INTRODUCTION

TO ALGORITHMS
A Creative Approach
UDIMANBER
University of Arizona


ADDISON-WESLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY
Reading, Massachusetts Menlo Park, California New York
Don Mills, Ontario Wokingham, England Amsterdam
Bonn Sydney Singapore Tokyo Madrid San Juan
CONTENTS
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Introduction l
Mathematical Induction 9
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
2.13
2.14
Introduction
Three Simple Examples
Counting Regions in the Plane
A Simple Coloring Problem
A More Complicated Summation Problem
A Simple Inequality
Euler's Formula
A Problem in Graph Theory
Gray Codes
Finding Edge-Disjoint Paths in a Graph
Arithmetic versus Geometrie Mean Theorem
Loop Invariants: Converting a Decimal Number to Binary
Common Errors
Summary
Bibliographie Notes and Further Reading
Exercises
9
11
13
14
15
16
17
18
20
23
24
26
28
29
30
31
Analysis of Algorithms 37
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
Introduction
The O Notation
Time and Space Complexity
Summations
Recurrence Relations
3.5.1 Intelligent Guesses
3.5.2 Divide and Conquer Relations
3.5.3 Recurrence Relations with Fll History
Useful Facts
Summary
Bibliographie Notes and Further Reading
Exercises
37
39
42
43
46
47
50
51
53
55
55
56
I X
x Contents
Chapter 4 Data Structures
61
4.1
4.2
Introduction
Elementary Data Structures
4.2.1 Elements
Arrays
Records
Linked Lists
4.3
4.2.2
4.2.3
4.2.4
Trees
4.3.1
4.3.2
4.3.3
4.3.4
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
Representation of Trees
Heaps
Binary Search Trees
AVL Trees
Hashing
The Union-Find Problem
Graph s
Summary
Bibliographie Notes and Further Reading
Exercises
Chapter 5 Design of Algorithms by Induction 91
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Evaluating Polynomials
5.3 Maximal Induced Subgraph
5.4 Finding One-to-One Mappings
5.5 The Celebrity Problem
5.6 A Divide-and-Conquer Algorithm: The Skyline Problem
5.7 Computing Balance Factors in Binary Trees
5.8 Finding the Maximum Consecutive Subsequence
5.9 Strengthening the Induction Hypothesis
5.10 Dynamic Programming: The Knapsack Problem
5.11 Common Errors
5.12 Summary
Bibliographie Notes and Further Reading
Exercises
Chapter 6 Algorithms Involving Sequences and Sets 119
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Binary Search and Variations
6.3 Interpolation Search
6.4 Sorting
6.4.1 Bcket Sort and Radix Sort
6.4.2 Insertion Sort and Selection Sort
6.4.3 Mergesort
61
62
62
63
63
64
66
67
68
71
75
78
80
83
84
85
86
91
92
95
96
98
102
104
106
107
108
111
112
113
114
119
120
125
127
127
130
130
Contents xi
6.4.4 Quicksort 131
6.4.5 Heapsort 137
6.4.6 A Lower Bound for Sorting 141
6.5 Order Statistics 143
6.5.1 Maximum and Minimum Elements 143
6.5.2 Finding the M)-Smallest Element 144
6.6 Data Compression 145
6.7 String Matching 148
6.8 Sequence Comparisons 155
6.9 Probabilistic Algorithms 158
6.9.1 Random Numbers 160
6.9.2 A Coloring Problem 161
6.9.3 A Technique for Transforming Probabilistic
Algorithms into Deterministic Algorithms 161
6.10 Finding a Majority 164
6.11 Three Problems Exhibiting Interesting Proof Techniques 167
6.11.1 Longest Increasing Subsequence 167
6.11.2 Finding the Two Largest Elements in a Set 169
6.11.3 Computing the Mode of a Multiset 171
6.12 Summary 173
Bibliographie Notes and Further Reading 173
Exercises 175
Chapter7 Graph Algorithms 185
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
7.10
7.11
7.12
Introduction
Eulerian Graphs
Graph Traversais
7.3.1 Depth-First Search
7.3.2 Breadth-First Search
Topological Sorting
Single-Source Shortest Paths
Minimum-Cost Spanning Trees
All Shortest Paths
Transitive Closure
Decompositions of Graphs
7.9.1 Biconnected Components
7.9.2 Strongly Connected Components
7.9.3 Examples of the Use of Graph Decomposition
Matching
7.10.1 Perfect Matching in Very Dense Graphs
7.10.2 Bipartite Matching
Network Flows
Hamiltonian Tours
7.12.1 Reversed Induction
185
187
189
190
198
199
201
208
212
214
217
217
226
230
234
,234
235
238
243
244
xii Contents
7.12.2 Finding Hamiltonian Cycles in Very Dense Graphs 244
7.13 Summary 246
Bibliographie Notes and Further Reading 247
Exercises 248
Chapter 8 Geometrie Algorithms
265
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
Introduction 265
Determining Whether a Point Is Inside a Polygon 266
Constructing Simple Polygons 270
Convex Hulls 273
8.4.1 A Straightforward Approach 273
8.4.2 Gift Wrapping 274
8.4.3 Graham'sScan 275
Closest Pair 278
Intersections of Horizontal and Vertical Line Segments 281
Summary 285
Bibliographie Notes and Further Reading 286
Exercises 287
Chapter 9 Algebraic and Numeric Algorithms 293
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
Introduction
Exponentiation
Euclid's Algorithm
Polynomial Multiplication
Matrix Multiplication
9.5.1 Winograd's Algorithm
9.5.2 Strassen's Algorithm
9.5.3 Boolean Matrices
The Fast Fourier Transform
Summary
Bibliographie Notes and Further Reading
Exercises
Chapter 10 Reductions 321
293
294
297
298
301
301
301
304
309
316
316
317
10.1 Introduction 321
10.2 Examples of Reductions 323
10.2.1 A Simple String-Matching Problem 323
10.2.2 Systems of Distinct Representatives 323
10.2.3 A Reduction Involving Sequence Comparisons 324
10.2.4 Finding a Triangle in Undirected Graphs 325
10.3 Reductions Involving Linear Programming 327
10.3.1 Introduction and Definitions 327
10.3.2 Examples of Reductions to Linear Programming 329
Contents xiii
10.4 Reductions for Lower Bounds 331
10.4.1 A Lower Bound for Finding Simple Polygons 331
10.4.2 Simple Reductions Involving Matrices 333
10.5 Common Errors 334
10.6 Summary 336
Bibliographie Notes and Further Reading 336
Exercises 337
Chapt erU NP-Completeness 341
11.1 Introduction 341
11.2 Polynomial-Time Reductions 342
11.3 Nondeterminism and Cook's Theorem 344
11.4 Examples of NP-Completeness Proofs 347
11.4.1 Vertex Cover 348
11.4.2 Dominating Set 348
11.4.3 3SAT 350
11.4.4 Clique 351
11.4.5 3-Coloring 352
11.4.6 General Observations 355
11.4.7 More NP-Complete Problems 356
11.5 Techniques For Dealing with NP-Complete Problems 357
11.5.1 Backtracking and Branch-and-Bound 358
11.5.2 Approximation Algorithms with Guaranteed
Performance 363
11.6 Summary 368
Bibliographie Notes and Further Reading 368
Exercises 370
Chapter12 Parallel Algorithms 375
12.1 Introduction 375
12.2 Models of Parallel Computation 376
12.3 Algorithms for Shared-Memory Machines 378
12.3.1 Parallel Addition 379
12.3.2 Maximum-Finding Algorithms 380
12.3.3 The Parallel-Prefix Problem 382
12.3.4 Finding Ranks in Linked Lists 385
12.3.5 The Euler's Tour Technique 387
12.4 Algorithms for Interconnection Networks 389
12.4.1 Sorting on an Array 390
12.4.2 Sorting Networks 393
12.4.3 Finding the th-Smallest Element on a Tree 396
12.4.4 Matrix Multiplication on the Mesh 398
12.4.5 Routing in a Hypercube 401
xiv Contents
12.5
12.6
References
Index
Systolic Computation
12.5.1 Matrix-Vector Multiplication
12.5.2 The Convolution Problem
12.5.3 Sequence Comparisons
Summary
Bibliographie Notes and Further Reading
Exercises
tions to Selected Exercises 417
445
465
404
404
405
407
409
409
411