A Mathematical View

of Our World
1
st
ed.

Parks, Musser, Trimpe,
Maurer, and Maurer
Chapter 8
Descriptive Statistics
Data and Patterns
Section 8.1
Organizing and Picturing Data
Goals
Study visual displays of data
Dot plots
Stem-and-leaf plots
Histograms
Bar graphs
Line graphs
Pie charts
8.1 Initial Problem
You need to give a sales report showing that:
District A had $135,000 in sales.
District B had $85,000 in sales.
District C had $115,000 in sales.
How can you present this data clearly to
compare the 3 districts?
The solution will be given at the end of the section.
Obtaining Data
Data sets are sets of numbers collected
from the real world.
Data can be obtained from:
Previously published research
A designed experiment
An observational study
A survey
Obtaining Data, contd
Once data has been collected,
exploratory data analysis takes an initial
look at data to see what patterns might
emerge or what further questions need
to be asked.
One way to carry out exploratory data
analysis is to represent data pictorially.
Dot Plots
A dot plot is a graph in which:
The horizontal axis represents the data
values.
The vertical axis represents the frequency
of the data values.
One dot is placed for each occurrence of
each data value.
Example 1
Create a dot plot for the test scores: 26, 32,
54, 62, 67, 70, 71, 71, 74, 76, 80, 81, 84, 87,
87, 87, 89, 93, 95, 96.
Solution: Notice the scores have been
arranged in order.
a. 50
b. 51
c. 52
d. 53
Stem-and-Leaf Plot
A stem-and-leaf plot is a graph in
which:
The digit furthest to the right is called the
leaf.
The other digits are called the stem.
The stems and leaves are placed in
vertical columns, with the leaves arranged
in numerical order.
Example 2
Create a stem-and-leaf plot for the test
scores: 26, 32, 54, 62, 67, 70, 71, 71,
74, 76, 80, 81, 84, 87, 87, 87, 89, 93,
95, 96.
Solution: The tens digits will be the
stems and the ones digits will be the
leaves.
Example 2, contd
Solution, contd: The
plot at right shows:
A cluster of values
between 54 and 96.
A gap between 54 and
32.
The values 32 and 26
are outliers, separated
from the other scores by
a large gap.
Example 3
Create and interpret a stem-and-leaf
plot for the pizza prices:$9.20, $10.50,
$10.70, $10.80, $12.00, $12.10,
$12.20, $12.20, $12.30.
Solution: The dollar amounts will be the
stems and the tens of cents will be the
leaves.
Example 3, contd
Solution, contd: The
plot at right shows:
Two clusters of
prices separated by
a gap.
The price $9.20 may
be considered an
outlier.
Histograms
A histogram is a graph in which:
The data is separated into intervals called
measurement classes or bins.
Various interval sizes can be chosen,
depending on the situation.
A frequency table, showing the number
of data values in each bin, can be
created to aid in drawing a histogram.
Example 4
Create a histogram
for the test scores:
26, 32, 54, 62, 67,
70, 71, 71, 74, 76,
80, 81, 84, 87, 87,
87, 89, 93, 95, 96.
Solution: Make a
frequency table first,
using bins of width
10.
Example 4, contd
Solution, contd: Create the histogram.
The height of each bar is equal to the
frequency of the bin.
Example 4, contd
Note: The choice of bin size affects the
appearance of the graph.
A histogram of the same data set with a bin size of 5 is
shown next.
Question:
Why is the histogram with bin size 5
not the best choice to represent the
data set from the previous example?
Choose the best answer.


Question contd:
a. There are outliers.
b. There are a wide range of values.
c. It is hard to see the overall pattern
of the scores.
d. The bars are too narrow.
Example 4, contd
A histogram of the same data set with a
bin size of 20 is shown next.
Question:
Why is the histogram with bin size 20 not the
best choice to represent the data set from the
previous example? Choose the best answer.

a. The bars are too tall.
b. A lot of information
about the data is lost.
c. There are a wide
range of values.
d. The frequencies of the
bins are not the same.
Relative Frequency Histograms
A relative frequency histogram is a graph in
which:
The data is separated into bins.
The relative frequency (percent of the whole
data set) of each bin is calculated.
The height of each bar is equal to the relative
frequency of the bin.
A relative frequency table can be created to
aid in drawing a relative frequency
histogram.
Example 5
Create a relative
frequency histogram
for the test scores: 26,
32, 54, 62, 67, 70, 71,
71, 74, 76, 80, 81, 84,
87, 87, 87, 89, 93, 95,
96, using a bin size of
10.
Solution: Find the
relative frequency of
each bin.
Example 5, contd
Solution, contd: The graph is shown
below.
Bar Graphs
A bar graph is any graph in which the
height or length of bars is used to
represent quantities.
A histogram is a special type of bar graph.
Example 6
Create a bar graph to display the data in the
table.
Example 6, contd
Line Graphs
A line graph is used to graph data
values that occur over time.
The horizontal axis represents the time.
The vertical axis represents the data
value.
Each data value is plotted and the dots
are connected by a line.
Example 7
Create a line graph for the data shown
in the bar graph below.
Example 7, contd
Solution:
Example 8
Interpret the line graph shown here.
Example 8, contd
Solution: The general trend in the graph is
an increase in the number completing
college, although there were a few years
with decreases.
In 1980, about 17.5% completed.
In 2002, about 26.7% completed.
In order to emphasize the most recent statistic,
the percentage for 2002 was highlighted in the
graph.
Pie Charts
A pie chart is used to graph relative
proportions of quantities.
Pie charts are also called circle graphs.
Each quantity is graphed as a wedge-
shaped portion of the circle.
Example 9
The pie chart
shows the
average number
of hours of sleep
for a certain group
of adults.
Interpret the chart.
Example 9, contd
Solution: Most of
the people sleep 7
or 8 hours per
night.
Also, 6% of the
people get 5
hours of sleep or
less per night.
Choosing a Graph
The different types of graphs and their
uses are summarized below.
Example 10
The table shows the average number of
hours worked in different countries.
What type of graph would be most effective?
Example 10, contd
Solution:
We do not need to show a trend over time
or percentages, so rule out line graphs
and pie charts.
A bar graph would make comparison
between countries easy.
The categories are the countries.
The height of each bar will represent the
number of hours worked per year.
Example 10, contd
Solution, contd: A bar graph for the data is
shown below.
8.1 Initial Problem Solution
You need to give a sales report showing that:
District A had $135,000 in sales.
District B had $85,000 in sales.
District C had $115,000 in sales.
How can you present this data clearly to
compare the 3 districts?
Either a bar graph or a pie chart allows for
easy comparison between categories.
Initial Problem Solution, contd
A pie chart will clearly
show the difference in
proportions of sales from
the different districts.
Calculate the total
sales.
Find what portion of a
circle represents each
districts sales.
The results are shown
at right.
Section 8.2
Comparisons
Goals
Study comparison graphs
Double-stem-and-leaf plots
Comparison histograms
Multiple bar graphs
Multiple line graphs
Multiple pie charts
Proportional bar graphs
8.2 Initial Problem
How can the
monthly sales of the
3 items be
presented to show
and compare the
sales trends?
The solution will be
given at the end of
the section.
Double-Stem-and-Leaf Plots
A double-stem-and-leaf plot compares
two data sets.
The stems are placed in the middle
column.
The leaves of one data set are placed on
the left, and the leaves of the other set on
the right.
Example 1
Create a double-stem-and-leaf plot to
compare scores from the two classes.
Class 1: 26, 32, 54, 62, 67, 70, 71, 71, 74,
76, 80, 81, 84, 87, 87, 87, 93, 95, 96
Class 2: 34, 45, 52, 57, 63, 65, 68, 70, 71,
72, 74, 76, 76, 78, 83, 85, 85, 87, 92, 99
Example 1, contd
Solution: Since
more leaves are
at the top on the
left than on the
right, it appears
that Class 1 did
somewhat better
on the test than
Class 2.
Question:
Choose the statement that is not true.
a. Class 1 had more low scores than Class 2.
b. Class 2 has a larger
gap than Class 1.
c. Class 2 has fewer
scores in the 80s and
80s than Class 1.
d. Class 2 has a higher
score than Class 1.
Comparison Histogram
A comparison histogram compares two
data sets.
The same bin size is chosen for both sets.
Bars for both sets are placed side-by-side
in each interval, where necessary.
Example 2
Create a comparison histogram to
compare the scores from the two
classes.
Class 1: 26, 32, 54, 62, 67, 70, 71, 71, 74,
76, 80, 81, 84, 87, 87, 87, 93, 95, 96
Class 2: 34, 45, 52, 57, 63, 65, 68, 70, 71,
72, 74, 76, 76, 78, 83, 85, 85, 87, 92, 99
Example 2, contd
Solution: A bin size of 10 was used.
Comparison Bar Graphs
A comparison bar graph compares two
data sets.
As before, bar graphs can be used to
represent frequencies, relative
frequencies, and trends over time.
This type of graph is also called a double
bar graph.
Example 3
Create a comparison bar graph for the two
data sets.
Example 3, contd
Question:
Choose the statement that is true.
Question contd:
a. The ratio of female to male doctors is
largest in the field of pediatrics.
b. The field with the fewest female doctors
is family practice.
c. The field with the most male doctors is
family practice.
d. There are more females in the field of
obstetrics and gynecology than there are
men.
Example 4
This comparison bar graph shows that the majority
of kids in all age groups have access to
computers, and that older children use the Internet
more than younger children.
Multiple Line Graphs
A multiple line graph compares two
data sets.
As before, line graphs are usually used to
represent trends over time.
Example 5
The double line graph shows that the gap between
mens and womens earnings has decreased over
the years.
Example 6
Create a double line graph to compare
the scores from the two classes.
Class 1: 26, 32, 54, 62, 67, 70, 71, 71, 74,
76, 80, 81, 84, 87, 87, 87, 93, 95, 96
Class 2: 34, 45, 52, 57, 63, 65, 68, 70, 71,
72, 74, 76, 76, 78, 83, 85, 85, 87, 92, 99
Example 6, contd
Multiple Pie Charts
A multiple pie chart compares two data
sets.
As before, pie charts are used to show
portions of a whole.
Example 7
Use multiple pie charts to compare the
composition of the population over time.
Example 7, contd
Solution: A pie chart is created for each
year.
Question:
Which year had the smallest percentage of
children under the age of 15?
Proportional Bar Graphs
Proportional bar graphs show relative
amounts and trends simultaneously.
All the bars are the same height.
Each bar corresponds to 100% of a
whole.
Each bar is divided into pieces to
represent the portions of the different
categories.
Example 8
The proportional bar graph illustrates how the U.S.
population has been distributed among 4 regions over
time.
Choosing a Graph
The type of comparison graph
selected depends on:
The type of data.
The features of the data that will be
emphasized.
Example 9
What type of graph could be used to
make the comparison between the
two years in the following table
striking?
Example 9, contd
Example 9, contd
Solution: A double bar graph
8.2 Initial Problem Solution
How can the
monthly sales of the
3 items be
presented to show
and compare the
sales trends?
Initial Problem Solution, contd
Use a multiple line graph in order to:
Show trends in sales over time.
Allow for comparison between items.
Initial Problem Solution, contd
Section 8.3
Enhancement, Distraction,
and Distortion
Goals
Study misleading graphs
Study scales and axis manipulation
Study line graphs and cropping
Study three-dimensional effects
Study pictographs
Study graphical maps
8.3 Initial Problem
8.3 Initial Problem, contd
Use the data to make one graph that
is pessimistic about the debt and one
that is optimistic.
The solution will be given at the end of
the section.
Scaling and Axis Manipulation
To emphasize differences among the
bars of a histogram or bar graph, you
can leave off part of the vertical axis.
Reversing the axes or the orientation of
one of the axes is another way to create
a misleading graph.
Example 1
The graph appears
to show that Beary
Sticks has far less
sugar than the
other cereals.
Example 1, contd
The first graph was
misleading because
the scale is not
shown and the axis
actually begins at 8,
not at 0.
A better graph is
shown here.
Example 2
The price of 3 brands of baked beans are as
follows.
Brand X: $0.79
Brand Y: $0.89
Brand Z: $0.99
Create a bar graph that emphasizes the
differences in the prices.
Example 2, contd
Solution:
Exaggerate the
differences by
starting the vertical
scale at 75 cents
instead of at 0.
Example 3
This bar graph shows that a companys
profits decline over time.
Example 3, contd
When the axes are switched and the years are placed in
reverse order, the graph has a more positive feel and may
be misleading.
Question:
Estimate the total decrease in the
company profits from 1999 to 2003.

a. -$140
b. -$240
c. -$140,000,000
d. -$240,000,000
Example 4
Create a graph for the data that might give
the impression that things are getting better
rather than worse.
Example 4, contd
Solution:
The years are placed
in reverse order.
The vertical scale is
started at 20.
The graph is drawn
tall and narrow.
Line Graphs and Cropping
A type of scale manipulation used to
make line graphs misleading is called
cropping.
A viewing window is chosen in order to
make a trend look more or less impressive.
Examples are shown on the following slide.
Cropping, contd
Example 5
Draw two line graphs of the data that give
different impressions.
Example 5, contd
Solution: Begin one vertical axis at 0 and the other
at 24.
Example 6
A graph of the
price of a stock
from April 25
through May 5
seems to show a
large increase.
Notice that the
vertical axis begins
at 98.
Example 6, contd
Another graph of
the same stock over
a longer time period
seems to show a
gradual decline
overall.
Notice that the
vertical axis begins
at 0 in this graph.
Example 6, contd
The final graph
shows the same
information as in the
last graph, but with a
different choice of
vertical scale.
The decrease is
more dramatic
because the vertical
axis begins at 100.
Three-Dimensional Effects
Three-dimensional effects:
Are often used in newspapers and
magazines.
Can make a graph more attractive.
Can obscure a true picture of the data.
Example 7
It can be difficult to
read exact values
from a 3-D graph.
For example, the
profits were almost
$100,000 in 2003 but
it might appear much
lower from glancing
at this graph.
Example 8
It is also hard to
read exact values
from this 3-D line
graph.
Example 9
In a 3-D pie chart, the exploded sector
has more emphasis, making it appear
larger than it really is.
Pictographs
A pictograph is a type of graph in which
pictures, symbols, or icons represent
quantities.
Pictographs can represent data in
interesting ways, but they can also be
misleading.
Example 10
This pictograph
predicts the world
population.
Each person icon
represents 1 billion
people.
Example 11
Each hotdog represents 10% of campers.
Example 12
This pictograph compares amounts spent on
different types of holiday gifts.
Example 13
Why is this pictograph misleading?
Example 13, contd
Solution: The bars are not proportional in
height to the amounts they represent.
For example, there were nearly 4 times as many
students in grades 1-8 as there were in pre-
elementary.
The bar representing grades 1-8 is only about 3
times as tall as the one representing pre-
elementary students.
This causes the difference to look smaller than it
really is.
Example 14
Why is this pictograph misleading?
Example 14, contd
Solution: The bars are not proportional
to the amounts they represent.
The bars are also angled, emphasizing
the length of the top bar and making the
bottom bar look shorter.
Question:
If the graph were accurate, what should
be the ratio of the bar representing under
25 to the one representing 35-44?
Round to the nearest hundredth.

a. 0.43
b. 1.29
c. 1.81
d. 2.33
Example 15
Why is this pictograph misleading?
Example 15, contd
Solution: It must be clear whether a 2-
dimensional or 3-dimensional object is being
used to represent a quantity.
The amount of milk sold in 2003 was about twice
the amount sold in 1997.
It is not clear whether the volume or the height of
the carton represents the milk quantity.
The volume of the second carton is 8 times as
large as the volume of the first carton. This is
misleading.
Example 16
Why is this pictograph misleading?
Example 16, contd
Solution: The number of bottles in each
stack are not proportional to the actual
dollar amounts.
The heights of the stacks are
proportional.
It is not clear from the presentation
whether it should be viewed as a bar graph
or as a pictograph.
Customized Pie Charts
Pie charts can be customized by
embedding the chart in another picture
or by adding other content.
An example of a customized pie chart is
shown on the next slide.
Example 17
Example 18
This pie chart distorts the data.
Graphical Maps
A graphical map summarizes
information about geographical areas.
Example 19
The map below shows population increases.
Example 19, contd
The map is misleading because the
areas of the shaded regions are not
proportional to the population increases.
Some small states experienced large
increases, but that may not show up well
on this map.
8.3 Initial Problem Solution
Create 2 different graphs of the data.
Initial Problem Solution, contd
To make the debt
appear as serious
as possible, we can
plot the amount
over time.
Adjust the scales to
make the increase
look severe.
Initial Problem Solution, contd
To make the debt
appear less
serious, we can plot
the annual rate of
increase instead of
the actual amount.
It looks like the debt
is decreasing.