CHAPTER VI

Waterflood Design Waterflood Design

Surveillance, and Evaluation
Ibrahim Kocabas
UAEU, Al Ain
Design involves both technical and economical
considerations.
As a whole including reservoir, design and
economic aspectsany design should contain
the following relevant information.
Waterflood Design
Design Elements are:
(Reservoir description) Reservoir evaluation and
d l f l i d l development of a conceptual reservoir model
Selection of potential flooding plans
Estimationof injection/productionrates Estimation of injection/production rates
Forecast of recovery over the project life
Preliminary facilities design y g
Estimation of capital expenditures and future
operating expenses
Conduct decision analysis and economic
evaluations
Id tif i bl th t t i it Identify variables that may cause uncertainity
Waterflood Design
The above design elements should be executed in the
followingphasesof designandoperation: following phases of design and operation:
I. Broad conceptual design
II. Evaluation of the reservoir
III. Developing preferred alternatives
IV O ti it i d l ti th IV. Operating, monitoring and evaluating the
waterflood
These phases will be detailed in the following
I. Broad conceptual design
This part contains two substeps :
1. Identify business opportunities:
The waterflood objective is to enhance and/or accelerate the
recoveryandmaximizeprofit Thenthemotivationscouldbe: recovery and maximize profit. Then the motivations could be:
Declining reserves
Replacing or increasing reserves
Performance under primary depletion
Successful waterflood in the same or similar reservoirs
2. Perform a quick feasibility study on the attractiveness of
the project.
II. Evaluation of the reservoir
Reservoir Evaluation consists of three steps:
1 C ll i d l i h i f i 1. Collecting and evaluating the information
for reservoir study and asset development
l i planning
2. Reviewing collected information for
d bl adequacy to enable us construct
development alternatives for a detailed
d study.
3. Describing the further testing needs
II. Evaluation of the reservoir (step 1)
1. Collecting data for reservoir evaluation:
Data on Field information;
Physical description of the reservoir y p f
Areal and vertical extent of producing
formation, A and h f ,
Isopach maps of gross and net sand
Correlation of layers and other zones f y
Surrounding environment, any information
on adjacent layers and aquifers j y q f
II. Evaluation of the reservoir (step 1)
Collecting data for reservoir evaluation (cont ): Collecting data for reservoir evaluation (cont.):
Geologic data
Physical boundaries ( Reservoir boundaries Physical boundaries ( Reservoir boundaries,
internal boundaries such as faults or other
impermeable boundaries) p )
3. Reservoir characteristics (engineering data)
Areal permeability and porosity variation and
h ( l d hence (Pay quality and continuity; zonation
and natural fracture heterogeneities; Fracture
orientation) orientation)
Vertical variation of permeability with
thickness and zone
II. Evaluation of the reservoir (step 1)
Collecting data for reservoir evaluation (cont.):
4. Unusual completions
5. Primary production history
Primary producing mechanism
Primary recovery data and remaining reserves
Pressure distribution in the reservoir
Existence of gas caps and aquifers
6. Production equipment installed
7. Well completion data
II. Evaluation of the reservoir (step 1) ( p )
Collecting data for reservoir evaluation
(cont.): (cont.):
Distribution of Resources
Trapped gas saturation from solution gas
drive
Vertical variation of saturation as a result of
gravity segregation g y g g
Presence of mobile connate water
Areas already waterflooded by natural drive y f y
II. Evaluation of the reservoir (step 1)
Collecting data for reservoir evaluation
(cont.):
R k fl id d k/fl id ti Rock, fluid and rock/fluid properties
(engineering data)
R l ti bilit f th i k Relative permeability for the reservoir rock
Gravity, FVF and viscosity as function of
i reservoir pressure
Capillary pressure data
The reservoir evaluation should lead to development
of a conceptual model of the reservoir !! of a conceptual model of the reservoir !!
II. Evaluation of the reservoir (step 2)
2. Review data and based on the established
conceptual model decide (or Estimate);
(This part is the major decision making part
of reservoir engineering aspects of waterflooding.)
Possible flood patterns
Injection and production rates
Timing of the project and
anticipated recovery over project life
Identify variables that may cause
uncertainty in the technical analysis
II. Evaluation of the reservoir (step 3)
3. Describe further testing needs;
( If t h h fid i t ( If we can not have enough confidence in step
2, the we should specify the need for )
A il t fi ld t t A pilot field test
Interwell tracer study
Determination of residual oil distribution Determination of residual oil distribution
Injectivity tests
Inthispart pilot fieldtests andtracer study In this part pilot field tests, and tracer study
deserves special attention and pilot tests will be
treatedindetail inthefollowingandtracer treated in detail in the following and tracer
tests will be dealt in surveillance part.
II. Evaluation of the reservoir (step 3) : ( p )
Pilot project design considerations
Inpilot or full scaleproject successliesin In pilot or full scale project success lies in
acquiring the data needed to provide a
meaningful interpretationof theprocess meaningful interpretation of the process
performance. For a pilot the purpose is to
providedataunder representativefield provide data under representative field
conditions. We should keep in mind that our
understandingof theprocessandhence understanding of the process and hence
successful expansion of the project to filed
scaledependsonour abilitytopredict the scale depends on our ability to predict the
performance of the pilot.
A pilot test is:
Anexperiment conductedinthefield An experiment conducted in the field
A simulation of the larger field effort
A place to make our mistakes before they get too costly pace o a eou sa esbeo e eyge oocos y
A place to work the bugs of the equipment
A place to develop the controls and data needed to
insure the success of the project
A place to put our best engineering talent to the test and
t t i th to train others
A place for intensive planning
A placefor openmindsandcompromise A place for open minds and compromise
A place for finding every problem imaginable with
their attendant delays
(step 3) : Pilot project design
considerations
A pilot test is not:
A short term money making proposition
A t t l fi ld i l ti A total field simulation
A great place to demonstrate theory in
ti action
III. Develop preferred alternatives
Detailed description of the technical and economic
f h fl dd i h ld i aspects of the waterflood design should contain
information on the attractiveness of each item
inthefollowing: in the following:
a. Reservoir Engineering Part g g
Is reservoir description results adequate and p q
promising for implementing the
waterflood?
III. Develop preferred alternatives p p
Attractiveness of Possible flood patterns
o Peripheral flood
o Aquifer injection
o Central flood
P tt fl di o Pattern flooding
Pattern configuration
Well spacing Well spacing
III. Develop preferred alternatives p p
Estimation of injection and production rates
o Information from injectivitytests
o Empirical correlations
o Local experience
Anticipated recovery over the project life
o Material balance methods
o Empirical correlations
o Analytical models
o Reservoir simulators
III. Develop preferred alternatives p p
Identify variables that may cause
ncertaint inthetechnical anal sis uncertainty in the technical analysis
Original oil in place
Sweepefficiency Sweep efficiency
Injection rates
Reservoir discontinuities Reservoir discontinuities
Based on the results of each item of the
alternatives oneisselectedand alternatives, one is selected and
implemented. The next step is monitoring
andevaluationof thedesigninpractice and evaluation of the design in practice.
V. Operate, monitor and evaluate waterflood
Monitoring and evaluation includes :
Monitoring reservoir, wells and facilities performance
Modify living reservoir model as additional data are
obtainedfromoperational andevaluationof results obtained from operational and evaluation of results
Evaluate performance and revise the earlier plan and
strategies based upon actual performance
Id tif t iti f i Identify new opportunities for expansion
Plan a strategy for terminating the operation
Following are details of some important items in waterflood
surveillanceandmonitoring. surveillance and monitoring.
VI.2 Waterflood Surveillance and
monitoring
Anessential keytoasuccessful waterflooding An essential key to a successful waterflooding
project is a well-planned and well-executed
programof surveillanceandmonitoring This program of surveillance and monitoring. This
program should be designed for each field
differentlyduetodifferingcharacteristicsof differently due to differing characteristics of
fields.
The basic elements of all surveillance
programsareasfollows: programs are as follows:
VI.2 Waterflood Surveillance and monitoring
1. First element is that in general three major
categoriesof fieldconditionsshouldbe categories of field conditions should be
included in any waterfloodsurveillance
program: reservoir conditions, program: reservoir conditions,
injection/production well conditions and
facilities/operatingconditions. facilities/operating conditions.
2. The other element is record
keeping/performancecontrol. keeping/performance control.
3. The final element consists of considerations
regardingeconomicconditions. regarding economic conditions.
VI.2 Waterflood Surveillance and
monitoring
Th ill d it i The surveillance and monitoring program may
be divided into two general type of activities
l t d t ti ti iti namely, measurement and testing activities.
Thenthemeas redq antitiesareemplo edin Then the measured quantities are employed in
a number of surveillance techniques for
interpretationande al ationandremediation interpretation and evaluation and remediation
purposes.
VI.2 Waterflood Surveillance and
monitoring
The First part of measurement and testing The First part of measurement and testing
activities is observation of the items that needs
toberegularlymonitored to be regularly monitored.
Thesecond part consist of carryingout special The second part consist of carrying out special
tests for diagnosis of problems commonly
associatedwithwaterfloods inother words associated with waterfloods, in other words
application of a well planned and well
executedwell testingprogram executed well testing program.
VI.2 Waterflood Surveillance (Part 1: Measurement
nd t tin ) and testing)
Table 1 lists the items that should normally be included in the
threemajor categoriesof surveillance three major categories of surveillance.
Table 1. Listing of waterflood project items needing surveillance
Reservoir Wells Facilities/Operations
Pressure Perforations Water quality
Rates Fluid entry/exit Injection facilities
Volumes Cement integrity Production facilities
Cuts Downhole equipment Pipelines
Fluid samples Surface equipment Monitoring equipment
VI.2.1 Reservoir Surveillance (Part 1: Measurement and
testing)
The following items require constant monitoring in g q g
reservoir surveillance
R i ( kl di f Reservoir pressure, ( weekly recording of
bottomholepressure readouts in submersiblypumped
wells) ( dailyrecordingof pressuresfromsurface wells.) ( daily recording of pressures from surface
headers, injection wellheads, producing well flow
lines and fresh source-water injection headers) j )
Injection and production rates, ( daily recording
of them)
VI.2.1 Reservoir Surveillance (Part 1: Measurement
and testing)
Fluid volumes, (daily recording of oil water
and gas volumes includes data from producing
wells, water supply wells, fresh water injection
into producers fro salt control, injection wells,
and saltwater dispsal wells)
WOR/GORs ( daily recording of them)
VI.2.1 Reservoir Surveillance (Part 1: Measurement
and testing)
Fluid samples ( weekly recording of producing well
i h dH2Sl l i h h f water weights and H2S levels in ther gas phase of
producing wells. Quarterly analysis of injection water
for oxygencontent andoil carryover Annual for oxygen content and oil carryover. Annual
chemical analysis of all injected and produced water.
However, special problems attributed to H2S , p p
corrosion, oxygen corrosion, inorganic scales and
organic debris such as bacteria, paraffin and oil in
water reverse emulsions can necessitate more frequent
analysis of the produced or injected water.)
VI.2.2 Well surveillance (Part 1: Measurement and
testing)
For well surveillance ; there are four types of
wells requiring surveillance: production,
injection, water supply and water disposal.
Of these production and injection wells require
the most attention.
VI.2.2 Well surveillance (Part 1: Measurement and
testing)
Monitoringwell performancerequiresa Monitoring well performance requires a
program of selected well tests to be conducted
regularly Typesof well testsselected will regularly. Types of well tests selected will
depend on surface/downholeequipment, well
completioncharacteristics producedand completion characteristics, produced and
injected fluids the stage of the waterflood
project (early middleor late) andthereservoir project (early, middle or late) and the reservoir
description.
VI.2.2 Well surveillance (Part 1: Measurement and
testing)
Key items for well surveillance are
fluid entry into or exit from target zones,
cement/completion integrity, and
mechanical equipment, both downhole and
surface.
VI.2.3 Facilities and operations surveillance (Part 1:
Measurement and testing)
In general the ingredients common to most
operations needing surveillance regarding
facilities and operations are
injection/production facilities,
fluid transmission lines,
field monitoring equipment and,
most important, water quality.
VI.2.3 Facilities and operations surveillance (Part
1: Measurement and testing)
Poor injectionwater qualityisprobablyoneof the Poor injection water quality is probably one of the
most damaging conditions that arise in
waterfloodingoperations. ( teststoperformon waterfloodingoperations. ( tests to perform on
water quality are
(1)geochemical analyses of the waters involved and
the description of suspended solids,
(2)membrane filter tests to describe plugging effects
f th d d lid d of the suspended solids and
(3)flow tests to study the effects of the injected water
onformationcorepermeability) on formation core permeability )
VI.3 Waterflood Surveillance (Part II. Special
testing) testing)
a. Well testing Program
A i k h f l li i d An important key to the successful application and
surveillance of waterfloodis a detailed, accurate
d fi i i f fl idfl h Fl idfl definition of fluid flow paths. Fluid flow
distribution is governed by reservoir properties,
ll di i d i i A ll well conditions and operating practices. A well
planned and well executed well testing program
id fi i / ll di i can provide or confirm reservoir/well condition
information that cannot be adequately obtained
b h by other means.
(Part II. Special testing)
W ll i P a. Well testing Program
I fl di i i d/ ll In waterfloodingcertain reservoir and /or well
conditions can results in anomalous distribution of
injectionwater whichinturnmayresult ininefficient injection water which in turn may result in inefficient
flood operations. If fluid flow distributions can be
ascertained then corrective measures can be
undertaken as needed. The corrective measures can
include injection and/or production well rate
adjustment, well shut in, intermittent well operations,
well conversions, injection profile modification and
floodpatternrevision flood pattern revision.
(Part II. Special testing)
W ll i P a. Well testing Program
Unequal directional flowinthereservoir Unequal directional flow in the reservoir
during waterfloodingthus can be caused by
bothreservoir characteristicsandwell and both reservoir characteristics and well and
operating conditions.
Reservoir characteristics include variations in
directional permeability faults permeability directional permeability, faults, permeability
pinchouts, lenses, fractures and active
aquifers. aquifers.
(Part II. Special testing) a. Well testing Program
Well and operating conditions leading to
unequal directional flowarepoor well unequal directional flow are poor well
conditions, unbalanced injection production
rates, poor qualityinjectionwater. rates, poor quality injection water.
Regardless of the cause, unequal directional
flowinagivenreservoir must be flow in a given reservoir must be
recognized, quantified and corrected.
For identifyingtheaboveproblems, the For identifying the above problems, the
pressure transient testing and profile surveys
shouldbecarriedout semiannually. should be carried out semiannually.
6.3.2. Project surveillance techniques based
n th nit in p d on the monitoring procedures are
Productivity index and inflow performance
plots coupled with well-test plots of water cut
and oil rates
Productivity index plots (barrels per day per
psiadrawdown vstime ) and inflow performance
plots ( well operating pressure vstotal reservoir
withdrawal rate) depend on the proper
measurement of oil rate, formation water rate, well
operating pressure and current reservoir pressure.
6.3.2. Project surveillance techniques based
on the monitoring procedures are
Continuous plots of watercut, oil rate and
productivity index facilitate detection of
wellbore impairment, improve ability to
measure the effectiveness of wellbore
stimulations, and improve ability to determine
the impact of high volume lift installations.
Inflow performance plots are used to optimize
the design of high volume lift installations.
6.3.2. Project surveillance techniques based
on the monitoring procedures are
Reservoir withdrawal calculations
Reservoir withdrawal calculations are made on at
least a monthly basis to determine any changes in
reservoir voidage. Reservoir withdrawal calculations
i t t d i ll h f t fl d are important during all phases of waterflood
operation.
6.3.2. Project surveillance techniques based
on the monitoring procedures are
For instance calculations during fill up time are
important to maintain sufficient injection to
production ratio. The injection rate should exceed the
d ti t b f t f th t f production rate by a factor of three to four.
This ratio allows for a reasonable fill up time usually
1to1years Oncetheoptimumreservoir pressure 1 to 1 years. Once the optimum reservoir pressure
is achieved all pay is opened in all wells and fluid
withdrawal rate is increased. During this period g p
reservoir withdrawal rate calculations are maintained
to ensure that injection rates equal reservoir fluid
rates.
6.3.2. Project surveillance techniques based
on the monitoring procedures are
BHP transient test analysis
Pressure transient test analysis is used to
determine
Skin factors, kh product, p averages of water
and oil banks and so on.
6.3.2. Project surveillance techniques based
on the monitoring procedures are
Injectivity plots with profile survey
i comparisons
Injectivityplots (barrels injected per day per psi differential
i j ti ) l ithi j ti fil l t d injection pressure) couples with injection profile plots are used
to detect injection well problems and injection well responses
to stimulation, fracture treatment, and profile modification
attempts.
Theuseof theseinjectivityplot withprofilesurveytechniques The use of these injectivityplot with profile survey techniques
coupled with chemical and transient pressure analysis can
indicate injectivityproblems associated with calcium
carbonatescale bacteria o gencorrosionprod ctsandoil carbonate scale, bacteria, oxygen corrosion products and oil
carryover.
6.3.2. Project surveillance techniques based
on the monitoring procedures are
Geochemical program
Geochemical program uses all the monitoring p g g
procedures but special emphasis is placed on the
chemical analyses of produced and injected water,
well to well injection tracers, produced water salinity
from all producers, H2S concentration in produced
il t ti i d d t gas oil carryover concentration in produced water.
6.3.2. Project surveillance techniques
All five of these primary surveillance techniques,
1. Productivity index and inflow performance plots,
2. Reservoir withdrawal calculations,
3. BHP transient test analysis,
4. Injectivity plots with profile survey comparisons and . jec v y p o s w p o e su vey co p so s d
5. Geochemical program including tracer analysis
enables us to carry out systematic well workoverson
d i di j i ll Al b d h producing and injection wells. Also based on the
results of these techniques, frequently applied
modificationsinproducingandinjectionpoliciesmay modifications in producing and injection policies may
produce favorable results in injection wells,
producing wells and field production levels. p g p
V. Operate, monitor and evaluate waterflood (
A l l f l i ) Actual Examples of Evaluation)
I i i i i h fl d In many engineering organizations the waterflood
performance of a project is predicted only once
h i h j i l d Thi i ll at the time the project is planned. This is really
unfortunate. The real pay-off in terms of
i d i d fi bili d increased recovery, increased profitability, and
increased knowledge comes from a comparison
f h di d f f i i h of the predicted performance of a reservoir with
the way it is actually behaving.
V. Operate, monitor and evaluate waterflood p ,
(Actual Examples of Evaluation)
The following are three examples (borrowed
from Craig) of some of the more common
differences one observes between actual and
predicted performance and what a study of
these differences can tell us about how to
improve our waterflooding operations.
V. Operate, monitor and evaluate waterflood
(Ex.1)
Example data
shows a plot of p
WOR versus
recovery. y
V. Operate, monitor and evaluate waterflood p
(Ex.1)
Previous figure shows a plot of WOR versus
recovery. The smooth curve is that which was
predicted at the outset of the project. The jagged
curve is that actually observed. We see that water
breakthrough has come earlier than predicted and
in addition it seems to be rising generally at a
faster rate than we predicted. What could be the
causes of these differences?
V. Operate, monitor and evaluate waterflood
( 1) (Ex.1)
First the reservoir may be more nonuniformthan
expected. That is in moving from the injection to
producing well the injected water is contacting
less of the reservoir and recovering less oil than
we predicted. Perhaps the injected water is
bypassing the oil by moving through a gas cap or
an aquifer of formation fractures. Injectivity
profiles together with knowledge about the
reservoir itself could help us tell whether we
have a gas cap or aquifer bypassing.
V. Operate, monitor and evaluate waterflood
(E 1) (Ex.1)
L ki h l i f ll i i Looking at the location of wells experiencing
the higher than expected WOR may tell us
h h h i l whether there are any reservoir scale
fractures through which the water is
i A h ibili i h h i i i l moving. Another possibility is that the initial
gas saturation is higher than expected so
h b i ll h i l il ibl that basically there is less oil possible to
recover by waterflooding.
V. Operate, monitor and evaluate waterflood p
(Ex.1)
R i i h d i hi f h Reviewing the production history of the
reservoir prior to waterfloodingmight give
l h h hi i ibl us a clue as to whether this is a possible
explanation. Another possibility is that the
il di l ffi i i l h oil displacement efficiency is lower than
expected- perhaps due to selection of a non
i f l i bili representative set of relative permeability
characteristics.
V. Operate, monitor and evaluate waterflood
(Ex.1)
Thisexampleillustrateshowonewouldcheck This example illustrates how one would check
the various factors that went into the
reservoir performancepredictionto reservoir performance prediction to
determine the real cause for the difference in
performance Someof thepossiblereasons performance. Some of the possible reasons
for the difference, that is bypassing of the
injectedwater throughagascapcould injected water through a gas cap could
probably be remedied by injection well
workover workover.
V. Operate, monitor and evaluate waterflood p ,
(Ex.1)
If on the other hand the reservoir is more non
uniform than expected or has a higher
initial gas saturation , a comparison of
actual and predicted performance might
allow us to make a more realistic prediction
for the future waterflood recovery.
V. Operate, monitor and evaluate waterflood
( 2) (Ex.2)
Thefigure The figure
shows better
performance performance
than expected!
V. Operate, monitor and evaluate waterflood
( 2) (Ex.2)
The previous figure shows the actual performance is
more favorable than that which we predicted. Its
true that we rather infrequently find this but a
reservoir engineer should attempt to determine
the reason for this difference also. Perhaps the
reservoir is less heterogeneous than expected, or
perhaps the crossflow of injected water between
the different zones or layers in the reservoir has
caused improved sweep.
V. Operate, monitor and evaluate waterflood p ,
(Ex.2)
This may be an indication that the waterflood
recovery from this project will be higher
than that originally anticipated. In any event
the reason for this difference is important.
V. Operate, monitor and evaluate waterflood
(Ex.3)
Thenext figure(slide21) showstheactual and The next figure (slide 21) shows the actual and
predicted oil producing rate from a
waterfloodproject versustime The waterfloodproject versus time. The
prediction had indicated an increased oil
producingrate but theactual performance producing rate but the actual performance
after showing an initial increase, has tended
tolevel off andevenbeginadownward to level off and even begin a downward
trend.
V. Operate, monitor and evaluate waterflood
( 3) (Ex.3)
V. Operate, monitor and evaluate waterflood
(Ex.3)
Some possible reasons for this are that the water p
injection rate is lower than expected or perhaps
the producing wells are becoming plugged by p g gp gg y
paraffin or scale or may need larger pumps to
maintain a reduced fluid level. This type of yp
performance also could be caused by a portion
of the injected water entering a thief zone or j g
even by the existence of a higher initial gas
saturation than expected. p
V. Operate, monitor and evaluate waterflood
(conclusion of examples)
A continuous evaluation of waterfloodperformance
can accomplish several things. It can provide a
basis for injection and production well
workoversand thus for higher rates and
increased daily income. The evaluation can lead
to a modification of the flooding pattern and thus
a higher recovery than might be ultimately
obtained with the present pattern.
V. Operate, monitor and evaluate waterflood
( l i f l ) (conclusion of examples)
The comparisionof actual and predicted waterflood
f l i ld i d i f h performance can also yield an improved estimate of the
actual reservoir heterogeneity. It can al the least lead to a
Better estimateof recoveryperformance Better estimate of recovery performance.
Thus to achieve maximum recovery the project y p j
must be well and continuously engineered.
Next are two special topics to be covered if
time permits :
VI. Why waterfloods fail ? y
After discussing the design, surveillance and
e al ationtoolsit ma beappropriatetopoint evaluation tools it may be appropriate to point
out some common reasons of why waterfloods
fail fail.
Sometimes actual field performance does not
matchthepredictedperformancebecauseof match the predicted performance because of
several reasons. Even before this failure issue
therearemajor economicdifferencesasa there are major economic differences as a
result of average and exceptional waterfloods.
VI. Why waterfloods fail ? y
Waterfloodscan fail primarily due to:
Poor s eepefficienc Poor sweep efficiency
o Vertical permeability variations causing early
breakthroughandhighwater production breakthrough and high water production
o Fractures and directional permeability
o Fluid distribution in thick reservoirs with very y
high vertical permeability underrunsthe oil
o Viscous fingering and unfavorable mobility
i ratio
o Unbalanced injectivity
VI. Why waterfloods fail ? y
Waterfloods can also fail due to: :
Unexpected expenses
o Extensive remedial work
E i f il d d d i f o Equipment failure and underdesign of
producing and injection equipment
Oth Others
o Initial oil saturations too small to form an oil
bank bank
o Oil resaturation of gas cap
VII. Interwell tracers testing
Tracer tests deserve special attention for their role in
Geochemical surveillance, identifying primary
reasons why waterfloodsfail and reservoir
characterization and will be treated in the following.
ll d ki j i Interwell tracers are used to track injection
fluid from injection wells to production wells.
Th d d i i d i The produced tracer timing and concentration
can be used to deduce reservoir properties as
h l f i l fl h Th they relate to preferential flow paths. The use
of tracers to obtain some relevant information
i i d is summarizedas:
VII. Interwell tracers testing
Continuation of sands and shales ( thiscan Continuation of sands and shales ( this can
be achieved by selective injection of tracer
intoagivenzone For instanceif tracer is into a given zone. For instance if tracer is
injected in only one zone and is observed in
aneighboringproducer completedina a neighboring producer completed in a
different zone then the shale separating
thesezonesisnot continuousbetweenthese these zones is not continuous between these
wells)
VII. Interwell tracers testing
Characterization of faults ( the absence of the
tracer production at an offset producer may p p y
be as a result of a fault between the injector
and producer. Fig. E8) ) Note: ALL Figures in p g ) ) g
Tracer Section are borrowed from Waterflood
Asset Management book G. Takhur and
coauthor
The flow along the fault zones are so high than
h di i h l the transverse direction thus early tracer
breakthrough may be detected at a producer
h f l near the fault.
VII. Interwell tracers testing
VII. Interwell tracers testing
Volumetric sweep efficiency at
breakthrough The volumetric sweep
efficiency at breakthrough is a measure of
the seriousness of channeling because the
amount of fluid injected towards a producer
at the time of breakthrough provides some
qualitative information on the volume of the
high permeability channel. (see Fig. E11).
VII. Interwell tracers testing
Breakthrough Efficiency
VII. Interwell tracers testing
Delineation of flow barriers(Any type of flow
restriction such as low permeability region
between an injector and producer pair will
reduce the movement of tracer to the
producer.(See Fig. E9)
VII. Interwell tracers testing
Delineation of flow barriers
VII. Interwell tracers testing
Directional flow trends (On the other hand if (
localized fractures are present in the reservoir
early tracer breakthrough may occur. y g y
Preferential flow paths can be ascertained by
monitoring tracer breakthrough times at g g
neighboring production wells in different
directions from the injector. (See Fig. E10) j ( g )
VII. Interwell tracers testing
Directional flow trends (cont):Breakthrough
times are combined with pressure drops
between wells to calculate the transmissibility.
If preferential flow directions are present
sweep efficiency could be improved by
adjusting the pattern and/or flow rates. (See
Fig. E10)
VII. Interwell tracers testing
Directional flow trends
VII. Interwell tracers testing
Pattern balancing ( Pattern balancing is
i i i i i h ffi i important in maximizing the sweep efficiency
and ultimate recovery from a waterflood.
The relative amount of tracer recovered at
h ll id i f h h f each well provide an estimate of how much of
the injected fluid flows towards each producer.
Fi E12) Fig. E12)
VII. Interwell tracers testing
Pattern balancing
VII. Interwell tracers testing
Identification of problem injectors ( problem
injectorscanbeidentifiedb tagging the injectors can be identified by tagging the
injected fluid at each injector with a different
tracer tracer.
As shown in Fig.E.13. early breakthrough at a
producer canbeattributedtoflowfromagiven producer can be attributed to flow from a given
injector.
VII. Interwell tracers testing
Identification of problem injectors
VII. Interwell tracers testing
Delineate between coning and channeling Delineate between coning and channeling
(Water production at a well can be due to
coningor channeling Thechannelingof the coning or channeling. The channeling of the
injected fluid can be detected by tagging this
fluidwithatracer) fluid with a tracer.)