E x a m

T h e E x a m

2 R e v ie w

W ill b e O v e r T o p ic s 8 - 1 4 A

1 . T h e fo llo w in g R c o m m a n d s w ill b e p ro v id e d

x < - c ( 1 ,2 ,3 ,4 )

h is t()

m e a n ()

su m m a ry ()

sd ()

d b in o m ( x ,n ,p )

p b in o m ( x ,n ,p )

b in o m .te s t( x , n , p , a lte r n a tiv e = g r e a te r ) ( o r le s s , tw o .s id e d )

d g e o m ( x ,p )

p g e o m ( x ,p )

p u n if ( x , a ,b )

p n o rm (z )

q n o rm (p )

rn o rm (n , ,

p c h is q ( x , d f , lo w e r.ta il= T )

p t(t, d f)

q t(p , d f)

s h a p ir o .te s t( x )

2 . T h e fo llo w in g fo rm u la s w ill b e p ro v id e d
C

P (A

) =

P (A

1 P (A )

B ) =

P (A ) + P (B )

In d e p e n d e n t E v e n ts : P ( A

P (A

B ) =

P (A )

|B ) =
k

P (B )

P ( A
B )
P ( A )

C o n d itio n a l P ro b a b ility : P ( B |A ) =
B a y e s T h e o re m : P (A

B )

P ( B |A i ) P ( A i )
P ( B |A i) P ( A

)
i

i = 1

z =
x
z =

x =

a n d
o r

z
x
t

s
n

x
/ n

( O
k

=
2

n =

c
i= 1

j = 1

t =
s

x
/

i j

i j

i j

to ta l c o lu m n to ta l
o v e r a ll to ta l
2

x 0
/ n

z =

)
i

( O

r o w

ij

E
E i
i

i= 1

a n d

t =

x 0
s / n

3 . K n o w t h e f o l l o w i n g d e fi n i t i o n s a n d b e a b l e t o a p p l y o r i d e n t i f y t h e s e d e fi n i t i o n s :

S a m p le S p a c e (S )

E v e n t (A , B , C , . . .)
C

C o m p le m e n t o f a n E v e n t (A

M u tu a lly E x c lu s iv e E v e n ts : P ( A

B ) =

U n io n
In te rs e c tio n
A x io m s o f P ro b a b ility
F a ls e P o s itiv e
F a ls e N e g a tiv e
S e n s itiv ity = 1 - P ( fa ls e - )
S p e c i fi c i t y = 1 - P ( f a l s e + )
P ro b a b ility T re e s
B e h a v i o r o f c o n fi d e n c e i n t e r v a l s
S a m p le s iz e d e te rm in a tio n (A lw a y s ro u n d u p )
4 . S e e th e fo llo w in g s lid e s fo r e x a m p le p ro b le m s :
T o p ic 8 : S lid e 1 6 , 1 7 , 1 8
T o p ic 9 : S lid e 9
T o p ic 9 P a rt 2 : S lid e 1 1
T o p ic 1 0 A : S lid e 5 , 6 , 7
T o p ic 1 0 B : S lid e 8 , 9 , 1 1
T o p ic 1 1 A : S lid e 1 4 , 1 8
T o p ic 1 1 B : S lid e 6 , 1 1 , 1 2 , 1 3
2

T o p ic 1 2 A : S lid e 1 1 , 1 3

T o p ic 1 2 B : S lid e 4 , 5 , 6

T o p ic 1 2 C : S lid e 6

T o p ic 1 3 B : S lid e 5 , 6 , 7 , 1 0

T o p ic 1 4 A : S lid e 5 , 8 , 1 0 , 1 1

5 . B in o m ia l D is trib u tio n : X

B in o m (n , p )

In d e p e n d e n t re p lic a te s o f a B e rn o u lli e x p e rim e n t.

D is c re te d is trib u tio n

P ro b a b ility o f s u c c e s s : p

P ro b a b ility o f fa ilu re : 1 - p

X = n u m b e r o f s u c c e s s e s in n re p lic a te s (X = 0 , 1 , . . ., n )
C o n d itio n s o f a b in o m ia l d is trib u tio n

F ix e d n

T w o o u tc o m e s (s u c c e s s o r fa ilu re )

In d e p e n d e n t tria ls

S a m e p ro b a b ility o f s u c c e s s fo r e a c h tria l

= E (X ) = n p

= V a r(X ) = n p (1 -p )

6 . S te p s fo r H y p o th e s is T e s ts a b o u t P ro p o rtio n u s in g th e B in o m ia l D is trib u tio n

Id e n tify v a lu e s : n , p 0 ,

S ta te s ta tis tic a l h y p o th e s e s .

C o m p u te p -v a lu e u s in g th e b in o m ia l d is trib u tio n .

S ta te c o n c lu s io n s .

7 . D is c re te D is trib u tio n s
= E (X ) =

= V a r(X ) =

n
i= 1

x
i

p (x i)

n
i= 1

x
i

p (x i)

B e rn o u lli

B in o m ia l

G e o m e t r i c : L i k e a b i n o m i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n b u t n o fi x e d n . T h e e x p e r e i m e n t i s r e p e a t e d u n t i l t h e
fi r s t s u c c e s s h a p p e n s .

8 . C o n tin u o u s D is trib u tio n s

U n ifo rm : X

U n if(a , b )

f(x ) =

E (X ) =

V a r(X )

1
b a
a + b
2
= ( b 1 2a )

N o rm a l: X

B e ll-s h a p e d

S y m m e tric

E (X ) =

V a r(X ) =

2
2

(d f)

If Y = a s ta n d a rd n o rm a l v a ria b le , th e n X = Y

R ig h t s k e w e d

T a k e s n o n n e g a tiv e v a lu e s

E (X ) = k

V a r(X ) = 2 k

S tu d e n t t: X

N ( ,

C h i-s q u a re : X

is a c h i-s q u a re d is trib u tio n

t (d f)

9 . N o rm a l D is trib u tio n : X

N ( ,

E m p ir ic a l R u le ( 6 8 % , 9 5 % , 9 9 .7 % )

S ta n d a rd n o rm a l d is trib u tio n : =

0 a n d

U n d e rs ta n d s ta n d a rd iz a tio n (z -s c o re )

K n o w h o w t o fi n d p r o b a b i l i t i e s u s i n g a n o r m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n

K n o w h o w t o fi n d t h e x v a l u e u s i n g t h e n o r m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n .

N o rm a l A p p ro x im a tio n to B in o m ia l D is trib u tio n : F o r a la rg e v a lu e o f n , th e b in o m ia l d is trib u tio n w ith p a ra m e te rs n a n d p is a p p ro x im a te d b y th e n o rm a l d is trib u tio n [N ( ,

n p a n d

)] w h e re =

= n p (1 -p )

1 0 . G o o d n e s s o f F it T e s t
H o : T h e m o d e l is a p p ro p ria te v e ru s H a : T h e m o d e l is n o t a p p ro p ria te

S te p s fo r G o o d n e s s o f F it T e s t

S ta te th e h y p o th e s e s .

C o m p u te th e e x p e c te d c o u n ts .

C o m p u te th e te s t s ta tis tic .

C o m p u te th e p -v a lu e u s in g a c h i-s q u a re d is trib u tio n w ith k - 1 d e g re e s o f fre e d o m .

S ta te c o n c lu s io n s .
4

1 1 . T e s t o f In d e p e n d e n c e o r H o m o g e n e ity
H o : T h e y a re in d e p e n d e n t (n o re la tio n s h ip ) v e ru s H a : T h e y a re n o t in d e p e n d e n t (re la tio n s h ip )

H o : A ll ty p e s o f th e c a te g o ric a l v a ria b le b e h a v e th e s a m e w ith re s p e c t to th e c a te g o riz e d v a ri

a b le v e ru s H a : T h e y d o n o t.
E x a m p le : H o : B o th ty p e s o f s ite s b e h a v e th e s a m e w ith re s p e c t to %

o f u n d e rs to ry v e g e ta tio n

c o v e r v e rsu s H a : T h e y d o n o t
S te p s fo r T e s t o f In d e p e n d e n c e o r H o m o g e n e ity

S ta te th e h y p o th e s e s .

C o m p u te th e e x p e c te d c o u n ts .

C o m p u te th e te s t s ta tis tic .

C o m p u te th e p -v a lu e u s in g a c h i-s q u a re d is trib u tio n w ith (r-1 ) (c -1 ) d e g re e s o f fre e d o m .

S ta te c o n c lu s io n s .

1 2 . T e s t o f N o rm a lity

H o : N o rm a l v e ru s H a : N o t N o rm a l

S h a p iro -W ilk s T e s t

1 3 . S a m p lin g D is trib u tio n

T h e s a m p lin g d is trib u tio n o f a s ta tis tic is th e d is trib u tio n o f th e v a lu e s th e s ta tis tic c a n ta k e

c o n s id e rin g a ll th e p o s s ib le s a m p le s o f s iz e n fro m
If th e p o p u la tio n d is trib u tio n o f X

s ta n d a rd d e v ia tio n

a g iv e n p o p u la tio n .

i s n o r m a l , t h e n x i s n o r m a l l y d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h m e a n a n d

If th e p o p u la tio n d is trib u tio n o f X is u n k n o w n o r n o t n o rm a l a n d fo r a la rg e o f e n o u g h s a m p le

s i z e , t h e s a m p l i n g d i s t r i b u t i o n o f x ( o r a n y s t a t i s t i c ) i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y n o r m a l d u e t o C e n t r a l
L im it T h e o re m

w ith m e a n a n d s ta n d a rd d e v ia tio n

R u le o f T h u m b : n

3 0 is la rg e e n o u g h

If

is k n o w n , u s e th e n o rm a l d is trib u tio n .

If

is u n k n o w n , u s e th e t d is trib u tio n b e c a u s e th e re is m o re v a ra b ility th a t n e e d s to b e e s ti-

m a te d .
1 4 . C o n fi d e n c e I n t e r v a l s f o r t h e P o p u l a t i o n M e a n

is k n o w n

I d e n t i f y v a l u e s : x , n ,

C h e c k a s s u m p tio n s : R a n d o m

F in d z

s a m p le a n d n

u s in g q n o rm (p )

C o m p u t e t h e c o n fi d e n c e i n t e r v a l .

In te rp re t.
5

3 0

is u n k n o w n

I d e n t i f y v a l u e s : x , s , n , d f = n - 1

C h e c k a s s u m p tio n s : R a n d o m

s a m p le a n d S h a p iro W ilk s te s t o f n o rm a lity

F in d t u s in g q t(p , d f)

C o m p u t e t h e c o n fi d e n c e i n t e r v a l .

In te rp re t.

1 5 . S te p s fo r T e s t o f H y p o th e s e s A b o u t O n e M e a n w h e n
, x ,

Id e n tify v a lu e s :

C h e c k a s s u m p tio n s : R a n d o m

S ta te h y p o th e s e s .

C o m p u te te s t s ta tis tic .

F in d th e p -v a lu e u s in g p n o rm (z )

S ta te c o n c lu s io n s .

, n ,
s a m p le a n d n

3 0

1 6 . S te p s fo r T e s t o f H y p o th e s e s A b o u t O n e M e a n w h e n

is u n k n o w n

, x , s , n , d f = n - 1 ,

Id e n tify v a lu e s :

C h e c k a s s u m p tio n s : R a n d o m

is k n o w n

S ta te h y p o th e s e s .

C o m p u te te s t s ta tis tic .

F in d th e p -v a lu e u s in g p t(t, d f)

S ta te c o n c lu s io n s .

s a m p le a n d S h a p iro W ilk s te s t o f n o rm a lity

1 7 . S te p s fo r T e s t o f P a ire d D a ta
C o m p u te d iffe re n c e s .
I d e n t i f y v a l u e s : x d , s d , n , d f = n - 1 ,
C h e c k a s s u m p tio n s : R a n d o m

S ta te h y p o th e s e s .

C o m p u te te s t s ta tis tic .

F in d th e p -v a lu e u s in g p t(t, d f)

S ta te c o n c lu s io n s .

s a m p le a n d S h a p iro W ilk s te s t o f n o rm a lity o f d iffe re n c e s