Honne Diesel Engine

International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology (IJMET), ISSN 0976
6340(Print), ISSN 0976 6359(Online) Volume 4, Issue 5, September - October (2013) IAEME
301

PALM OIL AND CALOPHYLLUM INOPHYLLUM OIL ARE POTENTIAL
FEED STOCKS FOR FUTURE BIODIESEL IN COMPRESSION IGNITION
ENGINES: A REVIEW

H. Suresh Babu Rao
1
, Dr. T. Venkateswara Rao
2
and Dr. K. Hema Chandra Reddy
3

1
(Department of Mechanical Engineering, A.I.T.S-Rajampet, India)
2
(Department of Mechanical Engineering, DBSIT-Kavali, India)
3
(Department of Mechanical Engineering, J.N.T.U.C.E-Anantapur, India)

ABSTRACT

The world is confronted with serious problems like the fossil fuel depletion and
environmental degradation. Fossil fuels in near future will become rare due to its indiscriminate
extraction and consumption. Therefore, biodiesel is considered as a promising option as they are
clean renewable fuels and best substitute for diesel fuel in any compression ignition engine. The
important advantages of using biodiesel are its renewability and better quality of exhaust gas
emissions. This paper reviews the preparation, performance and emission of Palm and Calophyllum
inophyllum oils as biodiesel. Palm oil is one of the most efficient and high productivity edible oil
crops. However, for edible oils food Vs fuel problem makes them as they are not an ideal feedstock
for biodiesel production. Therefore, the attention is shifted towards non-edible oils like Jatropha
curcas, Kanaja, Mahau, Calophyllum inophyllum etc. Calophyllum inophyllum oil can be
transesterified and being considered as potential biodiesel feed stocks for future. Compared to Palm
oil, biodiesel from Calophyllum inophyllum oil is still in a nascent state. Therefore, long term
research is to be carried out for the oil to become alternative fuel in future.

KEYWORDS: Biodiesel, Palm, Calophyllum inophyllum, Transesterification, Performance,
Emission.

1. INTRODUCTION

The rising demand for fuel with deterioration of climate conditions has raised concerns for
environmental problems and energy crisis. Biodiesel is the promising option as alternative fuels for
diesel engine (edible or non-edible feedstock). Biodiesel is defined as the mono-alkyl esters with
long chain of fatty acids derived from vegetable oils, animal fats or waste cooking oil. Biodiesels are
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renewable, nontoxic, non-flammable, readily available and also eco-friendly. Biodiesel have some
advantages as compared to petroleum diesel. The most important advantages of biodiesel are
biodegradability, higher flash point, improved cetane number and reduced exhaust emissions. Also,
biodiesels are free from sulfur or aromatic compounds and reduces air pollution like carbon
monoxides, hydrocarbons and particulate matter. Therefore, this makes biodiesel as an ideal fuel for
future and it is gaining a worldwide attention.
The important advantages of using the Biodiesel are its renewability, better quality exhaust
gas emission, biodegradability; also it does not contribute to a rise in the level of carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere. The main sources for biodiesel are both edible and non-edible oils can be obtained
from such as edible oils like Palm oil, Peanut oil, Sunflower oil, Soyabeen oil etc., and non-edible
oils like Jatropha Curcas , Pongamia Pinnata, Mahau, Calophyllum inophyllum etc. Hence, it is
believed that non-edible oils can be one of the solutions to meet the world energy demand and reduce
the dependency on the edible oils.
Biodiesel is a realistic alternative renewable fuel in the near future and this review is focused
on the possibilities of using palm oil and Calophyllum inophyllum oils as biodiesel in diesel engine.
Besides, the fuel characteristics (viscosity etc.), processes available, preparation of biodiesel,
performance and emission analysis of biodiesel are discussed by making a comparison on these three
different types of biodiesels [4].

1.1 Biodiesel
The concept of using biodiesels in diesel engines is not a new idea. Rudolph Diesel had
demonstrated his first developed compression ignition (CI) diesel engine using peanut oil as a fuel at
the World Exhibition at Paris in 1900. However due to abundant supply of diesel and vegetable oil
fuel were more expensive than diesel. So, research activity and developments on vegetable oil were
not taken seriously on those days. There is a renewed interest in vegetable oil in this decade when it
was realized that petroleum fuel are declining faster and eco-friendly renewable substitutes must be
found for replacement to the petroleum diesel. Therefore, biodiesels are gaining more and more
interest as an attractive fuel due to the depleting of fossil fuel resources and environmental
degradation.
Biodiesel which has combustion characteristics similar to that of diesel and various biodiesel
blends have higher ignition temperature and pressure, shorter ignition delay as well as peak heat
release when compared to diesel fuel. Moreover, the engine power output and brake power efficiency
were also found to be equivalent to diesel. Biodiesel and diesel blends can reduce smoke opacity,
particulate matters, un-burnt hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide emissions but
nitrous monoxide emissions have slightly increased. However, the main disadvantages of biodiesel is
their high viscosity and low volatility, which causes poor combustion in diesel engines including
formation of deposits and injector cocking due to poorer atomization upon injection into the
combustion chamber. By transesterification process, the oil reduces its viscosity and the viscosity of
the oil will be to a range closer to that of diesel fuel and hence improves combustion. Biodiesels or
fatty acid esters are clean, efficient and natural alternative to petroleum fuel. The use of biodiesel has
grown dramatically during the last few years. Feedstock costs account for a large portion of the
direct biodiesel production costs, including capital cost and return.

1.1.1 Standards of biodiesel
Generally, biodiesel can be defined as a domestically renewable fuel for diesel engines
derived from natural tree born oils like peanut, palm, sunflower, rapeseed etc., and the oil that meet
the standard specifications . Technical properties of biodiesel are given in Table 1 [4]. Biodiesel is a
clear amber-yellow liquid with a viscosity is similar to diesel fuel.

303

Table 1. Technical Properties of Biodiesel
S.No. Common Name Biodiesel
1 Common chemical name Fatty acid methylester
2 Chemical formula range
C14 - C24 methylesters or
C15 - 25 H28-48 O2
3 Kinematic viscosity range (mm
2
/s) 3.3 - 5.2
4 Density range (kg/m
3
, at 288K) 860 894
5 Boiling point range (K) >475
6 Flash Point range 420-450
7 Solubility in water insoluble
8 Physical appearance Light to dark yellow, clear liquid
9 Biodegradability
More biodegradable than petroleum
diesel
10 Reactivity
Stable but avoid strong oxidizing
agents

1.1.2 Biodiesel Feedstock sources
There are more than 350 tree born oils identified, among these only few are considered as
potential alternative fuels. Out of these palm, peanut, soybean, sunflower etc., - edible oils and
Jatropha curcas, Karanja, cotton seed, calophyllum inophyllum etc., - non-edible oils. The sources
for biodiesel production is usually chosen according to availability in each region or country.
European countries have surplus amount of edible oil to export. Hence, rapeseed oil is used as
biodiesel feed stock. In the United States soybean biodiesel becoming the important source of
biodiesel. The coastal countries like Malaysia, Thailand and Indonesia palm oil and coconut oil are
used in biodiesel production. However, some Asian countries are not self sufficient in edible oils due
to food Vs fuel problem, they are exploring non-edible oils like Jatropha curcas and Karanja as
biodiesel raw materials. The other different oil sources reported in various scientific articles are:
sunflower oil, peanut oil, cotton seed oil, neem oil, calophyllum inophyllum etc.
Fig. 1 shows the oil yield of various oil sources for biodiesel feedstock [15]. Palm oil has
potential of high productivity (litres per hectare) when compared to other vegetable oils. As the
figure shows, the highest oil productivity of palm oil is about 5950 litres per hectare which is about
13 times better than soybean oil and follows by Calophyllum inophyllum oil.
Out of the various tree born oils palm oil based biodiesel can reduce greenhouse gases (GHG)
emissions by 62% as compared to sunflower oil (58%), rapeseed oil (45%) and soybean oil (40%).

Fig. 1. Production oil yield for various source of biodiesel feedstock [4]
0 2000 4000 6000 8000
C.Inophyllum
Jatropha
Cottonseed
Peanut
Sunflower
Rapeseed
Soybean
Coconut
Palm
Productivity (litres/hectare)
B
i
o
d
i
e
s
e
l

F
e
e
d
s
t
o
c
k
304

2. PALM OIL

Botanical name of oil palm is Elaeis guineensis. It is an ancient tropical plant from the West
African tropical rainforest where it was grown wild and later it was developed into an agricultural
crop. Oil palm produces two different types of oils: palm oil and palm kernel oil. Palm oil is used in
wide variety of food products such as cooking oil, margarine and shortenings and palm kernel oil is
used as a raw material in the production of non-food products like cosmetic, soaps, toiletries,
detergents etc. is the most productive oil palm variety which can produce 1035 tonnes/ hectare of
fresh fruit bunch (FFB) palm oil annually. The palm oil is a tropical perennial plant and it can grow
well in lowland with humid places.
The palm oil tree is unbranched and single-stemmed can grow up to 2030m height. The
flowers are produced in dense clusters which each individual flower is small with three sepals and
three petals. The leaves are pinnate and can reach between 3 and 5m long. The fleshy orange reddish
coloured fruits grow in large and tight female bunches each fruit weigh as much as 1040 kg and
contain up to 2000 fruitlets as shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. Palm oil tree with fruits

The oil palm plantations can be planted with a density of 148 palm trees per hectare. The
fruit let consists of a fibrous mesoscarp layer and the endocarp (shell) containing the kernel which
contains oil and carbohydrate reserves for the embryo.
The economic life of oil palm tree is 25 - 30 years of its lifespan is approximately 200 years and
produces fruit bunches from three years of age after field planting.
Oil palm is the highest oil yield crop producing an average about 4 5 tons of oil per hectare
annually. Two main products produced by oil palm fruit:
Crude palm oil which is produced from the mesoscarp.
Crude palm kernel oil which is produced from the endosperm (kernel).
The mesoscarp contains 49% of palm oil and kernel contains 50% of palm kernel oil.
Globally, the demand for edible oils is increasing in this few decades which causes
tremendous increase in area of oil crop cultivation, especially soybean oil and palm oil. Palm oil is
one of the 17 major oils and fats produced in globally. Global consumption of palm oil was about
52.1 million tonnes in year 2012. Indonesia and Malaysia produce about 85% of the worlds palm
oil. Other producer countries include Thailand, Columbia, Nigeria, Papua New Guinea and Ecuador
shown in Fig. 3. Palm oil is one of the most efficient oil bearing crops in terms of land utilization,
efficiency and productivity.

305

Fig. 3. Palm oil World Production

Oils and fats are vital nutrients required by the human body to achieve and maintain good
health. There are two types of natural fats - saturated and unsaturated fats. An adequate amount of
fat is necessary in the human diet for proper digestion and nutrient absorption. Palm oil provides the
right amounts of fat in a balanced diet. Vitamins A and E, essential for the normal growth and
development of the human body, is obtained through food consumption. All vegetable oils contain
natural vitamin E in compounds such as tocopherols and tocotrienols. Palm oil has the richest known
content of natural tocotrienols. Studies have shown that tocotrienol helps lower bad cholesterol levels
and protects the brain against diseases. Palm oil is also high in carotenoids, a rich source of vitamin
A. Carotenoids can be stored in the body and be converted to vitamin A when needed. Vitamin A
stimulates the immune system and controls the growth and functions of body tissues. Red palm oil,
or mildly refined palm oil, has seventeen times more carotenoids than carrots. Palm oil is
cholesterol-free and Trans fat free. It is composed mainly of triglycerides of fatty acid with a
balanced composition between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. The latter comprises 40%
monounsaturated and 10% polyunsaturated fat.

3. CALOPHYLLUM INOPHYLLUM

Botanical name is Calophyllum inphyllum Linn. It is a Indian Laurel tree with great potential
for biodiesel. Calophyllum inophyllum Linn is a medium-sized to large evergreen tree that averages
820 m in height with a broad spreading crown of irregular branches. The tree supports a dense
canopy of glossy, elliptical leaves, fragrant white flowers, and large round nuts. It grows along
coastal areas and adjacent lowland forests, although it occasionally occurs inland at higher
elevations. It is native to east Africa, India, Southeast Asia, Australia, and the South Pacific. It has
been widely planted throughout the tropics and is naturalized in the main Hawaiian Islands.
Calophyllum inophyllum L. is a useful tree for coastal shelterbelts, windbreaks, and strand
reforestation because it grows well despite the wind, salt spray, drought, and occasional flooding
common to beach environments. It even withstands typhoons [12].

306

Fig. 5. Calophyllum inophyllum L. flowers, fruits and tree [11] & [12].

3.1. Botanical Description of Calophyllum Inophyllum Plant:
Plant Size: Calophyllum inophyllum L. is a large tree of shorelines and coastal forests. It
usually grows 1220 m (4065 ft) in height, but open-grown trees can become wider than they are
tall, often leaning, with broad, spreading crowns. Trees growing along the shoreline may reach out
with trunks almost parallel to the ground. The tree can often be recognized at a distance by its large,
spreading horizontal branches [11].
Flowers: It bears clusters of 415 fragrant white flowers about 2.5 cm (1 in) across and 814
mm (0.30.6 in) long on long, sturdy stalks in leaf axils. There are 48 oblong petals. Trees may
flower all year, but flowering is heaviest in late spring/early summer and late fall in the northern
hemisphere [11].
Leaves: The opposite leaves are dark green, shiny, and hairless with broadly elliptical blades
1020 cm (48 in) long and 69 cm (2.43.6 in) wide. Both the tip and base of the leaves are
rounded. Leaf veins run parallel to each other and perpendicular to the midrib. The scientific name
Calophyllum comes from the Greek words for beautiful leaf [11].
Fruit: The ball-shaped, light green fruits grow in clusters. Fruits are 25 cm (0.82 in) in
diameter. The skin, which turns yellow and then brown and wrinkled when the fruit is ripe, covers
the thin pulp, the shell, a corky inner layer, and a single seed kernel. Fruits are usually borne twice a
year [11].
Seeds: One large brown seed 24 cm (0.81.6 in) in diameter is found in each fruit. Seeds are
prepared by cleaning off the skin and husk from the shell of the seed; there are 100200 seeds/kg
with shells intact but husks removed [11].

3.2. Environmental Preferences and Tolerances
Climate: Calophyllum inophyllum L grows in warm temperatures in wet or moderate
conditions. It is not suited to high elevations, cool areas, or very dry conditions.
Elevation range: Up to 800 m (2000 ft)
Mean annual rainfall: 10005000 mm (40200 in)
Rainfall pattern: Calophyllum inophyllum L prefers climates with summer, winter, or
uniform rainfall patterns.
Dry season duration (consecutive months with < 20mm [1.6 in] rainfall) 45 months
Mean annual temperature & Minimum temperature tolerated: 1833C & 8C
Soils: Calophyllum inophyllum L tolerates a wide range of soils. It grows best in sandy well
drained soils in coastal areas but will tolerate clays, calcareous soils, and rocky soils.
Soil texture: It tolerates light to medium soils (sands, sandy loams, loams, and sandy clay
loams.
Soil drainage: Freely draining as well as soils with impeded drainage or seasonal water
logging is acceptable.
Soil acidity: Neutral to acid soils (pH 7.44.0)
307

It tolerates shallow and saline soils.
Tolerances: Calophyllum inophyllum L is a hardy tree of tropical coastal areas that tolerates
wind, salt spray, drought, and brief periods of waterlogged soil. It does not tolerate much
shade or cold weather.
Drought: Calophyllum inophyllum L can tolerate 45 months of drought in its natural littoral
and riparian environments.
Full sun: Calophyllum inophyllum L prefers full sun, and only light shade is tolerated.
Fire: Calophyllum inophyllum L is moderately tolerant of wildfire, once the bark thickens.
Frost: Calophyllum inophyllum L grows only in warm climates and does not tolerate frost.
Water logging: Calophyllum inophyllum L tolerates occasional water logging in coastal
areas. Can tolerate salt spray and wind

3.3 Advantages of Calophyllum Inophyllum Tree
Does not compete with food crops (it is non-edible oil).
High survival potency in nature, still productive until 50 years.
Lot of seedlings and easy Silviculture.
As windbreaker, soil and seashore conservation.
Multipurpose in use of its seed, wood, gum, processing by products.
Calophyllum Inophyllum is used in pharmacuticals drugs

4. PRODUCTION OF BIODIESEL

Researchers have developed many different methods for biodiesel production from different
feed stocks. A review of these methods from palm and Calophyllum inophyllum oils have discussed
here.

4.1 Palm biodiesel:
Different methods are proposed by various researchers for preparations of palm oil methyl
ester (POME) are following:
The optimum condition for the continuous esterification process is molar ratio of methanol to
Palm oil at 8:1 with 1.834 wt% of H
2
SO
4
at 70
0
C. The amount of FFA (Free Fatty acid) was
reduced from 93 wt% to less than 2wt%. The FAME (Fatty acid methyl esters) was purified
by neutralization with 3M sodium hydroxide in water solution at a reaction temperature of
80
0
C for 15 min followed by transesterification process with 0.396M sodium hydroxide in
methanol solution at a reaction temperature of 65
0
C for 15 minutes [16].
The palm biodiesel preparation from crude palm oil and evaluation of butanol extraction. The
palm oil methyl ester was used as an extracting in batch and continuous acetonebutanol
ethanol (ABE) fermentation. The optimized variables molar ratio at 40:1 methanol to palm oil
with 5% H
2
S0
4
(vol/wt) reacted at 95
0
C gave a maximum ester yield of 97%. Biodiesel
preferentially extracted butanol and enhanced its production in the batch culture from 10 to
12 g l
-1
. The biodieselABE mixture had the higher cetane number [17].
The preparation of palm oil FAME to a yield of 95% in 4 hours of reaction with a moderate
methanol to oil molar ratio 20:1, at temperature 140
0
C using sulphonic acid-modified
mesostructured catalysts [18].
The 25 wt% KOH or Al
2
O
3
and 10 wt% KOH catalysts are suggested to be the best formula
due to catalyst amount of 36 wt% and the biodiesel yield of 91.07% at temperatures below
70
0
C with molar ratio of palm oil to methanol at 1:15. The authors concluded that the type of
support strongly affects the activity and leaching of the active species of the catalyst [15].

308

All the above processes derive the palm oil methyl ester or palm biodiesel which can be used
in blending with diesel.
The properties of the biodiesel were characterized following the results are shown in Table 2
[5]. The properties of CIME closely resembles with the petroleum diesel.

Table 3. Properties of Palm Oil Methyl Ester (POME) [4]
S.No. Properties Palm Oil Methyl Ester
(POME)
1 Kinematic viscosity at 40
0
C 4.9 mm
2
/s
2 Density at 15
0
C 879.3kg/m
3

3 Cetane number 52
4 Flash Point 191
0
C
5 Pour Point 14
0
C
6 Cloud Point 15
0
C
7 Calorific value (kJ/kg) 36,764
8 Ash content (wt%) 0.0066
9 Carbon residue (wt%) 0.07
10 Acid value (mg KOH/g) 0.33

4.2. Calophyllum inophyllum biodiesel
Different methods are proposed by various researchers for preparations of Calophyllum
inophyllum methyl ester (CIME) are following:
The three stage production processes of a biodiesel from a non-edible oil Calophyllum
inophyllum Linn via pre-treatment, alkali catalyzed transesterification and post treatment.
The acid esterification with 0.5 ml anhydrous H
2
SO
4
at 60
0
C for 120 min at molar ratio
methanol to oil 4:1 gave the maximum conversion efficiency of FFA to triglycerides. The
acid value of Calophyllum inophyllum oil was reduced from 4.76 to 1.64mgKOH/g during
acid esterification reaction. The combination gave the optimum reaction conditions for alkali
trans esterification of Calophyllum inophyllum oil was found to be molar ratio of methanol to
oil 8:1, 1.25% KOH, at 60
0
C temperature and 120 minutes reaction time. After that, it
followed by thrice gentle washing of the biodiesel with distilled water (30% v/v) of 60
0
C.
The yield of biodiesel from the Calophyllum inophyllum oil under the optimized conditions
is found to be 89%. The Calophyllum inophyllum biodiesel obtained by this process is
suitable use in direct injection diesel engines [2].
Two step process biodiesel from Calophyllum inophyllum oil by using phosphoric acid
modified -zeolite in acid catalyzed esterification process and transesterification process
using alkali catalyst potassium hydroxide (KOH) and phosphoric acid modified -zeolite
would be the better replacement for the conventional liquid acid catalyst. Thus obtained
Calophyllum inophyllum biodiesel is a potential fuel for the application in compression
ignition engines for complete replacement of diesel fuel without any modification of engine
[19].
All the above processes derive the calophyllum inophyllum methyl ester or calophyllum
inophyllum biodiesel which can be used in blending with diesel.
The properties of CIME were characterized following the results are shown in Table 3 [5].
The properties of CIME closely resembles with the petroleum diesel.

309

Table 3. Properties of Calophyllum Inophyllum Methyl Ester [4]

5. PERFORMANCE & EMISSIONS OF BIODIESEL

The findings and outputs for performance of biodiesel fuel in diesel engine are reviewed. The
performance parameter such as brake thermal efficiency, specific fuel consumption and power output
for palm oil and Calophyllum inophyllum are discussed below.

5.1. Palm Oil Methyl Ester (POME)
Studies of performance of palm oil biodiesel were observed. The palm oil biodiesel exhibits
low viscosity, better combustion and less deposit when heated at 100
0
C. However, the specific fuel
consumption (BSFC) of the palm oil biodiesel in the C.I. engine is slightly higher than diesel fuel.
The higher the palm oil contents in the biodiesels, the lower their heating values resulting in higher
specific fuel consumption (BSFC) [20].
When engine is at full load, a close resemblance occurred at low speed indicating little
difference in output between the fuels. However, at the higher speed, a clear gap appeared between
the biodiesel and diesel is observed in graphs. The brake thermal efficiency of the engine on the
different blends shown a close resemblance to one another and were low over the medium to high
load range compared to diesel. The low power, at high engine load is found to be generated from the
lower calorific biodiesel fuels. At low engine load, the power outputs were similar for all the fuels
[20]. The peak pressures are in close agreement with the increasing NO
x
emission when the engine
load is increased [20].
The researchers had found that palm biodiesel blend with 1% of NPAA (4-Nonyl phenoxy
acetic acid) produces higher brake power and lower specific fuel consumption compared to diesel
fuel and palm oil biodiesel. And due to oxidative characteristics biodiesel causes more corrosion and
wear to engine parts, so by using anti-wear additives, it showed a significant reduction of wear
properties has been observered. Therefore, 1% NPAA additive in palm oil biodiesel is useful to
produce better combustion in diesel engine compared to diesel fuel. Hence, the NPAA additive is
effective in palm diesel fuel.
The studies for emissions characteristics of a small diesel engine operated on preheated crude
palm oil (CPO). It was observed that preheated CPO reduced HC, CO and PM (Particulate Matter)
compared to diesel and CPO emulsified fuel. Preheating of CPO reduces its viscosity to the level of
Characteristics Calophyllum Inophyllum
Methyl Ester (Cime)
Kinematic Viscosity at 40
o
C (mm
2
/sec) 5.34
Specific Gravity 0.875
Flash Point 140
Fire Point 176
Cloud Point 13.2
Pour Point 4.3
Calorific Value (kJ/kg) 41,397
Acid value (mg KOH/g) 1.62
310

diesel fuel thus improves the fuel spray and atomization characteristics therefore produces complete
combustion. However, preheated CPO increased NOx emission compared to diesel and CPO
emulsified fuel. Palm diesel and 4-Nonyl phenoxy acetic acid (NPAA) as additive to control NOx
and CO in diesel engines. The result shown that NOx, CO and HC concentration decrease by using
palm oil diesel with additive compared to diesel fuel and Palm biodiesel. Hence, the NPAA additive
is effective in palm diesel fuel. Also shown that anticorrosion additive was effective with palm diesel
blends to reduce NOx emissions. The studies show that with proper selection of additives type and
quantity for application to biodiesel blends, it is to be an effective pollutants control strategy which is
more economical than other existing technologies [5].

5.2. Calophyllum Inophyllum Methyl Ester (CIME)
The experimental results shows that neat Calophyllum inophyllum biodiesel (CB100) which
results in maximum peak cylinder pressure (6.61 bars higher than that of diesel) is the optimum fuel
blend as far as the peak cylinder pressure is concerned . There are no significant change in power for
diesel engine at lower speeds for Calophyllum inophyllum biodiesel. However, slight reduction in
power is observed at all the speeds with biodiesel blends of 20% and 50% Calophyllum inophyllum
biodiesel (CB20 and CB50). Also, it is observed that there is an improvement in fuel economy with
CB20 compare with diesel fuel. The optimum engine operating condition based on lower brake
specific fuel consumption and higher brake thermal efficiency was observed at 100% load for neat
Calophyllum inophyllum biodiesel (CB100).
The study of emissions for Calophyllum inophyllum biodiesel as a substitute fuel in a diesel
engine was tested. Test data generated at part throttle test mode shows that blend with higher
percentage of Calophyllum inophyllum biodiesel in diesel tends to decrease the exhaust smoke
substantially. Besides, it is noticeable reduction in HC and PM is seen with Calophyllum inophyllum
biodiesel. However, there is a slight increase in CO and NOx. The neat Calophyllum inophyllum
biodiesel (CB100) was shown reduced in exhaust emission as compared to diesel.

CONCLUSION

Due to diminishing supply of fossil fuels and the environmental pollution biodiesels are
gaining more interest as alternative fuels. Palm oil as a feedstock for producing biodiesel and as it
is one of the most efficient oil bearing crops in terms of land utilization, productivity and efficiency.
The brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) of the palm oil biodiesel in the C.I. engine is slightly
higher than diesel fuel and the brake thermal efficiency of the engine on the different blends shown a
close resemblance to one another and were low over the medium to high load range compared to
diesel due to low heating values of palm biodiesel. Additive NPAA to palm biodiesel produces
higher brake power and lower specific fuel consumption compared to diesel fuel.
Since the palm oil is edible oil, food Vs fuel problem makes them as they are not an
ideal feedstock for biodiesel production. Therefore, the attention is shifted towards non-edible oils.
Calophyllum inophyllum oil can be transesterified and being considered as potential biodiesel feed
stocks for future. The improvement in fuel economy was observed in CB20, for CB100 at full load
and optimum engine working conditions low brake specific fuel consumption and high brake thermal
efficiency was observed. Also, CB100 has shown reduced in exhaust emission as compared to diesel.
Compared to Palm oil, biodiesel from Calophyllum inophyllum oil is still in a nascent state.
Therefore, long term research is to be carried out for it to become alternative fuel in future.
Also both Oil palm and Calophyllum inophyllum plants are suitable to grow in sea coasts
climates and has maximum productivity these can be considered as a suitable option for alternative
fuel.

311

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