TMP 324 B

The Sodium-Potassium Pump Controls the Intrinsic Firing
of the Cerebellar Purkinje Neuron

Michael D. Forrest
1
*, Mark J. Wall
2
, Daniel A. Press
2
, Jianfeng Feng
1,3
1Department of Computer Science, University of Warwick, Coventry, West Midlands, United Kingdom, 2School of Life Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry, West
Midlands, United Kingdom, 3Computational Systems Biology Centre, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
Abstract
In vitro, cerebellar Purkinje cells can intrinsically fire action potentials in a repeating trimodal or bimodal pattern. The
trimodal pattern consists of tonic spiking, bursting, and quiescence. The bimodal pattern consists of tonic spiking and
quiescence. It is unclear how these firing patterns are generated and what determines which firing pattern is selected. We
have constructed a realistic biophysical Purkinje cell model that can replicate these patterns. In this model, Na
+
/K
+
pump
activity sets the Purkinje cells operating mode. From rat cerebellar slices we present Purkinje whole cell recordings in the
presence of ouabain, which irreversibly blocks the Na
+
/K
+
pump. The model can replicate these recordings. We propose that
Na
+
/K
+
pump activity controls the intrinsic firing mode of cerbellar Purkinje cells.
Citation: Forrest MD, Wall MJ, Press DA, Feng J (2012) The Sodium-Potassium Pump Controls the Intrinsic Firing of the Cerebellar Purkinje Neuron. PLoS
ONE 7(12): e51169. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0051169
Editor: Gennady Cymbalyuk, Georgia State University, United States of America
Received July 29, 2012; Accepted October 30, 2012; Published December 20, 2012
Copyright: 2012 Forrest et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Funding: Michael Forrest conducted the majority of this work and conducted it as a component of his Ph.D. research, which was funded by the Medical Research
Council (MRC) of the UK, http://www.mrc.ac.uk/index.htm. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or
preparation of the manuscript.
Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
* E-mail: mikeforrest@hotmail.com
Introduction
The cerebellum coordinates the execution and adaptation of
motor behaviours [1]. Cerebellar architecture is based on repeats
of a well defined connectivity motif, at the centre of which is the
Purkinje cell. Physiologically, the intrinsic firing of Purkinje cells is
modulated by synaptic inputs but to understand the cerebellar
circuit it is important to first understand the properties of each
component in isolation. In this study we investigate the isolated
cerebellar Purkinje cell.
We propose that the Na
+
/K
+
pump controls intrinsic Purkinje
cell activity. The Na
+
/K
+
pump uses the energy of one ATP
molecule to exchange three intracellular Na
+
ions for two
extracellular K
+
ions [2]. Thus the pump is electrogenic, extruding
one net charge per cycle to hyperpolarize the membrane potential.
In vitro, in the absence of synaptic input, Purkinje neurons can
spontaneously fire action potentials in a repeating trimodal pattern
that consists of tonic spiking, bursting and quiescence [3,4,5,6].
The repeat length of the trimodal pattern is reportedly fixed for a
single Purkinje cell but has been observed to vary among different
Purkinje cells, in a range from 20 seconds to 20 minutes [3]. This
second to minute duration of the trimodal behaviour is distinct
from the millisecond timeframe of ion channel kinetics. However,
changes in intra-and-extra-cellular ion concentrations can span
seconds to minutes [7] and could drive the transition of modes in
the trimodal pattern. We test this hypothesis with a realistic
biophysical Purkinje cell model that can replicate the trimodal
firing pattern. In this model, the Na
+
/K
+
pump controls the
transition from tonic to burst firing by regulating the extracellular
K
+
concentration ([K
+
]
o
), which rules a Kv1.2 K
+
channel gate
to bursting. And the Na
+
/K
+
pumps electrogenicity generates the
quiescent mode, upon regulation by the intracellular Na
+
concentration ([Na
+
]
i
). During quiescence the ionic concentrations
reset and the trimodal cycle starts again from the tonic phase. The
Na
+
/K
+
pump, as an enzyme, adheres to Michaelis-Menten
kinetics [8] and its affinity for external K
+
(K
K
) sets the duration of
tonic firing and its affinity for internal Na
+
(K
Na
) sets the total
duration of firing (tonic+bursting). If these affinities are modulated
to make the total firing duration shorter than the tonic, then the
model cell fires in an experimentally observed bimodal pattern
repeat of tonic spiking and quiescence [9]. If K
Na
is set equal to (or
lower than) the basal [Na
+
]
i
, then the model cell becomes locked in
quiescence (a behaviour reported for Purkinje cells in vitro; [10]).
GABAergic stellate cells make inhibitory synaptic contacts upon
the dendrites of Purkinje cells [11]. When these inputs are
introduced upon the Purkinje cell model, with the Purkinje
parameters set such that it fires in the trimodal pattern, they can
switch its firing from trimodal to bimodal. This aligns with in vitro
experiments, where the firing of some Purkinje cells can be
switched from an imposed bimodal pattern, to an intrinsic
trimodal pattern, by pharmacological blocking of GABAergic
synaptic inputs [3]. The firing of some other Purkinje cells is
intrinsically bimodal and remains bimodal when synaptic inputs
are blocked [9].
The Purkinje cell model can replicate the in vitro behaviour of
the cerebellar Purkinje cell it reconciles the divergent Purkinje
behaviours observed in different in vitro studies and establishes a
biophysical basis to this operating diversity (quiescent [10];
trimodal, [3]; bimodal, [9]). The activity of Purkinje cells recorded
in vitro, with cerebellar slice recordings, might not correspond with
the physiological activity of Purkinje cells in vivo. In the parasagittal
cerebellar slice preparation, synaptic innervations to Purkinje cells
PLOS ONE | www.plosone.org 1 December 2012 | Volume 7 | Issue 12 | e51169
are corrupted to a degree [3]. We discuss the physiological
relevance of the model in the Discussion.
Materials and Methods
Ethics statement
Our experiments with rats were conducted in accordance with
the UK Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986 and associated
guidelines. We had approval to conduct these experiments from
the Biological Ethics Sub-Committee, of the Research Ethics
Committee, at the University of Warwick. This committee
scrutinizes in accordance with the appropriate guidance for such
committees from the Home Office, the RSCPA and the
Laboratory Animal Science Association (LASA). This committee
ensures that staff and students are trained and experienced, and
that the potential benefits of the research outweigh the effects on
the animals concerned. The committee is committed to the
promotion of the 3Rs (reduction, refinement and replacement). At
the University of Warwick, highly qualified and experienced
veterinary staff are actively involved in (1) the ethical scrutiny of
research (2) the welfare, care and husbandry of animals and (3)
provide advice and support to all staff and students involved in
research using animals.
Numerical simulations 1: Detailed Purkinje cell model
Simulations were performed with the NEURON 5.6 simulator
[12], using its backward Euler integration method and 25 ms time
steps. The models morphology is a detailed reconstruction of a
Golgi-stained Purkinje cell (Fig. 1A), sourced from an adult rat
[13] and discretized into 1089 compartments (soma: 1 compart-
ment, smooth dendrites: 85 compartments, and spiny dendrites:
1003 compartments). Dendrite spines were not modeled explicitly;
spines were accounted for by setting the spiny dendrites with a
higher specific membrane capacitance [C
m
] (C
m
=0.8 mF/cm
2
for
the soma and smooth dendrites, C
m
=1.5 mF/cm
2
for the spiny
dendrites; [14]). Specific intracellular resistivity was set to 250 V/
cm [14]. The model was also run with a different experimentally
reconstructed Purkinje cell morphology from guinea pig (Fig. 1B)
[15]. This morphology was discretized into 946 compartments
(soma: 1 compartment, dendrites: 945 compartments) and no
distinction was made in regard to smooth and spiny dendrites.
Global specific membrane capacitance was 0.8 mF/cm
2
and global
specific intracellular resistivity was 200 V/cm [15].
The model incorporates twenty-one gated ion channels with
descriptions established from the literature. The soma has highly
TEA sensitive (I
K_fast
), moderately TEA sensitive (I
K_mid
) and TEA
insensitive (I
K_slow
) voltage-gated K
+
currents, a BK voltage-and-
Ca
2+
-gated K
+
current (I
BK
), a resurgent Na
+
current (I
Na-R
), a P-
type Ca
2+
current (I
CaP
), a hyperpolarization activated cation
current (I
H
), a leak current (I
L
) and an intracellular Ca
2+
dynamics
abstraction - all sourced from Khaliq et al. [16]. In addition, the
soma has an SK Ca
2+
-gated K
+
current (I
SK
) [17]. The dendrites
have T-type (I
CaT
), Class-E (I
CaE
) and P-type (I
CaP
) voltage-gated
Ca
2+
currents; a leak current (I
L
); A-type (I
KA
), D-type (I
KD
), M-
type (I
KM
), and delayed rectifier (I
DR
) voltage-gated K
+
currents;
BK (I
BK
) and K2 (I
K2
) type voltage-and-Ca
2+
-gated K
+
currents
and an intracellular Ca
2+
dynamics abstraction - all sourced from
Miyasho et al. [14]. In addition, the dendrites have a hyperpo-
larization activated cation current (I
H
) [18] and a Kv1 voltage-
gated K
+
current (I
Kv1
) [19]. The latter is incorporated as a Kv1.2
description because it replicates Kv1.2 kinetic data from a Purkinje
neuron [9]. The model currents have equations and kinetic
parameters as described in their source literature, but with the
modification of current density values to those shown in Table 1.
Current densities were assumed to be uniform over the dendrites
(as in many other modeling studies e.g. [14], [20]) because there
are not data to suggest otherwise and in this absence we were ruled
by parsimony. This assumption makes for a smaller and more
manageable number of model parameters.
The somatic Na
+
/K
+
pump (density =d
s
pump
, 1 mA/cm
2
)
transports 3 Na
+
out (i
s
pump_Na
) for every 2 K
+
in (i
s
pump_K
) [2].
It has a fixed voltage dependency [21] and an exponential relation
[22] to intracellular Na
+
concentration ([Na
+
]
i
). The Na
+
affinity
constant (K
Na
) is 40 mM [2] and the cooperativity constant
([Na]
is
) is 1 mM [22]. V represents the membrane potential in mV
as a dimensionless quantity.
i
s
pump
~d
s
pump
(Vz70)=(Vz80)(1zexp(
K
Na
-Na
z
i
Na
is
))
i
s
pump Na
~3i
s
pump
i
s
pump K
~-2i
s
pump
8
>
>
>
<
>
>
>
:
1
The dendritic Na
+
/K
+
pump (density =d
d
pump
, 0.001 mA/cm
2
)
has the same 3Na
+
:2K
+
stoichiometry but no voltage dependency
and a hyperbolic relation to extracellular K
+
concentration ([K
+
]
o
)
[23]. The K
+
affinity constant (K
K
) is 2.245 mM [2].
i
d
pump
~d
d
pump
=(1z(K
K
=K
z
o
))
i
d
pump Na
~3i
d
pump
i
d
pump K
~-2i
d
pump
8
>
>
<
>
>
:
2
Somatic intracellular Na
+
concentration ([Na
+
]
i
) is initiated at
10 mM [22] and then changes in time t according to the
relationship:
dNa
z
i
dt
~
I
Na net
d
:
F=4
From reference 24 3
(I
Na net
)
t
~(I
Na in
{I
Na out
)
t{t
, t~5s 4
I
Na in
~I
Na{R
zI
s
ex Na
5
I
Na out
~i
s
pump Na
zI
s
pump Na
6
Where i
s
pump_Na
and I
s
pump_Na
are Na
+
/K
+
pump Na
+
currents at
the soma, set by eq. [1] and eq. [16] respectively. I
Na-R
is the
voltage-gated Resurgent Na
+
current, I
s
ex_Na
is the Na
+
/Ca
2+
exchanger Na
+
current (set by eq. [15]), F is the Faraday constant
and d is the somatic diameter. I
Na_net
(eq. [4]) is the difference
between Na
+
current flowing into the soma (I
Na_in
; eq. [5]) (Na
+
ions flowing through the voltage-gated Resurgent Na
+
conduc-
tance and the Na
+
/Ca
2+
exchanger) and Na
+
current pumped out
of the soma by the Na
+
/K
+
pump (I
Na_out
; eq. [6]), lagged by
parameter t =5s. Tau (t) is a factor that we have introduced and is
not found in the original Canavier description [24]. Intracellular
Na
+
stimulates the Na
+
/K
+
pump and this lag t accounts for the
duration of sodiums diffusion from channels to pumps. It aligns
with the concept of a fuzzy space under the pump where the
Na
+
concentration differs from other parts of the cell [25]. The
model represents Na
+
diffusion abstractly, with this t parameter,
because a more explicit account would be ill constrained by the
The Na+/K+ Pump Controls Purkinje Cell Firing
literature and too computationally expensive; intracellular diffu-
sion processes have a much shorter spatial scale than electrical
signalling and so their modeling requires a higher nseg value (the
number of internal points at which NEURON computes solutions
in each compartment; [12]) to attain spatial accuracy. The t
parameter is discussed much further in our Discussion section.
Extracellular K
+
concentration ([K
+
]
o
) to the dendritic com-
partments is initiated at 2 mM and then changes in time t
according to the relationship:
dK
z
o
dt
~
Q
:
I
K net
=
F
:
wid
7
I
K net
~I
K out
{I
K in
8
I
K out
~I
KD
zI
KA
zI
KM
zI
DR
zI
BK
zI
K2
zI
Kv1
9
I
K in
~i
d
pump K
zI
d
pump K
10
Where F is the Faraday constant, wid is the thickness of an
extracellular region around the compartment that K
+
accumulates
in (70*10
23
mm), Q is a K
+
accumulation factor (0.143) and I
K_net
(eq. [8]) is the difference between K
+
current flowing out of the
compartment [I
K_out
] (through gated K
+
conductances, eq. [9]) and
K
+
current pumped into the compartment [I
K_in
] (by the Na
+
/K
+
pump, eq. [10]). K
+
ions flow out of the model dendrites through
Figure 1. In the absence of synaptic input, the Purkinje cell model fires spontaneously in a repeating trimodal pattern. A, The model
cells default morphology with somatic and dendritic recording points labeled. B, An alternative morphology used for the model. C, A single trimodal
repeat, recorded at the soma, with the constituent tonic (t), burst (b) and silent (s) modes labeled. D, The same trimodal repeat as (C) but recorded
from a point within the dendritic tree. E, With no high-threshold spikes in the dendrites (i), firing is tonic at the soma (ii). With high-threshold dendritic
spikes (iii), somatic firing has a stereotypical burst waveform (iv). A single dendritic spike is co-incidental with each somatic burst. The peak of the
dendritic spike (* in sub-panel iii) causes the sudden and rapid depolarization that ends the somatic burst (iv). F, Single trimodal repeat recorded from
the soma of a model variant that lacks the Kv1.2 channel. It has a markedly shorter tonic mode [t] than the standard model (C). G, The same trimodal
repeat as (D) but recorded from a point within the models dendritic tree. H, Without Kv1.2 channels, the dendritic spike frequency is higher (i) which
results in a smaller number of spikes per somatic burst (ii). Panels C, D, F and G are scaled by the first scale bar (40 mV, 5 s) and panels E and H by the
second scale bar (40 mV, 50 ms).
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0051169.g001
Table 1. Maximal current conductances (mS/cm
2
) (assumed
uniform over the dendrites).
Current Soma Dendrite
Resurgent Na
+
156 0
P-type Ca
2+
0.52 1.6
T-type Ca
2+
0 0.6
E-type Ca
2+
0 3.2
A-type K
+
0 32
D-type K
+
0 36
M-type K
+
0 0.004
Delayed rectifier K
+
0 0.24
Bk K
+
72.8 60
SK K
+
10 0
K2 K
+
0 0.16
Kv1.2 K
+
0 1
Highly TEA sensitive K
+
41.6 0
Moderately TEA
sensitive K
+
20.8 0
TEA insenstitive K
+
41.6 0
hyperpolarization
activated cation, I
h
1.04 0.29
Leak 0.1 0.08
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0051169.t001
the D-type (I
KD
), A-type (I
KA
), M-type (I
KM
), delayer rectifier
(I
DR
), BK (I
BK
), K2 (I
K2
) and Kv1 (I
Kv1
) K
+
currents. The Na
+
/K
+
pump K
+
current in the dendrites: i
d
pump_K
is set by eq. [2] and
I
d
pump_K
is set by eq. [13].
A ceiling for extracellular K
+
accumulation is set physiolog-
ically by the glial buffer system [26,27] and accordingly the model
[K
+
]
o
is not permitted to exceed 3.03 mM [28] through code of
the form: if ([K
+
]
o
.3.03) [[K
+
]
o
=3.03].
Formula [7] is a modification of the extracellular K
+
accumulation equation employed by Durstewitz et al. [29] which
is reproduced below:
dK
z
o
dt
~
Q
:
I
K out
F
:
wid
z
K
z
eq
{K
z
o
t
K
11
Their wid setting is the same (70*10
23
mm) but Durstewitz et al.
[29] utilise a Q value of 2 as opposed to our employed 0.143. We
adjusted Q as a free parameter in our model tuning because this
arbitrary factor is not constrained by the experimental literature.
Durstewitz et al. [29] have no Na
+
/K
+
pump mechanism in their
model and hence no I
K_in
parameter, only having an I
K_out
parameter. Their formulation has an additional term on the right
hand side (RHS), setting a decay to the extracellular K
+
accumulation, where [K
+
]
eq
is the equilibrium/resting value of
[K
+
]
o
and t
K
is the time constant with which it approaches this
resting value. This term is an abstractive capture of cellular
processes acting against extracellular K
+
accumulation, primarily
the action of the Na
+
/K
+
pump (I
K_in
). In our work, we model the
Na
+
/K
+
pump explicitly and so this term is redundant and
dropped from our description of extracellular K
+
dynamics.
The model dendrites have two different Na
+
/K
+
pump
mechanisms. One has already been described (eq. [2]). The other
is more abstractive (eq. [13]). It is included in the model to capture
our hypothesis (which is founded in the experimental work of
Genet and Kado, [30]) that the hyperpolarizing Na
+
/K
+
pump
current electrically balances a depolarizing Na
+
/Ca
2+
exchange
current. A simple Na
+
/Ca
2+
exchanger mechanism is included in
the model dendrites (eq. [12]). The use of an additional, simple
Na
+
/K
+
pump formalism, to offset the inclusion of a simple Na
+
/
Ca
2+
exchanger formalism, facilitated tuning the model such that
the Na
+
/Ca
2+
exchanger current was fully counter-balanced.
Convention permits inward (depolarizing) currents to be
denoted negative and outward (repolarising) currents to be
denoted positive [31]. The Na
+
/Ca
2+
exchanger current (I
d
ex_net
;
eq. [12]) is net depolarizing (21), inwardly passing 3 singly positive
Na
+
ions (3*[+1]) for the extrusion of every doubly positive Ca
2+
ion (1*[+2]) [32]. By contrast, the Na
+
/K
+
pump current
(I
d
pump_net
; eq. [13]) is net hyperpolarizing (+1) in its transport of
3 Na
+
out (3*[+1]) for every 2 K
+
in (2*[+1]).
I
d
ex Na
~{3
:
z1
:
g
d
ex
I
d
ex Ca
~1
:
z2
:
g
d
ex
I
d
ex net
~(I
d
ex Ca
{I
d
ex Na
)[g
d
ex
:
{1[{g
d
ex
8
>
<
>
:
12
I
d
pump Na
~3
:
z1
:
g
d
pump
I
d
pump K
~{2
:
z1
:
g
d
pump
I
d
pump net
~(I
d
pump Na
{I
d
pump K
)[g
d
pump
:
z1[zg
d
pump
8
>
>
<
>
>
:
13
g
d
ex
and g
d
pump
are Na
+
/Ca
2+
exchanger and Na
+
/K
+
pump
membrane current densities (respectively) in the dendrites and
their equality at 0.0021 mA/cm
2
ensures an electrical counter-
balance So, the model dendrites have a Na
+
/Ca
2+
exchanger
current and an electrically counterbalancing Na
+
/K
+
pump
current:
{g
d
ex
~zg
d
pump
[-I
d
ex net
~zI
d
pump net
14
The models soma compartment also has a simple Na
+
/Ca
2+
exchanger mechanism (eq. [15]; exchanger density =g
s
ex
) and a
counterbalancing, simple Na
+
/K
+
pump mechanism (eq. [16];
pump density =g
s
pump
). Thus, the soma compartment, like those of
the dendrites, has both a detailed Na
+
/K
+
pump description (eq.
[1]) and a simpler Na
+
/K
+
pump description (eq. [16]) in parallel.
I
s
ex Na
~{3
:
z1
:
g
s
ex
I
s
ex Ca
~1
:
z2
:
g
s
ex
I
s
ex net
~(I
s
ex Ca
{I
s
ex Na
)[g
s
ex
:
{1[{g
s
ex
8
>
<
>
:
15
I
s
pump Na
~3
:
z1
:
g
s
pump
I
s
pump K
~{2
:
z1
:
g
s
pump
I
s
pump net
~(I
s
pump Na
{I
s
pump K
)[g
s
pump
:
z1[zg
s
pump
8
>
<
>
:
16
In the soma compartment, the Na
+
/K
+
pump current of equation
[16] largely, but incompletely, counterbalances the Na
+
/Ca
2+
exchanger current of equation [15] there is a slight mismatch
[g
s
ex
=0.511 mA/cm
2
, g
s
pump
=0.5 mA/cm
2
] (eq. [17]) which
permits a small net influx of Na
+
ions and a continued Na
+
influx
into the soma when the Resurgent Na
+
conductance is removed to
simulate TTX block of voltage-gated Na
+
currents; this mismatch
permits the model to replicate the Purkinje cell behaviour
observed upon TTX application (refer Results).
g
s
ex
~g
s
pump
z0:011[-I
s
ex net
&zI
s
pump net
17
The Purkinje cell model has four Na
+
/K
+
pump equations ([1],
[2], [13], [16]) and so four Na
+
/K
+
pump densities (d
s
pump
,
d
d
pump
, g
d
pump
, g
s
pump
) which we can represent as (d
x
pump
, g
x
pump
;
x =s,d) where superscript [s] denotes a density at the soma and
superscript [d] denotes a density in the dendrites. d
pump
represents
the density of a detailed Na
+
/K
+
pump formalism (eq. [1], [2]) as
opposed to g
pump
, which represents the density of a more
simplified Na
+
/K
+
pump description (eq. [13], [16]). So, the
soma has a detailed and simplified Na
+
/K
+
pump formalism (with
densities [d
s
pump
] and [g
s
pump
] respectively) and the dendrites have
a detailed and simplified Na
+
/K
+
pump formalism (with densities
[d
d
pump
] and [g
d
pump
] respectively).
The models four different Na
+
/K
+
pump equations are each
valid and founded in previously published Na
+
/K
+
pump
descriptions. They capture different aspects of Na
+
/K
+
pumping.
The first captures [Na
+
]
i
and voltage dependency (eq. [1]), the
second captures [K
+
]
o
dependency (eq. [2]), the third and fourth
(eq. [13], [16]) are essentially equivalent and capture the electrical
counterbalance to the Na
+
/Ca
2+
exchanger current. It would be
preferable to have these pump aspects in a single formalism.
However, this would have greatly increased the complexity of
tuning the model, which was methodologically unacceptable.
Ouabain irreversibly blocks the Na
+
/K
+
pump [2]. An
increasing proportion of Na
+
/K
+
pump molecules being blocked
by ouabain is replicated in the model by decreasing the models
four Na
+
/K
+
pump densities (d
x
pump
,. g
x
pump
, x =s,d) by functions of
time, t (in seconds): Ouabain simulation is arbitrarily initiated at t =3(s)
d
x
pump
(t)~
d
x
pump
(0) tv3 s
d
x
pump
(0) Yt tw3 s
(
g
x
pump
(t)~
g
x
pump
(0) tv3 s
g
x
pump
(0) c
x
1
t 3stv8:5 s
g
x
pump
(0) Mt c
x
2
tw8:5 s
8
>
>
<
>
>
:
18
Where x =s,d; Y=0.1 mA cm
22
s
21
; c
1
s
=0.002 mA cm
22
s
21
;
c
1
d
=0.01 mA cm
22
s
21
; M=0.1 mA cm
22
s
21
;
c
2
s
=0.011 mA cm
22
s
21
; c
2
d
=0.055 mA cm
22
s
21
Catch coding, which is code of the form: if (x,0) [x =0], is used
to prevent negative values of (d
x
pump
,. g
x
pump
, x =s,d) from
occurring.
To illustrate the sensitivity of the model to the K
Na
, K
K
and t
parameters a variant of the model was constructed in which they
were modified. K
Na
was changed from 40 mM to 10.5 mM, K
K
from 2.245 mM to 50 mM and t from 5 s to 1 s.
GABAergic stellate inputs make inhibitory synaptic contacts
upon the model dendrites; two inputs to every smooth dendrite
compartment and one input to every spiny dendrite compartment
[11]. They fire asynchronously, following a Poisson distribution
around a mean frequency of input (1 Hz). Their reversal potential
is 280 mV, with a synaptic weight of 0.001 mS and their
amplitude upon activation follows a dual exponential time course
(t
1
=0.9 ms; t
2
=26.5 ms) [11]. These model inputs can be
removed to simulate pharmacological blocking of GABAergic
synapses.
All parameters were established by prior literature (as
referenced) except the twenty-one current densities, the Na
+
/K
+
pump and Na
+
/Ca
2+
exchanger densities, the synaptic weight, Q,
t and the parameters of Na
+
/K
+
pump density decline used in the
simulation of ouabain application (Y, c
1
s
, c
1
d
, M, c
2
s
, c
2
d
). These
were all ill constrained by the literature and tuned manually [33]
by iteratively running the model with different free parameter
values and observing which combination of these gave the best fit
between real and model Purkinje cell output. We tuned the model
manually because, drawing from our experience, we reasoned that
with the large number of parameters, and with the significant
complexity/timeframe of the model behaviors sought, parameter
optimization algorithms [34] would struggle to converge upon a
good solution. Principally, we tuned the model to replicate the
trimodal pattern of firing and when this behavior was captured,
interestingly, the model could replicate a number of other Purkinje
cell behaviors. For example, a P-type Ca
2+
channel block switched
the model from trimodal to bimodal firing, as has been observed
experimentally (refer Results section).
Numerical simulations 2: Reduced Purkinje cell model
To generate a simpler version of the described Purkinje cell model,
the dendritic arbour was collapsed into fewer compartments with a
reduction algorithm that conserves axial resistance (R
a
) [36,37]. The
method consists of merging successive dendritic branches into
equivalent cylinders, preserving the axial resistance of the original
branches. With this method, the radius (R) of an equivalent cylinder is
given by:
R~
X
i
r
2
i
r
19
Where r
i
are the radii of the collapsed branches for that equivalent
cylinder. The length (l) of an equivalent cylinder is taken as an average
of the lengths of the collapsed branches (l
i
) for that cylinder, weighted
by their respective radii (r
i
):
l~
P
i
l
i
r
i
P
i
r
i
20
With this collapsing method, the membrane surface area of the
reduced model is less than the original because, although axial
resistance is conserved, surface area (and hence the membrane
resistance and capacitance) is not. This is compensated for by
introducing, in each equivalent cylinder, a dendritic correction factor
(C
d
), which rescales the current/pump/exchanger density values (g
i
)
and membrane capacitance (C
m
) in the dendrites such that:
g
i
~C
d
g
i
21
C
m
~C
d
C
m
22
The dendritic correction factor C
d
is the ratio of the total surface area of
the dendritic segments to their equivalent cylinders. The models
somatic compartment is not introduced into the collapsing algorithm
and so in the reduced model it has the same dimensions as in the full
model, and the C
d
correction factor is not applied to any of its
parameters.
Following the methodology of Destexhe et al. [37], our reduced
Purkinje cell model had C
d
applied to the model parameter, depth,
which sets the depth of the sub-membrane shell that Ca
2+
diffuses in
within the model dendrites (the dendrite description of intracellular
Ca
2+
dynamics is sourced from Miyasho et al. [14]).
depth~C
d
depth 23
There are a number of published mathematical transformations for
collapsing dendrites into equivalent profiles (for a review, refer to [38]).
We favored this R
a
conservation algorithm because it has been
shown to produce reduced, surrogate models that capture the synaptic
integration properties of their full, parent models i.e. reduced models
produced by this algorithm can perform the same non-linear
integration of dendritic EPSPs and IPSPs and hence have the same
input-output function as their parent models [36].
We used this R
a
conservation algorithm to collapse the 1089
compartments of the full Purkinje cell model into the 41
compartments of a reduced model (1 soma, 40 dendritic
compartments). The reduced models 40 dendritic compartments
were allocated smooth and spiny (20 smooth, 20 spiny) in an
arbitrary mirroring of the full model (85 smooth, 1003 spiny). Note
that in our approach, smooth and spiny dendrites are not
distinguished from one another by the actual modeling of dendritic
spines but by an abstraction, with a larger specific membrane
capacitance (C
m
) for spiny dendrites (0.8 mF/cm
2
for smooth,
1.5 mF/cm
2
for spiny; [14]). C
d
was 3.80. The dimensions of the
soma were as in the full morphology (length =22 mm; diame-
ter =22 mm) and the dimensions of the 40 dendritic compartments
are shown in Table 2.
The Q parameter is a setting in the models description of
extracellular K
+
dynamics and in the full model it is 0.143. This
parameter isnt set or constrained by any feature of the reduction
algorithmused and is not constrained by any experimental literature. It
is a free parameter. We manually tuned this parameter to confer a best
fit between reduced and full model output, ultimately assigning it a
value of 0.033. This is reasonably distinct from the value of 0.543
obtained by a C
d
manipulation (0.143 * C
d
=0.543, where C
d
is 3.80)
but this is of no consequence, as there is no directive in the literature for
applying C
d
to such a parameter.
We strove for the smallest number of compartments, but
through testing we found that 41 (1 soma, 40 dendrite) was the
smallest number that could behave equivalently to the full 1089
compartments. This is because the collapsing algorithm does not
conserve dendritic length fully, and Purkinje functioning requires a
degree of uncoupling (distance) between somatic and dendritic
events. 41 compartments is the smallest number that confers the
sufficient distance (uncoupling) with a dendritic length of
,502 mm. Without this sufficiency of length, for instance if the
reduced model is the full model transposed by the algorithm to just
3 compartments (dendritic length of ,129 mm), the tonic mode is
absent in the trimodal firing pattern i.e. the model cannot replicate
the Purkinje cells trimodal firing pattern. By contrast, the reduced
model of 41 compartments can replicate this activity motif.
We confirmed that the problem with the 3 compartment model
was a lack of dendritic distance, rather than a lack of dendritic
load, because increasing dendritic load could not enable a
compartment number lower than 41. The rallbranch variable
is unique to the NEURON simulator [12]. When a model
compartment has a rallbranch number of n it is as though there
are [n] mathematically identical compartments, including the
entire sub-tree, connected to that compartment. This is a method
of adding load to a dendritic tree without adding load to
computation time. However, increasing rallbranch numbers could
not decrease the compartment number requirement and thus it is
not a load requirement that is limiting.
With another round of simplification, we produced a 5
compartment model that could reproduce the behavior of the full
1089 compartment model. Firstly, we collapsed the dendritic tree
of the full 1089 compartment model to just 3 compartments (using
the R
a
conservation algorithm). We then overcome the dendritic
distance issue by linking these 3 dendritic compartments to the
somatic compartment through a coupling compartment that had a
length of our setting, which we ensured was sufficient. This
coupling compartment had the same passive and conductance
properties as the dendritic compartments and, indeed, can just be
thought of as component to the reduced models dendritic tree.
The coupling compartment and the next dendritic compartment
along were set as smooth dendrites (C
m
of 0.8 mF/cm
2
to represent
smooth; [14]) and the terminal two dendritic compartments were
set as spiny (C
m
of 1.5 mF/cm
2
to represent spiny; [14]). We
manually tuned the coupling compartments dimensions to confer
the right degree of uncoupling between soma and dendrites; to
ensure that this 5 compartment model could replicate the
behaviours of the 41 compartment and 1089 compartment
models. In the tuned, and final, 5 compartment model: the total
length of its dendritic compartments was ,529 mm, its C
d
value
was 4.79 and [Q=0.02] conferred a best fit to full model behavior.
The dimensions of the soma were as in the full morphology
(length =22 mm; diameter =22 mm) and the dimensions of the 4
dendritic compartments are shown in Table 3. The coupling
compartment is compartment number 1 in this table.
Table 2. Dimensions of the 40 dendritic compartments in the
41 compartment model.
Compartment Length (mm) Diameter (mm)
1 20.545455 3.3166248
2 19.4 2.236068
3 18 1.7320508
4 17.571429 2.6457513
5 8.5306122 3.3045423
6 13.344828 2.6305893
7 12.567568 2.8213472
8 16.9 3.1622777
9 11 3.3166248
10 10.352941 3.4467376
11 12.732394 3.9849718
12 12.5 3.7309516
13 10.475728 4.7791213
14 15.361446 4.3405069
15 11.986486 3.9899875
16 12.692308 5.5497748
17 10.326667 5.9665736
18 9.6402116 6.9079664
19 13.5625 6.2289646
20 9.8686831 6.5415792
21 10.347368 6.6932802
22 8.5744681 7.5232971
23 10.075188 8.2267855
24 9.5446429 7.3972968
25 8.6412429 9.1389277
26 8.8216783 8.5135187
27 8.1569732 9.4462488
28 6.1189159 8.5064444
29 7.8575581 10.055844
30 6.7650755 10.560032
31 6.892365 10.617743
32 6.5219251 11.041739
33 7.6343948 11.421714
34 7.9040284 10.478619
35 10.028048 10.878798
36 18.067147 9.2108216
37 17.821097 8.0038358
38 57.640576 7.3301444
39 24 3.5777088
40 18 4
Compartment 1 is linked to the somatic compartment.
Table 3. Dimensions of the 4 dendritic compartments in the
5 compartment model.
Compartment Length (mm) Diameter (mm)
1 400 3
2 16.11816 18.5088
3 95.16785 7.947963
4 18 4
Compartment 1 is linked to the somatic compartment.
Given that this 5 compartment model has some dimensions of
our setting, its line of sight to the full model and the Biology is
distorted. But at this cost it runs much faster, with 26 seconds of
CPU time required for 1 second of simulation (Intel Pentium PC).
This is ,51* faster than the full model and ,3* faster than the 41
compartment model.
In the Results section, all modeling results presented are from
the full compartmental model (1089 compartments) unless
specifically stated otherwise in the text.
Preparation of cerebellar slices
Parasagittal slices of cerebellum (250 mm) were prepared from
male Wistar rats, at postnatal days 2835 (P2835), with methods
based on [10]. As described previously [35], and in accordance
with the U.K. Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act (1986), male rats
were killed by cervical dislocation and decapitated. The cerebel-
lum was rapidly removed and slices were cut on a Microm HM
650V microslicer in cold (24uC) high Mg
2+
, low Ca
2+
aCSF,
composed of (mM): 127 NaCl, 1.9 KCl, 7 MgCl
2
, 0.5 CaCl
2
, 1.2
KH
2
PO
4
, 26 NaHCO
3
, 10 D-glucose (pH 7.4 when bubbled with
95% O2 and 5% CO
2
). Slices were stored in normal aCSF
(1.3 mM MgCl
2
, 2.4 mM CaCl
2
) at room temperature for 1
6 hours before recording.
Electrophysiological recording
Individual slices were viewed on a Zeiss FS Axioskop
microscope with a 406water immersion objective and Nomarski
differential interference optics, at a total magnification of 6406.
Slices were maintained at 3032uC and continuously perfused (1
5 ml min
21
) with a CSF, which was bubbled with 95% O
2
and
5% CO
2
. Whole-cell patch-clamp recordings were made from
visualized Purkinje cells using an EPC 8 amplifier (Heka,
Digitimer, Welwyn Garden City, UK) controlled via a Digidata
1322a interface (Axon Instruments INC, Foster City CA, USA)
using Clampex (v 9, Axon Instruments). Patch-pipettes (thick-
walled borosilicate glass, Harvard Apparatus, Edenbridge, UK)
were fire-polished, and had resistances of 1.54 MV when filled
with an intracellular solution containing (mM): 135 K gluconate, 7
NaCl, 10 HEPES, 0.5 EGTA, 2 Na
2
-ATP 0.3 Na
2
-GTP and
10 mM Na phosphocreatine (adjusted to pH 7.2 with KOH and
osmolarity adjusted to 300 mOSM with sucrose). Aliquots of
intracellular solution were stored frozen at 220uC and thawed on
the day of recording.
Drugs
Drugs were dissolved at 1100 mM in deionised water:
bicuculline methiodide (Sigma), TTX (tetrodotoxin, Advent
Scientific) and ouabain (Sigma). Aliquots of these stock solutions
were stored frozen at 220uC, thawed and diluted in perfusion
medium on the day of recording. All drugs were bath applied.
Results
The Purkinje cell model can replicate the trimodal
pattern of spontaneous firing
In the absence of synaptic input, the model Purkinje cell fires
spontaneously in a repeating trimodal pattern that consists of tonic
spiking (t), bursting (b) and silence (s) (Fig. 1C). Significantly, the
model captures the long timescale reported for Purkinje cell
trimodality [3] with a pattern repeat length of ,20 seconds.
There is some uncertainty as to whether the trimodal firing
pattern is intrinsically generated or a function of neuromodulatory
input [3]. This replication of trimodal firing in a realistic and
experimentally constrained model of an isolated Purkinje cell adds
to the case for intrinsic generation.
The model soma can fire Na
+
spikes (Fig. 1C) and the model
dendrites can fire Ca
2+
spikes (Fig. 1D), in alignment with
experimental findings [10,39]. A comparison of Figure 1C and 1D
shows that the models tonic mode (t) is somatic spiking in the
absence of dendritic spiking. Whilst the models burst mode (b) is
produced by dendritic spikes propagating to the soma to drive
somatic bursting. Somatic bursts have a stereotypic waveform and
each somatic burst is co-incidental with a dendritic spike (Fig. 1E).
The models relationship between dendritic spikes and trimodal
bursting is in alignment with experimental data, where a similar
stereotypical burst waveform has been observed [5]. The
frequency of dendritic spiking sets the models burst parameters.
For example, the Kv1.2 potassium channel limits the frequency of
dendritic Ca
2+
spikes and its removal from the model (Fig. 1,
panels F and G) permits a higher frequency of dendritic firing
(Fig. 1H i), which decreases the number of spikes per burst (Fig. 1H
ii). This aligns with experimental data: pharmacological block of
Kv1.2 channels increases the frequency of dendritic calcium
spiking, and decreases the number of spikes per somatic burst, in
the trimodal firing pattern of cerebellar Purkinje cells [9].
In the model, the Kv1.2 channel gates the trimodal
patterns tonic to burst transition
The model dendrites have an intrinsic capacity to fire Ca
2+
spikes. Their low-threshold T-type and Class-E voltage-gated Ca
2+
channels open near the resting potential and they depolarize the
membrane potential to activate high-threshold P-type voltage-
gated Ca
2+
channels. These P-type Ca
2+
channels then produce
Ca
2+
spikes, which are repolarized by K
+
flow through BK-type
K
+
channels (in alignment with Miyasho et al. [14]).
This system is gated by dendritic Kv1.2 voltage-gated K
+
channels. Kv1.2 channels generate hyperpolarizing current which
clamps dendritic excitability and prevents Ca
2+
spike generation,
thus allowing the tonic mode of firing. However, the power of this
excitability clamp diminishes with time because extracellular K
+
accumulates (Fig. 2) and this reduces the electrochemical driving
force for K
+
flow. Eventually the hyperpolarizing current
produced by Kv1.2 channel activity is insufficient to prevent
dendritic spiking and the model is switched from the tonic to the
burst mode.
Kv1.2 is low-voltage gated. In addition to Kv1.2, the model has
other K
+
currents/channels in its dendrites. However, these are
largely uninvolved in the clamping of dendritic excitation as,
unlike Kv1.2, they are high-voltage gated and not open at the
relevant potentials. The D-type and A-type K
+
currents are low-
voltage gated but their involvement is limited because they
inactivate quickly. By contrast, the Kv1.2 current is non-
inactivating, which is why its current persists long enough to be
tempered by slow ion relaxation processes. Indeed, experiment has
shown the Kv1.2 current to be non-inactivating in the Purkinje cell
(McKay, 2005).
The control of the tonic to burst transition by Kv1.2 channels
enables the model to replicate an experimental investigation in
which Kv1.2 channel block dramatically shortened the tonic phase
within the trimodal pattern (Fig. 1F) [9].
In the model, the Na
+
/K
+
pump generates the trimodal
patterns quiescent phase
The Na
+
/K
+
pump hyperpolarizes the membrane potential
with a stoichiometry of three internal Na
+
ions exchanged for
every two external K
+
ions (methods). The Na
+
concentration in a
fuzzy space underneath the pump ([Na
+
]
i
) rises during the tonic
and burst firing modes (Fig. 2), as a function of voltage-gated Na
+
entry, and this intracellular Na
+
enzymatically increases pump
activity (Methods). Eventually, during the bursting mode, the pump
generates such a hyperpolarizing current that firing stops and the
model cell is driven to quiescence. In this case, without any spike
associated Na
+
entry, [Na
+
]
i
would be expected to stop rising.
However, [Na
+
]
i
continues to increase as the Na
+
influx is lagged
by a parameter t (refer Methods), which phenomenologically
encodes the long duration of Na
+
diffusion from the Na
+
channel
to Na
+
/K
+
pump (refer Discussion for more detail and justification). When
t expires, Na
+
influx stops whilst the pump maintains Na
+
efflux.
This decreases [Na
+
]
i
, which reduces hyperpolarizing pump
activity and eventually permits the models spontaneous firing to
resume. Firing resumes in the tonic spiking mode, rather than in
the bursting mode which preceded the quiescence, as during the
quiescence the Na
+
/K
+
pump resets the extracellular K
+
concentration and the Kv1.2 channels block to bursting. Thus,
the trimodal pattern is reset for another cycle.
The model can account for the heterogeneity in trimodal
repeat length between different Purkinje cells
The trimodal repeat length is the duration of a single repeat of
the trimodal pattern. It is described as a constant for an individual
Purkinje cell but can reportedly vary from 20 seconds to
20 minutes between different cells [3]. The model replicates the
fixed repeat length for a single cell (Fig. 3A) and provides a
mechanistic basis to the cell-to-cell heterogeneity.
The Na
+
/K
+
pumps affinity for internal Na
+
(K
Na
model
parameter) sets the firing length, which is the combined
duration of the tonic and bursting modes. The lower K
Na
, the
smaller the quantity of intracellular Na
+
that is needed to stimulate
the Na
+
/K
+
pump to a level of pumping that can hyperpolarize
the cell to silence, which equates to a shorter period of Na
+
entry
i.e. a shorter firing length (Fig. 3B). Reported K
Na
values vary in
cardiac cells [2] and it is possible that K
Na
could vary between
cerebellar Purkinje cells (the Na
+
/K
+
pump is present in both
cardiac and neural cells. In the absence of relevant studies in
neural cells, we cite studies in cardiac cells).
The Na
+
/K
+
pumps affinity for external K
+
(K
K
model
parameter) sets the duration of tonic firing. The higher K
K
, the
shorter the tonic mode (Fig. 3C). K
K
exerts this control by
regulating the rate of extracellular potassium accumulation.
Reported K
K
values vary in cardiac cells [2] and it is possible
that K
K
could vary between cerebellar Purkinje cells.
Intracellular Na
+
dynamics (encoded by the t model parameter)
set the duration of the quiescent mode. The smaller t, the shorter
the quiescent phase (Fig. 3D). Na
+
dynamics are complex and
embrace many constituent parameters, some of which could
feasibly vary between different Purkinje cells.
K
Na
, K
K
and t are hypothesised to be fixed parameters for a
single cell but with the potential to vary between different cells. A
model variant was constructed in which these three parameters
Figure 2. Changing ion concentrations drive the transition of modes in the Purkinje cell models trimodal pattern of firing. All panels
plot over the same period of time. A, Somatic membrane potential. The three different modes of a single trimodal repeat tonic, burst, quiescent -
are labelled. B, Membrane potential at a point in the dendrites. The burst mode at the soma corresponds with high threshold Ca
2+
spiking in the
dendrites. C, Extracellular K
+
concentration ([K
+
]
o
) to the dendritic compartments. [K
+
]
o
increases during firing as a function of voltage-gated K
+
efflux.
[K
+
]
o
recedes (resets) during quiescence as voltage-gated K
+
efflux stops whilst the Na
+
/K
+
pump maintains K
+
influx into the cell. [K
+
]
o
cannot exceed
3.03 mM. This is our setting for the ceiling to [K
+
]
o
accumulation (refer Methods) and is set for real Purkinje cells by the glial buffer system. As [K
+
]
o
accumulation passes a critical point, firing is switched from the tonic to the burst mode. As described in the Results, this is because [K
+
]
o
accumulation
reduces the driving force, and current flow, for the Kv1.2 K
+
current and this ultimately permits the dendrites to fire high threshold Ca
2+
spikes which
invade the soma and cause bursting. D, Somatic intracellular Na
+
concentration, in a fuzzy space underneath Na
+
/K
+
pumps ([Na
+
]
i
). [Na
+
]
i
increases
during firing, as a function of voltage-gated Na
+
entry. However, changes in [Na
+
]
i
are lagged by t =5 s to account for the duration of sodiums
diffusion from channels to pumps (refer Methods and Discussion). As [Na
+
]
i
increases past a critical point, the hyperpolarising force of Na
+
/K
+
pumping
achieves sufficient strength to drive the model cell to quiescence. [Na
+
]
i
decreases during quiescence, as voltage-gated Na
+
influx stops whilst the
Na
+
/K
+
pump maintains Na
+
efflux. This decrease in [Na
+
]
i
is lagged by t =5 s after the onset of quiescence.
were modified. K
Na
was changed from 40 mM to 10.5 mM, K
K
from 2.245 mM to 50 mM and t from 5 s to 1 s. The variant had
a trimodal repeat length of ,3 seconds (Fig. 3E) as compared to
the ,20 seconds of the standard model (Fig. 3A). This shorter
repeat length has not been reported in the literature. The variant
has the same model processes to generate its trimodal firing
pattern, it is just that these processes run faster and take less time.
This model variant is the standard model preparation for the
remainder of this report as its shorter repeat length is more
practical for the simulation of multiple trimodal repeats. Our
Purkinje cell model is computationally expensive (22 minutes of
CPU time required for 1 second of simulation; Intel Pentium PC)
and using a briefer repeat length shortens the duration of
simulations (of multiple repeats) to a manageable length. At the
time of research, parallelization was not advisable for single
neuron models in the NEURON environment because how to
split the modeling of a single morphology among multiple CPUs
was still an active research problem among NEURON developers.
In any case, we did not have access to such a system. Biological
modeling is typically abstractive, often because of computational
constraints, and it is a judgment call where to apply this
abstraction. We chose to have a realistic morphology and
abstracted on the time course. The model is not a perfect
simulacrum of a Purkinje cell and the conclusions we draw from it
are tentative.
The model cell has a morphology reconstructed from a Purkinje
cell in an adult rat cerebellum (Fig. 1A) [13]. When the model was
re-run with the same parameters, but with a differently
reconstructed morphology (Fig. 1B) (from guinea pig, [15]), the
trimodal repeat length was not significantly changed (Fig. 3F). This
is despite the second morphology being visually distinct. This
suggests that morphology might not be a primary dictator of the
trimodal repeat length. However, further work (with more
Purkinje morphologies) is needed to draw a firm conclusion.
The models soma and dendrites can both fire
spontaneously
The model has a soma capable of spontaneously firing Na
+
spikes and a dendritic tree capable of spontaneously firing Ca
2+
spikes. Thus, the models dendritic spiking is not reliant upon an
excitatory drive from the soma. This enables the model to replicate
the persistence of dendritic Ca
2+
spikes when Na
+
channels are
blocked (by TTX; [5]) (TTX block is simulated in the model by
setting the resurgent Na
+
current density to 0) (Fig. 4). These
dendritic spikes (Fig. 4B) propagate to the soma where they
produce small deflections in the membrane potential (Fig. 4A).
Hyperpolarization activated cation current (I
H
) is essential to the
models dendritic spontaneity. Without I
H
in the dendrites, the
dendrites cannot fire Ca
2+
spikes spontaneously. They can only
fire in the presence of somatic drive (data not shown). The
Figure 3. The K
Na
, K
K
and t model parameters set the models trimodal repeat length. We present durations of the tonic mode, bursting
mode, firing mode (tonic+bursting), quiescent mode and trimodal repeat length (tonic+bursting+quiescent) for different model settings. A, With
default settings [K
Na
=40 mM; K
K
=2.245 mM; t =5 s] the trimodal repeat length is ,20 s. B, Reducing K
Na
(40 mM to 20 mM) shortens the firing
(tonic+burst) duration. C, Increasing K
K
(2.245 mM to 20 mM) shortens the tonic duration. D, Reducing t (5 s to 1 s) shortens the quiescent mode. E,
With K
Na
, K
K
and t all modified [K
Na
=10.5 mM; K
K
=50 mM; t =1 s] the trimodal repeat length is ,3 s. F, When the model was run with a different
reconstructed Purkinje cell morphology, but with the same parameters as (E), the trimodal repeat length was not majorly changed.
importance of I
H
in the Purkinje cells electrical response to TTX
has been shown experimentally [40].
In the presence of TTX, somatic activity is bimodal with
periods of Ca
2+
spike activity alternating with periods of
quiescence [5]. The model can replicate this pattern (Fig. 4A),
with the quiescent periods generated by the electrogenic action of
the Na
+
/K
+
pump (as with the trimodal pattern). In this TTX
simulation, although there is no voltage-gated Na
+
entry through
the resurgent Na
+
current, stimulatory Na
+
to the Na
+
/K
+
pump
can still enter through the Na
+
/Ca
2+
exchanger.
The model can replicate other patterns of Purkinje cell
firing
Some Purkinje cells express the trimodal firing pattern without
pharmacological manipulation while others express it only upon
the condition that GABAergic synaptic inputs are blocked [3]. In
our experimental Purkinje cell recordings, we observed a repeating
bimodal pattern of tonic spiking and quiescence when GABAergic
connectivity is intact and only observed the trimodal firing pattern
upon pharmacological block of GABA synapses.
GABAergic stellate cells make inhibitory synaptic contacts upon
the dendrites of Purkinje cells [11]. When these inputs are
introduced into the Purkinje cell model they clamp the dendritic
excitability and prevent Ca
2+
spike generation. Thus, they prevent
the tonic to bursting transition and switch the model from firing in
a trimodal pattern (Fig. 5A) to firing in a repeating bimodal pattern
of tonic spiking and quiescence (Fig. 5B).
Some Purkinje cells intrinsically fire in this repeating bimodal
pattern, in the absence of synaptic input [9], and with adjustment
the model can replicate this behavior. For the model, we shall term
the length of firing (tonic and/or bursting) that can happen before
the pump gains enough strength to overcome it, and cause
quiescence, as the pump repeat length. This is dictated by K
Na
.
And we shall term the length of tonic spiking that can happen
before the onset of bursting as the tonic repeat length. This is
dictated by K
K
, which sets the loss rate of the Kv1.2 channel gate
to bursting. These two lengths are fixed for a particular model cell
but can vary between different model cells. If [pump repeat
length.tonic repeat length] then the model cell fires in a trimodal
pattern (Fig. 5A). If [tonic repeat length.pump repeat length]
then the model cell fires in a bimodal pattern (Fig. 5C) - no
bursting is observed because the pump drives the model cell to
quiescence before it can occur. A model cell can be switched from
bimodal to trimodal firing, or visa-versa, by changing the K
Na
or
K
K
values to modify the relation of pump repeat length to
tonic repeat length.
An intrinsically bimodal model cell can be switched to trimodal
firing by blocking the Kv1.2 current (setting Kv1.2 channel density
to 0) (Fig. 5D). This has experimental support with McKay et al.
[9] observing that pharmacological block of Kv1 channels can
switch a bimodal Purkinje cell into bursting; with the pertinent
Kv1 channel reasoned by the authors to be Kv1.2. Physiologically,
we can speculate that Kv1.2, with its acute phosphorylation
control [41,42,43], might be an online molecular switch
between the bimodal and trimodal firing modes.
Figure 4. Removal of Na
+
channels (simulated TTX block of Na
+
channels) abolishes the models Na
+
spiking, at the soma, but
not its Ca
2+
spiking in the dendrites. A, The models somatic
membrane potential (vs. Time), when Na
+
channels are absent. There
are no Na
+
spikes but periods of small deflections in the membrane
potential, which alternate with quiescent periods (bimodal behaviour).
B, The models dendritic membrane potential (vs. Time), when Na
+
channels are absent. Ca
2+
spikes persist in the dendrites and travel to
the soma to produce the aforementioned small somatic deflections in
membrane potential. This figure shows that the models dendritic
spiking is generated de novo and is not reliant upon an excitatory drive
from the soma.
Figure 5. The Purkinje cell model can replicate experimentally
observed bimodal patterns of Purkinje cell firing. Left panels are
somatic membrane potential and right panels are dendritic membrane
potential (vs. Time). By referring to the dendritic membrane potential
one can distinguish bursting from tonic firing at the soma. Because
bursting (unlike tonic firing) is co-incidental with dendritic spiking. A,
The standard Purkinje cell model fires in a repeating trimodal pattern. B,
Addition of inhibitory input switches the standard model out of the
trimodal pattern and into a repeating bimodal pattern of tonic spiking
and quiescence. C, Modifying the K
K
parameter (50 to 0.8) makes the
model intrinsically bimodal - firing bimodally (tonic spiking and
quiescence) in the absence of inhibitory input. D, With the bimodal
model of panel (C), removal of Kv1.2 channels switches it to fire in a
trimodal pattern. E, With the trimodal model of panel (A), removal of P-
type Ca
2+
channels switches it to fire in a bimodal pattern.
A model cell firing in the trimodal pattern can be switched into
the bimodal pattern by removing its dendritic P-type Ca
2+
channel
complement (Fig. 5E) such that it can no longer fire dendritic
calcium spikes. This replicates Purkinje data recorded when the
dendritic P-type Ca
2+
channels were pharmacologically blocked
[5].
Without synaptic input, not all Purkinje cells fire spontaneously
- some are quiescent [10]. The models basal intracellular Na
+
concentration is 10 mM (Methods) and setting K
Na
to 10 mM,
which is a realistic value [2], locks the model cell in continuous
quiescence (data not shown). It is worth mentioning that the
persistently quiescent Purkinje state might be erroneous and that
when quiescence is experimentally observed [10] it is not a
continuous operating mode in its own right, but just a component
of the trimodal or bimodal patterns. Our model is neutral to this
debate, being able to replicate either scenario.
The model recapitulates the response of Purkinje cells to
Na
+
/K
+
pump block by ouabain
As an objective assay of the models validity we investigated
whether it could predict the Purkinje cell response to the
application of ouabain. This is an experimental test that the
model has not been specifically tuned to capture and the ability of
a model to predict/fit data not used in determining its parameters
is an independent measure of how well the model approximates
reality. Ouabain inhibits the Na
+
/K
+
pump irreversibly [2] and
thus, after ouabain application, the proportion of pump molecules
blocked increases in time until eventually all pump activity is
abolished. Ouabain application was simulated in the Purkinje cell
model by decreasing the Na
+
/K
+
pump densities by arbitrary
functions of time (Methods), which switched the models trimodal
firing pattern into a continuous burst mode that converged upon
depolarization block. This same transition was observed experi-
mentally in whole cell patch clamp recordings from Purkinje cells
(firing in the trimodal pattern) following the application of 2.5 mM
ouabain (with 10 mM bicuculline present to block GABAergic
inputs) (n =4). After noting that the model and experimental
response to ouabain matched, validating the model, we then tuned
the models pump density decline functions to generate a best fit
between data (Fig. 6) and model (Fig. 7).
In the Purkinje cell response to ouabain (real or simulated), the
duration of the trimodal patterns silent periods became shorter
until firing was continuous (Fig. 6A) (Fig. 7A). The duration of the
trimodal patterns tonic mode also decreased, leading to an
increased proportion of burst firing (compare Fig. 6B and 6C)
(compare Figs. 7B, 7C and 7D). Indeed, by the time cells were
continuously active the firing only consisted of bursts, with no
tonic mode remaining (Fig. 6D) (Fig. 7E). An experimental
hyperpolarization of the membrane potential could not prompt
the re-emergence of the tonic or quiescent modes (n =3; data not
shown). After a time, this continuous bursting attained a shallow
gradient of depolarization that eventually converged upon somatic
depolarization block (Fig. 6A) (Fig. 7A). This block was furrowed
with small deflections in the membrane potential (Fig. 6E) (Fig. 7F),
which are attributable to Ca
2+
spikes that have travelled from the
dendrites. So, although the soma was in depolarization block the
dendrites were not and continued to fire. In some cells these
deflections got smaller and smaller until there was complete
quiescence, which suggests that in these cases the dendrites entered
depolarization block as well (data not shown). During the
progression to somatic depolarization block, the number of Na
+
spikes per burst decreased (Figs. 6F, 6G, 6H) (Figs. 7G, 7H, 7I) until
there were none and only Ca
2+
spikes (from the dendritic
arborisation) were observed (Fig. 6I) (Fig. 7J). During the somatic
depolarization block, an experimental hyperpolarization of the
membrane potential brought re-emergent Na
+
spiking and showed
this block to be a function of Na
+
channel inactivation. However,
this recovery could not occur if the hyperpolarization was
introduced too long after the onset of depolarization block,
perhaps because these Na
+
channels become irreversibly inacti-
vated in time (data not shown).
In this matching experimental and model response to Na
+
/K
+
pump block, the loss of the quiescent mode indicates that the Na
+
/
K
+
pump generates trimodal quiescence. The loss of the tonic
mode indicates that the Na
+
/K
+
pump controls the tonic to burst
transition through its setting of extracellular [K
+
], which controls a
Kv1.2 channel gate to bursting. The depolarization block
Figure 6. Ouabain block of the Na
+
/K
+
pump switches Purkinje
cell activity out of the trimodal firing pattern and into a
continuous burst mode. Panel A shows a whole cell patch clamp
recording from a Purkinje cell (with 10 mM bicuculline already present
to block GABAergic inputs) following the application of 2.5 mM ouabain.
The arrow denotes the time at which we feel that ouabain starts to
modify Purkinje cell firing. Panels B, C, D, and E correspond to the
labelled parts of panel A. Panels F, G, H and I show individual bursts
from B, D, D and E respectively. The initial firing mode, before any Na
+
/
K
+
pump block, is trimodal (panel B). With time, as Na
+
/K
+
pumps
become blocked, the trimodal patterns quiescent periods get shorter
until they are eventually abolished and the cell fires continuously (panel
A). Over this same period the length of the trimodal patterns tonic
mode also decreases, ceding to an increasing propensity to burst
(compare panels B and C). Indeed, by the time of continuous firing
(panel D) there is only bursting and no tonic fraction at all. After a
period, this continuous bursting acquires a gradient of depolarization
(Panel A). As it depolarizes, the number of spikes per burst steadily
decreases (F, G, H) until the soma enters depolarization block and there
are none. In this case, the only deflections observed are those of the
Ca
2+
spikes that have travelled into the soma from the dendritic
arborisation (E, I). Panel A scaling is encoded in the first scale bar (50 mV,
50 s). The scaling of panels B, C, D and E is encoded in the second scale
bar (50 mV, 3 s). The scaling of panels F, G, H and I is encoded in the third
scale bar (50 mV, 100 ms).
demonstrates that the Na
+
/K
+
pump is required to counterbal-
ance a strong and depolarizing force. Indeed, the pump has been
reported to offset a depolarizing tetrodotoxin (TTX) resistant Na
+
entry in the Purkinje cell [30]. The model incorporates our
hypothesis that this Na
+
entry is through the Na
+
/Ca
2+
exchanger,
which has been shown present in Purkinje cells [44]. The Na
+
/
Ca
2+
exchanger is net depolarizing (21), inwardly passing 3 Na
+
ions for the extrusion of every Ca
2+
ion [32]. By contrast, the Na
+
/
K
+
pump is net hyperpolarizing (+1) with a stoichiometry of [3 Na
+
out: 2 K
+
in] [2]. The model soma and dendrites have a Na
+
/
Ca
2+
exchanger and an electrically counterbalancing Na
+
/K
+
pump mechanism (Methods). With Na
+
/K
+
pump loss the
counterbalance to the depolarizing force of the Na
+
/Ca
2+
exchanger is lost and depolarization ensues. The sizable Na
+
/
Ca
2+
exchanger density at the soma, when not counterbalanced by
Na
+
/K
+
pump, puts the soma into depolarization block. However,
the lesser Na
+
/Ca
2+
exchange density in the dendrites, when not
counterbalanced by Na
+
/K
+
pump, cannot put the dendrites into
depolarization block.
Unfortunately, the ouabain response of the real and model
Purkinje cell was not in complete alignment. The models
deflections in the membrane potential, furrowing the depolariza-
tion block, are smaller than those observed experimentally. Also,
the models timescale of response to ouabain (,10 seconds,
Fig. 7A) does not match that observed in vitro (,1000 seconds,
Fig. 6A). Although, to address the latter we propose that the model
might be modified to operate over the longer experimental
timescale by 1) changing K
Na
, K
K
and t to yield a longer trimodal
repeat length and 2) using slower functions of decline for the
models Na
+
/K
+
densities. To elaborate on point (2) - the effect of
ouabain, which blocks a greater and greater fraction of Na
+
/K
+
pumps over time, is replicated in the model by decreasing the
models Na
+
/K
+
densities over time. The model parameters that
set this rate of decline (Y, c
1
s
, c
1
d
, M, c
2
s
, c
2
d
) could be changed to
pace the decline over ,1000 seconds rather than ,10 seconds
they are free parameters, unconstrained by any prior literature.
However, the model takes 15 days to simulate ,1000 seconds
(22 minutes of CPU time required for 1 second of simulation, Intel
Pentium PC) and it would take many trial and error runs (so many
months, possibly years) to tune these free parameter values to give
a best fit between model and reality. We believe that the model
captures the processes that occur in real Purkinje cells under
ouabain block, but that these processes run faster and take less
time in the model i.e. the model abstracts on the time course.
Biological modelling is typically abstractive, often because of
computational constraints, and this can be permissible if it is clear
where abstraction has been placed.
In experiments with a lower ouabain concentration (1.5 mM) the
same sequence of events occurred but took longer (n =3; data not
shown), presumably because the pump block progression was
slower. And with higher ouabain concentrations (1020 mM), the
progression to depolarization block was rapid and the transition
through the aforementioned sequence was not observed (n =5; data
not shown).
Ouabain block of the Na
+
/K
+
pump also imposes a switch in
behaviour for Purkinje cells that have intact inhibitory synaptic
inputs (no bicuculline applied) and which fire in a repeating
bimodal pattern of tonic spiking and quiescence. Ouabain
(2.5 mM) initially switches their firing from bimodal to trimodal,
before a switch to continual bursting and an eventual depolariza-
tion block (Fig. 8) (n =3). This indicates that the pump is the
quiescence generating mechanism for the bimodal pattern of firing
as well as for the trimodal pattern. The model is able to accurately
reproduce this experimentally observed behaviour (Fig. 9).
In the presence of TTX (1 mM), the Purkinje cell expresses a
repeating bimodal pattern of Ca
2+
spike activity and quiescence
[5]. When Ouabain (2 mM) is applied to a Purkinje cell that is in
this TTX induced bimodality, it shortens the length of the
quiescent periods until ultimately the cell is switched to a pattern of
continuous Ca
2+
spike activity (Fig. 10A) (n =3). This suggests that
it is the Na
+
/K
+
pump that generates the quiescent periods in the
Purkinje response to TTX. This experiment is well recapitulated
by the model (Fig. 10B).
The reduced Purkinje cell models can replicate the
behaviour of the full Purkinje cell model
Figure 11 shows that the 1089, 41 and 5 compartment models
can all spontaneously fire in the trimodal pattern of activity i.e.
they are qualitatively equivalent. Figure 12 shows that the 1089, 41
Figure 7. The model can recapitulate the response of Purkinje
cells (firing in the trimodal pattern) to Na
+
/K
+
pump block by
ouabain. A, Somatic membrane potential (vs. Time) with the arrow
denoting the onset of Na
+
/K
+
pump block. Panels B, C, D, E and F
correspond to the labelled parts of Panel A. Panels G, H, I and J show
individual bursts from B, D, F and F respectively. The firing pattern in
control, before any Na
+
/K
+
pump block, is trimodal (panel B). Following
the onset of Na
+
/K
+
pump block, the trimodal patterns quiescent
periods get shorter until eventually they are abolished and the cell fires
continuously (panel A). Over this same period the duration of the
trimodal patterns tonic mode also decreases, leading to an increased
proportion of burst firing (compare panels B, C and D). Indeed, by the
time cells are continuously active the firing only consists of bursts, with
no tonic mode remaining (panel E). After a period, this continuous
bursting acquires a gradient of depolarization (Panel A). As it
depolarizes, the number of spikes per burst steadily decreases (G, H,
I) until the soma enters depolarization block and there are none. In this
case, the only deflections observed are those produced by Ca
2+
spikes
that have travelled to the soma from the dendritic arborisation (F, J).
Panel A scaling is encoded in the first scale bar (80 mV, 1 s). The scaling of
panels B, C, D, E and F is encoded in the second scale bar (80 mV, 100 ms).
The scaling of panels G, H, I and J is encoded in the third scale bar (80 mV,
30 ms).
and 5 compartment models all respond equivalently to simulated
ouabain block of the Na
+
/K
+
pump. This matching behavior
might be an indication that morphology does not play a primary
role in setting the parameters of the trimodal firing pattern (i.e.
pattern repeat length, length of constituent modes).
Discussion
The Purkinje cell model can replicate the in vitro activity
of the cerebellar Purkinje cell
This investigation valuably reconciles the divergent Purkinje
behaviours observed in different in vitro studies (quiescent [10],
trimodal [3], bimodal [9]) and establishes a biophysical basis to the
operating diversity of the cerebellar Purkinje neuron. We suggest
that at the foundation of the Purkinje cells intrinsic multimodality,
there is the working of just a single molecular species the Na
+
/
K
+
pump - and we propose that it sets the Purkinje cell as
persistently quiescent or spontaneously firing in trimodal or
bimodal patterns (and sets the lengths of the different modes in
these pattern repeats).
To date, the trimodal firing pattern has only been observed in
vitro it may be an in vitro artifact - and the length of its constituent
modes (tonic, bursting, quiescent) is reported as fixed for a
particular Purkinje cell [3]. However, if the trimodal pattern is
physiologically relevant we propose that modulators to Na
+
/K
+
pumping might act to regulate the length of modes as a signalling
element to the deep cerebellar nuclei (DCN). The model shows
how modifying the K
Na
and K
K
pump parameters, which might
be modulated by signalling cascades in vivo [45], can change the
trimodal pattern. Indeed, the model highlights that their
modulation could be a molecular switch between the trimodal
and bimodal patterns of firing.
The model shows that the trimodal pattern of firing is regulated
by the extracellular K
+
concentration. Neighboring Purkinje cells
share an immediate extracellular milieu, which raises the
possibility that adjacent or nearby Purkinje cells can signal to
each other through the extracellular K
+
concentration variable.
This communication could be modulated by glial cells, which
buffer K
+
[46], and this would instill them as a novel working
component of the cerebellar circuit.
The t parameter of the model captures the duration of
Na
+
diffusion from channels to pumps
The trimodal patterns quiescent mode can span seconds or
minutes [3] and thus its generative mechanism, which we suggest
to be Na
+
/K
+
pumping, must match this timescale. Na
+
/K
+
pump
activity is stimulated by intracellular Na
+
and for it to persist at
sufficient intensity during the quiescence, to perpetuate the
quiescence, there must be a maintained intracellular Na
+
accumulation. This persistence is non-intuitive as pump activity
would be expected to quickly erode the Na
+
accumulation during
quiescence (by continuing to pump Na
+
out of the cell in the
absence of any voltage-gated Na
+
entry), which would down-
regulate pump activity. However, intracellular Na
+
accumulation
has actually been experimentally observed to persist minutes after
the end of voltage-gated Na
+
entry; a phenomenon that has been
ascribed to a non-uniform cytoplasmic distribution of ions
[47,48,49]. Neurons and muscle cells have a fuzzy space
between the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and the plasma
membrane [25,50,51,52], termed the PLasmERosome, where
Figure 8. With inhibitory synaptic inputs unblocked, some Purkinje cells fire in a repeating bimodal pattern; ouabain block of Na
+
/
K
+
pumps switches these cells into the trimodal firing pattern and then a continuous burst mode. A, Whole cell patch clamp recording
from a Purkinje cell (with GABA synaptic inputs intact/unblocked) in control and following the application of 2.5 mM ouabain. The red arrow denotes
the time at which we feel that ouabain starts to modify Purkinje cell firing. Panels B, C, D, and E correspond to the labelled parts of panel A. In control,
the Purkinje cell activity is in the repeating bimodal pattern (B). Following the addition of ouabain, the firing pattern is switched from bimodal to
trimodal (C) and then transitions into continuous bursting (D). After a period, this bursting acquires a gradient of depolarization and ultimately
converges upon a somatic depolarization block, in which the only deflections observed are those of Ca
2+
spikes that have travelled into the soma
from the dendritic arborisation (E). Panel A scaling is encoded in the first scale bar (20 mV, 100 s). Panel B scaling is encoded in the second scale bar
(20 mV, 5 s). The scaling of panels C, D and E is encoded in the third scale bar (20 mV, 5 s).
some unknown molecular anatomy severely impedes the
movement of small ions and yet allows equilibration with the
cytoplasm over longer times [53]. So, the soma has two spatially-
distinct and weakly coupled compartments for Na
+
, the fuzzy
space and the bulk cytoplasm. A steep Na
+
gradient has been
experimentally measured between these two spaces [47]. The
Na
+
/K
+
pump is located in the fuzzy space whilst the voltage-
gated Na
+
channels might be localised to a third functional
domain [48] or they may also be in the fuzzy space but spatially
segregated from the pumps, given this domains reported
microheterogeneity of high [Na
+
] hot spots alternating with
areas of lower [Na
+
] [47]. Either way, the Na
+
channel and pump
appear geographically distinct. In the model, the lag parameter (t)
accounts for the duration of sodiums diffusion from channel to
pump. This duration can be on the order of seconds to minutes
because diffusion is significantly restricted in the fuzzy space by an,
as yet, uncharacterized physiochemical process [54]. Thus, when
Na
+
influx stops it takes time to feed through and reduce the Na
+
concentration underneath the pump, which is the critical
concentration for pump activity. This lag could account for why
the pump current decays on the order of seconds to minutes, as
reported by Su et al. [55], rather than milliseconds. This large
diffusive lag might also account for why no elevated pump
activation is observed within 2 seconds of an increased Na
+
entry
[56]. The model represents diffusion abstractly, with the t
parameter, because an explicit account would be too computa-
tionally expensive and ill constrained by the literature. Intracel-
lular Na
+
and Ca
2+
dynamics are linked (cross-talk) through the
action of the Na
+
/Ca
2+
exchanger and intracellular Ca
2+
dynamics may be an additional complexity involved.
Discussion of the Na
+
/K
+
pump block experiments with
ouabain
The reader must be aware that Na
+
/K
+
pump block might
eradicate quiescence in the trimodal and bimodal firing patterns,
not because the Na
+
/K
+
pump generates quiescence (per se), but
because this block causes depolarization which compromises the
activity of the true entity responsible. This is actually a problem
inherent to many pharmacological block experiments that seek to
parse the function of individual neuronal currents. By knocking
out a current, the voltage trajectory is changed and in
interpretation one is then unsure as to whether functional changes
are due to that loss or due to changes in another current(s), which
is regulated by the membrane potential. We did control
experiments where we injected hyperpolarizing current to counter
the ouabain induced depolarization (n =3) and in which we still
observed the loss of the quiescent mode (data not shown).
However, this injection was at the soma and it probably didnt
prevent depolarization in the entirety of the elaborate dendritic
tree. So, it is with this caveat that we propose the Na
+
/K
+
pump as
the generative mechanism to trimodal quiescence.
Different cell types can have different response profiles to a
Na
+
/K
+
pump block. With hypoglossal motoneurons of the rat,
bath application of a 420 mM ouabain solution produced a
partial block of Na
+
/K
+
pump activity and produced no
significant change in either the initial, early, or late phases of spike-
frequency adaptation i.e. 420 mM ouabain application did not
cease or significantly alter the firing rate of rat motorneuons [57].
The authors of this study did not believe that this negative result
was a consequence of using ineffective concentrations of ouabain,
because (they) often applied concentrations .10 mM which have
Figure 9. With inhibitory synaptic inputs unblocked, some Purkinje cells fire in a repeating bimodal pattern (tonic spiking/
quiescence) and the model can replicate their response to Na
+
/K
+
pump block by ouabain. Panels B, C, D, and E correspond to the
labelled parts of panel A. A, With simulated GABAergic synaptic inputs innervating the model, it fires in a bimodal pattern of tonic spiking and
quiescence (B). The red arrow denotes the onset of simulated ouabain application. Following this onset, the firing pattern is switched from bimodal
to trimodal (C) and then transitions into continuous bursting (D). After a period, this bursting acquires a gradient of depolarization and ultimately
converges upon a somatic depolarization block, in which the only deflections observed are those of Ca
2+
spikes that have travelled into the soma
from the dendritic arborisation (E). Panel A scaling is encoded in the first scale bar (20 mV, 1 s). The scaling of panels B, C, D and E is encoded in the
second scale bar (20 mV, 0.2 s).
been reported to inhibit ,70% of the Na
+
/K
+
activity in rat
brain. They reported that ouabain concentrations .20 mM
generally resulted in broad, short spikes and eventual cessation of
repetitive discharge (data not shown in their paper). By contrast,
in our study with cerebellar Purkinje neurons of the rat, just a
1.5 mM ouabain solution can lead to the cessation of repetitive
discharge. And this cessation occurs after a stereotypical sequence
of changes, before any significant depolarization, that is not
described in (and we presume is not applicable to) the
motorneuron study of [57]: the quiescent and tonic periods of
the trimodal firing pattern become shorter over time, whilst the
burst phase of the trimodal firing pattern becomes proportionally
longer.
Pharmacological block of the Na
+
/K
+
pump has been shown to
promote firing and prevent the generation of quiescent periods in
canine coronary sinus fibers. This result is interpreted as evidence
that the Na
+
/K
+
pump is the generative mechanism to these
quiescent periods [58]. This study is a precedent for our own Na
+
/
K
+
pump block experiments and our tentative conclusions from
them. Although, incidentally, with coronary sinus fibers there is
another layer of complexity that is not observed with cerebellar
Purkinje cells - with Na
+
/K
+
pumps blocked, quiescent periods
can still occur in coronary sinus fibers, in some instances, all be it
delayed. These are interpreted to occur because Na
+
/K
+
pump
block compromises the maintenance of the Na
+
electrochemical
gradient, which compromises Na
+
/Ca
2+
exchanger activity,
increasing [Ca
2+
]
i
and raising Ca
2+
-activated K
+
current flow,
which hyperpolarizes the cell - overcomes firing - and generates
quiescence. So, again, one can ascertain from this account that
different cell types can have very different response profiles to a
Na
+
/K
+
pump block.
Figure 10. Upon Na
+
channel block, real and model Purkinje
cells express a repeating bimodal pattern (Ca
2+
spike activity/
quiescence) and Na
+
/K
+
pump block eradicates its quiescent
component. A, Whole cell patch clamp recording from a Purkinje cell
in the presence of 1 mM TTX (to block Na
+
channels), which sets a
repeating bimodal pattern of Ca
2+
spike activity and quiescence, before
the introduction of 2 mM ouabain (to block the Na
+
/K
+
pump)
eradicates quiescence and renders continuous activity. B, The models
somatic membrane potential (vs. Time), with arrows denoting the onset
of TTX simulation (Na
+
channel density =0) and ouabain simulation
(Na
+
/K
+
pump densities reduced as a function of time). The model
replicates the principal features of the experimental recording.
However, the models transition into a continuous activity mode,
without any quiescent periods, occurs faster than in experiment.
Ouabain blocks a greater and greater fraction of Na
+
/K
+
pump
molecules over time, until all Na
+
/K
+
pump molecules are blocked.
Upon experimental ouabain application (panel A), one further quiescent
period is observed before the rising ouabain block compromises a
sufficient fraction, such that no further quiescent periods are observed.
Upon simulated ouabain application (panel B), no further quiescent
periods are observed. Ouabain application was simulated in the
Purkinje cell model by decreasing the Na
+
/K
+
pump densities by
arbitrary functions of time (Methods). A slower transition, to the ouabain
rendered behaviour, could be achieved in the model by using slower
functions of decline for the models Na
+
/K
+
pump densities. However,
the model does not employ such slower functions; it abstracts on the
time course.
Figure 11. The 1089, 41 and 5 compartment models of the
cerebellar Purkinje cell can all spontaneously fire in the
trimodal pattern of activity.
Figure 12. The 1089, 41 and 5 compartment models of the
cerbellar Purkinje cell can all respond equivalently (qualita-
tively) to a simulated ouabain block of the Na
+
/K
+
pump.
Before we considered the Na
+
/K
+
pump as the drive to
trimodal quiescence, we entertained the possibility that a Ca
2+
-
activated K
+
current might be responsible. However, we
discounted the SK K
+
current because the trimodal patterns
quiescent mode can still occur when this current is blocked by
apamin [4]. And we discounted the BK K
+
current because the
trimodal patterns quiescent mode can still occur when this current
is pharmacologically blocked by IBTX [5] or when it is genetically
knocked out [59]. In fact, the quiescent mode still occurs when BK
and SK are blocked in concurrence by IBTX and apamin
respectively [60]. And our Na
+
/K
+
pump block experiment could
indicate that Ca
2+
-activated K
+
currents are not involved - Na
+
/
K
+
pump block has been shown to cause intracellular Ca
2+
accumulation in a number of cell types because it compromises the
Na
+
electrochemical gradient, which the Na
+
/Ca
2+
exchanger
requires to pump Ca
2+
out of the cell [58,61]. So, if the trimodal
patterns quiescent mode is not generated by the Na
+
/K
+
pump,
but instead by a Ca
2+
-activated hyperpolarizing current, we might
expect Na
+
/K
+
pump block to promote quiescence rather than
shorten and eradicate it. Indeed, as aforementioned, Na
+
/K
+
pump block has been shown to cause quiescent periods via Ca
2+
-
activated K
+
currents in canine coronary sinus fibers [58].
The models mechanism of generating the trimodal
pattern permits the model to replicate a diversity of
other Purkinje cell activity states, which endorses this
mechanism and the model
The detailed biophysical model replicates Purkinje cell firing
patterns with the mechanisms that we hypothesise to be
responsible in real Purkinje cells. And these predictions are
forceful given the models level of detail, with its faithfully
reconstructed morphology and current, synapse and pump
equations predominantly parameterized to experimental data.
The models mechanism of generating the trimodal firing pattern
is endorsed by endowing the model with the ability to replicate a
wealth of other experimentally observed Purkinje cell operating
states: quiescence, the intrinsic bimodal firing pattern (Fig. 5C), the
GABAergic imposed bimodal firing pattern that masks an intrinsic
trimodal firing pattern (Fig. 5B), the stereotypical firing pattern
observed in response to TTX block of Na
+
channels (Fig. 4), Kv1.2
channel block switching Purkinje cells from the bimodal to
trimodal firing pattern (Fig. 5D), P-type Ca
2+
channel block
switching Purkinje cells from the trimodal to bimodal firing
pattern (Fig. 5E) and the complicated Purkinje cell response to an
ouabain block of the Na
+
/K
+
pump, both on its own (Fig. 7 and
Fig. 9) and in combination with a TTX block of Na
+
channels
(Fig. 10).
The reduced models run faster than the full Purkinje cell model,
yet faithfully reproduce its electrical behaviour. This similarity,
between the outputs of the full model (1089 compartments) and its
derivatives (the 41 compartment and 5 compartment models),
serves to illustrate the reproducibility (semi-quantitative) of the
computational experiments performed with the full model.
The mechanisms that we propose to drive the Purkinje cells
trimodal pattern of firing have been observed in other classes of
neuron. Extracellular K
+
has been experimentally observed to
accumulate during sustained neural activity [26,62,63] and has
been modelled to drive a tonic to burst transition in the neocortical
pyramidal cell [7]. The electrogenic action of the Na
+
/K
+
pump
(regulated by the intracellular Na
+
concentration) has been shown
experimentally to generate quiescent periods in canine coronary
sinus fibers [58].
Physiological relevance of the model
In vitro, repetitive climbing fiber (CF) input (at a physiological
frequency, ,1 Hz) switches Purkinje cells out of the trimodal
firing pattern and into a nonbursting pattern of activity [63]. On
this basis it is probable that the trimodal firing pattern is not
applicable in vivo. However, in these experiments, although CF
input blocks the trimodal patterns bursting mode, quiescent
periods can still be observed.
CF input has been observed to toggle the cell between a tonic
firing state and a quiescent state. So, state transitions occur at the
frequency of CF input (,1 Hz) and tonic firing periods of ,1 s
alternate with quiescent periods of ,1 s (in vitro [64]; in vivo [65]).
We do not propose that the Na
+
/K
+
pump generates these
quiescent periods. However, there are much longer quiescent
periods observed, where CF input cannot evoke a complex spike
or a state transition to tonic firing (Fig. 1D in [64]), and we propose
that these are Na
+
/K
+
pump generated silences. Indeed, a sizable
fraction of the quiescent periods observed in vivo have an onset and
termination that is not co-incidental or driven by complex spike
events [64]. So, we speculate that although CF input blocks the
trimodal patterns bursting mode, it does not block its quiescent
mode. Which we have shown could be generated by Na
+
/K
+
pumping i.e. we tentatively suggest that Na
+
/K
+
pump generated
silences occur physiologically and speculate that they have a
function. Interestingly, mutations in the Na
+
/K
+
pump can cause
rapid-onset dystonia-parkinsonism (RDP), which has symptoms to
indicate that it is a pathology of cerebellar computation [66,67]. In
addition, there is a growing body of work indicating that Na
+
/K
+
pumps might subserve information processing roles in neurons
[68,69,70,71].
Author Contributions
Conceived and designed the experiments: MDF MJW DAP JF. Performed
the experiments: MDF MJW. Analyzed the data: MDF MJW. Contributed
reagents/materials/analysis tools: MDF MJW. Wrote the paper: MDF.
Read and amended manuscript: MJW JF.
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The Sodium-Potassium Pump Controls the Intrinsic Firing

of the Cerebellar Purkinje Neuron

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