4 Friedmann-Robertson-Walker Metric

4.1 Concept Questions

1. What does it mean that the Universe is expanding?
2. Does the expansion aect the solar system or the Milky Way?
3. How far out do you have to go before the expansion is evident?
4. What is the Universe expanding into?
5. In what sense is the Hubble constant constant?
6. Does our Universe have a center, and if so where is it?
7. What evidence suggests that the Universe at large is homogeneous and isotropic?
8. How can the CMB be construed as evidence for homogeneity and isotropy given that
it provides information only about a 2D surface on the sky?
9. What is thermodynamic equilibrium? What evidence suggests that the early Universe
was in thermodynamic equilibrium?
10. What are cosmological parameters?
11. What cosmological parameters can or cannot be measured from the power spectrum
of uctuations of the CMB?
12. FRW Universes are characterized as closed, at, or open. Does at here mean the same
as at Minkowski space?
13. What is it that astronomers call dark matter?
14. What is the primary evidence for the existence of non-baryonic cold dark matter?
15. How can astronomers detect dark matter in galaxies or clusters of galaxies?
16. How can cosmologists claim that the Universe is dominated by not one but two distinct
kinds of mysterious mass-energy, dark matter and dark energy, neither of which has
been observed in the laboratory?
17. What key property or properties distinguish dark energy from dark matter?
18. Does the Universe conserve entropy?
19. Does the annihilation of electron-positron pairs into photons generate entropy in the
early Universe, as its temperature cools through 1 MeV?
20. How does the wavelength of light change with the expansion of the Universe?
1
21. How does the temperature of the CMB change with the expansion of the Universe?
22. How does a blackbody (Planck) distribution change with the expansion of the Uni-
verse? What about a non-relativistic distribution? What about a semi-relativistic
distribution?
23. What is the horizon of our Universe?
24. What happens beyond the horizon of our Universe?
25. What caused the Big Bang?
26. What happened before the Big Bang?
27. What will be the fate of the Universe?
4.2 Whats important?
1. The CMB indicates that the early ( 400,000 year old) Universe was (a) uniform to a
few 10
5
, and (b) in thermodynamic equilibrium. This indicates that
the Universe was once very simple .
It is this simplicity that makes it possible to model the early Universe with some degree
of condence.
2. The power spectrum of uctuations of the CMB has enabled precise measurements of
cosmological parameters, excepting the Hubble constant.
3. There is a remarkable concordance of evidence from a broad range of astronomical
observations supernovae, big bang nucleosynthesis, the clustering of galaxies, the
abundances of clusters of galaxies, measurements of the Hubble constant from Cepheid
variables, the ages of the oldest stars.
4. Observational evidence is consistent with the predictions of the theory of ination in
its simplest form the expansion of the Universe, the spatial atness of the Universe,
the near uniformity of temperature uctuations of the CMB (the horizon problem),
the presence of acoustic peaks and troughs in the power spectrum of uctuations of
the CMB, the near power law shape of the power spectrum at large scales, its spectral
index (tilt), the gaussian distribution of uctuations at large scales.
5. What is non-baryonic dark matter?
6. What is dark energy? What is its equation of state w p/, and how does w evolve
with time?
2
4.3 Observational basis
In the last decade, observations have converged on a Standard Model of Cosmology, a spa-
tially at universe dominated by dark energy and by non-baryonic dark matter.
1. The Hubble diagram (distance versus redshift) of galaxies indicates that the Universe
is expanding (Hubble 1929).
2. The Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB).
Near black body spectrum, with T
0
= 2.725 0.001 K (Fixsen & Mather 2002).
Dipole the solar system is moving at 365 kms
1
through the CMB.
After dipole subtraction, the temperature of the CMB over the sky is uniform to
a few parts in 10
5
.
The power spectrum of temperature T uctuations shows a scale-invariant spec-
trum at large scales, and prominent acoustic peaks at smaller scales. Allows mea-
surement of the amplitude A
s
and tilt n
s
of primordial uctuations, the curvature
density
k
, and the proper densities
c
h
2
of non-baryonic cold dark matter and

b
h
2
of baryons. Does not measure Hubble constant h H
0
/(100 kms
1
Mpc
1
).
The power spectra of E and B polarization uctuations, and the various cross
power spectra (only T-E should be non-vanishing).
3. The Hubble diagram of Type Ia (thermonuclear) supernovae indicates that the Universe
is accelerating. This points to the dominance of gravitationally repulsive dark energy,
with

0.75. The amount of dark energy is consistent with observations from the
CMB indicating that the Universe is spatially at, 1, and observations from CMB,
galaxy clustering, and clusters of galaxies indicating that the density in gravitationally
attractive matter is only
m
0.25.
4. Observed abundances of light elements H, D,
3
He, He, and Li are consistent with the
predictions of big bang nucleosynthesis (BBN) provideed that
b
0.04, in good
agreement with measurements from the CMB.
5. The clustering of matter (dark and bright) shows a power spectrum in good agreement
with the Standard Model:
galaxies;
the Lyman alpha forest;
gravitational lensing.
Historically, the principle evidence for non-baryonic cold dark matter is comparison
between the power spectra of galaxies versus CMB. How can tiny uctuations in the
CMB grow into the observed uctuations in matter today in only the age of the Uni-
verse? Answer: non-baryonic dark matter that begins to cluster before Recombination,
when the CMB was released.
6. The abundance of galaxy clusters as a function of redshift.
7. The ages of the oldest stars, in globular clusters. The Hubble constant yields an
estimate of the age of the Universe that is older with dark energy than without. The
ages of the oldest stars agree with the age of the Universe with dark enery, but are
older than the Universe without dark energy.
3
8. Ubiquitous evidence for dark matter, deduced from sizes and velocities (or in the case
of gravitational lensing, the gravitational potential) of various objects.
The Local Group of galaxies.
Rotation curves of spiral galaxies.
The temperature and distribution of x-ray gas in elliptical galaxies.
The temperature and distribution of x-ray gas in clusters of galaxies.
Gravitational lensing by clusters of galaxies.
9. The Bullet cluster is a rare example that supports the notion that the dark matter is
non-baryonic. In the Bullet cluster, two clusters recently passed through each other.
The baryonic matter, as measured from x-ray emission of hot gas, appears displaced
from the dark matter, as measured from weak gravitational lensing.
4.4 Cosmological Principle
The cosmological principle states that the Universe at large is
homogeneous (has spatial translation symmetry),
isotropic (has spatial rotation symmetry).
The primary evidence for this is the uniformity of the temperature of the CMB, which, after
subtraction of the dipole produced by the motion of the solar system through the CMB, is
constant over the sky to a few parts in 10
5
. Conrming evidence is the statistical uniformity
of the distribution of galaxies over large scales.
The cosmological principle allows that the Universe evolves in time, as observations surely
indicate the Universe is expanding, galaxies, quasars, and galaxy clusters evolve with
redshift, and the temperature of the CMB is undoubtedly decreasing as the Universe expands.
4.5 Spatial part of the FRW metric: informal approach
The cosmological principle implies that
the spatial part of the FRW metric is a 3D hypersphere (1)
where in this context the term hypersphere is to be construed as including not only cases of
positive curvature, which have nite positive radius of curvature, but also cases of zero and
negative curvature, which have innite and imaginary radius of curvature.
Figure 1 shows an embedding diagram of a 3D hypersphere in 4D Euclidean space. The
horizontal directions in the diagram represent the normal 3 spatial x, y, z dimensions, with
one dimension z suppressed, while the vertical dimension represents the 4th spatial dimension
w. The 3D hypersphere is a set of points {x, y, z, w} satisfying
_
x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
+ w
2
_
1/2
= R = constant . (2)
An observer is sitting at the north pole of the diagram, at {0, 0, 0, 1}. A 2D sphere (which
forms a 1D circle in the embedding diagram of Figure 1) at xed distance surrounding the
4
w
r
=
R
s
in

R
x
y
r
/
/
=
R

R
d

R
s
in

Figure 1: Embedding diagram of the FRW geometry.

observer has geodesic distance r

dened by
r

proper distance to sphere measured along a radial geodesic , (3)

and circumferential radius r dened by
r
_
x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
_
1/2
, (4)
which has the property that the proper circumference of the sphere is 2r. In terms of r

and r, the spatial metric is

dl
2
= dr
2

+ r
2
do
2
(5)
where do
2
d
2
+ sin
2
d
2
is the metric of a unit 2-sphere.
Introduce the angle illustrated in the diagram. Evidently
r

= R ,
r = Rsin . (6)
In terms of the angle , the spatial metric is
dl
2
= R
2
_
d
2
+ sin
2
do
2
_
(7)
5
which is one version of the spatial FRW metric. The metric resembles the metric of a 2-sphere
of radius R, which is not surprising since the same construction, with Figure 1 interpreted
as the embedding diagram of a 2D sphere in 3D, yields the metric of a 2-sphere. Indeed,
the construction iterates to give the metric of an n-dimensional sphere of arbitrarily many
dimensions n.
Instead of the angle , the metric can be expressed in terms of the circumferential radius r.
It follows from equations (6) that
r

= Rsin
1
(r/R) (8)
whence
dr

=
dr
_
1 r
2
/R
2
=
dr

1 Kr
2
(9)
where K is the curvature
K
1
R
2
. (10)
In terms of r, the spatial FRW metric is then
dl
2
=
dr
2
1 Kr
2
+ r
2
do
2
. (11)
The embedding diagram Figure 1 is a nice prop for the imagination, but it is not the whole
story. The curvature K in the metric (11) may be not only positive, corresponding to real
nite radius R, but also zero or negative, corresponding to innite or imaginary radius R.
The possibilities are called closed, at, and open:
K
_
_
_
> 0 closed R real ,
= 0 at R ,
< 0 open R imaginary .
(12)
4.6 Comoving coordinates
The metric (11) is valid at any single instant of cosmic time t. As the Universe expands,
the 3D spatial hypersphere (whether closed, at, or open) expands. In cosmology it is
highly advantageous to work in comoving coordinates that expand with the Universe.
Why? First, it is helpful conceptually and mathematically to think of the Universe as at
rest in comoving coordinates. Second, linear perturbations, such as those in the CMB, have
wavelengths that expand with the Universe, and are therefore xed in comoving coordinates.
In practice, cosmologists introduce the cosmic scale factor a(t)
a(t) measure of the size of the Universe, expanding with the Universe (13)
6
which is proportional to but not necessarily equal to the radius R of the Universe. The
cosmic scale factor a can be normalized in any arbitrary way. The most common convention
adopted by cosmologist is to normalize it to unity at the present time
a
0
= 1 (14)
where the 0 subscript conventionally signies the present time.
Comoving geodesic and circumferential radial distances x

and x are dened in terms of the

proper geodesic and circumferential radial distances r

and r by
ax

, ax r . (15)
Objects expanding with the Universe remain at xed comoving positions x

and x. In terms
of the comoving circumferential radius x, the spatial FRW metric is
dl
2
= a
2
_
dx
2
1 x
2
+ x
2
do
2
_
(16)
where the curvature constant , a constant in time and space, is related to the curvature K,
equation (10), by
a
2
K . (17)
Alternatively, in terms of the geodesic comoving radius x

, the spatial FRW metric is

dl
2
= a
2
_
dx
2

+ x
2
do
2
_
(18)
where
x =
_

_
sin(
1/2
x

1/2
> 0 closed ,
x

= 0 at ,
sinh(||
1/2
x

)
||
1/2
< 0 open .
(19)
For some purposes it is convenient to normalize the cosmic scale factor a so that = 1, 0,
or 1. In this case the spatial FRW metric may be written
dl
2
= a
2
_
d
2
+ x
2
do
2
_
(20)
where
x =
_
_
_
sin() = 1 closed ,
= 0 at ,
sinh() = 1 open .
(21)
7
4.7 Spatial part of the FRW metric: more formal approach
A more formal approach to the derivation of the spatial FRW metric from the cosmological
principle starts with the proposition that the spatial components G
ij
of the Einstein tensor
at xed scale factor a (all time derivatives of a set to zero) should be proportional to the
metric tensor
G
ij
= K g
ij
(i, j = 1, 2, 3) . (22)
Without loss of generality, the spatial metric can be taken to be of the form
dl
2
= f(r) dr
2
+ r
2
do
2
(23)
Imposing the condition (22) on the metric (23) recovers the spatial FRW metric (11).
4.8 FRW metric
The full Friedmann-Robertson-Walker spacetime metric is
ds
2
= dt
2
a(t)
2
_
dx
2
1 x
2
+ x
2
do
2
_
(24)
where t is cosmic time, which is the proper time experienced by comoving observers, who
remain at rest in comoving coordinates dx = d = d = 0. Any of the alternative versions of
the comoving spatial FRW metric, equations (16), (18), or (20), may be used as the spatial
part of the FRW spacetime metric (24).
4.9 Einstein equations for FRW metric
The Einstein equations for the FRW metric (24) are
G
t
t
= 3
_

a
2
+
a
2
a
2
_
= 8G
G
x
x
= G

= G

=

a
2

a
2
a
2

2 a
a
= 8Gp (25)
where overdots represent dierentiation with respect to cosmic time t, so that for example
a da/dt. Note the trick of one index up, one down, to remove, modulo signs, the distorting
eect of the metric on the Einstein tensor. The Einstein equations (25) rearrange to give
Friedmanns equations
a
2
a
2
=
8G
3


a
2
,
a
a
=
4G
3
( + 3p) .
(26)
Friedmanns two equations (26) are fundamental to cosmology. The rst one relates the
curvature of the Universe to the expansion rate a/a and the density . The second one
relates the acceleration a/a to the density plus 3 times the pressure p.
8
4.10 Newtonian derivation of Friedmann equations
4.10.1 Energy equation
Model a piece of the Universe as a ball of radius a and mass M =
4
3
G. Consider a small
mass m attracted by this ball. Conservation of the kinetic plus potential energy of the small
mass m implies
1
2
m a
2

GMm
a
=
mc
2
2
(27)
where the quantity on the right is some constant whose value is not determined by this
Newtonian treatment, but which GR implies is as given. The energy equation (27) rearranges
to
a
2
a
2
=
8G
3

c
2
a
2
(28)
which reproduces the rst Friedmann equation.
4.10.2 First law of thermodynamics
For adiabatic expansion, the rst law of thermodynamics is
dE + p dV = 0 . (29)
With E = V and V =
4
3
a
3
, the rst law (29) becomes
d(a
3
) + p da
3
= 0 (30)
or, with the derivative taken with respect to cosmic time t,
+ 3( + p)
a
a
= 0 . (31)
Dierentiating the rst Friedmann equation in the form
a
2
=
8Ga
2
3
c
2
(32)
gives
2 a a =
8G
3
_
a
2
+ 2a a
_
(33)
and substituting from the rst law (31) reduces this to
2 a a =
8G
3
a a ( 3p) . (34)
Hence
a
a
=
4G
3
( + 3p) (35)
which reproduces the second Friedmann equation.
9
4.10.3 Comment on the Newtonian derivation
The above Newtonian derivation of Friedmanns equations is only heuristic. A dierent
result could have been obtained if dierent assumptions had been made. If for example the
Newtonian gravitational force law m a = GMm/a
2
were taken as correct, then it would
follow that a/a =
4
3
G, which is missing the all important 3p contribution (without which
there would be no ination or dark energy) to Friedmanns second equation.
It is notable that the rst law of thermodynamics is built in to the Friedmann equations.
This implies that entropy is conserved in FRW Universes. How then does entropy increase
in the real Universe? Through uctuations away from the perfect homogeneity and isotropy
assumed by the FRW metric.
4.11 Hubble parameter
The Hubble parameter H(t) is dened by
H
a
a
. (36)
The Hubble parameter H varies in cosmic time t, but is constant in space at xed cosmic
time t.
The value of the Hubble parameter today is called the Hubble constant H
0
(the subscript
0 signies the present time). The Hubble constant is measured from Cepheids and Type Ia
supernova to be (Riess et al. 2005, astro-ph/0503159)
H
0
= 73 4(stat) 5(sys) kms
1
Mpc
1
. (37)
The distance d to an object that is receding with the expansion of the universe is proportional
to the cosmic scale factor, d a, and its recession velocity v is consequently proportional
to a. The result is Hubbles law relating the recession velocity v and distance d of distant
objects
v = H
0
d . (38)
Since it takes light time to travel from a distant object, and the Hubble parameter varies in
time, the linear relation (38) breaks down at cosmological distances.
We, in the Milky Way, reside in an overdense region of the Universe that has collapsed out
of the general Hubble expansion of the Universe. The local overdense region of the Universe
that has just turned around from the general expansion and is beginning to collapse for the
rst time is called the Local Group of galaxies. The Local Group consists of about 40
or so galaxies, mostly dwarf and irregular galaxies. It contains two major spiral galaxies,
Andromeda (M31) and the Milky Way, and one mid-sized spiral galaxy Triangulum (M33).
The Local Group is about 1 Mpc in radius.
10
Because of the ubiquity of the Hubble constant in cosmological studies, cosmologists often
parameterize it by the quantity h dened by
h
H
0
100 kms
1
Mpc
1
. (39)
4.12 Critical density
The critical density
crit
is dened to be the density required for the Universe to be at,
= 0. According to the rst of Friedmann equations (26), this sets

crit

3H
2
8G
. (40)
The critical density
crit
, like the Hubble parameter H, evolves with time.
4.13 Omega
Cosmologists designate the ratio of the actual density of the Universe to the critical density

crit
by the fateful letter , the nal letter of the Greek alphabet,

crit
. (41)
With no subscript, denotes the total mass-energy density in all forms. A subscript x on

x
denotes mass-energy density of type x.
The curvature density
k
, which is not really a form of mass-energy but it is sometimes
convenient to treat it as though it were, is dened by

k

3c
2
8Ga
2
(42)
and correspondingly
k

k
/
crit
. According to the rst of Friedmanns equations (26), the
curvature density
k
satises

k
= 1 . (43)
Species (2008)
Dark energy ()

0.72 0.02
Non-baryonic cold dark matter (CDM)
c
0.234 0.02
Baryonic matter
b
0.046 0.002
Neutrinos

< 0.014
Photons (CMB)

5 10
5
Total 1.005 0.006
Curvature
k
0.005 0.006
11
The table gives 2008 measurements of in various species, obtained by combining 5-year
WMAP CMB measurements with a variety of other astronomical evidence, including super-
novae, big bang nucleosynthesis, galaxy clustering, weak lensing, and local measurements of
the Hubble constant H
0
.
4.14 Redshifting
The spatial translation symmetry of the FRW metric implies conservation of generalized
momentum. As you will show in a problem set, a particle that moves along a geodesic in
the radial direction, so that d = d = 0, has 4-velocity u

satisfying
u
x

= constant . (44)
This conservation law implies that the proper momentum p

of a radially moving particle

decays as
p

ma
dx

d

1
a
(45)
which is true for both massive and massless particles.
It follows from equation (45) that light observed on Earth from a distant object will be
redshifted by a factor
1 + z =
a
0
a
(46)
where a
0
is the present day cosmic scale factor. Cosmologists often refer to the redshift of an
epoch, since the cosmological redshift is an observationally accessible quantity that uniquely
determines the cosmic time of emission.
4.15 Types of mass-energy
The energy-momentum tensor T

of an FRW Universe is necessarily homogeneous and

isotropic, by assumption of the cosmological principle, taking the form (note yet again the
trick of one index up and one down to remove the distorting eect of the metric)
_
_
_
_
T
t
t
0 0 0
0 T
r
r
0 0
0 0 T

0
0 0 0 T

_
_
_
_
=
_
_
_
_
0 0 0
0 p 0 0
0 0 p 0
0 0 0 p
_
_
_
_
. (47)
The following table gives equations of state p/ for generic species of mass-energy, along
with ( +3p)/, which determines the gravitational attraction per unit energy, and how the
mass-energy varies with cosmic scale factor, a
n
.
As commented in 4.10.2 above, the rst law of thermodynamics for adiabatic expansion
12
Species p/ ( + 3p)/
Radiation 1/3 2 a
4
Matter 0 1 a
3
Curvature 1/3 0 a
2
Vaccum 1 2 a
0
is built into Friedmanns equations. In fact the law represents covariant conservation of
energy-momentum for the system as a whole
D

= 0 . (48)
As long as species do not convert into each other (for example, no annihilation), covariant
energy-momentum conservation holds individually for each species, so the rst law applies
to each species individually, determining how its energy density varies with cosmic scale
factor a. Figure 2 illustrates how the energy densities of various species evolve as a function
of scale factor a.
Cosmic scale factor a
M
a
s
s
-
e
n
e
r
g
y
d
e
n
s
i
t
y

a
4

m
a
3

k
a
2

= constant
Figure 2: Behavior of the mass-energy density of various species as a function of cosmic
time t.
13
4.16 Evolution of the cosmic scale factor
Given how the energy density of each species evolves with cosmic scale factor a, the rst
Friedmann equation then determines how the cosmic scale factor a(t) itself evolves with
cosmic time t. The evolution equation for a(t) can be cast as an equation for the Hubble
parameter H a/a, which in view of the denition (40) of the critical density can be written
H(t)
H
0
=
_

crit
(t)

crit
(t
0
)
_
1/2
. (49)
Given the denition (42) of the curvature density as the critical density minus the total
density, the critical density
crit
is itself the sum of the densities of all species including
the curvature density

crit
=
k
+

species x

x
. (50)
Integrating equation (49) gives cosmic time t as a function of cosmic scale factor a
t =
_
da
aH
. (51)
For example, in the case that the density is comprised of radiation, matter, and vacuum, the
critical density is

crit
=

+
m
+
k
+

(52)
and equation (49) is
H(t)
H
0
=
_

a
4
+
m
a
3
+
2
k
a
2
+

_
1/2
(53)
where
x
represents its value at the present time. The time t, equation (51), is then
t =
1
H
0
_
da
a
_

a
4
+
m
a
3
+
2
k
a
2
+

_
1/2
(54)
which is an elliptical integral of the 3rd kind.
If one single species in particular dominates the mass-energy density, then equation (54)
integrates easily to give the results in the following table.
Dominant Species a
Radiation t
1/2
Matter t
2/3
Curvature t
Vaccum e
Ht
14
4.17 Conformal time
Especially when doing cosmological perturbation theory, it is convenient to use conformal
time dened by (with units c temporarily restored)
a d c dt (55)
with respect to which the FRW metric is
ds
2
= a()
2
_
d
2

dx
2
1 x
2
x
2
do
2
_
. (56)
The term conformal refers to a metric that is multiplied by an overall factor, the conformal
factor. In the FRW metric (56), the cosmic scale factor a is the conformal factor.
Conformal time has the property that the speed of light is one in conformal coordinates:
light moves unit comoving distance per unit conformal time. In particular, light moving
radially towards an observer at x

= 0, with d = d = 0, satises
dx

d
= 1 . (57)
4.18 Looking back along the lightcone
Since light moves at unit velocity in conformal coordinates, an object at geodesic distance
x

that emits light at conformal time

emit
is observed at conformal time
obs
given by
x

=
obs

emit
. (58)
The comoving geodesic distance x

to an object is
x

=
_

obs

emit
d =
_
t
obs
t
emit
c dt
a
=
_
a
obs
a
emit
c da
a
2
H
=
_
z
0
c dz
H
(59)
where the last equation assumes the relation 1 +z = 1/a, valid as long as a is normalized to
unity at the observer (us) at the present time a
obs
= a
0
= 1. In the case that the density is
comprised of (curvature and) radiation, matter, and vacuum, equation (59) gives
x

=
c
H
0
_
1
1/(1+z)
da
a
2
_

a
4
+
m
a
3
+
2
k
a
2
+

_
1/2
(60)
which is an elliptical integral of the 1st kind. Given the geodesic comoving distance x

, the
circumferential comoving distance x then follows as
x =
sinh(
1/2
k
H
0
x

/c)

1/2
k
H
0
/c
. (61)
To second order in redshift z,
x x

c
H
0
_
z z
2
_

+
3
4

m
+
1
2

k
_
+ ...

. (62)
The geodesic and circumferential distances x

and x dier at order z

3
.
15
4.19 Horizon
Light can come from no more distant point than the Big Bang. This distant point denes
the horizon of our Universe, which is located at innite redshift, z = . Equation (59)
gives the geodesic distance from us at redshift zero to the horizon as
x

(horizon) =
_

0
c dz
H
(63)
where again the cosmic scale factor has been normalized to unity at the present time, a
0
= 1.
Equation (63) formally denes the event horizon of the Universe, but the cosmological scale
over which objects can continue to aect each other causally is typically smaller than this
(much smaller, post-ination). It is thus common to dene the cosmological horizon
distance at any time as
cosmological horizon distance
c
H
(64)
which is roughly the scale over which objects can remain in causal contact.
10
40
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30
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20
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10
0
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30
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20
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30
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0
10
10
Age of the Universe (seconds)
Age of the Universe (years)
S
i
z
e
o
f
t
h
e
U
n
i
v
e
r
s
e
(
m
e
t
e
r
s
)
Figure 3: Cosmic scale factor a and cosmological horizon distance c/H as a function of
cosmic time t.
16
10
40
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30
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20
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10
10
0
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10
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20
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5
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35
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0
10
10
Age of the Universe (years)
Age of the Universe (seconds)
R
a
d
i
a
t
i
o
n
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
o
f
t
h
e
U
n
i
v
e
r
s
e
(
K
e
l
v
i
n
)
10
40
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20
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10
0
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10
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20
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30
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0
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100
10
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10
0
10
10
Age of the Universe (years)
Age of the Universe (seconds)
M
a
s
s
-
E
n
e
r
g
y
D
e
n
s
i
t
y
o
f
t
h
e
U
n
i
v
e
r
s
e
(
k
g
/
m
3
)
Figure 4: (Top) Temperature T, and (bottom) mass-energy density , of the Universe as a
function of cosmic time t.
17