Electric Arc Furnace Steelmaking

By Jeremy A. T. Jones, Nupro Corporation

Courtesy of Mannesmann Demag Corp.

FURNACE OPERATIONS
The electric arc furnace operates as a batch melting process producing
batches of molten steel no!n "heats"# The electric arc furnace
operating c$cle is called the tap%to%tap c$cle and is made up of the
follo!ing operations&
Furnace charging
'elting
Refining
(e%slagging
Tapping
Furnace turn%around
'odern operations aim for a tap%to%tap time of less than )* minutes#
Some t!in shell furnace operations are achie+ing tap%to%tap times of
,- to .* minutes#
Furnace Charging
The first step in the production of an$ heat is to select the grade of
steel to be made# Usuall$ a schedule is de+eloped prior to each
production shift# Thus the melter !ill no! in ad+ance the schedule for
his shift# The scrap $ard operator !ill prepare bucets of scrap
according to the needs of the melter# Preparation of the charge bucet
is an important operation/ not onl$ to ensure proper melt%in chemistr$
but also to ensure good melting conditions# The scrap must be la$ered
in the bucet according to si0e and densit$ to promote the rapid
formation of a li1uid pool of steel in the hearth !hile pro+iding
protection for the side!alls and roof from electric arc radiation# Other
considerations include minimi0ation of scrap ca+e%ins !hich can brea
electrodes and ensuring that large hea+$ pieces of scrap do not lie
directl$ in front of burner ports !hich !ould result in blo!%bac of the
flame onto the !ater cooled panels# The charge can include lime and
carbon or these can be in2ected into the furnace during the heat# 'an$
operations add some lime and carbon in the scrap bucet and
supplement this !ith in2ection#
The first step in an$ tap%to%tap c$cle is "charging" into the scrap# The
roof and electrodes are raised and are s!ung to the side of the furnace
to allo! the scrap charging crane to mo+e a full bucet of scrap into
place o+er the furnace# The bucet bottom is usuall$ a clam shell
design % i#e# the bucet opens up b$ retracting t!o segments on the
bottom of the bucet# The scrap falls into the furnace and the scrap
crane remo+es the scrap bucet# The roof and electrodes s!ing bac
into place o+er the furnace# The roof is lo!ered and then the electrodes
are lo!ered to strie an arc on the scrap# This commences the melting
portion of the c$cle# The number of charge bucets of scrap re1uired to
produce a heat of steel is dependent primaril$ on the +olume of the
furnace and the scrap densit$# 'ost modern furnaces are designed to
operate !ith a minimum of bac%charges# This is ad+antageous
because charging is a dead%time !here the furnace does not ha+e
po!er on and therefore is not melting# 'inimi0ing these dead%times
helps to ma3imi0e the producti+it$ of the furnace# In addition/ energ$
is lost e+er$ time the furnace roof is opened# This can amount to 4* %
5* 6h7ton for each occurrence# 'ost operations aim for 5 to ,
bucets of scrap per heat and !ill attempt to blend their scrap to meet
this re1uirement# Some operations achie+e a single bucet charge#
Continuous charging operations such as CONSTEE8 and the Fuchs Shaft
Furnace eliminate the charging c$cle#
Top
Melting
The melting period is the heart of EAF operations# The EAF has e+ol+ed
into a highl$ efficient melting apparatus and modern designs are
focused on ma3imi0ing the melting capacit$ of the EAF# 'elting is
accomplished b$ suppl$ing energ$ to the furnace interior# This energ$
can be electrical or chemical# Electrical energ$ is supplied +ia the
graphite electrodes and is usuall$ the largest contributor in melting
operations# Initiall$/ an intermediate +oltage tap is selected until the
electrodes bore into the scrap# Usuall$/ light scrap is placed on top of
the charge to accelerate bore%in# Appro3imatel$ 4- 9 of the scrap is
melted during the initial bore%in period# After a fe! minutes/ the
electrodes !ill ha+e penetrated the scrap sufficientl$ so that a long arc
:high +oltage; tap can be used !ithout fear of radiation damage to the
roof# The long arc ma3imi0es the transfer of po!er to the scrap and a
li1uid pool of metal !ill form in the furnace hearth At the start of
melting the arc is erratic and unstable# 6ide s!ings in current are
obser+ed accompanied b$ rapid mo+ement of the electrodes# As the
furnace atmosphere heats up the arc stabili0es and once the molten
pool is formed/ the arc becomes 1uite stable and the a+erage po!er
input increases#
Chemical energ$ is be supplied +ia se+eral sources including o3$%fuel
burners and o3$gen lances# O3$%fuel burners burn natural gas using
o3$gen or a blend of o3$gen and air# <eat is transferred to the scrap b$
flame radiation and con+ection b$ the hot products of combustion# <eat
is transferred !ithin the scrap b$ conduction# 8arge pieces of scrap
tae longer to melt into the bath than smaller pieces# In some
operations/ o3$gen is in2ected +ia a consumable pipe lance to "cut" the
scrap# The o3$gen reacts !ith the hot scrap and burns iron to produce
intense heat for cutting the scrap# Once a molten pool of steel is
generated in the furnace/ o3$gen can be lanced directl$ into the bath#
This o3$gen !ill react !ith se+eral components in the bath including/
aluminum/ silicon/ manganese/ phosphorus/ carbon and iron# All of
these reactions are e3othermic :i#e# the$ generate heat; and suppl$
additional energ$ to aid in the melting of the scrap# The metallic o3ides
that are formed !ill end up in the slag# The reaction of o3$gen !ith
carbon in the bath produces carbon mono3ide/ !hich either burns in
the furnace if there is sufficient o3$gen/ and7or is e3hausted through
the direct e+acuation s$stem !here it is burned and con+e$ed to the
pollution control s$stem# Au3iliar$ fuel operations are discussed in
more detail in the section on EAF operations#
Once enough scrap has been melted to accommodate the second
charge/ the charging process is repeated# Once the final scrap charge is
melted/ the furnace side!alls are e3posed to intense radiation from the
arc# As a result/ the +oltage must be reduced# Alternati+el$/ creation of
a foam$ slag !ill allo! the arc to be buried and !ill protect the furnace
shell# In addition/ a greater amount of energ$ !ill be retained in the
slag and is transferred to the bath resulting in greater energ$
efficienc$#
Once the final scrap charge is full$ melted/ flat bath conditions are
reached# At this point/ a bath temperature and sample !ill be taen#
The anal$sis of the bath chemistr$ !ill allo! the melter to determine
the amount of o3$gen to be blo!n during refining# At this point/ the
melter can also start to arrange for the bul tap allo$ additions to be
made# These 1uantities are finali0ed after the refining period#
Top

Reining
Refining operations in the electric arc furnace ha+e traditionall$
in+ol+ed the remo+al of phosphorus/ sulfur/ aluminum/ silicon/
manganese and carbon from the steel# In recent times/ dissol+ed
gases/ especiall$ h$drogen and nitrogen/ been recogni0ed as a concern#
Traditionall$/ refining operations !ere carried out follo!ing meltdo!n
i#e# once a flat bath !as achie+ed# These refining reactions are all
dependent on the a+ailabilit$ of o3$gen# O3$gen !as lanced at the end
of meltdo!n to lo!er the bath carbon content to the desired le+el for
tapping# 'ost of the compounds !hich are to be remo+ed during
refining ha+e a higher affinit$ for o3$gen that the carbon# Thus the
o3$gen !ill preferentiall$ react !ith these elements to form o3ides
!hich float out of the steel and into the slag#
In modern EAF operations/ especiall$ those operating !ith a "hot heel"
of molten steel and slag retained from the prior heat/ o3$gen ma$ be
blo!n into the bath throughout most of the heat# As a result/ some of
the melting and refining operations occur simultaneousl$#
Phosphorus and sulfur occur normall$ in the furnace charge in higher
concentrations than are generall$ permitted in steel and must be
remo+ed# Unfortunatel$ the conditions fa+orable for remo+ing
phosphorus are the opposite of those promoting the remo+al of sulfur#
Therefore once these materials are pushed into the slag phase the$
ma$ re+ert bac into the steel# Phosphorus retention in the slag is a
function of the bath temperature/ the slag basicit$ and FeO le+els in
the slag# At higher temperature or lo! FeO le+els/ the phosphorus !ill
re+ert from the slag bac into the bath# Phosphorus remo+al is usuall$
carried out as earl$ as possible in the heat# <ot heel practice is +er$
beneficial for phosphorus remo+al because o3$gen can be lanced into
the bath !hile its temperature is 1uite lo!# Earl$ in the heat the slag
!ill contain high FeO le+els carried o+er from the pre+ious heat thus
aiding in phosphorus remo+al# <igh slag basicit$ :i#e# high lime
content; is also beneficial for phosphorus remo+al but care must be
taen not to saturate the slag !ith lime# This !ill lead to an increase in
slag +iscosit$/ !hich !ill mae the slag less effecti+e# Sometimes
fluorspar is added to help fluidi0e the slag# Stirring the bath !ith inert
gas is also beneficial because it rene!s the slag7metal interface thus
impro+ing the reaction inetics#
In general/ if lo! phosphorus le+els are a re1uirement for a particular
steel grade/ the scrap is selected to gi+e a lo! le+el at melt%in# The
partition of phosphorus in the slag to phosphorus in the bath ranges
from - to 4-# Usuall$ the phosphorus is reduced b$ 5* to -* 9 in the
EAF#
Sulfur is remo+ed mainl$ as a sulfide dissol+ed in the slag# The sulfur
partition bet!een the slag and metal is dependent on slag chemistr$
and is fa+ored at lo! steel o3idation le+els# Remo+al of sulfur in the
EAF is difficult especiall$ gi+en modern practices !here the o3idation
le+el of the bath is 1uite high# =enerall$ the partition ratio is bet!een ,
and - for EAF operations# 'ost operations find it more effecti+e to carr$
out desulfuri0ation during the reducing phase of steelmaing# This
means that desulfuri0ation is performed during tapping :!here a
calcium aluminate slag is built; and during ladle furnace operations# For
reducing conditions !here the bath has a much lo!er o3$gen acti+it$/
distribution ratios for sulfur of bet!een 5* and 4** can be achie+ed#
Control of the metallic constituents in the bath is important as it
determines the properties of the final product# Usuall$/ the melter !ill
aim at lo!er le+els in the bath than are specified for the final product#
O3$gen reacts !ith aluminum/ silicon and manganese to form metallic
o3ides/ !hich are slag components# These metallics tend to react !ith
o3$gen before the carbon# The$ !ill also react !ith FeO resulting in a
reco+er$ of iron units to the bath# For e3ample&
'n > FeO ? 'nO > Fe
'anganese !ill t$picall$ be lo!ered to about *#*) 9 in the bath#
The reaction of carbon !ith o3$gen in the bath to produce CO is
important as it supplies a less e3pensi+e form of energ$ to the bath/
and performs se+eral important refining reactions# In modern EAF
operations/ the combination of o3$gen !ith carbon can suppl$ bet!een
,* and .* 9 of the net heat input to the furnace# E+olution of carbon
mono3ide is +er$ important for slag foaming# Coupled !ith a basic slag/
CO bubbles are tapped in the slag causing it to "foam" and helping to
bur$ the arc# This gi+es greatl$ impro+ed thermal efficienc$ and allo!s
the furnace to operate at high arc +oltages e+en after a flat bath has
been achie+ed# @ur$ing the arc also helps to pre+ent nitrogen from
being e3posed to the arc !here it can dissociate and enter into the
steel#
If the CO is e+ol+ed !ithin the steel bath/ it helps to strip nitrogen and
h$drogen from the steel# Nitrogen le+els in steel as lo! as -* ppm can
be achie+ed in the furnace prior to tap# @ottom tapping is beneficial for
maintaining lo! nitrogen le+els because tapping is fast and a tight tap
stream is maintained# A high o3$gen potential in the steel is beneficial
for lo! nitrogen le+els and the heat should be tapped open as opposed
to blocing the heat#
At 4)** C/ the ma3imum solubilit$ of nitrogen in pure iron is .-* ppm#
T$picall$/ the nitrogen le+els in the steel follo!ing tapping are A* % 4**
ppm#
(ecarburi0ation is also beneficial for the remo+al of h$drogen# It has
been demonstarted that decarburi0ing at a rate of 4 9 per hour can
lo!er h$drogen le+els in the steel from A ppm do!n to 5 ppm in 4*
minutes#
At the end of refining/ a bath temperature measurement and a bath
sample are taen# If the temperature is too lo!/ po!er ma$ be applied
to the bath# This is not a big concern in modern meltshops !here
temperature ad2ustment is carried out in the ladle furnace#
Top
!e"Slagging
(e%slagging operations are carried out to remo+e impurities from the
furnace# (uring melting and refining operations/ some of the
undesirable materials !ithin the bath are o3idi0ed and enter the slag
phase#
It is ad+antageous to remo+e as much phosphorus into the slag as
earl$ in the heat as possible :i#e# !hile the bath temperature is still
lo!;# The furnace is tilted bac!ards and slag is poured out of the
furnace through the slag door# Remo+al of the slag eliminates the
possibilit$ of phosphorus re+ersion#
(uring slag foaming operations/ carbon ma$ be in2ected into the slag
!here it !ill reduce FeO to metallic iron and in the process produce
carbon mono3ide !hich helps foam the slag# If the high phosphorus
slag has not been remo+ed prior to this operation/ phosphorus
re+ersion !ill occur# (uring slag foaming/ slag ma$ o+erflo! the sill
le+el in the EAF and flo! out of the slag door#
The follo!ing table sho!s the t$pical constituents of an EAF slag &
Component Source
Composition
Range
CaO Charged .* % )* 9
SiO5 O3idation product - % 4- 9
FeO O3idation product 4* % ,* 9
'gO Charged as dolomite , % A 9
CaF5
Charged % slag
fluidi0er

'nO O3idation product 5 % -9
S Absorbed from steel
P O3idation product

Tapping
Once the desired steel composition and temperature are achie+ed in
the furnace/ the tap%hole is opened/ the furnace is tilted/ and the steel
pours into a ladle for transfer to the ne3t batch operation :usuall$ a
ladle furnace or ladle station;# (uring the tapping process bul allo$
additions are made based on the bath anal$sis and the desired steel
grade# (e%o3idi0ers ma$ be added to the steel to lo!er the o3$gen
content prior to further processing# This is commonl$ referred to as
"blocing the heat" or "illing the steel"# Common de%o3idi0ers are
aluminum or silicon in the form of ferrosilicon or silicomanganese# 'ost
carbon steel operations aim for minimal slag carr$%o+er# A ne! slag
co+er is "built" during tapping# For ladle furnace operations/ a calcium
aluminate slag is a good choice for sulfur control# Slag forming
compounds are added in the ladle at tap so that a slag co+er is formed
prior to transfer to the ladle furnace# Additional slag materials ma$ be
added at the ladle furnace if the slag co+er is insufficient#
Top
Furnace Turn"aroun#
Furnace turn%around is the period follo!ing completion of tapping until
the furnace is recharged for the ne3t heat# (uring this period/ the
electrodes and roof are raised and the furnace lining is inspected for
refractor$ damage# If necessar$/ repairs are made to the hearth/ slag%
line/ tap%hole and spout# In the case of a bottom%tapping furnace/ the
taphole is filled !ith sand# Repairs to the furnace are made using
gunned refractories or mud slingers# In most modern furnaces/ the
increased use of !ater%cooled panels has reduced the amount of
patching or "fettling" re1uired bet!een heats# 'an$ operations no!
s!itch out the furnace bottom on a regular basis :5 to ) !ees; and
perform the hearth maintenance off%line# This reduces the po!er%off
time for the EAF and ma3imi0es furnace producti+it$# Furnace turn%
around time is generall$ the largest dead time :i#e# po!er off; period in
the tap%to%tap c$cle# 6ith ad+ances in furnace practices this has been
reduced from 5* minutes to less than - minutes in some ne!er
operations#
Top
Furnace $eat Balance
To melt steel scrap/ it taes a theoretical minimum of ,** 6h7ton# To
pro+ide superheat abo+e the melting point of 5B)A F re1uires additional
energ$ and for t$pical tap temperature re1uirements/ the total
theoretical energ$ re1uired usuall$ lies in the range of ,-* to ,B*
6h7ton# <o!e+er/ EAF steelmaing is onl$ -- to )- 9 efficient and as
a result the total e1ui+alent energ$ input is usuall$ in the range of -)*
to )A* 6h7ton for most modern operations# This energ$ can be
supplied from a +ariet$ of sources as sho!n in the table belo!# The
energ$ distribution is highl$ dependent on local material and
consumable costs and is uni1ue to the specific meltshop operation# A
t$pical balance for both older and more modern EAFs is gi+en in the
follo!ing Table&

%$&
F%RNACE
'o( to
Me#ium
&o(er
Furnace

Electrical
Energ$
-* % )* 9 B- % A- 9
)N&%TS @urners - % 4* 9

Chemical
Reactions
,* % .* 9 4- % 5- 9
T*TA' )N&%T 4**9 4**9
*%T&%TS
Steel -- % )* 9 -* % -- 9
Slag A % 4* 9 A % 45 9
Cooling 6ater A % 4* 9 - % ) 9
'iscellaneous 4 % , 9 4B % ,* 9
Offgas 4B % 5A 9 B % 4* 9

Of course the abo+e figures are highl$ dependent on the indi+idual
operation and +ar$ considerabl$ from one facilit$ to another# Factors
such as ra! material composition/ po!er input rates and operating
practices :e#g# post%combustion/ scrap preheating; can greatl$ alter the
abo+e balance# In operations utili0ing a large amount of charge carbon
or high carbon feed materials/ up to )* 9 of the energ$ contained in
the offgas ma$ be calorific due to large 1uantities of un%combusted
carbon mono3ide# Reco+er$ of this energ$ in the EAF could increase
energ$ input b$ A to 4* 9# Thus it is important to consider such factors
!hen e+aluating the energ$ balance for a gi+en furnace operation#
The International Iron and Steel Institue :IISI;/ classifies EAFs based
on the po!er supplied per ton of furnace capacit$# For most modern
operations/ the design !ould allo! for at least -** CA per ton of
capacit$# The IISI report " The Electic Furnace % 4DD*" indicates that
most ne! installations allo! D** % 4*** CA per ton of furnace
capacit$# 'ost furnaces operate at a ma3imum po!er factor of about
*#A-# Thus the abo+e transformer ratings !ould correspond to a
ma3imum po!er input of about *#B- to *#A- '6 per ton of furnace
capacit$#
Top
'EC<ANICA8 SESTE'S
'echanical s$stems are integral to the operation of the EAF and man$
are inter%related# To gain a better perspecti+e of the importance of
+arious s$stems in the furnace operation/ it is good to step bac and
e+aluate the function of the electric arc furnace itself# The EAF has
se+eral primar$ functions&
4# Containment of steel scrap
5# <eating and melting of steel scrap
,# Transfer of molten steel to the ne3t processing stage
It is eas$ to see that the first function/ scrap containment can onl$ be
properl$ carried out if the furnace shell is properl$ maintained# The
furnace shell consists of a refractor$ lined bottom that helps contain
the li1uid steel and t$picall$/ a !ater%cooled upper section that onl$
comes into contact !ith scrap and slag# <eating and melting of the
scrap are accomplished b$ suppl$ing electrical energ$ through the
electrodes and chemical energ$ through the use of burners and o3$gen
lances# Transfer of the li1uid steel to the ladle is accomplished b$ tilting
the furnace and opening either a tapping spout or a bottom tap%hole to
allo! the steel to flo! from the furnace# It is apparent that man$ sub%
s$stems come into pla$ throughout the tap%to%tap c$cle# 'an$ of these
s$stems are dependent of the follo!ing s$stems in order to be able to
function properl$&
<$draulic s$stem
Cooling !ater s$stem
8ubrication S$stem
$y#raulic system
The h$draulic s$stem pro+ides moti+e po!er for almost all EAF
mo+ements including roof lo!er7raise/ roof s!ing/ electrode arms
up7do!n7regulation7s!ing/ furnace tilt for!ard7bac!ard/ slag door
raise7lo!er and mo+ement of an$ au3iliar$ s$stems such as the burner
lance# The h$draulic s$stem consists of a central reser+oir/ filters/ an
accumulator/ h$draulic +al+es and h$draulic piping# As h$draulic fluid
passes through +al+es in one of t!o directions !ithin a gi+en circuit/
h$draulic c$linders are e3tended or contracted to pro+ide mo+ement of
+arious mechanical components# 6ithout sufficient fluid flo! and
pressure !ithin a circuit/ mo+ement is impossible# Thus issues such as
lo! fluid le+el/ lo! accumulator pressure/ s$stem leas/ fluid
degradation due to o+er%heating/ solids build%up in +al+es or in
h$draulic lines and !ear in mechanical components can lead to poor
s$stem performance and in some cases/ s$stem failure#
Top
Cooling (ater system
Another s$stem that is integral to EAF operation is the cooling !ater
s$stem# T$picall$/ there are se+eral cooling s$stems# Some operations
re1uire e3tremel$ clean/ high 1ualit$ cooling !ater# Transformer
cooling/ delta closure cooling/ bus tube cooling and electrode holder
cooling are all such applications# T$picall$/ these s$stems !ill consist of
a closed loop circuit/ !hich conducts !ater through these sensiti+e
pieces of e1uipment# The !ater in the closed loop circuit passes
through a heat e3changer to remo+e heat# The circuit on the open loop
side of the heat e3changer t$picall$ flo!s to a cooling to!er for energ$
dissipation# Other !ater cooled elements such as furnace side panels/
roof panels/ offgas s$stem ducting/ furnace cage etc# !ill t$picall$
recei+e cooling !ater from a cooling to!er#
The cooling circuit t$picall$ consists of suppl$ pumps/ return pumps/
filters/ a cooling to!er cell or cells and flo! monitoring instrumentation#
Sensiti+e pieces of e1uipment normall$ ha+e instrumentation installed
to monitor the cooling !ater flo! rate and temperature# For most
!ater%cooled e1uipment/ interruption of the flo! or inade1uate !ater
1uantities can lead to se+ere thermal o+er loading and in some cases
catastrophic failure#
Top
'u+rication System
'an$ modern furnaces ha+e an automatic s$stem that pro+ides
lubrication to +arious mo+ing parts based on +arious "e+ents" occurring
during the tap%to%tap c$cle# For e3ample/ some parts are lubricated
e+er$ three roof s!ings/ follo!ing tapping/ etc# Some components such
as roller bearings are critical to furnace operation and are lubricated
periodicall$ b$ hand# Some hard to reach locations are ser+iced using
tubing and remote blocs#
Top
AUFI8IARE SESTE'S
In addition to the ma2or mechanical s$stems associated !ith the EAF/
there are also man$ au3iliar$ s$stems that are integral to furnace
operation and performance#
*,ygen lance system
O+er the past 5* $ears/ the use of o3$gen in EAF steelmaing has
gro!n considerabl$# In the past !hen o3$gen consumption of less than
,** cubic feet per ton of steel !ere common/ lancing operations !ere
carried out manuall$ using a consumable pipe lance# 'ost modern
operations no! use automatic lances and most facilities no! use a non%
consumable/ !ater%cooled lance for in2ecting o3$gen into the steel#
'an$ of these lances also ha+e the capabilit$ to in2ect carbon as !ell#
Top
Car+on in-ection system
Carbon in2ection is critical to slag foaming operations/ !hich are
necessar$ for high po!er furnace operations# Carbon reacts !ith FeO to
form CO and "foam" the slag#
Top
*,y"uel +urner system
O3$%fuel burners are no! almost standard e1uipment on large high%
po!ered furnaces# In operations !ith short tap%to%tap times/ the$
pro+ide an important function b$ ensuring rapid melting of the scrap in
the cold spots# This ensures that scrap ca+e%ins are ept to a minimum
and as a result/ electrode breaage is minimi0ed# In large diameter
furnaces/ burners are essential to ensure a uniform meltdo!n# Non%
uniform scrap meltdo!ns ma$ result in operating dela$s and lost
producti+it$# The biggest maintenance issue for burners is to ensure
that the$ do not get plugged !ith metal or slag# The closer burners are
mounted to the bath/ the greater the ris of them becoming plugged
!hile in a lo!%fire mode# Some burners are mounted directl$ in the
!ater%cooled panel !hile others are mounted in a copper bloc# If
burners are fired at high rates against large pieces of scrap/ the flame
can blo! bac on the furnace shell damaging the !ater%cooled panel#
Thus the panel area should be inspected for !ear around the burner
port# If a copper bloc is used/ it !ill be more resistant to flame blo!
bac but should still be inspected regularl$ for !ear and cracs#
Top
Electro#e spray cooling system
It is common for electrodes to ha+e a spra$ cooling s$stem in order to
reduce electrode o3idation# Spra$ rings direct !ater spra$s at the
electrode belo! the electrode clamp and the !ater runs do!n the
electrode thus cooling it# Spra$s rings can reduce o+erall electrode
consumption b$ as much as 4*%5*9# In addition/ spra$ cooling usuall$
results in impro+ed electrode holder life and surrounding insulation#
(ue to the reduction in radiation from the electrode/ po!er cable/ air
hose and h$draulic hose life is also greatl$ impro+ed#
Top
Temperature Sampling System
The modern disposable thermocouple !as introduced to steelmaing
almost .* $ears ago and temperature measurement had become an
integral part of tracing progress throughout the tap%to%tap c$cle in
steelmaing# E3pendable probes are also used for tracing bath carbon
content and dissol+ed o3$gen le+els in the steel# These tools ha+e
enabled the tap%to%tap c$cle to be accelerated b$ eliminating long
!aiting periods for lab results/ thus increasing producti+it$# (isposable
probes are t$picall$ mounted in cardboard slee+es that slide on to a
steel probe:pole; !hich has internal electrical contacts# The disposable
probe transmits an electrical signal to the steel pole/ !hich in turn
transmits the signal to an electronic unit for interpretation# Almost all
probes rel$ on an accurate temperature measurement to precisel$
calculate carbon or o3$gen le+els# 'ost facilities eep se+eral spare
poles on hand so that the$ can be 1uicl$ replaced if the$ ha+e reading
problems#
Top
*gas !irect E.acuation System
Earl$ offgas e+acuation s$stems !ere installed so that the furnace
operators could better see !hat !as happening in and around the
furnace# Since the earl$ da$s of EAF steelmaing/ the offgas s$stem
has e+ol+ed considerabl$ and most modern EAF shops no! use a
"fourth hole" direct furnace shell e+acuation s$stem :(ES;# The term
fourth hole refers to an additional hole other than those for the
electrodes/ !hich is pro+ided for offgas e3traction# On (C furnaces !ith
onl$ one electrode/ the fume e3traction port is sometimes referred to
as the "second hole"# It is important to maintain sufficient draft on the
furnace for the follo!ing reasons&
4# To pro+ide ade1uate pollution control#
5# E3cessi+e shop emissions mae it difficult for the crane operator
to charge the furnace#
,# E3cessi+e emissions around the electrode ports can result in
damage of hoses/ cables/ the electrode holder/ the furnace
delta/ roof refractor$/ accelerated electrode !ear/ damage to the
electrode spra$ cooler etc#
.# Emissions at the roof ring can result in !arping of the roof ring
structure#
-# E3cessi+e emissions of carbon mono3ide to the secondar$
canop$ s$stem ma$ result in e3plosions in the duct!or
do!nstream#
)# E3cessi+e dust build%up ma$ cause arcing bet!een electrode
phases#
'ost (ES s$stems consist of !ater%cooled duct/ spra$ cooling/ dr$ duct
and ma$ or ma$ not ha+e a dedicated (ES booster fan#
Top
E8ECTRICA8 SESTE'S
Electrical s$stems in an EAF meltshop usuall$ consist of a primar$
s$stem !hich supplies po!er from the electrical utilit$G and the
secondar$ electrical s$stem !hich steps do!n the +oltage from the
utilit$ and supplies the po!er to the EAF# The primar$ s$stem ma$
include a $ard step%do!n transformer as part of the steelmaerHs
facilit$ and this transformer !ill feed se+eral other transformers !ith%in
the facilit$ including the EAF transformer# Regardless/ there !ill be a
main breaer !hich isolates all of the steelmaing facilit$Hs electrical
s$stems from the po!er utilit$# On the secondar$ side of the primar$
electrical s$stem/ a +acuum s!itch and motori0ed disconnect are used
to isolate the secondar$ furnace transformer from the primar$ po!er
suppl$#
Top
/acuum S(itch
The +acuum s!itch is a long life s!itch that is generall$ used in all
electric furnace applications# The traditional +acuum s!itch allo!s for
the secondar$ electrical circuit to be broen either under load or
!ithout load# 'ost +acuum s!itches are rated for .*/*** operations or
four $ears# In practice/ it is not unusual for such s!itches to achie+e
5**/*** operations !ithout maintenance# The primar$ cause of failure
in these units is a metallic bello!s/ !hich is used to pro+ide a seal for
the mo+ing contact/ !hich is enclosed in a +acuum# Once this seal
begins to !ear :t$picall$ after 4**/*** operations;/ a +acuum lea !ill
occur thus maing it difficult to ade1uatel$ isolate the primar$ po!er
from the secondar$#
Top
Motori0e# !isconnect S(itch
The motori0ed disconnect s!itch :'(S; is t$picall$ a motori0ed nife
gate s!itch !hich is capable of ph$sicall$ isolating the EAF from the
primar$ po!er suppl$# The nife s!itches are retracted !hen the
furnace is not under load :+acuum s!itch open/ electrodes raised; so
that arcing does not occur bet!een the blades on either side of the
s!itch# Top
EAF Transormer
The po!er flo! from the utilit$Hs generators/ through their net!or/
arri+es at the steel plant at +er$ high +oltage and must therefore be
con+erted to lo! +oltage suitable for the furnacearcs# Transformers
perform this tas# The EAF transformer recei+es the primar$ lo!
current/ high +oltage po!er and transforms this to a high current/ lo!
+oltage po!er for use in the EAF# Reliable operation of the EAF is totall$
dependent on reliable operation of the EAF transformer# 'an$ large
furnace transformers are rated 4**'CA or greater#
Transforming the po!er from the C le+el at the incoming utilit$ line to
the +oltage le+el needed in the EAF is usuall$ done in t!o stages# A
first transformer :occasionall$ t!o transformers in parallel; steps the
+oltage do!n from the high%+oltage line to a medium +oltage le+el
!hich is generall$ standardi0ed for each countr$# In the USA this
medium +oltage is usuall$ ,.#- C/ !hile in Europe/ Iapan and other
areas the +oltages are not +er$ different/ often ,* to ,, C# From the
,.#- C busbar/ the arc furnace is po!ered b$ a special/ hea+$%dut$
furnace transformer# The secondar$ +oltage of this furnace transformer
is designed to allo! operation of the arcs in the desired range of arc
+oltages and currents# Since there are +ar$ing re1uirements of arc
+oltage7current combinations through the heat it is necessar$ to ha+e a
choice of secondar$ +oltages# The furnace transformer is e1uipped !ith
a tap"changer for this purpose#

Top
Tap changer
The purpose of a tap changer is to allo! a choice of different
combinations of +olts and amps for different stages of a heat# This is
achie+ed b$ changing the number of turns of primar$ coil# : The
primar$ taes lo!er current so it is simpler to change the number of
turns on this coil rather than the high current secondar$ coil;# @asicall$
the tap changer taes the form of a motori0ed bo3 of contacts !hich
s!itch the primar$ current to different parts of the coil around the iron
core# 'ost tap changers are designed to operate "on%load" meaning
s!itching the primar$ current/ usuall$ in 5 A steps/ at ,.#- C# A
Hmae%before%breaH contact mo+ement is used to a+oid current
interruption# These contacts are sub2ect to hea+$ erosion due to arcing
and therefore re1uire pre+entati+e maintenance#
Some steelmaers choose an Hoff%loadH tap changer in order to a+oid
the hea+$ dut$ of on%load s!itching# <o!e+er/ such a tap changer
re1uires that the steelmaer brea the arc b$ lifting the furnace
electrodes and this procedure ma$ tae as long as one minute# Toda$
such a dela$ each time a tap is changed is intolerable and such designs
are becoming rare#
Top
SECON(ARE E8ECTRICA8 CIRCUIT
The secondar$ circuit of the EAF electrical s$stem consists of fi+e ma2or
components& delta closure/ po!er cable/ bus tube7conducting arm/
electrode clamp7holder and the electrode#
!elta Closure
The secondar$ circuit of the EAF transformer terminates at lo! +oltage
bushings/ !hich are attached to the delta closure/ !hich consists of a
series of copper plates/ tubes or both# These are arranged do that the
secondar$ !indings of the transformer are 2oined to form a closed
circuit# 'ost of this e1uipment is located !ithin the transformer +ault to
assure a secure/ clean en+ironment# The delta closure protrudes
through the !all of the +ault ad2acent to the EAF and connectors are
pro+ided to attach to one end of the furnace po!er cablesG the other
end being attached to either the current conducting arms of the
furnace or the busbar#
In the case of the direct current EAF/ the th$ristor !ill ha+e t!o copper
terminationsG one of !hich is attached to the EAF po!er cable/ and
other is attached to the bottom furnace electrode# The bottom furnace
electrode is usuall$ rigid/ as no mo+ement is re1uired during operation
of the furnace# In principle/ the termination on the th$ristor is
analogous to the delta closure/ though ph$sicall$/ it differs
considerabl$# 6ith respect to the maintenance issues for the delta
closure/ ho!e+er/ the same concepts can be applied to the (C
operation#
@us s$stems are t$picall$ supported at the transformer +ault !all and
ma$ also be supported from stainless steel hangers suspended from
the +ault ceiling# Suspension s$stems for secondar$ bus or delta
closures are fre1uentl$ supported at the +ault !all !ith iln dried
timbers#
Secondar$ bus s$stems and delta closures are insulated in order to
pre+ent arcing from phase to phase and from phase to ground
especiall$ at the support members#
Top
Furnace &o(er Ca+les
The !ater%cooled furnace po!er cables pro+ide the onl$ fle3ible
connection in the secondar$ circuit# These cables must be fle3ible to
permit mo+ement of the electrode arms up and do!n and to allo!
s!inging the electrode arms and roof !hen charging of the furnace#
The connections from the delta closure/ !hich are on the outside of the
transformer +ault/ are sil+er plated to pro+ide a clean contact for the
po!er cables# The po!er cables consist of copper !ire strandings
forming a c$lindrical construction/ !hich is soldered to copper terminals
at either end of the cable# A rubber 2acet around the outside of the
cable permits cooling !ater for the cable# The rubber hose is attached
at either end of the cable using stainless steel clamps/ +ulcani0ed
bumpers or an anti%chaffing hose# The cooling !ater hose is co+ered
!ith a protecti+e slee+e !hich ma$ be fabricated of fiberglass/
+ulcani0ed material/ and silicon or aluminum glass fiber slee+es# As
cable design ad+anced/ it !as noted that due to the "sin effect" t$pical
of AC operations/ the current !as carried predominantl$ b$ the outer
portion of the copper strands# Therefore the center strands !ere
replaced !ith a hollo! rubber tube !hich reduced the cable !eight/ the
reactance and the cost of the cable# At a later date/ some operations
used this inner channel for !ater cooling as !ell#
In (C furnace operations/ the inner rubber tube in the cable is used for
cooling because (C operations do not e3perience the "sin effect" and
the !hole cross section of the copper cable carries the current
uniforml$# <o!e+er/ (C cables are cooled more effecti+el$ from the
center and cooling from the outside is not al!a$s used#
Top
Bus Bar 1 Current Con#ucting Arm
Se+eral designs no! e3ist for the electrode arm and bus%bar assembl$#
'an$ older furnaces utili0e an arm structure that supports an
electricall$ insulated bus%bar# The bus%bar pro+ides the electrical
connection bet!een the po!er cables and the electrode holder# @us%
bars consist of a rigid/ round/ copper pipe# T$picall$ the bus tube is
supported b$ one or t!o bolted connections# =ood insulation must be
installed bet!een the bus tube and itsH supporting members to ensure
that arcing !hich could destro$ the bust tube does not tae place# @us
tubes are usuall$ attached to the po!er cables using remo+able/ cast
copper terminals or in some cases/ permanent fabricated copper
terminal plates and pads#
Se+eral configurations are a+ailable for the bus tube termination at the
electrode holder and contact pad# These include flanged connection to
the contact pad/ flat blade 2oined to the tube for parallel connection
!ith the holder and a round copper tube contact point !ith the
connector# The bus tubes ma$ be bolted to the holder or contact pad or
a fused permanent 2oint ma$ be used#
'an$ modern furnaces utili0e current conducting arms in !hich the arm
itself transmits electricit$ to the electrode holder and contact pad#
Current conducting arms are usuall$ fabricated from copper clad steel
or aluminum allo$s# (ue to the reduced !eight of conducting arms as
opposed to con+entional arm and bus tube assemblies there is
some!hat less mechanical !ear# <o!e+er/ man$ of the same
maintenance issues appl$ both to bus tube assemblies and current
conducting arms#
Top
Electro#e $ea#s1Contact pa#s
The Electrode heads and contact pads pro+ide the final connection
bet!een the po!er suppl$ and the graphite electrode# The$ are
e3posed to e3treme mechanical conditions :+ibration/ torsion etc#; and
thermal c$cling and as a result are the !eaest lin in the secondar$
circuit# Traditional electrode holders are either cast or fabricated from
copper plates# Contact pads are smaller and incorporate onl$ the
electrode contact area# In traditional electrode holders/ the electrode is
pushed for!ard into the contact area# In the case of contact pads/ the
electrode is pulled bac !ith steel housing e1uipment to mae contact
!ith the pad# The current transfer bet!een the contact pad and the
electrode occurs in the lo!er , or . inches# Proper clamping for is a
necessit$ in order to pre+ent arcing bet!een the electrode and the
contact area# An$ dirt build%up in this area !ill result in resistance to
current flo! and !ill cause o+er%heating and damage to the electrode
holder7contact pad#
T$picall$ cooling !ater re1uirements !ill +ar$ from 5 to .* gallons per
minute depending on the electrode si0e/ !ater 1ualit$/ clamping force
and maintenance of a clean contact area# The contact area should be
cleaned regularl$ to remo+e o3idation/ carbon build%up and other
material build%up in this area#
Top
Electro#e Regulation
T$picall$/ the electrode7arm7mast7cable assembl$ !eighs in the range
of 5* tons# This is mo+ed +erticall$ for control purposes b$ a h$draulic
c$linder incorporated in the mast# :In some older furnaces the
mo+ement is effected b$ an electric motor7cable !inch arrangement;#
Since the arc length is dependent/ amongst other things/ on the e+er
changing le+el of scrap or li1uid under the electrode it is necessar$ to
ha+e an automatic control o+er electrode position %% the regulation
s$stem#
The regulation s$stem influences man$ important aspects of furnace
performance/ such as energ$ input/ mean current/ arc stabilit$/ scrap
melting pattern/ energ$ losses to !ater%cooled panels/ energ$/
electrode and refractor$ consumption# All these parameters are
interrelated in a comple3 manner and there are man$ differences of
opinion on HoptimumH control strategies#
The accepted "standard" handling of the electrical signals is to form an
"impedance control"# This method attempts to hold the ratio of +oltage
to electrical current constant/ hence its description as HimpedanceH
control# A +oltage signal taen from the phase to ground and a current
signal are each separatel$ rectified and their dc +alues are compared
"bac%to bac"# If the +oltage and current are each at a desired le+el %
the set point/ chosen b$ the steelmaer % the output from this
comparison of signals is arranged to be 0ero# If ho!e+er the current
e3ceeds this le+el its signal increases and simultaneousl$ the +oltage
decreases# Then the t!o bac%to bac +oltages do not balance and an
output +oltage is generated# This signal goes to the regulating +al+e in
such a !a$ to command the electrode to raise/ aimed at reducing
current
Top
E8ECTRO(ES
:@$ 6illiam A# Obenchain/ AISI and Ste+e Casto/ UCAR Corp;
One of the most important elements in the electric circuit and
consumable cost in electric furnace steelmaing are the electrodes The
electrodes deli+er the po!er to the furnace in the form of an electric
arc bet!een the electrode and the furnace charge# The arc itself is a
plasma of hot/ ionic gasses in e3cess of )/***JF# Electrodes come in
t!o forms& amorphous and graphitic carbon/ or graphite# Since onl$
graphite electrodes are used in steelmaing onl$ the$ !ill be discussed
here#
Courtesy of UCAR Corp.
=raphite electrodes are composed of a mi3ture of finel$ di+ided/
calcined petroleum coe mi3ed !ith about ,*9 coal tar pitch as a
binder/ plus proprietar$ additi+es uni1ue to each manufacturer# This
mi3ture is e3truded at appro3imatel$ 55*JF/ the softening temperature
of pitch/ to form a c$lindrical rod no!n as a "green electrode"# The
green electrode is no! gi+en a controlled bae in a reducing
atmosphere at temperatures as high 4A**JF and again impregnated
!ith pitch to increase its strength and densit$ and lo!er the electrical
resisti+it$# The electrodes are no! read$ to be graphiti0ed/ i#e#
con+erting the amorphous carbon into cr$stalline graphite# This is
accomplished b$ passing an electric current through them and heating
them to as much as -***JF# The graphiti0ing consumes as much as
,***%-***6<7ton of electrode# The final product is strong/ dense/
and has a lo! electrical resisti+it$# 8astl$ the electrode is machined to
its final shape# Into each end of the electrode is a recess in !hich
threads are machined# These are used to accept a threaded nipple
manufactured in the same !a$ so that the electrode column can be
lengthened as it is consumed#
<istoricall$/ electrode consumption has been as high as 45%4. pounds
per tons of steel/ but through continuous impro+ement in electrode
manufacturing and steelmaing operations/ this has been reduced to
the neighborhood ,#- to .#- pounds per ton# 'ost electrode
consumption is through o3idation and tip sublimation/ !ith some small
pieces lost around the connecting 2oint# A considerable portion is also
lost to mechanical breaage caused b$ scrap scrap ca+e%ins in the
furnace or crushing the electrode into the charge#
Electrodes are commonl$ a+ailable in si0es from 4- % ,* inches in
diameter +ar$ing lengths to 4* feet# The$ come in three grades&
regular and premium and the ne!er (C grade#