Electric Charge

1. There are two kind of electric charge, namely the positive charge
and the negative charge.
2. Like charge repel each other.
3. Unlike charge attract each other.
4. A neutral body can be attracted by another body which has
either positive or negative charge.
5. The SI unit of electric charge is Coulomb (C).
Example
Charge of 1 electron = -1.6 x 10
-19
C
Charge of 1 proton = +1.6 x 10
-19
C

Charge and Relative Charge

Sum of Charge
Sum of charge
= number of charge particles charge of 1 particle
Q=ne

Example:
Find the charge of 2.5 x 10
19
electrons.
(Charge of 1 electron is -1.6 x 10
-19
C)

Answer:
Number of electrons, n = 2.5 x 10
19

Charge of 1 electron, e = -1.6 x 10
-19
C
Q=ne
Q=(2.510
19
)(1.610
19
)
Q=4C


Electric Field

1. An electric field is a region in which an electric charged particle
experiences an electric force.
2. Electric field is represented by a number of lines with arrows,
called electric lines of force or electric field lines.
3. The direction of the field at a point is defined by the direction of
the electric force exerted on a positive test charge placed at that point.

4. The strength of the electric field is indicated by how close the
field lines are to each other. The closer the field lines, the stronger the
electric field in that region.

Example

5. The lines of force are directed outwards for a positive charge and
inwards for a negative charge.
6. The electric line of force will never cross each other.
7. The figure shows a few examples of the field pattern that you
need to know in the SPM syllabus.



Effect of Electric Field on a Ping Pong Ball Coated with Conducting
Material

1. A ping ball coated with conducting material is hung by a nylon
thread.
2. When the ping pong ball is placed in between 2 plates connected
to a Extra High Tension (E.H.T.) power supply, opposite charges are
induced on the surface of the ball. The ball will still remain stationary.
This is because the force exert on the ball by the positive plate is equal to
the force exerted on it by the negative plate.
3. If the ping pong ball is displaced to the right to touch the positive
plate, it will then be charged with positive charge. Since like charges
repel, the ball will be pushed towards the negative plate.
4. When the ping pong ball touches the negative plate, it will be
charged with negative charge. Again, like charge repel, the ball will be
pushed towards the positive plate. This process repeats again and again,
causes the ping pong ball oscillates to and fro continuously between the
two plates
A Candle Flame in an Electric Field
1. Normally, with absent of wind, the flame of a candle is
symmetry.
2. The heat of the candle flame removes electrons from the air
molecules around it, and therefore ionised the molecule. As a result, the
flame is surrounded by a large number of positive and negative ions.

3. If the candle is placed in between 2 plates connected to a Extra
High Tension (E.H.T.) power supply, the positive ions will be attracted
to the negative plate while the negative ions will be attracted to the
positive plate.
4. The spreading of the flame is not symmetry. This is because the
positive ions are much bigger than the negative ions; it will collide with
the other air molecule and bring more air molecule towards the negative
plate.
Current
1. An electric current I is a measure of the rate of flow of electric
charge Q through a given cross-section of a conductor.
2. In other words, current is the measure of how fast the charge flow
through a cross section of a conductor.

Equation

Current=The Amount of Charge Flow/Time Taken
or

I=Q/t
Direction of Current

1. Conventionally, the direction of the electric current is taken to be
the flow of positive charge.
2. The electron flow is in the opposite direction to that of the
conventional current.
3. In a circuit, current flow from the positive terminal to the
negative terminal.
4. In a circuit, electrons flow from the negative terminal to the
positive terminal.



Unit of Current
1. The SI unit for current is the ampere (A).
2. The current at a point is 1 ampere if 1 Coulomb of electric charge
flows through that point in 1 second. Therefore, 1 A = 1C/s.


Example 1:
If 30 C of electric charge flows past a point in a wire in 2 minutes, what is
the current in the wire?

Answer:
Charge flow, Q = 30C
Time taken, t = 2 minutes = 120s

Current,
I=Q/t, I=30/120=0.25A

Example 2:
Current of 0.5A flowed through a bulb. How many electrons had flowed
through the bulb in 5 minute? (The charge of 1 electron is equal to -
1.610
-19
C)

Answer:
Current, I = 0.5A
Time taken, t = 5 minutes = 300s
I=Q/t, Q=It, Q=(0.5)(300)=150C
Charge of 1 electron, e = -1.610
-19
C
Number of electrons, n = ?
Q=ne n=Q/e n=1501.61019=9.3751020
Potential and Potential Difference
1. The electric potential V at a point in an electric field is the work
done to bring a unit ( 1 Coulomb) positive charge from infinity to the
point.
2. The potential difference (p.d.) between two points is defined as
the work done in moving 1 Coulomb of positive charge from 1 point in
an electric field to another point.
3. In mathematics
Potential Difference =Work Done/Amount of Charge Flow
or
V=WQ

4. Example, in the diagram above, if the work done to move a
charge of 2C from point A to point is 10J, the potential difference
between A and B,
V
AB
=10J/2C=5J/C=5V

Example:
During an occasion of lightning, 200C of charge was transferred from the
cloud to the surface of the earth and 1.2510
10
J of energy was produced.
Find the potential difference between the cloud and the surface of the
earth.

Answer:
Work done, W = 1.2510
10
J
Charge transferred, Q = 200C
Potential difference, V = ?
V=W/Q V=1.2510
10
/200 V=6.2510
7
V


Arrangement of Ammeter


To use the ammeter in the measurement of an electric current, the ammeter
must be connected in series to the circuit.


Arrangement of Voltmeter


To use the voltmeter in the measurement of potential difference across an
object, the voltmeter must be connected in parallel to the circuit.
Relationship Between Current and Potential Difference
Ohms Law

1. The relationship between the current passing through 2 points in a
conductor and the potential difference between the 2 points is given by
Ohm's law.
2. Ohms Law states that the current flowing in the metallic
conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference applied
across its ends, provided that the physical conditions ( such as
temperature ) are constant.
IV
or
V=kI
where k is a constant

Example:
What is the current flow through an 800 toaster when it is operating on
240V?

Answer:
Resistance, R = 800
Potential difference, V = 240V
Current, I = ?
R=V/I I=V/R=240/800=0.3A
Resistance
1. The resistance R of a material is defined as the ratio V : I, where
V is the potential difference across the material and I is the current
flowing in it.
V/I=Resistance (R)
2. The SI unit of resistance is the ohm (W). One ohm is the
resistance of a material through which a current of one ampere flows
when a potential difference of one volt is maintained.


Finding Resistance from the Potential Difference - Current Graph
In the graph potential difference against current, the gradient of the
graph is equal to the resistance of the resistor.

Resistance, R = Gradient of the Graph

Example:


Figure above shows the graph of potential difference across a wire
against its current. Find the resistance of the wire.

Answer:
Resistance
R=V/I=Gradient of the graph R=15/3=5V
Ohmic Conductor


1. Conductors that obey Ohms law are said to be ohmic conductor.
2. Examples of Ohmic conductor: Metal, Copper sulphate solution
with copper electrodes




















Non-Ohmic Conductor
1. Conductors which do not obey Ohms law are called non-ohmic
conductor.
2. Example: Semiconductor Diode, Vacuum tube diode
Factors Affecting the Resistance 1
The resistance R of a given conductor depends on:
1. its length l,
2. its cross-sectional area A
3. its temperature and
4. the type of material.
Length


Resistance is directly proportional to the length of the conductor.
Cross Sectional Area


Resistance is inversely proportional to the cross sectional area of the
conductor.
Temperature


A conductor with higher temperature has higher resistance.

(Examples of non-Ohmic conductor)
Material


Difference materials have difference resistivity. The resistance of copper
wire is lower than iron wire.


Since resistance is directly proportional to the length and inversely
proportional to the cross sectional area of the conductor. If two resistors
of same material have same temperature, we can relate the resistance of
the two resistors by the following equation.

R
1
A
1
/l
1
=R
2
A
2
/l
2



Electromotive Force
1. In a circuit, electromotive force is the energy per unit charge
converted from the other forms of energy into electrical energy to move
the charge across the whole circuit.
In equation,
E=W/Q
where
E = e.m.f.,
W = energy converted from non-electrical forms to electrical form
Q = positive charge.
2. The unit of e.m.f. is JC
-1
or V (Volt)
3. The unit of e.m.f. is JC
-1
or V (Volt). Electromotive force of 1
Volt means that 1 Joule of electrical energy is supplied to the circuit to
move 1 Coulomb of charge across the whole circuit.
Difference between Electromotive Force and Potential Difference
Electromotive Force Potential Difference
Similarities:
Have same unit (Volt)
Can be measured by Voltmeter
Definition
The electromotive force (e.m.f.) is defined as
the energy per unit charge that is converted
from chemical, mechanical, or other forms
of energy into electrical energy in a battery
or dynamo.
Definition
The potential difference (p.d.) between
two points is defined as the energy
converted from electrical to other forms
when one coulomb of positive charge
passes between the two points.
Symbol:
Denote by the symbol, E.
Symbol:
Denote by the symbol, V


Internal Resistance and Potential Difference Drop

Internal Resistance
The internal resistance of a source (cell or generator) is the resistance
against the moving charge in the source.
Load Resistance
The load resistance in a circuit is the effective resistance against the
moving charge outside the source of electric.
Terminal Potential Difference
Terminal potential difference or terminal voltage is the potential
difference across the two terminal (the positive terminal and the
negative terminal) of an electric source (cell or generator).
Internal Resistance and Potential Difference Drop


1. If the internal resistance is ignored, the terminal potential
difference is equal to the e.m.f.
2. If the internal resistance is present, the terminal potential
difference will be lower than the e.m.f.
3. The relationship between e.m.f. and the terminal potential
difference is given by the following equation.
Equation
E = V + Ir
or
E = IR + Ir

E = e.m.f.
V = terminal potential difference
I = current flows in the circuit
r = internal resistance
R = the load resistance
Measuring e.m.f. and Internal Resistance



Three methods can be used to measure the e.m.f. and
internal resistance.
Measuring e.m.f. and Internal Resistance - Open Circuit/Close Circuit
Open Circuit Close Circuit

In open circuit ( when the switch is off),
the voltmeter shows the reading of the
e.m.f.
In close circuit ( when the switch is on),
the voltmeter shows the reading of the
potential difference across the cell.
With the presence of internal resistance, the potential difference across the cell is always
less than the e.m.f..
Example 1:


The diagram above shows a simple circuit that connect some
batteries to a resistor. The voltmeter shows a reading of 5.0V
when the switch is off and 4.5V when the switch is on. What
are the e.m.f. and the internal resistance of the cell?

Answer:
When the switch is off, the reading of the voltmeter shows
the e.m.f. of the batteries. Therefore.
e.m.f. = 5.0V

When the switch in turned on, the reading of the voltmeter
shows the potential difference of the resistor. Therefore,
V = 4.5V

The current that pass through the resistor,

I=V/R=4.5/9=0.5A

E=V+Ir, (5.0)=(4.5)+(0.5)r, 0.5r=5.04.5=0.5, r=0.5/0.5=1
Example 2:

Diagram (a)

Diagram (b)

A cell is connected to a circuit as shown in diagram (a). The graph in
diagram (b) shows the change of the reading of the voltmeter, V against
time, t. If t is the time where the switch is close, find
(a) the e.m.f. of the cell
(b) the internal resistance of the cell.

Answer:
(a) Before the switch turned on, the reading of the ammeter shows the
e.m.f. of the cells.

From the graph, the e.m.f. = 3.0V

(b)
e.m.f., E = 3.0V
Potential difference across the resistor, V = 2.5V

Current that pass through the resistor,

I=VR=2.52=1.25A


E=V+Ir (3.0)=(2.5)+(1.25)r 1.25r=3.02.5=0.5 r=0.5/1.25=0.4
Measuring e.m.f. and Internal Resistance - Simultaneous Equation
Example 1
When a 1 resistor is connected to the terminal of a cell, the current that
flow through it is 8A. When the resistor is replaced by another resistor
with resistance 4, the current becomes 2A. Find the
a. internal resistance of the cell
b. e.m.f. of the cell

Answer:
Experiment 1
R
1
= 1
I
1
= 8A

E=IR+Ir E=(8)(1)+(8)r E8r=8

Experiment 2
R
2
= 4
I
2
= 2A

E=IR+Ir E=(2)(4)+(2)r 3E8r=32

Solve the simultaneous equation
E = 12V, r = 0.5

Example 2
The diagram on the left shows that the terminal potential difference of a
batteries is 1.2V when a 4 resistor is connected to it. The terminal
potential become 1.45V when the resistor is replaced by another resistor of
resistance 29
Find the
a. internal resistance, r
b. e.m.f. of the batteries.
Answer:
Experiment 1
V
1
= 1.2V
R
1
= 4

I=V/R I=1.2/4=0.3A


E=V+Ir E=1.2+0.3r E0.3r=1.2

Experiment 2
V
2
= 1.45V
R
2
= 29

I=V/R I=1.45/29=0.05A


E=V+Ir, E=1.45+0.05r, E0.05r=1.45

Solve the simultaneous equation
E = 1.5V, r = 1
Measuring e.m.f. and Internal Resistance - Linear Graph

The Linear Graph



From the equation,

E = V + Ir
Therefore
V = -rI + E

Y axis = Potential difference (V)
X axis = Current (I)
Gradient od the graph, m = - internal resistance (r)
Y intercept of the graph, c = e.m.f.

Example:


The graph shows the variation of potential difference with current of a
battery.
What is the internal resistance and e.m.f. of the battery?

Answer:
e.m.f. = y-intercept = 3V

internal resistance,
r = -gradient of the graph
r=(3)/6=0.5
Electrical Energy


1. From the definition of potential difference, the electrical work
done is given by the equation
W=QV
Where
W = work
Q = charge
V = potential difference
2. Since the work done must be equal to the energy to do the work,
therefore we can also say that, the electrical energy ( E ) is also given by
the formula
E=QV


Example
Given that the potential difference across a bulb is 240V and the current
that flow through the bulb is 0.25A. Find the energy dissipated in the bulb
in 30s.

Answer:
Formula of current,
I=Q/t
hence
Q=It

Energy dissipated,
E=QV E=(It)V E=(0.25)(30)(240) E=1800J
Power
1. The electric power, P is defined as the rates of energy that supply
to the circuit ( or the rates of work been done ) by sources of electric.
2. The unit of electric power is the watt (W).
3. One watt of power equals the work done in one second by one
volt of potential difference in moving one coulomb of charge.
4. The electrical power of an electric circuit component can be find
from the following equations:
P=IV P=I
2
R P=V
2
/R
Where
P = power
t = time
I = current
V = potential difference
R = resistance


Example 1:
A current of 0.50A flows through a 100 resistor. What is the power lost
in the resistor?

Answer:
P=I
2
R P=(0.5)
2
(100) P=25W

Example 2
An electric iron has a heating element of resistance 50. If the operating
current flowing through it is 4A, calculate the heat energy produced in 2
minutes.

Answer:
Power of the iron,
P=I
2
R P=(4)
2
(50) P=800W
Heat energy produced,
E=Pt E=(800)(120) E=96000J

Example 3
What is the power dissipated in a 4 light bulb connected to a 12V
battery? What is the power dissipated in a 2 light bulb connected to the
same battery? Which bulb is brighter?

Answer:
Assume that the bulbs are resistor


Power dissipated in the 4 resistor,
P=V
2
/R P=(12)
2
/4=36W

Power dissipated in the 2 resistor,
P=V
2
/R P=(12)
2
/2=72W
The power of the 2 bulb is higher, hence it is brighter.

[Conclusion: The lower the load resistance in a circuit, the greater the
power dissipated in the circuit]

Example 4

An ideal battery with e.m.f. 12 V is connected in series to two bulbs with
resistances R
1
= 4 and R
2
= 2 What is the current in the circuit and the
power dissipation in each bulb?

Answer:
Potential difference across the 2 resistors, V = 12V
Equivalence resistance of the 2 resistors, R = 4 + 2 = 6
Current in the circuit,
I=V/R I=12/6=2A

Power dissipated in R
1

P=I
2
R P=(2)
2
(4)=16W

Power dissipated in R
2

P=I
2
R P=(2)
2
(2)=8W

[Conclusion: In a series connection, the greater the resistance of a resistor,
the greater the power dissipated]

Example 5


The figure above shows that an ideal battery is connected in parallel to two
resistors with resistances 2 and 4. Find the power dissipated in
a. the 4 resistor
b. the 2 resistor

Answer:
a. The potential difference across the 2 resistor = 12V
The power of the 2 resistor,
P=V
2
/R

P=(12)
2
/(4)=36W

b.
The power of the 4 resistor,
P=V
2
/R P=(12)
2
/(2)=72W

[Conclusion: In a parallel connection, the lower the resistance, the greater
the power of the resistor.]
Sum of the Power
In a circuit of any connection (series or parallel), the power dissipated in
the whole circuit is equal to the sum of the power dissipated in each of
the individual resistor.