verBhel+ing evidence &n user c&++ittee +anaged natural res&urce pr&=ects4
such as f&rests and Batershed +anage+ent4 is that the $enefits are n&t sustaina$le in
the l&ng ter+. 5fter the s&urce &f funds fr&+ the pr&=ect dries up4 plantati&ns
disappear4 c&++ittees are dis$anded &r a$and&ned4 and the livelih&&d $ase &f the
p&&r re+ains &nl. +arginall. i+pr&ved4 if at all. 7erhaps in s&+e cases the. create
s&+e sustaina$le s&cial capital $. raising aBareness a+&ngst the p&&r. H&Bever the
evidence suggests that +&st &f the s&cial capital Bhich pr&=ects Bith C,1
inv&lve+ent create is held $. the rich4 and that in fact +&st pr&=ects have c&ntri$uted
t& a further entrench+ent &f their p&Bers.
;inall. and cruciall.4 user c&++ittees &ften have far +&re funds than d& +ulti%
purp&se $&dies L and s&+eti+es far +&re funds than the. can +anage effectivel..
This can create a d&u$l. invidi&us situati&n L feast and fa+ine4 cheek $. =&Bl. It can
+ean that user c&++ittees struggle t& +anage eBcessi"el% funded mandates4 Bhile in
the sa+e place4 +ulti%purp&se $&dies gr&an under the Beight &f unfunded mandates.
Thus the instituti&nal links $etBeen p&litical decentralisati&n4 in the f&r+ &f
7ancha.ati #a= 87#Is94 and ad+inistrative decentralisati&n4 in the f&r+ &f user
c&++ittees pr&+&ted $. the external d&n&r pr&=ects needs t& $e strengthened.
Linkages $etBeen these tB& instituti&ns Bill als& reinf&rce the v&ice &f the Beaker
secti&ns &f the s&ciet.. 7ancha.at representatives are str&ng4 first4 $ecause the. are
de+&craticall. electedF sec&nd4 the. have $etter reach $&th h&riD&ntall. and verticall.
a+&ng the $ureaucrac. as c&+pared t& an. &ther pe&pleNs instituti&nF and third4 the.
have the supp&rt &f &ther f&ru+s. It is needless t& +enti&n that these f&ru+s have a
+uch Bider sa. in shaping up the p&licies and f&r adv&cating their cause.
H&Bever it is n&t $eing adv&cated that 7#Is replace C,1s. It needs t& $e clearl.
underst&&d that Bhile pancha.ats are instituti&ns &f l&cal self%g&vern+ent4 C,1s Bill
have t& functi&n as &ne &f their i+ple+enting &rgans. 1ften pancha.ats are t&& $ig4
3erala pancha.ats c&ver a p&pulati&n &f 234222 pe&ple4 1rissa and -est ,engal
pancha.ats c&ver 1! t& 22 villages4 and theref&re s+aller $&dies need t& $e f&r+ed f&r
&perati&nal purp&se. ;&r instance4 sch&&l c&++ittees B&rk +uch $etter Bhen the.
11)
c&nsist &f the parents &f the actual sch&&l g&ing children. <iving the auth&rit. &ver
the sch&&l t& the Sarpanch &r pancha.at &ften results in Beakening acc&unta$ilit..
3.>.3 Concuding remar*s
The )3
rd
5+end+ent Bas a f&r+al instru+ent intr&duced $. the Centre4 and $lessed
$. the State 5sse+$lies4 t& f&rce a +ini+u+ level &f rural decentralisati&n unif&r+l.
acr&ss all states. The C&nstituti&nal 5+end+ent +andates p&litical decentralisati&n4
leaving issues &f design and i+ple+entati&n &n sect&ral4 ad+inistrative and fiscal
aspects t& the states. 5s a result4 rural decentralisati&n Bhile initiated $. the center has
$ec&+e a state affair. 7&litical decentraliDati&n has $een highl. successful. H&Bever4
issues &f acc&unta$ilit. re+ain. 7r&gress &n ad+inistrative decentraliDati&n has $een
hesitant. ;iscal decentralisati&n is lagging. #ural c&nstituents are n&t .et participating
activel. in l&cal g&vern+ents. 5nd there are issues &f inclusi&n.
3.# %ecline in $overnance
If there are pr&$le+s Bith transferring auth&rit. t& pancha.ats4 there are even +&re
seri&us g&vernance issues in trusting $ureaucrac. Bith carr.ing &ut the n&r+al
functi&ns &f land ad+inistrati&n.
-e have reached a situati&n Bhere a +ere increase in staff and funds f&r surve. and
settle+ent &r rec&rd +aintenance +a.4 n&t &nl. n&t i+pr&ve +atters4 $ut even $e
c&unterpr&ductive. 5s alread. discussed4 pe&ple have n& faith in the $&nafide &f
g&vern+ent staff4 the. see +&re g&vern+ent in their lives as +&re expl&itati&n. The
Indian state see+s t& $e l&sing the capacit. t& deliver services t& the pe&ple. :ven a
Bell +eaning g&vern+ent is helpless against the perfid. &f legislat&rs and arr&gance
and c&rrupti&n &f e+pl&.ees. :lecti&ns $ring a$&ut peri&dic change in pla.ers4 $ut
rules &f the ga+e and &utput re+ains unaltered. :lecti&ns are safet. valve t& let &ut
pe&pleAs anger and resent+ent4 $ut d& n&t help t& i+pr&ve g&vernance.
IndiaAs civil services4 the principal KfaceA &f the g&vern+ent t& the pu$lic and
resp&nsi$le f&r i+ple+enting g&vern+ent pr&gra+s4 +ust sh&ulder s&+e &f the
resp&nsi$ilit. f&r dissatisfacti&n Bith g&vern+entAs perf&r+ance in pr&viding a s&und
land +anage+ent s.ste+4 cur$ing c&rrupti&n4 and pr&viding pu$lic services. The
pr&$le+ is n&t initial capa$ilit. $ut instituti&nal deficiencies. N&n%transparenc.4
li+ited acc&unta$ilit.4 p&&r incentive structure4 and inade?uate perf&r+ance appraisal
Beaken the civil serviceAs ad+inistrati&n4 as d& the standard pr&$le+s &f p&litical
interference in specific situati&ns and g&vern+entAs Bidespread and intricate
interventi&ns that dela. acti&ns4 create unBarranted p&Ber and pr&vide &pp&rtunities
f&r c&rrupti&n. 5t the $est &f ti+es4 rules4 regulati&ns and pr&cedures4 rather than
c&ncern f&r &utc&+e and i+pact4 g&vern the da.%t&%da. B&rking &f the Indian civil
service s.ste+.
The seni&r p&siti&ns in the #evenue (epart+ent are &ccupied $. the I5S &fficers4 $ut
the. hardl. sta. in their =&$s f&r l&nger peri&ds. 0an. d& n&t Bish t& sta.4 as the. see
n& career pr&spects f&r the+selves in ac?uiring expertise in a su$=ect Bhich is n&t
c&nsidered i+p&rtant $. g&vern+ent &r $. d&n&rs. The. ?uickl. seek transfer4 &r are
shuffled after a sh&rt sta. $. g&vern+ent. The c&nse?uence is that the. hardl. get an
&pp&rtunit. t& devel&p an understanding &f technical aspects &f rec&rd +anage+ent
11*
&r ac?uire pr&fessi&nal expertise a$&ut land laBs. States that pr&vide high levels &f
tenurial sta$ilit. d& have a $etter chance at i+pr&ving service deliver. than th&se that
d& n&t. In 3arnataka4 f&r exa+ple4 despite all its success in reducing transfers4 the
p&st &f Inspect&r%<eneral &f the (epart+ent &f Sta+ps and #egistrati&n changed
hands at least f&ur ti+es $etBeen 2222%224 +aking it ver. difficult t& restructure the
depart+ent.
Im(roving accounta)ility % 5s a c&nse?uence &f its c&l&nial heritage as Bell as the
hierarchical s&cial s.ste+ ad+inistrative acc&unta$ilit. in India Bas alBa.s internal
and upBards4 and the civil serviceNs acc&unta$ilit. t& the pu$lic had $een ver. li+ited.
-ith p&liticisati&n and declining discipline4 internal acc&unta$ilit. stands seri&usl.
er&ded t&da.4 Bhile acc&unta$ilit. via legislative revieB and the legal s.ste+ has n&t
$een sufficientl. effective. Internal c&ntr&ls are &ften ineffectiveSespeciall. Bhen
the s&cial eth&s t&lerates c&llusi&n $etBeen supervis&rs and su$&rdinates. 5lth&ugh
salaries have g&ne up after 199)4 in the a$sence &f ref&r+s t& i+pr&ve acc&unta$ilit.4
$etter re+unerati&n has n&t reduced c&rrupti&n &r i+pr&ved efficienc. in the #evenue
(epart+ent.
T1utBard acc&unta$ilit.U4 theref&re4 is essential f&r greater resp&nsiveness t& the
needs &f the pu$lic and thus t& i+pr&ve service ?ualit.SBhether it is the individual
civil servant Bh& is directl. acc&unta$le4 &r the service unit4 &r the +inisterial
depart+ent as a Bh&le. 1utBard acc&unta$ilit. can $e increased thr&ugh i+pr&ved
inf&r+ati&n s.ste+sF $etter auditF face%t&%face +eetings Bith c&nsu+ers and user
gr&upsF a str&nger perf&r+ance evaluati&n s.ste+F &uts&urcingF and selective use &f
c&ntractual app&int+ents.
(epart+ents such as #evenue and #egistrati&n4 Bhich have +&re dealings Bith the
pe&ple4 sh&uld $e assessed &nce in three .ears $. an independent C&++issi&n4
c&nsisting &f pr&fessi&nals such as =&urnalists4 retired =udges &r +e+$ers &f the ar+ed
f&rces4 acade+icians4 activists4 N<1s4 and even retired g&vern+ent servants. These
sh&uld l&&k at their p&licies and perf&r+ance4 and suggest c&nstructive steps f&r their
i+pr&ve+ent. 5t present the s.ste+s &f inspecti&n are ela$&rate $ut &ften preclude
the p&ssi$ilit. &f a Nfresh l&&kN as the. are t&tall. g&vern+ental and rigid. The s.ste+
sh&uld $e +ade +&re &pen s& that the civil service can gain fr&+ the expertise &f
&utsiders in the +&de &f d&n&r agenc. evaluati&ns &f pr&=ects. The tea+s B&uld
undertake surve.s &f ?ualit. &f service deliver. in ke. areasF scrutiniDe p&licies
pr&gra+s and deliver. +echanis+s. Civil servantsA vieBs &n B&rk c&nstraints and
rep&rting fraud and c&rrupti&n sh&uld $e elicited. The revieBs c&nducted sh&uld als&
f&r+ the $asis &f ti+e $&und changes and i+pr&ve+ents Bhich sh&uld $e +&nit&red.
Needless t& sa. that such c&+prehensive ref&r+s need f&r their sustenance str&ng
p&litical and ad+inistrative Bill fr&+ the t&p. In its a$sence4 ref&r+s re+ain &nl. &n
paper. 5cc&unta$ilit. has t& $e inducedF it cann&t $e decreed $. fiat. 5cc&unta$ilit.
is a result &f a c&+plex set &f incentives4 transparenc. in pr&cesses and decisi&n
+aking4 and checks and $alances at vari&us levels &f g&vern+ent. Thus4 the t&p
p&litical leadership has t& put their Beight $ehind neB acc&unta$ilit. s.ste+s and
revieB it fr&+ ti+e t& ti+e.
119
The +&&t ?uesti&n h&Bever is that Bhen p&liticians depend &n the v&tes &f
land&Bners4 Bh. have the. n&t given sufficient i+p&rtance t& land +anage+ent and
updating &f rec&rds/
3.?.1 olitical culture # its im(act on land administration
The changing nature &f p&litics in +an. states in India4 and the resp&nse &f the civil
service t& it4 is relevant here. 5lth&ugh +an. civil servants h&ld the vieB that it is the
nature &f p&litics Bhich largel. deter+ines the nature &f the civil service and the ends
t& Bhich it B&uld $e put4 and theref&re civil service ref&r+s cann&t succeed in
is&lati&n4 causati&n is als& in the &ther directi&n. The reas&ns f&r decline in
ad+inistrative capacit. +a. $e linked t& p&litics4 $ut the. als& have their &Bn
aut&n&+.. N&n%perf&r+ing civil service leaves little ch&ice t& the p&liticians $ut t&
use res&urces at their c&++and f&r narr&B sectarian ends4 as service deliver. is n&t a
feasi$le &pti&n.
It is n&t &nl. land +anage+ent4 $ut all sect&rs are affected $. p&&r deliver.. ,ecause
&f the ina$ilit. &f the s.ste+ t& deliver4 p&liticians d& n&t perceive g&&d g&vernance
as feasi$le &r even i+p&rtant f&r getting v&tes. N& chief +inister see+s t& $e sa.ing
t& his c&nstituentsC NBithin three +&nths all canals B&uld run &n ti+e4 .&u B&uld get
12 h&urs &f electricit.4 rati&ns B&uld $e availa$le f&r the p&&r4 .&u appl. f&r an
extract &f land rights t&da. and Bithin a Beek it B&uld reach .&ur d&&rs4 .&ur
grievances Bill $e pr&+ptl. attended t&4 etc.N 1ne reas&n Bh. he d&es n&t sa. s& is
the t&tal lack &f faith &n the part &f v&ters in such pr&+ises Bhich need deliver.
thr&ugh the ad+inistrative apparatus. It is here that the civil service has failed
+isera$l..
7&liticians have c&ntri$uted t& the l&Bering &f standards in ad+inistrati&n $.
+eddling in transfers and p&stings4 there$. er&ding discipline and dist&rting the
reBard and punish+ent structure. 7&stings and transfers are t&da. entirel. in the
hands &f p&liticians and 0inisters4 and the p&Ber &f transfer is used t& &$lige
supp&rters4 thus enc&uraging field staff t& cultivate p&liticians. C&+petiti&n a+&ng
g&vern+ent e+pl&.ees f&r s&%called priDed p&sts and $etter l&cati&ns has +eant that
ever.&ne seeks rec&urse t& s&urces &f influence &utside the n&r+al hierarch.. Since
th&se Bh& h&ld influence4 such as 0L5s4 are n&t acc&unta$le f&r perf&r+ance4 +an.
g&vern+ent e+pl&.ees Bith the right Kc&ntactsA r&utinel. re+ain a$sent fr&+ B&rk &r
give least pri&rit. t& their &fficial duties.
:lecti&n expenditures in India are large4 unacc&unted and +&stl. illegiti+ate4 Bhich
can $e sustained &nl. if the s.ste+ is a$used t& ena$le +ultiple returns &n invest+ent.
#ent%seeking $ehavi&r is theref&re ende+ic t& the s.ste+. 5s the de+and f&r
illegiti+ate p&litical funds is expanding fast and entering neB areas such as service
deliver.4 c&rrupti&n is shifting t& the c&re areas &f state functi&ning4 like land
ad+inistrati&n and devel&p+ent funding. This vici&us chain &f c&rrupti&n has created
a class &f p&litical and $ureaucratic KentrepreneursA Bh& treat pu$lic &ffice as $ig
$usiness.
This has +eant that the p&litical s.ste+ in the states is acc&unta$le n&t t& the pe&ple
$ut t& th&se Bh& are $ehind the individual 0e+$ers &f Legislative 5sse+$l.
80L5s9F these are &ften c&ntract&rs4 +afia4 c&rrupt $ureaucrats4 and +anipulat&rs
122
Bh& have +ade +&ne. thr&ugh using the p&litical s.ste+4 and are theref&re interested
in the c&ntinuati&n &f cha&tic4 &pa?ue and patr&nage%$ased ad+inistrati&n. 5s the
survival &f the g&vern+ent depends &n the supp&rt &f legislat&rs4 their de+ands have
t& $e +et. The legislat&r has thus $ec&+e the disguised4 unacc&unta$le executive
c&ntr&lling all facets &f g&vern+ent functi&ning. The p&litical elites $enefit fr&+ the
present indiscipline and cha&s4 and the. d& n&t like giving up their discreti&n4 &r $eing
+ade acc&unta$le. The vici&us c.cle &f c&rrupti&n and centraliDed4 unacc&unta$le
g&vernance is thus perpetuated.
In such a situati&n4 r&utine ad+inistrati&n4 such as rec&rd keeping that re?uires that
th&usands &f g&vern+ent servants B&uld visit rural areas4 talk t& land&Bners4 find the
realit.4 and reflect that in the registers Bhich B&uld $e h&nestl. checked $. their
superi&rs4 has $ec&+e a casualt.. N&ne &f the three +ain act&rs inv&lved in the ga+e
L I5S &fficers4 field level staff4 and p&liticians L has an. incentive t& put his heart in
the =&$. The +&r&se is visi$le even in high pri&rit. areas such as educati&n and health4
Bhere a$senteeis+ fr&+ dut. is ver. high. The prevalent rent%seeking $ehavi&ur
+akes +&st $asic services inaccessi$le t& the p&&r and +arginaliDed secti&ns. 1nl.
techn&l&g. $ased s&luti&ns &r privatisati&n have an. chance &f success in this
envir&n+ent.
T& Bhat extent these have succeeded and Bhere has $een discussed in the sec&nd
chapter. The pr&gra++e has d&ne Bell in states Bhere eff&rts have $een +ade t&
i+pr&ve g&vernance and deliver. in sect&rs &ther than land t&&. H&Bever4 the real
i+pr&ve+ent Bill $egin Bhen rec&rds are Be$%ena$led4 s& that pe&ple &n their &Bn
take initiative in getting their rec&rds c&rrected. These state g&vern+ents Bill have t&
si+plif. the legal pr&cedures &therBise the spate &f laB suits Bill +ean a great deal &f
expenditure and enriching &f laB.ers and +iddle+en.
In the +&re $ackBard n&rthern states Bhere c&+puteriDati&n has +ade little i+pact4
and g&&d g&vernance is generall. c&nsidered a p&litical lia$ilit.4 <&IAs strateg. has t&
$e different. 0an. states in India4 especiall. the p&&rer &nes4 have l&st the d.na+is+
and capacit. t& undertake ref&r+s &n their &Bn Bith&ut an. external pressure. These
states are ruled $. pe&ple Bh& understand p&Ber4 caste4 patr&nage4 transfers4 +&ne.4
c&erci&n and cri+e. The language &f pr&fessi&nalis+4 g&al &rientati&n4 transparenc.4
$uilding up &f instituti&ns4 pr&gra++e deliver.4 and pe&plesA e+p&Ber+ent is t&tall.
alien t& the+. In these states neither p&litics n&r ad+inistrati&n has the capacit. f&r
self%c&rrecti&n4 and theref&re &nl. external pressure can c&erce the+ t& take hard
decisi&ns that Bill hit at their +&ne. +aking tactics. In the Indian situati&n 8Bhere
f&reign d&n&rs pr&vide ver. little aid t& the states as c&+pared Bith Bhat is pr&vided
$. the Centre9 this can c&+e &nl. fr&+ the Centre4 $acked $. str&ng civil s&ciet.
acti&n.
<&I +ust4 at the ver. least4 d& the f&ll&BingC
1. I+pr&ve incentive +echanis+ $. linking fund transfer Bith perf&r+ance
2. I+pr&ve +&nit&ring +echanis+s s& that authentic inf&r+ati&n is availa$le t&
planners a$&ut the ?ualit. &f i+ple+entati&n f&r all i+p&rtant sche+es
121
3. 5+end the 5ll India Services #ules t& c&ntr&l the fl&urishing transfer industr.
in the states
". I+pr&ve g&vernance in central g&vern+ent depart+ents4 especiall. th&se Bith
pu$lic interface4 $ef&re lecturing &n this t& the states. ;&r instance4 <&I asks
states t& pr&vide l&ng tenures t& seni&r &fficers4 $ut the average sta. &f a
Secretar. t& <&I 0inistr. Bas &nl. 11 +&nths in 22224 Bith &nl. six &ut &f *2
Secretaries having c&+pleted tB& .ears &n the sa+e p&st. <&I circulars t& the
states l&se their credi$ilit. if it cann&t de+&nstrate str&ng p&litical Bill t&
c&ntr&l sh&rt tenures.
Civil service ref&r+ is intracta$le under a Jklept&crac.J that expl&its nati&nal assets
f&r its &Bn $enefit and is4 $. definiti&n4 uninterested in efficienc. and devel&p+ent.
;&r this t.pe &f regi+e4 the real risk &f ref&r+ is l&ss &f c&ntr&l. 5 plia$le and
unskilled civil service is actuall. desira$le fr&+ its p&int &f vieB%%pu$lic e+pl&.ees
dependent &n the regi+eNs discreti&nar. largesse are f&rced t& $ec&+e c&rrupt4 cann&t
?uit their =&$s4 and reluctantl. $ec&+e the regi+eNs acc&+plices. 7r&viding financial
assistance t& such states Bith&ut linking it Bith perf&r+ance and ref&r+s B&uld $e a
Baste &f res&urces. In all &ther cases4 civil service ref&r+ is +anagea$le4 al$eit
difficult4 c&+plex4 and sl&B. H&Bever4 as <&I pr&vides 1!22 $illi&n #s t& the states
ever. .ear4 even the B&rst states can $e +ade t& perf&r+ if a part &f these funds are
linked Bith &utput in i+p&rtant sect&rs4 such as land4 educati&n4 and health.
122
Annexure 1
S&A&E%2ISE =E&AILS .F F:6C&I.6ARIES A& 4ARI.:S LE4ELS
States Villages 7atBari
s
7ancha.ats Circle
s
$l&ck
s
Taluk Su$%
(ivisi&n
s
(istricts
5ndhra
7radesh
292*1 22222 19!1) 1112 32!) % )* 21
5runachal
7radesh
32!) % )*1 11" "* % 21 12
5ssa+ 2199! % )1" 11" 13* % "* 21
,ihar ))*"' '!22 11'!3 % !92 % % 12
<&a "'2 191 % 21 12 11 ' 2
<u=arat 1*!!2 % 1*222 % 1*" 1*" % 19
Har.ana )2)3 111' !)92 % 12) !3 "1 1'
Hi+achal
7radesh
1*)21 22** 2!9) 22* '9 ') "* 12
Oa++u >
3ash+ir
')!* 113' 1"'9 % 119 19 12 1"
3arnataka 29392 *922 2!3' % 1)! 1)! "9 22
3erala 1"!2 % 1221 !'1 1!) ') 22 1"
0adh.a
7radeah
))2'* !21 11222 **) "!9 122 1)2 "!
0aharashtra "2*92 12"22 2")2) 1")" 29* 32! 12* 31
0anipur 22!9 % 1'' % 11 '' 32 *
0eghala.a !2"* % % % 32 % % !
0iD&ra+ )3' % '22 112 22 3*! 9 3
Nagaland 1119 % % ** 2* % % )
1rissa !2**) % "3** % 31" 1") !* 32
7un=a$ 12)9! "!9" 129!3 "'2 11* !! !! 1"
#a=asthan 2)12" 9'"! )3!1 1223 23) 211 92 12
Sikki+ "") % 11* "2 * % * "
Ta+il Nadu 1'*12 12!22 132'1 1121 3*! 1)" '1 23
Tripura *'" 212 '9* '2 1) 32 13 1
6ttar 7radeah 12"2"' 2*))2 )191" 1"*1 921 29" 29" '!
123
-est ,engal "112) % 332! % 1"1 % % 1*
5 > N islands !1' % "1 % ! ) % 2
Chandigarh 21 % 21 % 1 1 % 1
(>N Haveli )1 % 1 % 1 1 % 1
( > (iu "21 - 19' % 2 2 % 2
(elhi 231 - 191 % S 2 % 1
LakshadBeep 2" - % % 9 % " 1
7&ndicherr. 22 % % 19 ' 2 % "
T&tal '29!'9 % X !23
[ den&tes that inf&r+ati&n Bas n&t avaial$le
7un=a$ has "* su$tahsils8ST9 t&&4 H7 has 3' ST

8S&urceC #ep&rt &f the c&++ittee &n #evitalisati&n &f land #evenue 5d+inistrati&n4
0inistr. &f #ural (evel&p+ent 199!9
12"
Re$erences
5DiD4 5$dul and Sudhir 3rishna 199) 3arnatakaC 7r&+ises 3ept and 0issed4 Land
#ef&r+s in India4 Sage4 NeB (elhi
,aner=ee4 5$hi=it and Laksh+i I.er4 22234 Hist&r.4 Instituti&ns and :c&n&+ic
7erf&r+anceC The Legac. &f C&l&nial Land Tenure S.ste+s in India4 at
aghist&r..ucdavis.edui.erpaper.pdf
7reli+inar. Issue Identificati&n 0issi&n fielded under the auspices &f the 07 (istrict
7&vert. Initiatives 7r&=ect
I;5(4 22224 ;inal 5ppraisal #ep&rt4 Sec&nd 1rissa Tri$al (evel&p+ent 7r&gra++e4
#&+e
IS:C undatedC 7e&pleNs (ata$ase &n Land Tenure4 Land%6se4 and Land% C&verC 5
pil&t stud. $. the Institute f&r S&cial and :c&n&+ic Change 8IS:C94 ,angal&re and
Nagarika Seva Trust 8NST94 ,angal&re
35#C 22214 3arnataka 5d+inistrative #ef&r+s C&++issi&n4 ;inal #ep&rt
(ece+$er 22214 <&vern+ent &f 3arnataka4 ,angal&re
0earns4 #&$in 19994 5ccess t& Land in #ural IndiaC <olic% Issues and 3ptions@
-&rld ,ank
7lanning C&++issi&n 22224 0id%ter+ 5ppraisal &f the 9
th
7lan4 NeB (elhi
7&rter4 ;.-. 1*)*4 ;inal Settle+ent #ep&rt &f the 5llaha$ad (istrict4 N&rth%-estern
7r&vinces and 1udh <&vt. 7ress4 5llaha$ad
7rasad C.S.4 19934 The #es&urce Crunch in ,ihar4 in Land #ef&r+s in India v&l 14
Sage4 p. )2%*3
<1I 19*!4 C&nference &f #evenue 0inisters &n Land #ef&r+sC 7r&ceedings and
7apers4 1*
th
0a.4 0inistr. &f 5griculture and #ural (evel&p+ent
Se+inar &n 0aintenance &f #ec&rds and issue &f 7ass$&&ks t& Tenants4 5ugust 2'%
2)4 19*14 <&vern+ent &f ,ihar
7:1 Stud. N&.)' :V5L65TI1N 1; C1NS1LI(5TI1N 1; H1L(IN<S
7#1<#500: L 19'9
75C 2222 #ep&rt Card &n Service &f ,h&&+i 3i&sks4 7u$lic 5ffairs Centre4
,angal&re
C&+parative Stud. &f Land 5d+inistrati&n S.ste+sC -ith special reference t&
Thailand4 Ind&nesia and 3arnataka 8India94 5nne%0arie ,rits4 Chris <rant and T&n.
,urns4 Land :?uit. Internati&nal 7t. Ltd L BBB.lande?uit..c&+.au
;aru?ee4 #ashid and Cre.4 3evin 199) Land 0arkets in S&uth 5siaC -hat have Be
learned/ #71 '*2%124 -&rld ,ank4 -ashingt&n (.C.
#a&4 C H Hanu+antha4 2003@ #ef&r+ 5genda f&r 5griculture4 =conomic and
<olitical 4ee+l%@ (e*ruar% 1
12!
0urth.4 C.S. 222"4 Large ;ar+ers in Lease 0arketC 5re 0arginal ;ar+ers 5ffected/4
:c&n&+ic and 7&litical -eekl.4 1) Oul.
12'