Gulliford - The Bones of Contention

Bones of Contention: The Repatriation of Native American Human Remains
Author(s): Andrew Gulliford

Source: The Public Historian, Vol. 18, No. 4, Representing Native American History (Autumn,
1996), pp. 119-143
Published by: University of California Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3379790
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B o n e s o f Co n te n tio n :
T h e Re patriatio n o f N ativ e
Ame rican H u man Re main s
AN DREW GULLIFORD
T h e Su rge o n Ge n e ral is an xio u s th at o u rco lle ctio n o f In dian cran ia,
alre ady qu ite large , s h o u ld be made as co mple te as po s s ible .
-Madis o n Mills
Su rge o n , Un ite d State s Army
Jan u axy 13, 1868
AN DREW GULLIFORD is an as s o ciate pro f e s s o ro f h is to ry an d dire cto ro f th e Pu blic H is to ry
an d H is to ric Pre s e rv atio n gradu ate pro gram at Middle T e n n e s s e e State Un iv e rs ity. H e h as
wo rke d with in te rdis ciplin ary te ams to pre pare n o min atio n s o f In dian trails f o rth e N atio n al
Re gis te ro f H is to ric Place s , an d h e re gu larly co n s u lts o n re patriatio n an d tribal mu s e u m
is s u e s . H is ph o to graph s o f N ativ e Ame rican s ite s h av e be e n pu blis h e d o n th e co v e ro f th e
Adv is o ry Co u n cil's Re po rt to th e Pre s ide n t an d Co n gre s s o f th e Un ite d State s an d T h e
Se cre tary o f th e In te rto r's Re po rt to Co n gre s s : Fe de ral Arch ae o lo gical Pro grams an d Activ i-
tie s . H is article "N ativ e Ame rican s an d Mu s e u ms : Cu ratio n an d Re patriatio n o f Sacre d an d
T ribal Obje cts " appe are d in T h e Pu blic H is to rtan 14, n o . 3 (Su mme r1992).
T h is article co u ld n o t h av e be e n re s e arch e d an d writte n with o u t th e ge n e ro u s as s is tan ce o f th e
Jame s Mars to n Fitch Fo u n datio n o f N e w Yo rk City an d th e au th o r's re ce ipt o f agran t to s tu dy
tribal h is to ric pre s e rv atio n . T h e au th o rwo u ld als o like to th an k Pro f e s s o rs Fre d Ro late ran d
Lo rn e McWatte rs f o rth e iras s is tan ce an d willin gn e s s to re ad draf ts o f th is e s s ay, as we ll as
gu e s t e dito rs An n Marie Plan e an d ClaraSu e Kidwe ll. Lin ds e y Re e d is to be co mme n de d f o r
h e r patie n ce . T h an ks als o go to th e an o n ymo u s re v ie we rs wh o made v alu able e dito rial
s u gge s tio n s . T h e au th o rwo u ld als o like to th an k th e n u me ro u s N ativ e Ame rican s , N ativ e
Alas kan s , an d N ativ e H awaiian s wh o h av e s h are d th e iran gu is h an d th e irs to rie s with h im.
Wh e re po s s ible in div idu al co n tribu tio n s are cite d in th e n o te s .
119
T h e Pu blic H is to riar1, Vo l. 18, N o . 4 (Fall 1996)
i) 1996 by th e Re ge n ts o f th e Un iv e rs ity o f Calif o rn iaan d
th e N atio n al Co u n cil o n Pu blic H is to ry
120 * T H EPUB LICH IST ORIAN
Wh ite bo n e s are re bu n e d, tribal bo n e s are s tu die d in racis t in s titu tio n s .
. . . T h e tribal de ad be co me th e acade mic ch atte l, th e abo rigin al bo n e
s lav e s to adv an ce arch ae o lo gical te ch n icis m an d th e po litical po we r o f
in s titu tio n al s cie n ce .
Ge rald Vize n o r
Cro s s blo o cls , 1990
OF ALL T H E CULT URAL RESOURCE is s u e s af f e ctin g In dian tribe s to day, n o n e
is mo re co mplicate d th an th e re tu rn an d re bu rial o f h u man re main s . So me
tribe s s e e k to re bu F all th e ir an ce s to rs o n tribal lan ds . Oth e r N ativ e
Ame rican s are n o t in te re s te d in h av in g bo n e s in mu s e u ms re bu rie d, bu t
th e y are ke e n ly in te re s te d in claimin g u n ide n tif ie d re main s f o u n d o n pu blic
lan d f o r v ario u s re as o n s , in clu din g th e as s e rtio n o f e xpan de d te rrito rial
bo u n darie s , th e s e ttle me n t o f lan d claims s u its , an d as ame an s to tribal re -
re co gn itio n . T h is e s s ay e xplo re s th e h is to ry o f th e co lle ctio n o f N ativ e
Ame rican s ke le to n s an d e xplain s th e u n in te n de d e f f e cts o f re ce n t le gis latio n
wh ich was pas s e d to h e lpre tu rn In dian re main s to tribal h an ds . Fo r pu blic
h is to rian s wo rkin g with tribal pe o ple s , th e s e are v ital is s u e s wh ich mu s t be
u n de rs to o d bo th in ah is to rical co n te xt an d in te rms o f h o w In dian s to day
pe rce iv e th e ir re latio n s h ip to co n te mpo rag arch ae o lo gis ts , an th ro po lo gis ts ,
h is to rical re s e arch e rs , an d mu s e u m cu rato rs .
Du rin g th e n in e te e n th ce n tu ry, n o In dian s o cie ty was le f t u n mo le s te d in
th e race s ys te matically to co lle ct an d clas s if y h u man re main s f ro m all
Ame rican abo rigin al cu ltu re s . T h e s ame n in e te e n th -ce n tu ry min ds e t th at
s aw tribal pe o ple s as "s av age s " s aw th e ir h u man re main s as appro priate f o r
s cie n tif ic in qu iC rath e r th an co n tin u o u s re s pe ct. As In dian s we re be in g
kille d o n battle f ie lds an d f o rce d o n to re s e rv atio n s , n ativ e bo n e s we re o f te n
co lle cte d, e xamin e d, an d th e n place d in lo n g-te rm pe rman e n t s to rage in
h u n dre ds o f priv ate co lle ctio n s o r in th e U.S. Army Me dical Co lle ge .
In 1988, th e Ame rican As s o ciatio n o f Mu s e u ms re po rte d to th e Se n ate
Se le ct Co mmitte e o f In dian Af f airs th at 163 mu s e u ms h e ld 43,306 N ativ e
Ame rican s ke le tal re main s .l T h e Smith s o n ian In s titu tio n alo n e h ad 18,600
Ame rican In dian an d Alas kan n ativ e re main s an d th o u s an ds o f bu rial
artif acts . In dian activ is t Su s an Sh o wn H arjo e xplain e d th at In dian s are
"f u rth e r de h u man ize d by be in g e f f iibite d alo n gs ide mas to do n s an d din o -
s au rs an d o th e r e xtin ct cre atu re s ."2 Fo r mo s t o f Ame rica's n ativ e pe o ple s , n o
o th e r is s u e h as to u ch e d amo re s e n s itiv e ch o rd th an th e s e dis re s pe ctf u l
n in e te e n th -ce n tu ry co lle ctin g practice s . Fo r th at re as o n , th e re patriatio n o f
1. Le tte rf ro m Edward H . Able , Jr., Exe cu tiv e Dire cto ro f th e Ame rican As s o ciatio n o f
Mu s e u ms , to T h e H o n o rable Dan ie l K. In o u ye , Se le ct Co mmitte e o n In dian Af f airs , 12
Se pte mbe r1988 with attach me n ts .
2. Su s an Sh o wn H arjo , cite d in Ge rald Vize n o r, "B o n e Co u rts : T h e N atu ral Righ ts o f
T ribal B o n e s ," Cro s s blo o ds (Min n e apo lis : Un iv e rs ity o f Min n e s o taPre s s , 1990), 62. Fo r
additio n al H arjo qu o te s s e e Kare n Swis h e r, "Ske le to n s in th e Clo s e t," T h e Was h in g,to n Po s t, 3
Octo be r1989.
B ON ES OF CON T EN T ION * 121
h u man re main s to th e ir tribe s o f o rigin f o r re bu rial is o n e o f th e mo s t
impo rtan t cu ltu ral re s o u rce is s u e s to day.
Man y In dian s s e e k to re s cu e th e ir h u man re main s f ro m wh at th e y be lie v e
to h av e be e n du bio u s an d pro lo n ge d s cie n tif ic re s e arch . As Cu rtis M.
H in s le y n o te s , "th e pain f u l an d imme n s e ly co mple x matte r o f re patriatio n o f
bo n e s an d bu rial go o ds h as be co me an is s u e e xte n din g be yo n d pro prie to r-
s h ippe r s e ; in de e d, th e de bate is u ltimate ly n o t o v e r co n tro l o f bo n e s at all,
bu t o v e r co n tro l o f n arrativ e : th e s to rie s o f pe o ple s wh o we n t be f o re an d
h o w th o s e pe o ple s (an d th e ir de s ce n dan ts ) are to be cu rre n tly re pre s e n te d
an d tre ate d." H in s le y write s , "T h e h e art o f th e matte r, as always , lie s in th e
n e go tiatio n be twe e n po we r an d re s pe ct."3 H o w to re s e arch an d h an dle th e s e
de licate h u man re main s is s u e s is af u n dame n tal ch alle n ge f o r pu blic h is to -
rian s bu t o n e th at will o f f e r e n o rmo u s s atis f actio n bo th f o r h is to rian s an d
tribal le ade rs as o ld in ju s tice s are f in ally co rre cte d.
As e arly as 1972, an th ro po lo gis ts an d In dian pe o ple h ad co o pe rate d in
th e re bu rial o f N arran gan s e tt re main s .4 In th e late 1980s , majo r pro te s ts by
N ativ e Ame rican s an d th e n atio n al e xpo s u re o f co mme rcial grav e -ro bbin g
in cide n ts like th e de v as tatio n o f Slack Farm in Ke n tu cly bro u gh t re patria-
tio n to th e f o re f ro n t o f pu blic dis co u rs e . Sympath y an d u n de rs tan din g f o r
N ativ e -Ame rican is s u e s pro mpte d Co n gre s s in 1989 to pas s th e N atio n al
Mu s e u m o f th e Ame rican In dian (N MAI) Act to cre ate an In dian mu s e u m
in th e las t s pace av ailable o n th e mall in Was h in gto n , D.C. T h e N MAI Act
h e lpe d s o lidif y aco n s titu e n cy wh ich pu s h e d f o r abro ad n atio n al law to
re dre s s ace n tu w o f In dian grav e ro bbin g.
Af te r ye ars o f in te n s e wran glin g an d dis s e n s io n amo n g co lle ge pro f e s -
s o rs , arch ae o lo gis ts , mu s e u m dire cto rs , an d n ativ e tribe s , Co n gre s s pas s e d
th e N ativ e Ame rican Grav e s Pro te ctio n an d Re patriatio n Act (N AGPRA) in
1990. N AGPRA re qu ire d all mu s e u ms an d f acilitie s re ce iv in g f e de ral f u n ds
to in v e n to ry h u man re main s an d as s o ciate d bu rial go o ds in th e ir co lle ctio n s
an d to n o tif y mo de rn tribal de s ce n dan ts by N o v e mbe r 1995.5 T h e bu rde n o f
n o tif icatio n was place d u po n th e mu s e u ms , an d n ativ e pe o ple s we re allo we d
to ch o o s e wh ich mate rials , if an y, th e y wis h e d to co n s ide r f o r re patriatio n .
T h e bill re pre s e n te d amajo r v icto ry f o r In dian pe o ple s , as ign if ican t pie ce
o f h u man righ ts le gis latio n th at pe rmits th e liv in g to re as s e rt co n tro l o v e r
th e ir o wn de ad.
3. Cu rtis M. H in s le y, T h e Smith s o n ian an d th e Ame rican In dian : Makin g a Mo ral
An th ro po lo g1y in Vis to n an Ame n cs l (Was h in gto n , D.C.: Smith s o n ian In s titu tio n Pre s s , 1994),
12.
4. Se e William Simmo n s , T h e N arragan s e tt (N e w Yo rk: Ch e ls e aH o u s e , 1989).
5. B e cau s e o f th e re ce n t de adlin e o f N o v e mbe r1995, th e e f f 'e cts o f N AGPRA are s till
u n ce rtain , alth o u gh th e s h e e rv o lu me o f pape rwo rk h as cre ate d co n f 'u s io n f 'o rman y tribe s . In
ate le ph o n e in te rv ie w o n 10 N o v e mbe r1995 Go rdo n Pu llare xplain e d th at s o me Alas kan
v illage s h av e be e n in u n date d with o v e r200 le tte rs f 'ro m mu s e u ms atte mptin g to co mply with
N AGPRA pro v is io n s . Fre qu e n tly n ativ e v illage s o rtribe s do n o t h av e an appro priate s po ke s -
pe rs o n to re s po n d to s u ch pape rwo rk be cau s e mo s t cu ltu ral is s u e s are de alt with by co mmit-
te e s wh ich always s e e k co n s e n s u s . De le gatin g au th o rity to as in gle in div idu al to re s po n d to
writte n re qu e s ts is adif f 'icu lt tas k, e s pe cially if grav e go o ds o rh u man re main s are in v o lv e d.
122 * T H E PUB LICH IST ORIAN
At is s u e h as be e n n o t ju s t th e in te re s ts o f s cie n ce v e rs u s th e in te re s ts o f
de s ce n dan ts , bu t als o , as man y In dian s s e e it, "th e righ ts o f th e de ad
th e ms e lv e s , to ward wh o m th e liv in g be ar re s po n s ibility."6 Cu ltu ral re -
s o u rce s co n s u ltan t T h o mas Kin g e xplain s , "T h e liv in g are re s po n s ible f o r
th e de ad, an d th e de ad o f te n s e e n n o t as be in g re ally 'de ad' bu t as
tran s f o rme d, an d s till po we rf u l-mu s t be tre ate d with re s pe ct."7 In te s ti-
mo n y pre pare d f o r th e U.S. Se n ate , Un iv e rs ity o f Co lo rado an th ro po lo gis t
De ward Walke r e xplain e d: "Ev e rywh e re in N ativ e N o rth Ame ricao n e
e n co u n te rs agre at re ligio u s impo rtan ce attach e d to th e de ad wh o are
be lie v e d to h av e aco n tin u in g in f lu e n ce o n th e liv e s o f th e ir de s ce n dan ts an d
o th e r s u rv iv o rs ." Walke r co n tin u e d: "Giv e n pro pe r ritu als an d pro pe r re -
s pe ct, [th e de ad] are be lie v e d to pro v ide as s is tan ce in cu rin g illn e s s e s , in
de te rmin in g th e f u tu re , in gu aran te e in g th e o u tco me o f ris ly e v e n ts , an d in
o th e r ge n e ral ways h e lpin g make th e liv e s o f th e liv in g mo re s e cu re ."8
A ce n tu ry ago , th is is s u e o f re v e re n ce f o r th e de ad u n de rs co re d mu ch
In dian o ppo s itio n to re mo v al o r to th e s ale o f In dian lan ds , bu t s cie n tif ic
th e o rie s o f th e n in e te e n th ce n tu ry s u ppo rte d n o n -wh ite in f e rio rity an d
de n ie d In dian s th e ir h u man ity. Pu blic h is to ry re s e arch h as de mo n s trate d
th o s e racis t paradigms . In de pe n de n t s ch o lar Ro be rt B ie de r, wn tin g as a
co n s u ltan t f o r th e N ativ e Ame rican Righ ts Fu n d, ale gal adv o cacy gro u pin
B o u lde r, Co lo rado , n o te d pre v ale n t attitu de s in th e s e co n d an d th ird
de cade s o f th e n in e te e n th ce n tu ry, "th at n e ith e r Af rican s n o r In dian s co u ld
e v e r adv an ce be yo n d th e ir alle ge dly lo w me n tal s tate s an d mu s t e ith e r be
ke pt in s lav e ry o r e xte rmin ate d (o r allo we d to pas s in to e xtin ctio n ) in o rde r
to make ro o m f o r pro gre s s ."9 Pro v idin g s cie n tif ic "pro o f s " o f n o n -wh ite
in f e rio rity be came an in te rn atio n al u n de rtakin g lin kin g th e s cie n ce o f
cran io lo gy with "th e po litics o f co lo n ial e xplo itatio n .''l
Co n te mpo ran e o u s with th e ide ao f arigid racial h ie rarch y was th e be lie f
th at e ach race h ad au n iqu e ly s h ape d s ku ll. In 1823, Samu e l Mo rto n , th e
f o u n de r o f ph ys ical an th ro po lo gy in Ame rica, be gan to te ach at th e Ph ilade l-
ph iaH o s pital an d Pe n n s ylv an ia Co lle ge , wh e re h e activ e ly s o licite d s ku lls to
add to h is co lle ctio n s . T h e appro priatio n o f h u man s pe cime n s e n able d
Mo rto n to pu blis h h is Cran iaAme n can ain 1839, in wh ich h e s h o we d th at
Cau cas ian s h ad abrain capacity o f 87 cu bic in ch e s , wh e re as Ame rican
6. T h o mas F. Kin g, "B e yo n d B u lle tin 38: Co mme n ts o n th e T raditio n al Cu ltu ral Pro pe r-
tie s Sympo s iu m," in T raditio rlal Cu ltu ral Pro pe rtie s : Wh at Yo u Do an d H o w We T h in k, e d.
PatriciaL. Parke r, CRM 16 (1993): 63.
7. Ibid. Als o s e e H . Marcu s Price , Dis pu tin g th e De ad: U. S. Law o n Abo n gin al Re main s
an d Grav e Go o ds (Co lu mbia: Un iv e rs ity o f Mis s o u ri Pre s s , 1991).
8. De ward E. Walke r, Fo re wo rd to Ro ge r C. Ech o -H awk, "Pawn e e Mo rtu ary T radi-
tio n s ," in T e s timo n y o f Walte rEch o -H awk B e f o re th e H o u s e Co mmitte e s o n In te rio ran d
In s u larAf f airs , Admin is tratio n , an d Pu blic Wo rks an d T ran s po rtatio n o n th e N atio n al Ame ri-
can In dian Mu s e u m Act, H .R. 2688, 20 Ju ly 1989, pp. i-ii.
9. Ro be rt E. B ie de r, "A B rie f H is to rical Su rv e y o f th e Expro priatio n o f Ame rican In dian
Re main s ," (B lo o min gto n , In d.: priv ate ly prin te d by Ro be rt E. B ie de r an d N ativ e Ame rican
Righ ts Fu n d, April 1990), 3.
10. Ibid., 5.
In dian s ku lls , f ro m 147 s ample s , h ad acapacity o f o n ly 82 cu bic in ch e s . H e
co n clu de d th at s mall cran ial s ize co rre late d v v ith in te lle ctu al in f e rio rity, an d
are v ie we r o f th e bo o k to o k Mo rto n 's s tate me n ts as pro o f o f racial in f e rio r-
ityall
Co lle ctin g s ku lls co n tin u e d as ah o bby o f ge n tle me n . Cle rgyman Ors o n
S. Fo wle r, f o r e xample , man age d alarge s ku ll library in N e w Yo rk City.
Fo wle r an d o th e rs o f h is time adv o cate d th e ide as adv allce d by Au s trian
Jo s e ph Gall an d Ge rman Jo h an n G. Spu rzh e im, wh o be lie v e d th at cran ial
capacity an d brain s ize de te rmin e d in te llige n ce . T h e mo s t in te llige n t o r
civ ilize d race , th at o f wh ite me n , mu s t th e re f o re h av e th e large s t brain s . B y
me as u rin g th e v o lu me o f cran ial capacity in s ku lls , Fo wle r, bu ildin g u po n
th e wo rk o f Samu e l Mo rto n , be lie v e d h e co u ld s cie n tif ically pro v e th e
s u pe rio rity o f th e wh ite race . T h e s u ppo s e d lin k be twe e n s ku lls , braiIl
capacity, in te llige n ce , an d race le d to th e wh o le s ale lo o tin g o f th o u s an ds o f
In dian bu rials an d abris k, pu rpo rte dly s cie lltif ic trade in h u man re main s
f ro m th e 1830s to th e 1930s .
In dian s ku lls h ad ado llar v alu e , an d amate u r s cie n tis ts o r ph ilo s o ph e rs
co lle cte d In dian s ku lls an d re lics mu ch as o n e wo u ld co lle ct bu tte rf lie s o r
cate go rize type s o f birds . It is n o accide n t th at v as t co lle ctio n s o f s ke le tal
re main s , grav e go o ds , an d In dian artif acts came to re po s e in th e
Smith s o n ian In s titu tio n 's N atio n al Mu s e u m o f N atu ral H is to ry alo n g with
e le ph an t tu s ks X o s trich e ggs , an d re ptile s kin s . In dian grav e ro bbin g be came
af as h io n able ge n tle man 's av o catio n in th e pu rs u it o f kn o wle dge . En th u s i-
as ts e xch an ge d le tte rs , f ie ld n o te s , an d e v e n s ku lls .la
T h is pro ce s s o f acqu irin g In dian s ku lls f o r s cie n tif ic s tu dy e v e n tu ally
be came in s titu tio n alize d. On May 21> 1862, Su rge o n Ge n e ral William A.
H ammo n d e s tablis h e d th e Army Me dical Mu s e u m. H e o rde re d all me dical
o f f ice rs "dilige n tly to co lle ct, an d to f o tward to th e o f f ice o f th e Su rge o n
Ge n e ral, all s pe cime n s o f mo rbid an ato my, s u rgical o r me dical, wh ich may
be re garde d as v alu able .... T h e s e o bje cts s h o u ld be acco mpan ie d by s h o rt
e xplan ato xy n o te s ." As an adde d in du ce me n t th e Su rge o n Ge n e ral s tate d,
"Each s pe cime n in th e co lle ctio n will h av e appe n de d th e n ame o f th e
me dical o f f ice r bywh o m it was pre pare d.''l3 T wo ye ars late r at th e in f amo u s
dawn mas s acre at San d Cre e k, Co lo rado , Co lo n e l Jo h n M. Ch iv in gto n an d
h is dru n ke n tro o ps kille d in n o ce n t wo me n an d ch ildre n an d th e n cu t o f f
th e ir h e ads f o r s h ipme n t to Was h in gto n , I).C.14
11. Ro be rt E. B ie de r, "Expro priatio n o f Ame rie an In dian Re main s , l(), ll.
12. Ibid., 1s 15. Als o s e e Do u glas Co le , Captu re d H e ratage : T h e Scramble f o r N o rth v s e s t
Co as t Artif acts (N o rman , Un iv e rs ity o f Oklah o maPre s s , 1995), 761()1
13. William A. H ammo n d, Su rge o n Ge n e ral, circu larpro claimin g in te n tio n to e s tablis h th e
Army Me dical Mu s e u m, 21 May 1862. Do cu me n t pu blis h e d by Arme d Fo rce s In s titu te o f
Path o lo gy, p. 12. Au th o r's co py co u rte s y o f T o m Killio n , Re patriatio n Of f ice , N atio n al
Mu s e u m o f N atu ral H is to xy, Smith s o n ian In s titu tio n .
14. Fo rme rch ie f h is to rian o f ' th e N atio n al Park Se rv ice Ro be rt Utle y write s o f th e San (l
Cre e k Mas s acre , "Me n , wo me n , ch ildre n , an d e v e n in f an ts pe n s h e d in th e o rgy o f s lau gh te r
th e irbo die s th e n s calpe d an d barbaro u s ly mu tilate d." H av in g re tu rn e d to De n v e r, th e
Co lo rado v o lu n te e rs "parade d tn u mph an tly th ro u gh De n v e r's s tre e ts to th e ch e e rs o f h e r
In Jan u axy, 1865, H arv ard Un iv e rs ity zo o lo gis t Lo u is Agas s iz re min de d
Se cre taxy o f War Edwin Stan to n th at h e h ad pro mis e d to "le t me h av e th e
bo die s o f s o me In dian s ; if an y s h o u ld die at th is time . . . all th at wo u ld be
n e ce s s ary ... wo u ld be to f o tward th e bo dy e xpre s s in abo x.... In cas e th e
we ath e r was n o t v e ry co ld . . . dire ct th e s u rge o n in ch arge to in je ct th ro u gh
th e caro tids as o lu tio n o f ars e n ate o f s o da." Agas s iz adde d, "I s h o u ld like o n e
o r two h an ds o me f e llo ws e n tire an d th e h e ads o f two o r th re e mo re .''l5
T h re e ye ars late r, o n Jan u ary 13, 1868, an additio n al re qu e s t we n t o u t
f ro m th e U.S. Army "u rgin g u po n th e me dical o f f ice rs . . . th e impo rtan ce o f
co lle ctin g f o r th e Army Me dical Mu s e u m s pe cime n s o f In dian cran iaan d o f
In dian we apo n s an d u te n s ils , s o f ar as th e y may be able to pro cu re th e m.''l6
Pe rs o n al le tte rs h ad be e n maile d to mo s t o f th e army me dical o f f ice rs
"s tatio n e d in th e In dian co u n try," bu t Dr. Madis o n Mills appe ale d to
"Actin g As s is tan t Su rge o n s wh o wo u ld do u btle s s co lle ct s u ch th in gs if th e y
kn e w th e y we re de s ire d." Dr. Mills e xplain e d, "T h e Su rge o n Ge n e ral is
an xio u s th at o u r co lle ctio n o f In dian cran ia, alre ady qu ite large , s h o u ld be
made as co mple te as po s s ible ."l; T h e Me dical Co lle ge be lie v e d th at "mak-
in g th is tas k o bligato ry migh t make it dis tas te f u l," bu t to f acilitate th is
v o lu n tary co lle ctin g th e le tte r n o te d, 's Wh e n th e co lle ctio n o f th e s e th in gs
in v o lv e s ape cu n iary o u tlay th at can n o t be me t o th e rwis e , th e Su rge o n
Ge n e ral s an ctio n s adis bu rs e me n t f ro m th e Mu s e u m Fu n d to re imbu rs e
s u ch o u tlay to aju dicio u s e xte n t.''l8
T h u s in th e s ame ye ar th at army re pre s e n tativ e s s o u gh t to n e go tiate th e
s ign if ican t Fo rt Laramie T re aty o f 1868, an o th e r bran ch o f th e militaty
activ e ly e n co u rage d ro bbin g In dian grav e s . A militaxy s e cre tary s e n t h an d-
writte n co pie s o f th e Su rge o n Ge n e ral's le tte r to th e De partme n t o f th e
Mis s o u ri at Fo rt Le av e n wo rth , Kan s as , to th e De partme n t o f th e Platte at
Omah a, N e bras ka, to th e De partme n t o f Dako taat Fo rt Sn e llin g, Min n e -
s o ta, an d to th e De partme n t o f N e w Me xico at San taFe . At s o me f ro n tie r
po s ts , co lle ctin g In dian s ku lls be came aco ttage in du s try, an d th e plain s
In dian wars re s u lte d in battle f ie ld de capitatio n s .
Co lle cto rs als o lo o te d an cie n t an d pre h is to ric bu rials . Warre n K.
Mo o re h e ad s h ippe d h u n dre ds o f In dian re main s to Ch icago f o r th e 1893
citize n s . T h e ate rpatro n s applau de d adis play o f Ch e ye n n e s calps [an d] wo me n 's pu bic h air,
s tru n g acro s s th e s tage at in te rmis s io n ." Ro be rt Utle y, T h e In dian Fro n tie ro f th e AmWe rican
We s t 1846-1890 (Albu qu e rqu e : Un iv e rs ity o f N e w Me xico Pre s s , 1984), 92-93. Sku lls f ro m
San d Cre e k we re s h ippe d to th e Army Me dical Co lle ge an d h av e o n ly re ce n tly be e n re bu rie d
by th e So u th e rn Ch e ye n n e .
15. B ie de r, "Expro priatio n o f Ame rican In dian Re main s ," 16.
16. Madis o n Mills , Su rge o n , Un ite d State s Army, Su rge o n Ge n e ral's Of f ice , 13 Jan u ary
1868. Au th o r's co py co u rte s y o f T h o mas Killio n , Re patriatio n Of f ice , N atio n al Mu s e u m o f
N atu ral H is to ry, Smith s o n ian In s titu tio n .
17. Ibid.
18. Ibid. William W. Gwaltn e y, Su pe rin te n de n t o f Ft. Laramie N atio n al H is to ric Site in
Wyo min g, h as h is in te rpre tiv e s taf f talk abo u t th e co mmo n practice o f Army s u rge o n s
co lle ctin g h u man s ku lls f ro m In dian co rps e s as apart o f ph re n o lo gy an d "re s e arch ." T h is pu blic
h is to ry in te rpre tatio n take s place at th e re s to re d s u rge o n 's qu arte rs .
B ON ES OFCON T EN T ION * 125
Wo rld's Co lu mbian Expo s itio n , an u n abas h e d ce le bratio n o f th e triu mph o f
Ame rican civ ilizatio n . Man y o f th e s e bo n e s an d artif acts be came th e pro p-
e rty o f th e Fie ld Mu s e u m o f N atu ral H is to ry. N in e te e n th -ce n tu ry co mpe -
titio n f o r co lle ctio n s pitte d th e Pe abo dy Mu s e u m o f H arv ard again s t th e
Smith s o n ian In s titu tio n wh ile s e v e ral in s titu tio n s co n te n de d f o r co n tro l o f
bu rial mo u n ds . T h e s h arpe s t co mpe titio n e ru pte d be twe e n th e Fie ld Mu -
s e u m an d N e w Yo rk City's Ame rican Mu s e u m o f N atu ral H is to Iy o v e r
acce s s to N o rth we s t Co as t s ke le to n s an d artif acts . T h e s e h ad be co me h igh ly
pro f itable f o r co lle cto rs , with s ku lls f e tch in g $5 e ach an d co mple te s ke le to n s
$20 apie ce .l9
Fran z B o as , th e f ath e r o f cu ltu ral an th ro po lo gy an d an adv o cate o f
cu ltu ral re lativ ity, appare n tly did n o t s e e th e co n tradictio n be twe e n h is h igh
re gard f o r n ativ e N o rth we s t cu ltu re s an d h is dis re gard f o r th e ir be lie f s abo u t
th e de ad. T o h e lppay f o r h is f ie ldwo rk, h e s o u gh t to co lle ct an d s e ll In dian
s ku lls . "It is mo s t u n ple as an t wo rk to s te al bo n e s f ro m agrav e ," h e admitte d,
"bu t wh at is th e u s e , s o me o n e h as to do it."20 B o as wro te to th e Smith s o n ian
e xplo rin g th e ir willin gn e s s to bu y s ku lls . Wh e n wo rd came back in th e
af f irmativ e , h e co lle cte d 100 co mple te s ke le to n s an d 200 cran iaan d ke pt
acqu irin g h u man re main s u n til h e h ad 179 s ample s f ro m N o rth we s t co as t
Salis h an d Kwakiu tl tribe s . T h e s e e v e n tu ally came to re s ide at th e Fie ld
Mu s e u m. H e s o ld an o th e r large co lle ctio n in B e rlin . T u rf wars e n s u e d as
mu s e u ms s take d th e ir claims to Ame rican ge o graph ic re gio n s an d In dian
cu ltu re s wh o s e h u man re main s an d artif acts be came s cie n tif ic tro ph ie s .2l
In 1891 th e Pe abo dy Mu s e u m at H arv ard Un iv e rs ity h ire d B o as to
o rgan ize th e N o rth we s t Co as t e xh ibit in Ch icago f o r th e Wo rld's Co lu mbian
Expo s itio ll, wh e re h e came in to dire ct co mpe titio n with Ge o rge A. Do rs e y,
th e cu rato r o f an th ro po lo gy at th e Fie ld Mu s e u m. T rav e lin g by train to th e
N o rth we s t, Do rs e y s to ppe d o f f in B ro wn in g, Mo n tan a, an d raide d th e
B lackf e e t, wh o h ad s u f f e re d aild die d o n Gh o s t Ridge du rin g th e s tarv atio n
win te r o f 1883-1884. Almo s t o n e -f o u rth o f th e B lackf e e t tribe we ake n e d
an d die d in th e bitte r co ld th at win te r, an d Do rs e y came s e v e n ye ars late r to
lo o t th e s h allo w grav e s , s e e kin g "s pe cime n s " f o r s h ipme n t to Ch icago .
T h irty-f iv e s ke le to n s e v e n tu ally arriv e d at th e Fie ld Mu s e u m.22
In 1896> Arctic e xplo re r Ro be rt E. Pe ary bro u gh t liv in g "s pe cime n s " to
N e w Yo rk City to th e Ame rican Mu s e u m o f N atu ral H is to ty f o r s cie n tif ic
me as u re me n ts by Ale s H rdlicka, aco lle agu e o f B o as . Wh e n f o u r o f th e s ix
19 B ie de r, "Expro priatio n o f Ame rican In dian Re main s ," 31. Als o s e e Do u glas Co le ,
Captu re d H e ritage : T h e Scramble f o rN o rth we s t Co as t Artif acts ( N o rman , Okla.: Un iv e rs ity o f
Oklah o maPre s s , 1995), 1()2-164.
20. Ro n ald P. Ro h n e r, T h e Eth n o graph 1y o f Fran B o as (Ch icago : Un iv e rs ity o f Ch icago
Pre s s , 1969), 88.
21. B e ide r, "Expro priatio n o f Ame rican In dian Re main s ," 31; Co le , Captu re d H e rctage ,
11S21.
22. Lo yd Smith , "Re main s o f 35 B lackf e e t to be re tu rn e d to n e arby re s e rv atio n ," Glacie r
Re po rte r(B ro wn illg, Mo n tan a) 20 Ju n e 1991. Als o in te rv ie w with Cu rly B e arWagn e r, 25 Ju ly
1992.
Es kimo s f ro m Gre e n lan d de v e lo pe d tu be rcu lo s is an d die d acco rdin g to
Do u glas Pre s to n 's h e re was as ple n did, u n paralle le d o ppo rtu n ity to add
po s tmo rte m datato th e ir Es kimo f ile ." Pre s to n e wlain s , "H rdliElca dire cte d
th at all f o u r be mace rate d, bo ile d, an d re du ce d to s ke le to n s at th e Co lle ge
o f Ph ys ician s an d Su rge o n s o f Co lu mbia Un iv e rs ity." As af in al ge s tu re , "h e
th e n in s talle d th e s ke le to n s in th e mu s e u m's co lle ctio n s wh e re h e co u ld
s tu dy th e m at le is u re ."23
T wo ye ars late r, by 1898, th e Army Me dical Mu s e u m do n ate d o v e r 2,000
cran iato th e U S . N atio n al Mu s e u m, wh e re mo s t o f th e s ku lls an d s ke le to n s
re main e d in s to rage in th e N atio n al Mu s e u m o f N atu ral H is to ry o f th e
Smith s o n ian In s titu tio n . Alth o u gh n ativ e pe o ple s re pre s e n t le s s th an 1% o f
to day's Ame rican po pu latio n an d th e y we re an e qu ally s mall pe rce n tage a
ce n tu iy ago , n ativ e pe o ple s re pre s e n te d 54.4% o f th e Smith s o n ian 's co lle c-
tio n o f 34,000 h u man s pe cime n s . B lacks re pre s e n te d 5.1% o f th e co lle ctio n s
an d wh ite s 20%. Cle arly, co lle ctin g s pe cime n s o f In dian h u man an ato my
was aracial an d racis t pre f e re n ce f ar in e xce s s o f an y s tatis tical In dian
re pre s e n tatio n in th e Ame rican po pu latio n . Early an th ro po lo gis ts e age rly
s o u gh t racial type s to h e lpbo ls te r th e ir th e o rie s o f ph ys ical an th ro po lo gy,
an d th u s th e Smith s o n ian acqu ire d ah u ge co lle ctio n o f In dian s ke le to n s
f ro m bo th amate u rs an d pro f e s s io n als .
Lo o tin g co n tin u e d u n abate d. B e twe e n 1931 an d 1936, Ale s H rdlicka o f
th e De partme n t o f An th ro po lo gy o f th e Smith s o n ian In s titu tio n trav e le d to
th e Lars e n B ay Village o f Ko diak Is lan d, Alas ka, an d with th e h e lpo f awh ite
can n e ly wo rke r an d o th e r f ie ld s taf f , e xh u me d an d carrie d away 800 de ad
bo die s an d o v e r 1,000 bu rial o f f e rin gs .24
As with mo s t s u ch "co lle ctio n s ," th e bo n e s we re ke pt in s to rage an d we re
n o t o pe n to pu blic v ie w. Scie n tis ts be gin n in g th e f ie ld o f ph ys ical an th ro po l-
o gy s tu die d h u man re main s in labo rato xy s e ttin gs , bu t s ke le to n s als o be -
came to u ris t attractio n s . Scie n tis ts s o u gh t to co n f irm ide as abo u t race an d
in te llige n ce u s in g In dian s ke le to n s ; to u ris ts ju s t wan te d to gawk. Acro s s th e
Ullite d State s , an cie n t In dian bu rial s ite s f e ll in to th e h an ds o f pe tty
pro mo te rs wh o s awth e ris e o f au to mo bile to u ris m in th e 1920s an d amo rbid
f as cin atio n with de ath as away to make ado llar.
Du rin g th e 1930s in Wicklif f e , Ke n tu cky, n e ar th e co n f lu e n ce o f th e
Oh io an d Mis s is s ippi Riv e rs , amate u r arch ae o lo gis ts e xcav ate d an an cie n t
pre h is to ric bu rial gto u n d o f th e Mis s is s ippian pe o ple an d o pe rate d it as o n e
o f th e large s t an d be s t-kn o wn o pe n bu n al dis plays in th e n atio n . Pro mo te r
Fain Kin g labe le d th e s ite "Kin g Mo u n ds " an d po pu larize d it as an "An cie n t
B u n e d City" co mple te with "to mbs , te mple s , altars , je we ls , dwe llin gs , an d
23. Do u glas J. Pre s to n f '<Ske le to n s in Ou rMu s e u ms ' Clo s e ts ," H arpe r's Maga_in e , Fe bru -
ary 1989> 69. Als o s e e Ke n n H axpe r, Giv e Me My Fath e rs B o dty: T h e Lif e o f Min ik, th e N e u ;
Yo rk Es ktme (Fro bis h e rB ay, N o rth we s t T e rrito ry: B lackle ad B o o ks , 1986).
24. Fo r th e co mple te dis cu s s io n o f th e Lars e n B ay e xcav atio n s s e e T amaraL. B ray an d
T h o mas W. Killio n , e ds ., Re cko n in g \Vith th e De ad: T h e Lars e n B a?J Re patrzatio n an d th e
Smith s o n ian In s titu tio n (Was h h lgto n , D.C.: Smith s o n ian In s titu tio n Pre s s , 1994).
to o ls ."25 T h e de ce as e d h ad be e n care f u lly in te rre d, bu t be gin n in g in th e
1930s , lu rid adv e rtis in g, s e n s atio n alis t in te xpre tatio n , an d dis dain f o r ar-
ch ae o lo gical o r mu s e u m e xpe rtis e ch aracte rize d Kin g Mo u n ds , wh ich f e a-
tu re d o v e r 150 In dian s ke le to n s e xpo s e d ato pe arth dais e s u n de r atin ro o f
with grav e go o ds s catte re d abo u t. Fain Kin g ch arge d admis s io n to gawkin g
to u ris ts an d in tu rn s o ld th e m pu rlo in e d In dian artif acts o f do u btf u l pro v -
e Ilan ce .26
A s imilar to u ris t s ite n e ar Salin a, Kan s as , dis playe d th e s h e llacke d bo n e s
o f Pawn e e In dian de ad f ro m 600 ye ars ago . Fo u r mile s o u ts ide o f Salin a, th e
Pn ce bro th e rs ' "In dian B u rial Pits " co u ld be v ie we d f o r $3.50 pe r pe rs o n .
T h e bo n e s h ad be e n du g u pin 1936 by an amate u r arch ae o lo gis t. Pro prie to r
H o ward Price s tate d, 'We to o k care o f th e bo n e s ." H e s aid, "Ev e ly ye ar we
v arn is h e d th e m s o th e y wo u ldn 't de te rio rate ."27Amate u rs in th e Mimbre s
Valle y o f N e w Me n co als o "du g" In dian ru in s in th e 1930s an d h ad "s ke le to n
picn ics " in th e ir f ran tic pu rs u it o f pre h is to ric ce ramic po tte Iy. As th e y
s e arch e d f o r Mimbre s clas s ic black-o n -wh ite bu rial bo wls , th e s e po th u n te rs
ro u tin e ly dis carde d In dian bo n e s an d s catte re d th e m acro s s th e lan ds cape .28
In Illin o is , th e s tate park s ys te m le n t its imprimatu r to pu blic dis plays o f
In dian h u man re main s by makin g l:)icks o n Mo u n ds as tate park re gu lally
v as ite d by 80,000 to u ris ts an d s ch o o l gro u ps wh o came to s tare at th e
e xpo s e d In dian de ad.29 Excav ate d in 1927 n e ar Le wis to wn , Illin o is , Dicks o n
2S. An dre w Gu llif o rd, "B o n e s o f Co n te n tio n : Wicklif f e Mo u n ds an d th e Ev o lu tio n o f
Pu blic Arch ae o lo gy at aPre h is to ric Mis s is s ippian Village ," Mu s e u m As s e s s me n t Pro gram,
Ame rican As s o ciatio n o f Mu s e u ms , Se pte mbe r1991, pp. 54. Fo rs pe cif 1c de tails s e e Kit
We s le r, "T h e Kin g Pro je ct at Wicklif f e Mo u n ds : A priv ate e xcav atio n in th e N e w De al e ra," in
D. Po llo ack an d M. L. Po we ll, e ds ., N e tu Ve al Ers Arch ae o lo gy an d Cu rre n t Re s e arch in
Ke n tu cky (Fran kf o rt: Ke n tu cky H e ritage Co u n cil 1988), 8S96.
26. B ryan W. Kwapil, "Co pin g with a Sh ady Pas t," H as to n y N e tv s 42, n o . 2 (1987), 1>17,
an d Kit We s le r, "T h e Wicklif f e Mo u n ds Ce me te ry: Edu catin g th e Pu blic in a Ch an gin g
Exh ibit," pape rpre s e n te d at th e s ympo s iu m, "Pu blic Edu catio n at Arch ae o lo gical Parks :
Do in g It Ev e ry Day," So cie ty f o rAme rican Arch ae o lo gy, Pitts bu rgh , Pe n n s ylv an ia, 10 April
1992. B o th au th o rs de s cribe th e u n s av o ry pas t at Wicklif f e Mo u n ds , bu t th e cu rre n t dire cto r,
Dr. Kit We s le r, als o dis cu s s e s h o w th e s ite is n o w pro pe rly in te rpre te d to me e t N AGPRA
re qu ire me n ts an d th e co n ce rn s o f are aIn dian s .
27. Mo n tgo me ry B ro we ran d Co n an Pu tn am, 'Walte rEch o -H awk Figh ts f o rH is Pe o ple 's
Righ t to Re s t in Pe ace ," Pe o ple Magatin e , 4 Se pte mbe r1984, p. 43. Ro be rt T o ms h o , "In dian
B u rial Site B e co me s B ig Is s u e in Little Salin a, Kan s as ," Wall Stre e t Jo u rn al, 17 May 1989.
Rich ard Jo h n s o n , "B o n e s o f T h e irFath e rs ," Co n te mpo rary: Su n day De n v e rPo s t, 4 Fe bru ary
1990. Als o s e e LarIy Fru h lin g, "B u rial dis pu te pits In dian s v s . s cie n f f s ts ," De s Mo in e s State
Re gis te r, 16 April 1989, an d "Stu dy at In dian B u rial Pit," Kan s as State H is to rical So cie ty
Mirro r36, n o . 3 (Apn l, 1990).
28* T h e re f e re n ce to "s ke le to n picn ics " co me s f ro m le tte rs wn tte n by th e dire cto ro f
H arv ard Un iv e rs ity's Pe abo dy Mu s e u m du rin g th e Gre at De pre s s io n as h e s o u gh t f u n din g f o r
th e v alu able wo rk o f H arrie t S. an d Co rn e liu s B . Co s gro v e in th e Mimbre s v alle y. T h e
Co s gro v e s we re amate u rarch ae o lo gis ts in th e be s t s e n s e o f th e wo rd wh o pu blis h e d T h e
Sware s Ru in : A T ypical Mirn bre s Site o f So u th we s te rn N e w Me xico , Pape rs o f th e Pe abo dy
Mu s e u m o f An th ro po lo gy an d Eth n o lo gy, v o l. 15, n o . 1 (Cambridge , Mas s , 1932). In writte n
le tte rs to do n o rs , th e Pe abo dy's dire cto rde s cribe d lo cal po t-h u n te rs an d th e damage th e ywe re
do in g as h e s o licite d f u n ds to s u ppo rt th e o n go in g re s e arch o f th e Co s gro v e s .
29. T h e au th o rh as aco mple te f ile o n th e Dicks o n Mo u n ds co n tro v e rs y be twe e n th e ye ars
198W1991 th at in clu de s n e ws pape rclippin gs f ro m th ro u gh o u t Illin o is an d th e n atio n . So u rce s
Mo u n ds Mu s e u m f e atu re d an o pe n bu rial s ite o f 237 pe o ple wh o h ad
o ccu pie d th e Illin o is Riv e r Valle y be twe e n 800 an d 1,000 ye ars ago . Pu r-
ch as e d by th e s tate in 1945, Dicks o n Mo u n ds Mu s e u m be came apo pu lar
to u ris t attractio n . B u t by th e late 1980s , th e qu e s tio n o f th e righ ts o f s cie n ce
an d ph ys ical an th ro po lo gy v e rs u s th e righ ts o f th e de ad an d th e ir de s ce n -
dan ts be came acritical is s u e , pittin g th e dis ciplin e o f ph ys ical an th ro po lo gy
again s t th e de e pre ligio u s co n v ictio n s o f N ativ e Ame rican s . In th e f ace o f
In dian de man ds f o r re patriatio n , mu s e u m bo ards o f dire cto rs an d cu rato rs
o f an th ro po lo gy argu e d th at th e y h ad a"pro prie tary righ t" to main tain th e
ite ms in th e ir co lle ctio n s . Lo cal citize n s als o de f e n de d th e ir righ ts to v is it
e xpo s e d In dian bu rials .30 Fo r N ativ e Ame rican s , le gal re dre s s wo u ld co me
s lo wly.
B e gin n in g with th e laws u it o f th e Co wich an In dian s o f th e N o rth we s t in
1888 again s t Jame s H u tto n , wh o h ad be e n "co lle ctin g" f o r Fran z B o as ,
In dian s de crie d th e de s e cratio n , lo o tin g, an d ro bbe ry o f th e ir an ce s to rs .3l
B u t In dian pro te s ts re main e d s catte re d an d in e f f e ctiv e th ro u gh o u t th e f irs t
h alf o f th e twe n tie th ce n tu ry an d th e ye ars o f f o rce d Ame rican izatio n , u rban
re s e ttle me n t o f In dian s , alld tribal te rmin atio n . With th e impact o f th e tribal
s o v e re ign ty mo v e me n t an d In dian s e lf -de te rmin atio n in th e 1970s , th e is s u e
o f h u man re main s gath e re d mo me n tu m. B y th e mid-1980s , tribe af te r tribe
s o u gh t th e re tu rn o f th e ir allce s tral re main s th ro u gh laws u its an d e lo qu e n t
ple as to le gis latu re s an d mu s e u ms .
In Ju n e o f 1986, th e Sko ko mis h T ribe o f Sh e lto n , Was h in gto n , pas s e d
re s o lu tio n N o . 86-37 s tatin g th at "th e n e ce s s aIy time f o r h o ldin g th e s e
h u man re main s f o r s cie n tif ic in qu iIy h as e xpire d" an d "th e practice o f
ke e pin g N ativ e Ame rican s ke le to n s f o r f u rth e r s tu dy is in co n f lict with o u r
tribe 's cu ltu ral an d mo ral be lie f s , an d is in to tal dis re gard to th e righ ts ,
dign ity, an d re s pe ct th at all h u man be in gs in th e Ullite d State s o f Ame rica
e n jo y u n de r th e Co n s titu tio n ."32 T h e tribal co u n cil de man de d th e imme di-
ate re tu rn o f Sko ko mis h Zwan a In dian re main s by th e Smith s o n ian In s titu -
tio n . Oth e r tribe s , in clu din g th e Pawn e e In dian s o f Oklah o maan d Ko diak
Is lan d n ativ e s f ro m Alas ka, as ke d th e s ame f o r th e re tu rn o f th e ir an ce s to rs '
re main s .
On May 29, 1987 th e Lars e n B ay T ribal Co u n cil pas s e d are s o lu tio n
s e e kin g th e re tu rn o f h u man re main s , be cau s e "we h o n o r an d re s pe ct o u r
in clu de th e Alto n T e le graph , Alto n ; Jo u rn al Star, Pe o ria; Can to n Daily Le clge r, Can to n ;
Maco mb Jo u rn al, Maco mb; State lo u rn al Re gis te r, Sprin gf ie ld; Sh e lbys ille Daily Un io n ,
Sh e lbyv ille ; St. Lo u is Po s t Dis patch ; Ch icago Su n -T ime s ; N e to Yo rk 1'ime s ; an d USA T o da?/.
Pu blicity abo u t clo s in g th e ce me te ry to pu blic v ie w pro mpte d te n time s th e n o rmal v is ito rs o r
3,400 to u ris ts in ju s t o n e we e ke n d in Jan u ary 199().
30. Ibid.
31. Do u glas Co le , Captu re d H e ritage : T h e Scramble f o r N o rth we s t Co >t Artif acts (Se -
attle : Un iv e rs ity o f Was h in gto n Pre s s , 1985), 121.
32. Sko ko mis h T ribe o f Sh e lto n , Was h in gto n , Re s o lu tio n N o . 86-37, 4 Ju n e 1986, attach e d
to ale tte rto Dr. Adrie n n e Kae pple r, ch air, De partme n t o f An th ro po lo gy, N atio n al Mu s e u m
o f N atu ral H is to ry, Smith s o n ian In s titu tio n , 5 Ju n e 1986.
an ce s to rs an d th e ir traditio n al ways , wh ich e n rich o u r pe rs o n al an d s piritu al
liv e s to day as th e y mII s tre n gth e n th e liv e s o f o u r ch ildre n an d o u r ch ildre n 's
ch ildre n in ye ars to co me ." T h e re s o lu tio n s tate d, "th e s ke le tal re main s )
bu rial o bje cts , an d artif acts h e ld by th e Smith s o n ian In s titu tio n be lo n g to u s )
th e N ativ e pe o ple o f Lars e n B ay an d Uyak B ay, wh o h av e th e traditio n al
righ t an d s piritu al re s po n s ibility to re in te r o u r an ce s to rs ' re main s , bu rial
o bje cts , an d o th e r artif acts ."33 Le gal e xpe n s e s f o r th e Qu ike rtarmiu t wo u ld
e xce e d $100,000 be f o re th e cas e was clo s e d, bu t as Go rdo n Pu llar e xplain s ,
"T h e re patriatio n is s u e was clo s e ly re late d to e f f o rts to pro mo te as tro n g
ide n tity an d s e lf -e s te e rn amo n g yo u th th ro u gh cu ltu ral re v italizatio n o n
Ko diak Is lan d." Pu llar n o te s 4'af u n dame n tal dif f e re n ce " be twe e n th e wo rld
v ie ws o f s cie n tis ts an d v illage rs ('In dige n o u s pe o ple an d we s te rn s cie n ce
h av e v e ry dif f e re n t ways o f s e e in g time , f amily) an d th e u n iv e rs e ." An cie n t
s ke le tal re main s are 'Xre s o u rce s " f o r s cie n tis ts ) bu t th e y are re lativ e s f o r
liv in g tribal pe o ple s . Pu llar write s , "We mu s t re s pe ct o u r an ce s to rs as th e y
are s till with US."34
In 1987, in th e middle o f th is co n tro v e rs y Se cre tary o f th e Smith s o n ian
In s titu tio n Ro be rt McCo rmick Adams as ke d th e U.S. Se n ate f o r s u ppo rt o f
aN atio n al Mu s e u m o f th e Ame rican In dian au th o rizatio n bill. Atto rn e y
Walte r Ech o -H awk o f th e N ativ e Ame rican Righ ts Fo u n datio n in B o u lde r,
Co lo rado , f av o re d a n e w In dian mu s e u m, bu t h e co mplain e d o f "th e
de plo rable f act th at th e Smith s o n ian is Ame rica's large s t In dian grav e yard
in po s s e s s io n o f almo s t l9,000 de ad In dian bo die s ."35 In Se n ate te s timo n y
Ech o -H awk e xplain e d, "It is th e re f o re critical, as amatte r o f mo ral co n s is -
te n cy, th at th e f o u n din g prin ciple s o f th e pro po s e d mu s e u m7 as we ll as its
e n ablin g le gis latio n , cau s e th e Mu s e u m to be bu ilt as 'aliv in g me mo rial' to
th e N atio n 's Firs t Citize n s an d n o t be bu ilt u po n af o u n datio n o f te n s o f
th o u s an ds o f de ad bo die s an d o v e r th e s e n s ibilitie s o f th e n e are s t liv in g n e xt
o f kin .'36
Se cre taty Adams admitte d th at s ke le to n s in th e Smith s o n ian 's co lle ctio n
h ad be e n acqu ire d u n de r u n s cru pu lo u s circu ms tan ce s . H e s tate d, '<So me
o f f ice rs we re e xce s s iv e in th e ir ze al to co lle ct, ro bbin g f re s h grav e s o r
f o rwardin g battle f ie ld f in ds an d th e re main s o f In dian s wh o die d wh ile
Army pris o n e rs ."37 H e was n o t willin g h o we v e r to re patriate th e h u man
33. Lars e n B ay T n bal Co u n cil Re s o lu tio n N o . 87-89> 29 May 1987 in Lars e n B ay Re patria-
tio n Le tte rs , appe rldix to Re cko n in g With T h e De ad: T h e Lars e n B ay Re patn af io n an d th e
Smith s o n ian In s titu tio n , e d. T amaraL. B ray an d T h o mas W. Killio n (Was h in gto n , D.C.:
Smith s o n ian In s titu tio n Pre s s , 1994), 187.
34. Go rdo n L. Pu llar, "T h e Qu ike rtarmiu t an d th e Scie n tis t: Fif 'ty Ye ars o f Clas h in g Wo rld
Vie ws ," in Re cko n irlg With T h e De ad, 17, 22.
35. Walte rEch o -H awk B e to re th e H o u s e Co mmitte e s o n In te rio ran d In s u larAf 'f 'airs , 20
Ju ly 1989, p. 1.
36. Ibid., 3.
37. Adams , Se le ct Co mmitte e On In dian Af f 'airs , p. 15. T o f u rth e ru n de rs tan d Se cre tary
Adams ' o n gin al po in t o f v ie w an d th e n h is ch an ge d s tan ce in f av o ro f Smith s o n ian re patriatio n
th e au th o rin te rv ie we d Ro be rt McCo rmick Adams at h is h o me in Se v e n Cas tle s n e arB as alt,
Co lo rado o n 2 Au gu s t 1995.
re main s o f "in div idu als wh o can n o t be dire ctly ide n tif ie d."38 An arch ae o lo -
gis t h ims e lf , Adams argu e d f o r "th e claims o f s cie n ce ," e Eplain in g th at th e
Smith s o n ian 's co lle ctio n e xis te d "to e n able s cie n tis ts to le arn abo u t h u man
adaptatio n s an d bio lo gy by s tu dyin g liv in g an d pas t po pu latio n s ."39
In 1988, th e ye ar af te r Adams ' te s timo n y, th e OglalaSio u x tribe re -
qu e s te d th e re tu rn o f th e ir h o n o re d de ad in clu din gth re e kn o wn in div idu als :
Smo ke , B lack Fe e t, an d T wo Face . Se v e rt Yo u n g B e ar, an OglalaSio u x,
e xplain e d, "Lako ta v ie w th e s pirit o f ape rs o n as be in g e n tire ly dif f e re n t
f ro m th e Ch ris tia1l v ie w. In Lako ta, af te r de ath we take care o f th e s pirit."
H e adde d, "If yo u dis tu rb th at s pirit it s tarts wan de rin g. T h e s pirit o f my
gran df ath e r Smo ke is s till walkin g back an d f o rth f ro m h is [bu rial] h ill to
Was h in gto n ."40
T h an ks to th e le gal clo u t o f th e N ativ e Ame rican Righ ts Fu n d, th e s tate
o f Kan s as an d th e Kan s as State H is to rical So cie ty agre e d to clo s e th e "In dian
B u rial Pit" n e ar Salin awith aFe bru ary, 1989 agre e me n t kn o wn as th e
T re aty o f Smo ly H ill. Additio n al argu me n ts f o r re patriatio n came with th e
pu blicatio n o f Do u glas J. Pre s to n 's article "Ske le to n s in Ou r Mu s e u ms >
Clo s e ts " in th e Fe bru aty, 1989 is s u e o f H arpe r's Magazin e . Pre s to n wro te ,
"T o man y N ativ e Ame rican s , th e co lle ctin g o f th e ir an ce s to rs ' bo n e s an d
bo die s by mu s e u ms is as o u rce o f pain an d h u miliatio n th e las t s tage o f a
co n qu e s t th at h ad alre ady ro bbe d th e m o f th e ir lan ds an d de s tro ye d th e ir
way o f lif e .''4l
In March , 1989, N atio n al Ge o graph ic pu blis h e d"Wh o Own s th e Pas t?"
with s tark ph o to graph s o f wh o le s ale co mme rcial lo o tin g an d grav e ro bbin g
at th e Slack Farm Site in Ke n tu cly wh e re 80>1,200 pre h is to ric bo die s h ad
be e n du g u po v e r atwo -ye ar pe rio d in th e mid-1980s f o r a$10,000 tre as u re
h u n te rs ' f e e .42 If s ku lls co u ld n o t be s o ld f o r can dle h o lde rs o r as h trays , th e
lo o te rs s mas h e d th e m. De s pite th e s e o u trage s , th e grav e ro bbe rs co u ld o n ly
be ch arge d with amis de me an o r o f f e n s e , be cau s e Ke n tu cly lacke d abu rial
s tatu te pro te ctin g u n marke d grav e s o n priv ate pro pe rty. H o we v e r, pu blic
o pin io n be gan to s h if t, an d in May 1989, th e N ativ e Ame rican Righ ts Fu n d
s u cce s s f u lly re pre s e n te d th e Win n e bago an d Pawn e e tribe s in s e cu n n g
pas s age o f th e Un marke d B u n al Site s an d Ske le tal Re main s Pro te ctio n Act
ill N e bras ka.43 Ov e r twe n ty s tate s alre ady h ad bu rial pro te ctio n s tatu te s f o r
u n marke d grav e s .44 Lo cal po th u n te rs , h o we v e r, e Epre s s e d th e ir an tago n is m.
38. Ro be rt McCo rmick Adams be f o re th e Se le ct Co mmitte e o n In dian Af f airs , 12 N o v e m-
be r1987, p. 15.
39. Adams , Se le ct Co mmitte e o n In dian Af f airs , p. 16.
40. Pre s to n , "Ske le to n s in Ou rMu s e u ms ' Clo s e ts ," 70.
41. Ibid.
42. H . Arde n , 'Wh o Own s Ou rPas t?" N atio n al Ge o graph ic 175 (March 1989): 37S93.
43. Le gis latu re o f N e bras ka, N in e ty-Firs t Le gis latu re Le gis lativ e B ill 340, Un marke d
H u man B u rial Site s an d Ske le tal Re main s Pro te ctio n Act, May 31, 1989. Fo r a de taile d
acco u n t o f th e co n f lict wh ich le d to th is le gis latio n , s e e Ame n can In dian Cu ltu re are d Re s e arch
Jo u rn al 2 (1992).
44. T e s timo n y o f Kan s as State Arch ae o lo gis t T o m Witty o n th e Kan s as Un marke d B u rial
Site s Pre s e rv atio n Act, H o u s e B ill N o . 2144, wh ich be came law Jan u ary 1, 1990. Als o s e e Caro l
T h e au th o r o f th e Co lo rado bu rial bill re ce iv e d an u n marke d package at
h is le gxs lativ e o f f ice co n tain in g abo x o f bo n e s with as ku ll an d aco mple te
1,000-ye ar-o ld An as azi s ke le to n wrappe d in aCo rte z, Co lo rado n e ws pape r.
An attach e d type d n o te s tate d, "T h is is n o n e o f yo u r bu s in e s s ."45 In N e w
Me xico , po th u n te rs , kn o win g th e n e w s tate law wo u ld take e f f e ct at mid-
n igh t o n agiv e n day, wo rke d aro u n d th e clo ck with as mall bu lldo ze r to
e xcav ate th e Cro te au s ite in th e Mimbre s Valle y. In th e ir h as te , th e lo o te rs
de s tro ye d bo n e s , bo wls , an d price le s s artif acts du g f ro m aMimbre s In dian
v illage adjo in in g th e GilaN atio n al Fo re s t.46
B y th e late 1980s , af e w u n iv e rs itie s an d mu s e u ms acqu ie s ce d an d
re alize d th at it was pas t time to re lin qu is h th e ir co lle ctio n s o f h u man
re main s . T h e Mu s e u m o f N e w Me xico in San taFe draf te d its o wn re patria-
tio n po licy f o r th e re tu rn o f tribal h u man re main s an d grav e go o ds , as did th e
Arizo n aState Mu s e u m in T u cs o n . In 1989, Stan f o rd Un iv e rs ity agre e d to
re tu rn 550 In dian bo die s to th e Oh lo n e -Co s tan o an tribe o f Calif o rn ia f o r
re bu rial be cau s e th e re main s came f ro m th e tribe 's h is to ric are as .47 Al-
th o u gh o n e an th ro po lo gis t argu e d th at "th e pro pe r o wn e r o f th e s e re main s
is th e s cie n tif ic co mmu n ity," Rayn aGre e n o f th e Smith s o n ian 's N atio n al
Mu s e u m o f Ame rican H is to xy co u n te re d th at mo s t In dian re main s "h av e n o
s cie n tif ic v alu e [be cau s e ] ame re f ractio n o f re main s h as e v e r be e n s tu die d,
pe rio d."48 Sh e e xplain e d, "T h e s e are h u man re main s , n o t s tu dy s pe cime n s .
T h e re s h o u ld n o t be e n dle s s re s e arch to be n e f it s ch o lars with o u t aco mpe l-
liIlg re as o n ."49 Mo s t s ke le tal re main s are n o w s tu die d f o r bio ch e mical an d
ge n e tic an alys is to trace th e e v o lu tio n o f dis e as e s an d ch an ge s in die t, bu t
th e n th e re main s are re bu n e d.50
In Min n e s o ta) th e s tate le gis latu re appro priate d $90,000 o v e r th re e ye ars
to s tu dy s ke le to n s at aco s t o f $S00 to $1,000 e ach prio r to th e Un iv e rs ity o f
Min n e s o ta re lin qu is h in g 150 h u man re main s to th e De v il's Lake Sio u x an d
an o th e r 1,000 re main s e xcav ate d f ro m div e rs e In dian bu rial mo u n ds .51 In
1989, Se attle Un iv e rs ity re tu rn e d 150 bo xe s o f bo n e s to In dian tribe s in
Was h in gto n s tate , an d Omah aIn dian s re ce iv e d artif acts an d h u man re -
L. Carn e tt, A Su rs e ty o f State Statu te s Pro te ctin g Arch ae o lo gical Re s o u rce s (Was h in gto n , D.C.:
N atio n al T ru s t f o rH is to ric Pre s e rv atio n an d U.S. De partme n t o f In te rio r, N atio n al Park
Se rv ice Cu ltu ral Re s o u rce s an d Arch ae o lo gical As s is tan ce Div is io n , Au gu s t 1995).
45. T e le ph o n e co n v e rs atio n 10 Ju ly 1992 be twe e n au th o ran d Co lo rado State Se n ato r
T ilman B is h o p, wh o s po n s o re d th e Co lo rado B u rial B ill.
46. T h e au th o rpe rs o n ally witn e s s e d th e de v as tatio n o f ' th e Cro te au s ite in th e Mimbre s
Valle y o f N e w Me xico . H is ph o to graph s o f th e s ite be in g lo o te d by po th u n te rs u s in g bu lldo ze rs
h av e be e n e xh ibite d at th e Mu s e u m o f N e w Me xico .
47. Ch ris Raymo n d, "So me Sch o lars Ups e t by Stan f o rd's De cis io n to Re tu rn Ame rican
In dian Re main s f o rRe -B u rial by T n be ," Ch ro n icle o f H igh e rEdu catio n , 5 Ju ly 1989, A4.
48* Ibid. Als o s e e De ward E. Walke r, "An th ro po lo gis ts Mu s t Allo w Ame rican In dian s to
B u ry T h e irDe ad," Ch ro n icle o f H igh e rEdu catio n , 12 Se pte mbe r1990, an d le tte rs to th e
e dito r, Ch ro n icle o f H igh e rEdu catio n , 10 Octo be r1990.
49. Ibid.
50. Ch ris Raymo n d, "Re bu n al o f In dian Re main s Stimu late s Stu die s , Fn ctio n Amo n g
Sch o lars ," Ch ro n icle o f H igh e rEdu cs tio n , 3 Octo be r1990> A13.
51. Ibid.
main s bo th f ro m th e Un iv e rs ity o f N e bras ka-Lin co ln an d f ro m H arv ard
Un iv e rs ity's Pe abo dy Mu s e u m.52
T h e n in Au gu s t 1989, at as pe cial me e tin g be twe e n In dian tribe s an d
Smith s o n ian re pre s e n tativ e s in clu din g Se cre taty Ro be rt Adams , an agre e -
me n t was re ach e d f o r th e re tu rn o f h u man re main s an d bu rial artif acts f ro m
th e Smith s o n ian its e lf , pro v ide d th e y co u ld be lin ke d with "re as o n able
ce rtain ty" to pre s e n t-day tribe s .53 B y th at date , twe n ty-two s tate s h ad pas s e d
laws again s t dis tu rbin g u n marke d In dian grav e s ite s . In N o v e mbe r o f 1989,
Pre s ide n t Ge o rge B u s h s ign e d in to law th e N atio n al Mu s e u m o f th e
Ame rican In dian Act, wh ich e s tablis h e d an e w In dian mu s e u m as part o f th e
Smith s o n ian In s titu tio n co mple x an d man date d th at th e Smith s o n ian re tu rn
h u man re main s an d as s o ciate d an d u n as s o ciate d f u n e raty o bje cts to cu ltu r-
ally af f iliate d In dian tribe s .54 T ribal me mbe rs co n s ide re d th e Smith s o n ian
co rs ce s s io n amajo r v icto ry f o r In dian righ ts , in clu din g th e righ t o f th e de ad
to re main bu rie d. Un de r Se cre tary Adams ' dire ctio n , th e Smith s o n ian
o rgan ize d aRe patriatio n Of f ice to be gin th e lo n g an d co mplicate d tas k o f
re tu rn in g h u man re main s an d grav e go o ds .55
Fin ally, in Octo be r o f 1990, Pre s ide n t Ge o rge B u s h s ign e d in to law th e
N ativ e Ame rican Grav e s Pro te ctio n an d Re patriatio n Act, pro v idin g s an c-
tity f o r u n marke d grav e s o n pu blic lan d an d th e re tu rn o f h u man re main s
an d as s o ciate d grav e go o ds to th e ir tribe s o f o rigin f ro m an y mu s e u m
re ce iv in g f e de ral f u n ds .56
A ce n tu ry af te r th e th e f t o f B lackf e e t bo n e s X Cu rly B e ar Wagn e r, Cu ltu ral
Co o rdin ato r f o r th e B lackf e e t tribe , an d Jo h n "B u s te r" Ye llo w Kidn e y, a
s piritu al le ade r o f th e tribe , trav e le d to th e Fie ld Mu s e u m in Ch icago to
arran ge f o r th e ir an ce s to rs ' re bu rial In 1991 Ye llo w Kidn e y co mme n te d
th at '<re tu rn in g re main s to th e ir righ tf u l place h as s tirre d ah o t be d o f
po litical co n tro v e rs y bo th o n an d o f f th e re s e rv atio n " an d th at s f tribe s are
e xpe rie n cin g in f igh tin g an d s qu abblin g amo n g th e ms e lv e s ."57 So me tribal
52. Ibid.
53. Fe licity B arrin ge r, "Smith s o n ian Acco rd Is Like ly o n Re tu rn o f In dian Re main s ," N e 2v
)'o rk T ime s , 20 Au gu s t 1989. Fo rth e s ch o larly de bate als o s e e Do u glas Ube lake ran d Lau ryn
Gu tte n plan -Gran t, "H u man Ske le tal Re main s -Pre s e rv atio n o rRe bu rial?" 1989 Ye arbo o k o f
Ph ys ical An th ro po lo gy 32: 24947.
54. Pu blic Law 101-185, N o v e mbe r28, 1989, 103 Stat. 1336. An Act T o Es tablis h th e
N atio n al Mu s e u m o f th e Ame rican In dian with in th e Smith s o n ian In s titu tio n , an d f o rOth e r
Pu rpo s e s .
55. Se e Gillian Flyn n , "An n u al Re po rt o n Re patriatio n Of f ice Activ itie s at th e N atio n al
Mu s e u m o f N atu ral H is to ry, Ju n e 1994 to May 1995" an d te le ph o n e in te rv ie w with Dr.
Ste wart Spe ake rin th e Re patriatio n Of f ice , 15 N o v e mbe r1995.
56. N AGPRA te s timo n y in clu de d Re po rt o f th e Pan e l f o raN atio n al Dialo gu e o n Mu s e u m/
N ativ e Ame rican Re latio n s , 28 Fe bru aIy 1990; Willard L. B o yd, Pre s ide n t o f Fie ld Mu s e u m
o f N atu ral H is to ry, T e s timo n y B e f 'o re th e Se n ate Se le ct Co mmitte e o n In dian Af f airs , T h e
Un ite d State s Se n ate , 14 May 1990; an d H e n ry J. So ckbe s o n , N ativ e Ame rican Righ ts Fu n d,
T e s timo n y be f o re th e H o u s e In te rio ran d In s u larAf f airs Co mmitte e , 17 Ju ly 1990. Fo rth e
impact o f re patriatio n s e e "Syrn po s iu m: T h e N ativ e Ame rican Grav e s Pro te ctio n s an d Re pa-
triatio n Act o f 1990 an d State Re patriatio n -Re late d Le gis latio n ," Arao n a Sts te Law Jo u 7n al
*9.4 n o . 1 (Sprin g 1992).
57. Llo yd Smith , "Re main s o f 35 B lackf e e t to be re tu rn e d to n e arby re s e rv atio n ," Glacie r
Re po rte r(B ro wn in g Mo n tan a) s n Ju n e l991.
me mbe rs wan t h u man re main s to co me h o me s o th at th e de ad may re s t in
pe ace . Oth e rs f e ar th at th e de ad may h aras s th e liv an g o r th at h u man re main s
may h av e be e n mixe d u pan d th e wro n g bo n e s will be re tu rn e d. T ribal
me mbe rs do n o t wan t accide n tally to bu F th e bo n e s o f th e ir h is to ric
e n e mie s o n tribal s o il.
Cu rly B e ar Wagn e r s tate d f irmly, "We be lie v e th e re tu rn will h av e ah u ge
be arin g o n th e f u tu re o f o u r pe o ple . We f e e l th e ir s pirit is s till ro amin g
aro u n d. Old e lde rs f e e l th is is th e re as o n wh y th e dru gs an d alco h o l an d all
th is mis be h av in g is go in g o n ." H e co n clu de d, "T h e re are pe o ple wh o are n 't
at re s t ye t.7X58
Earlie r7 th e B lackf e e t h ad s o u gh t th e re tu rn o f h u man re main s f ro m th e
Smith s o n ian In s titu tio n . Scie n tif ic re s e arch o n th e s ke le tal re main s h ad
pro v e n to be an as s e t be cau s e po s itiv e ge n e tic lin ks co u ld be made be twe e n
liv in g B lackf e e t an d h u man re main s in th e co lle ctio n . An e xce lle n t e xample
o f co o pe ratio n be twe e n th e Smith s o n ian an d In dian s in v o lv e d re tu rn in g to
th e B lackEe e t f if te e n s ku lls s to le n in 1892 an d s e rlt to th e Army Me dical
Co lle ge . Se cre tary Ro be rt Adams n o te d th at th e s ku lls h ad be e n co lle cte d
"in an irlappro priate man n e r," bu t h e als o adde d th at th e B lackf e e t wan te d
po s itiv e ide n tif icatio n s , be cau s e "in 1892 th e re we re o pe n h o s tilitie s be -
twe e n th e ms e lv e s an d man y o f th e ir In diall n e igh bo rs , an d to bu ry B lackf e e t
re main s n e xt to th o s e o f e n e mie s wo u ld re s u lt in an u n de s irable mixin g o f
s pirits "59 T h e ide n tif ie d re main s h av e be e n re tu rn e d an d re bu rie d in
Mo n tan a an d amo n u me n t e re cte d o n th e B lackf e e t re s e rv atio n .
T o th e ir s u rpris e ) s cie n tis ts are f in din g th at In dian pe o ple s are aIs o
in te re s te d in th e ir an ce s try an d pre h is to ric pas t. Excav ate d o r dis co v e re d
h u man re main s can be re mo v e d f o r s cie n tif ic s tu dy an d arwalyze d pro v ide d
n o de s tru ctiv e te ch n iqu e s are u s e d o n th e bo n e s an d th e y are re tu rn e d f o r
re bu rial with in are as o n able time o f aye ar o r two . In dian s ge n e rally do n o t
o ppo s e le gitimate s cie n tif ic re s e arch ; th e y o ppo s e th e u n n e ce s s axy ware -
h o u s in g o f th e ir de ad. A cas e s tu dy o f as u cce s s f u l s cie n tif ic in v e s tigatio n
wh ich co n clu de d with are bu rial is th e s to ry o f th e 8,000-ye ar-o ld man .
In th e Wh ite Riv e r N atio n al Fo re s t o f Co lo rado in amo u n tain cav e at an
e le v atio n o f 10,000 f e e t, cav e rs f o u n d th e bo n e s o f an 8,000-ye ar-o ld s h aman
o r me dicin e man in 1992. Dis tin gu is h e d arch ae o lo gis t Patty Jo Wats o n f ro m
Was h in gto n Un iv e rs ity in St. Lo u is , Mis s o u ri, h e lpe d to s tu dy th is re mark-
able f in d an d B ill Kigh t, U.S. Fo re s t Se rv ice arch ae o lo gis t, al1d Ke n n y Fro s t,
Ute In dian Liais o n f o r th e Wh ite Riv e r N atio n al Fo re s t, co o rdin ate d th e
re mo v al an d re bu rial. De taile d an alys is an d radio carbo n datin g co n f irme d
th e man 's age at be twe e n th irty-f iv e an d f o rty wh e n h e die d 8,000 ye ars ago
af te r s qu e e zin g th ro u gh alo w, n arro w pas s age in to th e h igh mo u n tain cav e .
Cas ts , x-rays , an d ph o to graph s o f th e re main s we re take n f o r f u rth e r
s cie n tif ic re s e arch an d th e n , af te r as pe cial cav e gate h ad be e n in s talle d f o r
58. Ibid.
59. Adams , s tate me n t be f o re th e Se le ct Co mmitte e o n In dian Af f airs p. 24.
s e cu rity, th e re s e arch te am re s pe ctf u lly re tu rn e d th e bo n e s in ace dar bo x.60
So u th e rn Ute In dian Ke n n y Fro s t ble s s e d th e re main s an d pe rs o n ally to o k
th e m back in to th e cav e wh e re th e y h ad be e n f o u n d. In as pe cial re patriatio n
ce re mo n y at th e cav e e n tran ce , Fro s t s mu dge d all th e participan ts with th e
s we e t s ce n t o f bu rn in g s age as able s s in g to pu t th e s h aman 's s pirit to re s t an d
to ke e pth e liv in g s af e f ro m h arm. N atu re als o co o pe rate d. Alth o u gh it was
s u mme r, s n o w f e ll an d cle an s e d th e s ite .6l
In 1989 an e v e n o lde r s ke le to n , o n e o f th e o lde s t n e arly co mple te
s ke le to n s e v e r f o u n d in N o rth Ame n ca, was u n co v e re d in agrav e l pit at
B u h l Idah o . T h e bo n e s we re pro te cte d th an ks to Idah o 's 1984 Grav e s
Pro te ctio n Act, wh ich re qu ire d n o tif icatio n o f th e s tate arch ae o lo gis t. Me m-
be rs o f th e Sh o s h o n e -B an n o ck T ribal Co u n cil agre e d to aph ys ical de s crip-
tio n an d radio -carbo n an alys is , an d alth o u gh carbo n -datin g to o k th re e ye ars ,,
te s ts de te rmin e d th e s ke le to n 's age at 10,765-ye ars -o ld. In te n s e ly s ign if i-
can t to s cie n tis ts be cau s e o f its age , th e s ke le to n 7 n ickn ame d 's B u h la," als o
re main e d impo rtan t to lo cal In dian e lde rs . T ribal e lde rs attribu te d re ce n t
de ath s o n th e re s e rv atio n to th e le n gth y th re e -ye ar pe rio d du rin g wh ich th e
bo n e s we re o u t o f th e gro u n d, cau s in g th e wo man 's s pirit to ro v e . T h e
Sh o s h o n e -B an n o ck T ribal Co u n cil re qu ire d th at th e re main s be re bu rie d
imme diate ly in as po t kn o wn o n ly to In dian s .62 Scie n tis ts re gre tte d th e
re bu n al, bu t th e y h ad n o t de v e lo pe d aco mf o rtable , tru s two rth y re latio n -
s h ipwith th e Sh o s h o n e -B an n o cks .63
An th ro po lo gy Pro f e s s o r Eme ritu s Cle me n t Me igh an o f UCLA co m-
plain e d th at Sh o s h o n e In dian s are "th ro win g away o n e o f th e two o r th re e
majo r f in ds in th e N e w Wo rld." B e cau s e th e s ke le to n "was aro u n d 5,0()0-
ye ars -o ld be f o re th e pyramids o f Egypt we re bu ilt," h e argu e s th at "re patria-
tio n is alo ade d an d impro pe r te rm be cau s e it implie s th at yo u 're giv in g
s o me th in g back to pe o ple wh o o wn it. T h e y do n 't o wn it, an d n e v e r did.' 64
Me igh an als o s tate s :
FiPry ye ars f ro m n o w, pe o ple u ill lo o k back o n th is s itu atio n an d wo n de r
h o w we co u ld h av e be e n s o s h o rt- s igh te d as to co n s ign are s e arch are ato
th e ju n s dictio n o f po litical an d re ligio u s re s trictio n s . . co n de mn atio n will
co me to io s e wh o gav e away f o r de s tru ctio n irre place able mu s e u m
60. Jo h n N o ble Wilf o rd, 4'8,()00 Ye ar-Old H u man B o n e s Are Fo u n d in Cav e ," N e tv Yo rk
T ime s , 3 Octo be r 1993.
61. Co n v e rs atio n s with Ke n n y Fro s t, Ute In dian Liais o n to th e Wh ite Riv e r N atio n al
Fo re s t, an d B ill Kigh t, H e ritage Re s o u rce Man age r, WEite Riv e rN atio n al Fo re s t, Gle n wo o d
Sprin gs , Co lo rado , s u mme r 1994. T h e re bu rial was f ilme d f o rth e pu blic te le v is io n pro gram
N OVA in as pe cial s e gme n t o n cav e arch ae o lo gis t Pat Wats o n o f Was h in gto n Un iv e rs ity in St.
Lo u is . Dr. Wats o n 's te am an alyze d th e pre h is to ric bo n e s .
62. Saman th aSilv a, "A Famo u s Ske le to n Re tu rn s to th e Earth ," H igh Co u n tw N as s , 8
March 1993.
63. Ibid.
64. Ibid.
mate rials , man y o f wh ich h ad be e n ch e ris h e d f o r o v e r ah u n dre d ye ars an d
h ad be e n acqu ire d an d main tain e d at gre at co s t.65
Cle me n t Me igh an re pre s e n ts as mall gro u po f arch ae o lo gis ts o ppo s e d to
an y an d all re bu rials . Mo s t main s tre am an th ro po lo gis ts n o w s e e k acco mmo -
datio n with In dian tribe s th ro u gh co llabo rativ e e f f o rts . In h is e s s ay"Do th e
Righ t T h in g," Ran dall H . McCu ire co n clu de s , "We can n o lo n ge r practice
arch ae o lo gy with o u t co n s u ltin g an d in v o lv in g th e pe o ple th at we s tu dy....
T h e ir de man ds f o r re patriatio n s h o w u s th at th e y do h av e in te re s ts in th e
pas t [an d] th at th e s e in te re s ts are dif f e re n t f ro m o u r o wn .... T h e s e in te re s ts
are n o w s u ppo rte d by th e f o rce o f law."66 Fo r all th e s e re as o n s , re bu rial can
be ah igh ly e mo tio n al is s u e pro v idin g cath ars is f o r h is to rically tragic e v e n ts .
As Walte r Ech o -H awk o f th e N ativ e Ame rican Righ ts Fo u n datio n e xl?lain s ,
"All we 're as kin g f o r is alittle co mmo n de ce n cy. . . We 're n o t as kin g f o r
an yth in g bu t to bu ry o u r de ad X67
An e xce lle n t e xample o f th is paradigm s h if t in an th ro po lo gical practice
h as be e n th e re patriatio n o f h u man re main s f ro m th e Smith s o n ian back to
Ko diak Is lan d o f f th e co as t o f Alas ka. On Octo be r 5, 1991 ah u man ch ain
lif te d bo xe s co n tain in g th e re main s o f 1,000 in div idu als in to aco mmo n
grav e . H alf ace n tu ry e arlie r th o s e h u man re main s h ad be e n e xcav ate d by
Smith s o n ian s cie n tis t Ale s H rdlicka. Village re s ide n ts , in v ite d gu e s ts , an d
ch ildre n participate d in th e re bu rial, as did th re e prie s ts o f th e Ru s s ian
Orth o do x Ch u rch wh ich h as s e rv e d as th e primaxy re ligio n f o r Ko diak
Is lan de rs f o r th e pas t 200 ye ars . Go rdo n Pu llar an d o th e r Alas kan n ativ e s
e xpe rie n ce d a"s e n s e o f re lie f ," an d h e be lie v e s th at in th e f u tu re , "f ar f ro m
s tif lin g re s e arch , as cie n tif ic s ys te m th at re co gn ize s bo th th e we s te rn an d
in dige n o u s wo rld v ie ws will pro du ce n e w an d e xcitin g in f o rmatio n th at will
be n e f it all o f h u man kin d."68
T wo ye ars late r, o n Octo be r 16> 1993, th e N o rth e rn Ch e ye n n e s re bu rie d
s e v e n te e n s ke le tal re main s o f th e ir an ce s to rs wh o h ad f le d n o rth f ro m
In dian te rrito ry in Oklah o ma u n de r Ch ie f Du ll Kn if e . T h e 1993 re bu rial by
65. Cle me n t W. Me igh an , "An o th e rVie w o n Re patn atio n : Lo s t to th e Pu blic, Lo s t to
H is to ry," re ply to An dre w C;u llif o rd, "N ativ e Ame rican s an d Mu s e u ms : Cu ratio n an d Re pa-
tn atio n o f Sacre d an d T n bal Obje cts ," T h e Pu blic H is to rian 14, n o . 3 (Su mme r 1992): 45.
66. Ran dall H . McGu ire , "Do th e Righ t T h in g," in T amaraL. B ray an d T h o mas W. Killio n ,
e ds ., Re cko n in g tv ith th e De ad: T h e Lars o n B ay Re patn atio n an d th e Smith s o n ian In s titu tio n
(Was h in gto n X D.C.: Smith s o n ian In s titu tio n Pre s s , 1994).
67. Pre s to n , "Ske le to n s in Ou r Mu s e u ms ' Clo s e ts ," 71. Fo r an u pdate o n re patriatio n o f
s ke le tal mate rial s e e Lawre n ce B ie mille r7 "A 'B o n e Man ' at th e Smith s o n ian Catalo gu e s an d
Re patriate s th e Re main s o f Ame rican In dian s ," Ch ro n icle o f H igh e rEdu catio n , 9 Fe bru ary
1994, A55. Re patriatio n o f h u man re main s h as be co me an in te rn atio n al mu s e u m is s u e . Se e
"Re bu ryin g H u man Re main s : Makin g Ame n ds f o r Pas t Wro n gs ," Mu s e u ms Jo u rn al (March
1993), 2625.
68. Go rdo n Pu llar, "T h e Qu ike rtarmiu t an d th e Scie n tis t: Fif ty Ye ars o f Clas h in g Wo rld
Vie ws ," in Re cko n in g Wtth T h e De i, 23. Fo r backgro u n d in f o rmatio n o n th e Lars e n B ay
re patriatio n th e au th o rin te rv ie we d Go rdo n Pu llarat th e Alas kaN ativ e H e ritage Co n f e re n ce
o n 4 Au gu s t 1992 in An ch o rage , Alas ka
Ph ys ical An th ro po lo gy Div is io n
Date N ativ e Gro u p T o tal T o tal N o s . N ame d
Cat. N o s . In div idu als In div idu als
Figu re 1
T o tal N atio n al Mu s e u m o f N atu ral H is to ry Re patriatio n s to Date
1984 Mo do c
1988 B lackEe e t N atio n
1990 N ativ e H awaiian s (1)
1991 N ativ e H awaiian s (2)
1991 Sis s e to n -Wah pe to n
Sio u x
1991 Lars e n B ay,
Ko diak Is lan d, AK
1993 Ch u gach Alas kaCo rp.
1993 So u th e rn Ch e ye n n e
1993 N o rth e rn Ch e ye n n e
1993 OglalaLako taSio u x
1994 T wo Ke ttle s Sio u x
1994 So u th e rn Arapah o
1994 Sh o s h o n e -B an n o ck
1994 Makah
1994 Ch e ye n n e Riv e r
.
blOUX
1994 Warm Sprin gs
Co n f e de rate d T ribe s
1995 Yan kto n Sio u x
1995 De v il's Lake Sio u x
1995 Pawn e e , Arikara,
an d Wich itaT ribe s
1995 Pawn e e T ribe
1995 Ye rin gto n Paiu te T ribe
1995 N in ilch ik
5 5 Captain Jack,
Sch o n ch in Jim,
B lack Jim,
B o s to n Ch arle y
16
81
136
24
16
52+
135
31+
756 1000+
ll
14
17
37
12
14
17
1
7
10
Smo ke
Pu f f in g Eye s
Waqabe ta
Old Mike , Je n n ie , Jim,
Ch arlie , Pe te , Lizard
Le o n Pre tty
Vo ice Eagle
l
4
1
74 143
8
6
15
8
6
17
12
1
1
ll
1
1
T o tal 1,228 1,493+
Arch ae o lo gy Div is io n
Date N ativ e Gro u p T o tal N o . o f Obje cts
Cat. N o s .
1992 Lars e n B ay Ko diak Is lan d 95 144
1994 Warm Sprin gs Co n f e de rate d T ribe s 165 86,085
(mo s tly be ads )
l99S Pawn e e , Arikara, an d Wich itaT ribe s 12 21
T o tal 272 86,250
Eth n o lo gy Div is io n
Date N ativ e Gro u p T o tal N o . o f Obje cts
Cat. N o s .
1982 Pu e blo o f Zia 1 1
1987 Pu e blo o f Zu n i 6 2
1993 N ativ e H awaiian s (3) 5 5
T o tal 12 8
So u rce : T h e Smith s o n ian In s titu tio l1, N atio n al Mu s e u m o f N atu ral H is to ry
Re patriatio n Of f ice . Re prin te d Co u rte s y o f th e Re patriatio n Of f ice an d Dr.
Stu art Spe ake r.
th e f o u r warrio r s o cie tie s , th e Craty Do gs , th e Elkh o rn Scrape rs , th e Kit
Fo xe s , an d th e B o ws trin gs be came an e mo tio n al e v e n t atte n de d by 200
pe o ple an d le d by Jame s B lack Wo lf . In to abo x co n tain in g th e s ku ll o f agirl
be twe e n n in e an d e le v e n ye ars o ld, agrate f u l Ch e ye n n e wo man place d pin k
be ade d e arrin gs as agif t f ro m th e liv in g to th e de ad.69
Fo r th e So u th e rn Ch e ye n n e , th e e xpe rie n ce was s imilar as th e y bu rie d
h u man re main s co lle cte d by th e U.S. Army af te r th e San d Cre e k Mas s acre
o f 1864. On Ju ly 10, 1993, e igh te e n Ch e ye n n e pe o ple we re bu rie d in th e
Co n ch o , Oklah o mace me te ry af te r mo re th an 125 ye ars in th e Army
Me dical Mu s e u m an d th e Smith s o n ian 's N atio n al Mu s e u m o f N atu ral
H is to ry (N MN H ). In Was h in gto n , D.C., So u th e rn Ch e ye n n e le ade rs
Mo s e s Starr Jr., Lau re n ce H art, an d Lu cie n T win s place d h u man re main s in
blan ke ts packe d with ce dar ch ips an d s po ke th e wo rds "N ae v ah o o '
o h ts e me ," wh ich me an s in Ch e ye n n e "We are go in g back h o me ."h
69. An dre w L. Giare lli, "T h e re tu rn o f Ch e ye n n e s ku lls brin gs ablo o dy We s te rn s to ry to a
clo s e ," H igh Co u n try N e ws , 15 N o v e mbe r1993.
70. T h o mas H arn e y an d Dan Age n t, "Ch e ye n n e An ce s to rs In te rre d in Co n ch o , Okla."
Smith s o n ian Ru n n e r, N o . 93-5 (Se pte mbe r-Octo be r 1993): 6. Fo rre ce n t s ch o lars h ipo n th e
San d Cre e k Mas s acre s e e Dav id Fridtjo f f H alaas , "'All th e CampWas We e pin g': Ge o rge B e n t
an d th e San d Cre e k Mas s acre ," in Co lo rado H e ritage (s u mme r1995): 2-17.
T h e B laclde e t, So u th e rn Ch e ye n n e , an d N o rth e rn Ch e ye n n e re patria-
tio n s to n e s are o n ly af e w o f th e s u cce s s f u l e f f o rts o f th e Smith s o n ian
In s titu tio n 's N atio n al Mu s e u m o f N atu ral H is to ty's Re patriatio n Of f ice ,
wh ich be twe e n 1984 an d May 1995 h ad re tu rn e d 1,491 in div idu als f ro m th e
Ph ys ical An th ro po lo gy Div is io n . Cas e o f f ice rs h an dle f o rmal re patriatio n
re qu e s ts an d s ch e du le me e tin gs with tribal o f f icials an d in te re s te d partie s .
H u man re main s h av e go n e h o me to th e Sis s e to n -Wah pe to n Sio u x, So u th -
e rn Arapah o , Sh o s h o n e -B an n o ck, Makah , Warm Sprin gs Co n f e de rate d
T ribe s , an d th e Pawlle e s . T h e Arch ae o lo gy Div is io n o f N MN H h as re tu rn e d
mate n als , mo s t n o tice ably to Lars e n B ay at Ko diak Is la11d, an d th e Eth n o l-
o gy Div is io n h as re tu rn e d o bje cts to th e Pu e blo s o f Ziaan d Zu lli. g t
Un co v e rin g s ke le tal mate rial is als o atl is s u e f o r lan d de v e lo pe rs wh o
mu s t als o be co me s e n s itiv e to re patriatio n re qu e s ts . I11 H awai'i de v e lo pe rs
in 1988 re mo v e d o v e r 1,100 an cie n t bu rials f o r abe ach f ro n t Ritz Carlto n
H o te l. T h is act galv aI1ize d n ativ e H awaiian s in to cre atin g H u i Malama I N a
Ku pu n a'O H awai'i N e i, wh ich me arls "gro u pcarin g f o r th e an ce s to rs o f
H awai'i." Edward H ale alo h a Ayau e xplaills , "T h e bo n e s o f o u r an ce s to rs
n o u ris h e d th e gro u lld f ro m wh ich o u r f o o d gro ws , wh ich , in tu rn , n o u ris h e s
o u r bo die s . Se cu re ill th e kllo wle dge th at o u r atlce s to rs are wh e re th e y
be lo n g, in H awaiian e arth , f re e f ro m h arm, o u r s pirits are n o u ris h e d as
we ll." H e adds X 'v VVh e n s pe akin g o f o tle 's allce s to rs it is appro priate to re cite
o n e 's mo o k u au h au (ge n e alo gy). B y re citin g th e n ame s o f my an ce s to rs , I
am re min de d th at bu t f o r th e ir e xis te n ce , I s imply wo u ld n o t be . I am
h u mble d by th is re min de r an d du ty bo u n d to care f o r th o s e wh o came
be f o re me ."#2 Pre s s u re f ro m n ativ e H awaiian s re s u lte d in s tate pu rch as e o f
th e grav e s ite . T h e bo n e s h av e n o w be e tl re bu rie d with in abo tto mle s s
ce me n t v au lt "in te n de d to pro te ct o u r an ce s to rs ' re tu rn to th e e arth go dde s s
H au me a."73
So me tribe s an d n ativ e pe o ple s are u tlitlte re s te d in th e re patriatio n o f
h u man re main s an d f e ar th e co n s e qu e n ce s if s ke le tal mate rial is re tu rn e d.
T h e re is n o co n s e n s u s o n re bu rial is s u e s amo n g th e n atio n 's o v e r 500
f e de rally re gis te re d tribe s . T h e Eas te rn Sh o s h o n e o n th e Win d Riv e r
Re s e rv atio n in Wyo min g do 1lo t wan t th e ir an ce s to rs re patriate d be cau s e
th e y do u bt th at th e mu s e u m pro v e n ie n ce (re co rd-ke e pin g) o f th e bo n e s is
accu rate .74 T h e Calif o rn ia Ch u mas h are n o t in te re s te d in th e re s po n s ibility
71. Gillian Flyn n , "An n u al Re po rt o n Re patriatio n Of f ice Activ itie s at th e N atio n al Mu -
s e u m o f N atu ral H is to ry, Ju n e 1994 to May 1995," May 3(), 1995. Au th o r's co py co u rte s y o f
Ste wart Spe ake rin th e Re patriatio n Of f ie e .
72. Edward H ale alo h aAyau , "Ro o te d in N ativ e So il," Fe cle ral Arch ae o lo gtl Spe czal Re po rt:
T h e N ativ e Ame n can Grav e s Pro te ctio n f md Re patn atio n Act (FallMlin te r 1995): 2627. Fo r
additio n al u n de rs tan din g o f H awaiian h u man re main s is s u e s th e au th o rs po ke with Dav ian n a
Po maika'i McCre go rf ro m th e Un iv e rs ity o f H awai'i at Man o ain De n v e r, Co lo rado o n 13
Octo be r1995.
73. Edward H ale alo h aAyau , "Ro o te d in N ativ e So il."
14. Eas te rn Sh o s h o n e in f o rmatio n f ro m th e au th o r's e xte n de d co n v e rs atio n with s piritu al
le ade rH aman Wis e , 54 Jan u ary 1994 at Fo rt Was h akie , Wyo min g. Zu n i in f o rmatio n f ro m
Edmu n d Ladd, cu rato r, Mu s e u m o f N e w Me xico .
E
:16E 4
@o ro o f s u Dio rt
|
WICKLIFFE
MOUN DS 15B A4
MOUN D Cin 1989
N ativ e
Ame rican s
pre f e rth at ph o to graph s
o f th e iran ce s tral
de ad n o t be pu blis h e d
o re xh ibite d.
Lin e drawin gs ,
h o we v e r,
are pe xmis s ible .
T h is is adrawin g
o f an cie n t
Mis s is s ippian
pe o ple
pre v io u s ly
o n e xh ibit
at th e Wicklif f e
Mo u n ds
Arch ae o lo gical
Site o f Mu rray
State
Un iv e rs ity
at Wicklif f e ,
Ke n tu cky.
T h e e xh ibitio n
h as s in ce be e n clo s e d
an d th e e n tire
s ite re in te rpre te d.
(Co u rte s y
o f Dr. Kit We s le r,
Dire cto r,
Wicklif f e
Mo u n ds .)
o f re bu rial an d n e ith e r are th e Zu n iX wh o f e e l th at be cau s e bo n e s h av e le f t
th e ir h o me are ath e y h av e lo s t th e ir cu ltu ral ide n tity. T h e N av ajo are als o n o t
in te re s te d in re patriatio n . Wh e n Se min o le s in Flo ridaf o u n d o u t th at 1,200
po u n ds o f bo n e s h ad be e n du g u pby ade v e lo pe r) th e y as ke d f o r as s is tan ce
f ro m o th e r Ame rican In dian le ade rs , an d me mbe rs o f th e Sio u x an d Se mi-
n o le tribe s h e lpe d bu ty th e bo n e s o n th e Pin e Ridge Re s e rv atio n n e ar
Wo u n de d Kn e e , So u th Dako ta.75
Af te r mo re th an ace n tu ty o f e xplo itatio n , an atio n al co n s e n s u s h as
e me rge d gran tin g tribal pe o ple h e ge mo n y o v e r th e ir de ad. Acro s s th e
n atio rl th e re tu rn o f h u man re main s h as adde d to are n e we d s pirit o f
cau tio u s o ptimis m amo n g In dian pe o ple s . H u man re main s o n pu blic dis play
h av e be e n re mo v e d o r clo s e d f ro m v ie w at Me s aVe rde N atio n al Park in
Co lo rado , th e Alle n Co u n ty Mu s e u m in Oh io , Wicklif f e Mo u n ds in Ke n -
tu cky, an d Dicks o n Mo u n ds Mu s e u m an d State Park in Illin o is .76 B u t th e
s u cce s s e s o f th e N ativ e Ame rican Grav e s Pro te ctio n Act o f 1990 an d th e
Smith s o n ian 's Re patriatio n Of f ice X o f f icially e s tablis h e d in 1991 alth o u gh
e f f e ctiv e be f o re th e n , h av e n o t be e n with o u t th e ir co n s e qu e n ce s .
In dian s h av e be e n o v e rwh e lme d with pape rwo rk f ro m mu s e u ms , an d
f e w tribe s h av e ade qu ate s taf f o r f acilitie s to pro ce s s th e imme n s e f lo w o f
f o rmal le tte rs an d co mpu te r-ge n e rate d in v e n to rie s wh ich may we igh s e v -
e ral po u n ds . T ribe s qu e s tio n wh o s h o u ld an s we r all o f th e in qu irie s th e y are
re ce iv in g an d wh ich tribal me mbe rs s h o u ld s e e k re patriatio n o f as s o ciate d
f u Ile razy re main s an d s acre d o bje cts . De e pdiv is io n s h av e de v e lo pe d with in
tribe s o v e r wh o h as th e au th o rity to s pe ak abo u t re patriatio n is s u e s , an d
tribal cu ltu ral co mmitte e s h av e f o u n d th e ms e lv e s e mbro ile d in s qu abble s
amo n g In dian ban ds s plit be twe e n two o r mo re re s e rv atio n s . N ativ e Ame ri-
can f amilie s argu e o v e r an cie n t artif acts an d wo rry abo u t th e re pe rcu s s io n s
o f brin gin g h o me h u man re main s an d th e be lo n gin gs o f th e de ad.
Acco rdin g to N ativ e Ame rican co n s u ltan t Ke n n y Fro s t) th o s e wh o h av e
be e tl th e mo s t tro u ble d are th e me dicin e me n an d wo me n re s po n s ible f o r
as s e s s in g h u man re main s . Fro s t s tate s ) <'On e o f my f rie n ds at th e Stan din g
Ro ck Re s e rv atio n in So u th Dako tah as be e n h an dlin g h u man re main s .
T h o s e me dicin e me n are be in g s e parate d by tribal me mbe rs an d be in g
tre ate d as if th e y are s pirits ." H e e xplain s , "T h e y are n o t be in g acce pte d as
aliv in g pe rs o n o n th is s ide bu t rath e r as ape rs o n f ro m th e s pirit wo rld. T h e y
75. Se min o le in f o rmatio n f ro m B arrin ge r, 'Smiis o n ian Acco rd Like ly>> N e w Yo rk T ime s ,
2() Au gu s t 1989.
76. T h e au th o rh as ph o to co pie s o f n u me ro u s n e ws pape rarticle s o n Dicks o n Mo u n ds
Mu s e u m in Illin o is as we ll as article s o n th e Alle n Co u n ty, Oh io Mu s e u m co n tro v e rs y. T h o s e
clippin gs in clu de article s an d le tte rs to th e e dito rf Fo m T h e T o le do B lade , th e LimaN e ws , th e
Cin s in n ati En qu ire r, th e De lph o s Daily H e rald, an d th e Albu gu e rqu e ]o u rn al. Co rre s po n -
de n ce in clu de s le tte rs f ro m Mu s e u m Dire cto rRaymo n d F. Sch u ck to th e Piqu aSe pt o f Oh io
Sh awn e e T ribe , Ame rican In dian In te rtn bal As s o ciatio n , th e Cle v e lan d In dian Ce n te r, priv ate
citize n s y an d ape titio n f ro m th e In dige n o u s Pe o ple o f N o rth Ame ricaan d Oth e rCo n ce rn e d
Citize n s . Af te rtwo ye ars o f de bate , th e 4,000-ye ar-o ld Glacial Kame s ke le to n *ras re mo v e d
f ro m dis play.
are s h u n n e d by th e ir o wn pe o ple ." So me o f th e me dicin e me n wan t to s to p
h an dlin g h u man re main s alto ge th e r. Fro s t be lie v e s it is an "e mo tio n al drain ,
particu larly in h an dlin g th e cran iao f s mall ch ildre n an d wo me n with
e v ide n ce o f bu lle t h o le s an d trau mato th e h e ad [wh ich ] we re co lle cte d by
U.S. Army s u rge o n s .'>77 Me dicin e me n wh o brin g h u man re main s h o me f o r
re bu rial mu s t th e ms e lv e s u n de rgo cle an s in g ce re mo n ie s . Fo r s malle r tribe s ,
th e ps ych o lo gical e f f e cts o f re v is itin g abitte r f ro n tie r pas t can tro u ble
e v e tyo n e .
An e qu ally th o rn y is s u e in v o lv e s In dian tribe s n o t s e e kin g re patriatio n o f
s ke le tal re main s in mu s e u ms , bu t in s te ad claimin g s ke le to n s f o u n d o n
pu blic lan d as th e ir de s ce n dan ts an d th u s pre s s in g f o r an e xte n s io n o f lan d
claims . Alth o u gh th e s e In dian s are u n willin g to h av e s cie n tif ic DN A s tu die s
co n du cte d to s e e if th e h u man re main s re ally are th e ir ge n e tic an ce s to rs ,
th e y argu e th at be cau s e o f cu ltu ral af f iliatio n an d o ral traditio n s abo u t th e ir
tribal o rigin s , h u man re main s f o u n d o n pu blic lan ds are th e ir an ce s to rs an d
tribal lan d claims s h o u ld be re o pe n e d. T h is is s u e is e s pe cially acu te in th e
So u th we s t amo n g th e N av ajo , H o pi, Zu n i) Ute , an d Pu e blo pe o ple s , wh e re
tribal riv alrie s co n tin u e . T h e de ad are be in g u s e d as pawn s in lan d claim
cas e s an d po litical dis pu te s . T h e N av ajo , f o r in s tan ce , are n o t in te re s te d in
re patriatio n an d re bu rial o f h u man re main s , bu t th e y are v e ry in te re s te d in
claimin g s ke le tal re main s as e v ide n ce to e xte n d th e ir abo rigin al te rrito .
Ultimate ly, pu blic h is to rian s will ge t in v o lv e d in th e s e de licate qu e s tio n s
o v e r in te rpre tin g tribal pas ts .F8
In Co lo rado , n o tif icatio n o f h u man re main s f o u n d o n pu blic lan d mu s t go
o u t to f o u rte e n dif f e re n t tribe s wh o at o n e time o r an o th e r h u n te d o r
gath e re d with in wh at is n o w th e po litical bo u n darie s o f th e s tate o f Co lo -
rado . T h e le gal co mple xitie s o f co mplyin g with N AGPRA are e n o rmo u s an d
in clu de re s pe ctf u l re patriatio n an d re bu rial o f In dian re main s f o r wh ich
th e re are n o kn o wn de s ce n dan ts . Fe de ral re gu latio n s co n ce rn in g th e h u -
man re main s o f pre h is to ric o r h is to ric tribe s wh ich n o lo n ge r e xis t h av e be e n
writte l1 in draf t f o rm an d are n o w be in g re v ie we d.9
Fo r pu blic h is to rian s , th e is s u e o f N ativ e Ame rican re patriatio n o f h u man
re main s pro v ide s e xce lle n t o ppo rtu n itie s to wo rk with tribe s an d to s e e k th e
re tu rn o f h u man re main s ln d tribal artif acts . With in th e las t f e w ye ars , gh o s t
dan ce s h irts s to le n f ro m In dian s mas s acre d at Wo u n de d Kn e e 7 So u th
Dako tain 1890 h av e be e n f o u n d in mu s e u ms in Mas s ach u s e tts . T h e re tu rn
77. T e le ph o n e in te rv ie w with Ke n n y Fro s t, Du ran go , Co lo rado , 15 May 1996.
78. B as e d o n co n v e rs atio n s with co n s u ltan t Ke n n y Fro s t, U.S.F.S. arch ae o lo gis t William
Kigh t; H artman H . Lo mawaima, as s o ciate dire cto r, Arizo n aState Mu s e u m at th e Un iv e rs ity o f
Arizo n a; an d E. Rich ard H art, e xe cu tiv e dire cto ro f th e In s titu te o f th e N o rth Ame rican We s t
in Se attle .
79. 4<Draf t Re co mme n datio n s re gardin g th e Dis po s itio n o f Cu ltu rally Un ide n tif iable H u -
man Re main s an d As s o ciate d Fu n e rary Obje ct [s ic]," circu late d to Fe de ral Age n cy an d
Mu s e u m Of f icials an d In dian T ribe s an d N ativ e H awaiian Organ izatio n s Re pre s e n tativ e s by
th e De partme n tal Co n s u ltin g Arch e o lo gis t, N atio n al Park Se rv ice S Un ite d State s De partme n t
o f th e In te rio r, May 16, 1995. T h e me mo calle d f o rco mme n ts by Se pte mbe r30, 1995.
On e o f th e mo s t s ign if ican t le gal co n te s ts wh ich le d to pas s age o f th e N ativ e
Ame rican Grav e s Pro te ctio n an d Re patriatio n Act o ccu rre d wh e n Pawn e e
de man de d th at th e iran ce s to rs be re in te rre d again s t th e wis h e s o f th e N e bras ka
State H is to rical So cie ty, wh ich re f u s e d to h o n o rtribal re ligio n . N ativ e Ame rican
Ch u ck T rimble , f o rme rh e ad o f th e N e bras kaCo mmis s io n o f In dian Af f airs , is
n o w pre s ide n t o f th e N e bras kaState H is to rical So cie ty, an d th e cu ltu ral co n f lict
h as be e n re s o lv e d. (Co u rte s y o f Pau l Fe ll f o rth e Lin co ln , N e bras kaJo u rn al-
Star.)
o f th o s e ite ms h as h e lpe d th e h e alin g pro ce s s , an d pu blic h is to rian s willin g
to o f f e r e xpe rt witn e s s te s timo n y o n In dian is s u e s h av e bro u gh t impo rtan t
cu ltu ral an d f in an cial re tu rn s .8"
As f o r s cie n ce , ph ys ical an th ro po lo gy, an d arch ae o lo gy, ace n tu ry a*e r
wh o le s ale lo o tin g o f In dian grav e s , a qu ie t tru ce h as be e n n e go tiate d.
Alth o u gh th e re ce n t 1996 me e tin g o f th e So cie ty o f Ame rican Arch ae o lo gy
was atte n de d by o v e r 2,500 an th ro po lo gis ts an d arch ae o lo gis ts an d o n ly two
do ze n In dian s , th e dialo gu e h as be gu n o v e r h o w to co n du ct s cie n tif ic
8(). At th e N CPH allllu al me e tin g in Se attle , Was h illgto n in April, 1996, E. Rie h are l H art
s po ke e lo (lu e n tly a.s apan e lis t o n e xpe rt s v itlle s s te .s timo n y in In dian co u rt e as e s . Dr. H art is th e
(lu in te s s e n tial pu blie h is to rian , l (lv i.s iag an (l co n s u ltin g with (liv e rs e In (lis ln tn be s with wh o m
h e h a.s wo rke e l f o r o v e r tv e n ty-f iv e ye ars . Se e E. Rich are l H art, e e l., Z1ln i an d th e Co u rts : A
Strrlg,gle f o r So v e re ig,n Lf ln cl Rig,h ts (Lawre lle e : Un iv e rf iity Pre s s o f Kall.s as , 1995).
in v e s tigatio n s . Ke n n y Fro s t, wh o was in v ite d to th e me e tin g by Was h in gto n
Un iv e rs ity in St. Lo u is , e xplain s , "If s cie n tis ts appro ach In dian tribe s in
re gards to te s tin g h u man re main s in aman n e r th at will be n e f it man kin d,
th e n tribe s are s o me wh at willin g to agre e to te s tin g if th e be n e f its are th e re
an d th e re main s are re tu rn e d f o r re patriatio n at alate r date ." Fro s t adds th at
s cie n tis ts can h av e lo n ge r th an aye ar to do th e ir s tu die s if th e y "wo rk
dilige n tly o n th e re main s an d s h o w cau s e wh y th e re main s s h o u ld be ke pt f o r
additio n al s tu dy.''8l
T h e lo n g-te rm s to rage o f N ativ e Ame rican h u man re main s be gu n in th e
n in e te e n th ce n tu Iy is o v e r. N o w tribal cu ltu ral o f f ice rs , an th ro po lo gis ts ,
pu blic h is to rian s , arch ae o lo gis ts , an d tribal h is to rian s can wo rk to ge th e r.
Su ch co llabo ratio n will s u cce e d if th e y main tain an atmo s ph e re o f mu tu al
re s pe ct. A ce n tu ty ago s cie n tis ts th o u gh t th e re was mu ch to le arn abo u t
N ativ e Ame rican s an d in dige n o u s pe o ple s as a"v an is h in g race ." A ce n tu ry
late r th e re is e v e n mo re to le arn f ro m liv in g me mbe rs o f v ital n ativ e cu ltu re s .
81. T e le ph o n e co n v e rs atio n with Ke n n y Fro s t, 15 May 1996.

Gulliford - The Bones of Contention

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Bones of Contention: The Repatriation of Native American Human Remains

Author(s): Andrew Gulliford

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