NDT Handbook

Non-Destructive Testing
Inspectors
Handbook
Visual Inspection (VT)
Liquid Penetrant Inspection (PT)
agnetic Particle Testing (T)
!ltrasonic Testing (!T)
"dd# $urrent Testing ("T)
%adiograp&ic Inspection (%T)
Inspectors Handbook ii
Pre'ace
This reference book was designed for use in the field and to support on-the-job training. It should not be
used as a standard or referred to as a stand-alone document. This book covers basic formulas, charts, and other
NT related information.
Dedication
To all the people who have influenced m! naval career and where I am toda! in the Non-estructive field.
Thank !ou. I originall! started this project as a self-knowledge application and began receiving comments from m!
fellow colleagues re"uesting a cop!. I soon reali#ed that this would prove to be an invaluable tool for general
information in our field. I have received support from both militar! and civilian personnel and have taken a sample
of their suggestions and compiled them for !ou, the end user. I wanted to take personal credit for this project and
reali#ed it would not benefit the NT field as a whole. Instead, I encourage !ou, the end user, to change,
manipulate, or configure this book for !ourself. In closing, $%hare the &ealth with 'thers.(
Last %evision Date
)* +pril *))*
$ontact In'or(ation
,eoke-*./hotmail.com
ndthandbook.#apto.org
Disclai(er
This book is not intended for sale or an! monetar! benefit to the editor.
Inspectors Handbook i
Table o' $ontents
%cope of %tandards .............................................................................................................................................. iv
0hapter 1 - 2eneral Information ..................................................................... 1
%chedule esignations of 3ipe %i#es ................................................................................................................ 1
0opper Tubing &all Thickness ............................................................................................................... *
ecimal to Inches ............................................................................................................................................. *
Temperature 0onversions ................................................................................................................................. *
..................................................................................................................................................................... *
4raction to ecimal 5"uivalent ........................................................................................................................ 6
ecimal to %econd 0onversion ........................................................................................................................ 6
Numerical 3lace 7alue 0hart ........................................................................................................................... 6
5lements of a Nondestructive 58amination %!mbol ........................................................................................ 9
5lements of a &elding %!mbol ........................................................................................................................ 9
58amples of 2rooves ........................................................................................................................................ -
:asic ;oints <&elding= ...................................................................................................................................... -
'rder of 3erforming +rithmetic 'perations ..................................................................................................... .
>atio +nd 3roportion ........................................................................................................................................ ?
0alculation of +rea ........................................................................................................................................... @
&eld +rea 0alculation ................................................................................................................................... @
0ommon %!mbols and Terms ........................................................................................................................ @
%olution of >ight-angled Triangles ................................................................................................................ 1)
:asic Illustration of a &eld ........................................................................................................................... 11
&elding 3rocesses .......................................................................................................................................... 1*
:acking >ing 0ommon efect Aocations ...................................................................................................... 16
0onsumable Insert 0ommon efect Aocations .............................................................................................. 16
3rimar! 3rocessing iscontinuities ................................................................................................................ 19
4inish 3rocessing iscontinuities ................................................................................................................... 1-
ial Indicating 0alipers .................................................................................................................................. 1.
Bicrometer ..................................................................................................................................................... 1.
Thread Terminolog! <fasteners= ..................................................................................................................... 1?
Tap and rill %i#e 0hart ................................................................................................................................. 1?
;ulian ate 0alendar <3erpetual= .................................................................................................................... 1C
;ulian ate 0alendar <Aeap Dear= .................................................................................................................. *)
4low 0hart 4or + iscontinuit! ..................................................................................................................... *)
0hapter * - 7isual Inspection ......................................................................... 1
0ommon efinitions and 58amples ................................................................................................................. 1
0hapter 6 - Ai"uid 3enetrant Testing .............................................................. 1
0ommon Terms and efinitions ...................................................................................................................... 1
3rorated Ba8imum Number of Indications ...................................................................................................... .
+reas of 0ircles ................................................................................................................................................ .
3enetrant &etting 0haracteristics ..................................................................................................................... ?
0hapter 9 - Bagnetic 3article Testing ............................................................ 1
Aongitudinal Bagneti#ation Bath 4ormula ...................................................................................................... ?
3rorated Ba8imum Number of Indications ...................................................................................................... @
+reas of 0ircles ................................................................................................................................................ @
0ommon T!pes of Bagneti#ation .................................................................................................................... @
................................................................................................................................................................... C
Inspectors Handbook ii
Theor!E $>ightFHand >ule( ................................................................................................................. C
H!steresis 0urve ............................................................................................................................................. 1)
Bagnetic 3article 4ield Indicator <3ie 2age= ................................................................................................. 11
0hapter - - Gltrasonic Testing ........................................................................ 1
0ommon Bath 4ormulas ................................................................................................................................ 1*
0alibration 0hart F GT %hearwave ................................................................................................................. 16
43+%0> ................................................................................................................................................ 19
....................................................................................................................................................................... 19
7elocit! 0hart ................................................................................................................................................. 1-
0hapter . - 5dd! 0urrent Testing ................................................................... 1
Two T!pes of 5lectrical 0urrent ...................................................................................................................... .
0onductivit! and the I+0% ............................................................................................................................... ?
>ight Hand >ule ............................................................................................................................................... ?
Bagnetic omains ............................................................................................................................................ C
epth of 3enetration ....................................................................................................................................... 16
Aimitations of 5dd! 0urrent Testing .............................................................................................................. *)
+dvantages of 5dd! 0urrent Testing ............................................................................................................. *)
%ummar! of 3roperties of 5dd! 0urrents ....................................................................................................... *)
5dd! 0urrent >elationship of 3roperties ........................................................................................................ *)
0hapter ? - >adiographic Inspection .............................................................. 1
%tructure of the +tom and an 5lement ............................................................................................................. @
0omponents of an Isotope ................................................................................................................................ @
0haracteristics of + >adioactive 5lement ........................................................................................................ @
Two T!pes of >adiation ................................................................................................................................... @
Histor! of >adiograph! .................................................................................................................................... C
.) 0overage for 3ipes and Aocation Barker Beasurements ......................................................................... 11
0ommon Bath 4ormulas ................................................................................................................................ 1*
Bagic 0ircles .................................................................................................................................................. 1-
+ ................................................................................................................. 1-
%ingle &all 58posure H %ingle &all 7iewing for 3late .................................................................................. 1-
%ingle &all 58posure H %ingle &all 7iewing for 3ipe ................................................................................... 1.
ouble &all 58posure H ouble &all 7iew <superimposed= ........................................................................ 1.
ouble &all 58posure H ouble &all 7iew <offset= ...................................................................................... 1?
ouble &all 58posure H %ingle &all 7iew .................................................................................................... 1?
,IAA5> 0+>A .............................................................................................................................................. 1@
3enetrameter Baterial and 2roup Numbers ................................................................................................... 1@
3enn! T-Hole Ba8imum ensit! ................................................................................................................ 1C
*I 3enetrameter Jualit! 0onversion 0hart <K->+D 'NAD= ...................................................................... *)
:asic 0omponents of an K-ra! Tube .............................................................................................................. *-
T!pes of %catter >adiation .............................................................................................................................. *-
>adiographic 4ilm Interpretation ................................................................................................................... *.
3robable 0auses and 0orrective +ction for +utomatic 4ilm 3rocessing ....................................................... -)
3robable 0auses and 0orrective +ction for 3rocessed >adiographic 4ilm ................................................... -1
Inspectors Handbook iii
Scope of Standards
N)TP *+, %"-!I%""NT) ./% N/ND")T%!$TIV" T")TIN0 "TH/D)
This document covers the re"uirements for conducting nondestructive tests <NT= used in determining the
presence of surface and internal discontinuities in metals. It also contains the minimum re"uirements necessar! to
"ualif! nondestructive test and inspection personnel, procedures, and nondestructive e"uipment. This document
does not contain acceptance criteria for nondestructive test. This document does not cover all of the re"uirements
for performing nondestructive tests in an underwater environment. Nondestructive tests in an underwater
environment shall be performed as specified in N+7%5+ %).))-++-3>'-)?).
N)TP *12 %"-!I%""NT) ./% 3"LDIN0 4ND 5%46IN0 P%/$"D!%" 4ND P"%./%4N$"
-!4LI.I$4TI/N
This document contains the re"uirements for the "ualification of welding and bra#ing procedures, welders,
welding operators, bra#ers and bra#ing operators that must be met prior to an! production fabrication. It includes
manual, semiautomatic, automatic and machine welding and bra#ing of ferrous, nonferrous, and dissimilar metals.
The "ualification tests re"uired b! this document are devised to demonstrate the ade"uac! of the welding or
bra#ing procedures and to demonstrate the abilit! of welders, bra#ers, welding operators and bra#ing operators to
produce sound welds or bra#es.
N)TP *+2 %"-!I%""NT) ./% .45%I$4TI/N 3"LDIN0 4ND IN)P"$TI/N7 4ND $4)TIN0
IN)P"$TI/N 4ND %"P4I% ./% 4$HIN"%87 PIPIN07 4ND P%"))!%" V"))"L)
This document contains the welding and allied processes <e8cept bra#ing= and casting re"uirements
including inspection for the fabrication, alteration, or repair of an! item or component of machiner!, piping, and
pressure vessels in ships of the Gnited %tates Nav!.
IL-)TD *9:; N/ND")T%!$TIV" T")TIN0 4$$"PT4N$" $%IT"%I4
The acceptance criteria contained herein are for use in determining the acceptabilit! of nondestructive test
<NT= discontinuities in castings, welds, forgings, e8trusions, cladding, and other products when specified b! the
applicable Naval %ea %!stems 0ommand <N+7%5+= drawing, specification, contract, order, or directive.
N)TP ,<22 .45%I$4TI/N7 3"LDIN0 4ND IN)P"$TI/N )!54%IN" 4PPLI$4TI/N)
This document contains minimum re"uirements for fabrication and inspection of submarine and non-
combatant submersible structures, including shipbuilding practices, specifications for materials, weld joint design,
workmanship, welding, inspection, and record re"uirements.
IL-)TD ,<2= .45%I$4TI/N7 3"LDIN07 4ND IN)P"$TI/N /. )HIP) )T%!$T!%"
This standard contains the minimum re"uirements for the fabrication and inspection of the hull and
associated structures of combatant surface ships. The re"uirements for shipbuilding, materials, welding, welding
design, mechanical fasteners, workmanship, inspection, forming, castings and records are included. It also applies
to those submarine structures which are not high-!ield strength steels.
IL-)TD **D 3"LD"D >/INT D")I0N
This standard covers welded joint designs for manual, semi-automatic, and automatic arc and gas welding
processes for use on metals and weldments, as applicable, when invoked b! a fabrication document. The welded
joint designs shown herein represent standard joint designs used in welded fabrication and are not intended to be
all inclusive.
Inspectors Handbook iv
N)TP $H4PT"% 9+1 ? V/L!" , 3"LDIN0 4ND 4LLI"D P%/$"))")
This chapter furnishes both the minimum mandator! re"uirements <indicated b! the word shall= and
guidance information <indicated b! the words should or ma!= necessar! for welding, bra#ing, inspection, and
safet! when used for ship maintenance, repair, and alteration.
N)TP $H4PT"% 9+1 ? V/L!" * N/ND")T%!$TIV" T")TIN0 /. "T4L) -!4LI.I$4TI/N
4ND $"%TI.I$4TI/N %"-!I%""NT) ./% N4V4L P"%)/NN"L (N/N-N!$L"4%)
This chapter is furnished to ensure achievement of uniform and reliable nondestructive tests on naval
materials and components, implementation of the training, "ualification, and certification programs described in
this chapter should be followed precisel!.
Inspectors Handbook v
$&apter , - 0eneral In'or(ation
)c&edule Designations o' Pipe )i@es
SCHEDULE 40 SCHEDULE 80 SCHEDULE 120
DIA. O.D. I.D. WALL O.D. I.D. WALL DIA. O.D. I.D. WALL
1/8 .405 .269 .068 .405 .215 .095 4 4.500 3.624 .438
1/4 .540 .364 .088 .540 .302 .119 5 5.563 4.563 .500
3/8 .675 .493 .091 .675 .423 .126 6 6.625 5.501 .562
1/2 .840 .622 .109 .840 .546 .147 8 8.625 7.189 .718
3/4 1.050 .824 .113 1.050 .742 .154 SCHEDULE 160
1 1.315 1.049 .133 1.315 .957 .179 1/2 .840 .466 .187
1-1/4 1.660 1.380 .140 1.660 1.278 .191 3/4 1.050 .614 .218
1-1/2 1.900 1.610 .145 1.900 1.500 .200 1 1.315 .815 .250
2 2.375 2.067 .154 2.375 1.939 .218 1-1/4 1.660 1.160 .250
2-1/2 2.875 2.469 .203 2.875 2.323 .276 1-1/2 1.900 1.338 .281
3 3.500 3.068 .216 3.500 2.900 .300 2 2.375 1.689 .343
3-1/2 4.000 3.548 .226 4.000 3.364 .318 2-1/2 2.875 2.125 .375
4 4.500 4.026 .237 4.500 3.826 .337 3 3.500 2.624 .438
4-1/2 5.000 4.506 .247 5.000 4.290 .355 4 4.500 3.438 .531
5 5.563 5.047 .258 5.563 4.813 .375 5 5.563 4.313 .625
6 6.625 6.065 .280 6.625 5.761 .432 6 6.625 5.189 .718
8 8.625 7.981 .322 8.625 7.625 .500 8 8.625 6.813 ..906
$opper Tubing 3all T&ickness
Deci(al to Inc&es
Decimal Inches Decimal Inches
0.0833 1" 0.5833 7"
0.1250 1 1/2 " 0.6250 7 1/2 "
0.1667 2" 0.6667 8"
0.2083 2 1/2 " 0.7083 8 1/2 "
0.2500 3" 0.7500 9"
0.2917 3 1/2 " 0.7917 9 1/2 "
0.3333 4" 0.8333 10"
0.3750 4 1/2 " 0.8750 10 1/2 "
0.4167 5" 0.9167 11"
0.4583 5 1/2 " 0.9583 11 1/2 "
0.5000 6" 1.0000 12"
0.5417 6 1/2 "
inches / 12 = ecimal
ecimal ! 12 = inches
Te(perature $onversions
4ahrenheit L <CH- M 0= N 6*
0elsius L <4 - 6*= M -HC
' 0A - *)) 0A - ?)) 0A - 1.-) 0A - 66)) 0A - .)))
).1*- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ).)*@ ).)*@
).*- ).)6- - - - - - - - - - - ).)6- ).)-@
).6?- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ).)9C ).)@6
).9)- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ).)-@ ).)C-
).- ).)6- ).).- ).)6- ).)?* ).1*)
).-9 ).).- ).).- ).)9* ).)?* ).1*)
)..?- ).).- ).)?* ).)9C ).)C- ).19@
).?- - - - - - - - - - - ).)-@ ).1)C ).1.-
).@9 ).).- ).)?* ).)-@ ).1*) ).*)6
1 - - - - - - - - - - ).)?* ).169 ).**)
1.)- ).).- ).)@6 ).)@6 ).19@ ).*6@
1.*- - - - - - - - - - - ).)C- ).1.- ).*@9
1.61- ).).- ).)C- ).)C- ).1@) ).6))
1.- - - - - - - - - - - ).1)C ).*)6 ).69)
1... ).)?* ).)C- ).1*) ).**) ).6@)
1.C ).)?* ).1)C ).169 ).*-) ).9*-
* - - - - - - - - - - ).19@ ).*@9 ).9-9
*.6?- ).)@6 ).1*) ).1.- ).69) ).-*)
*.- - - - - - - - - - - ).1@) ).69) ).-9?
*.@?- ).)@6 ).169 ).*)6 ).6@) - - - - -
6.- ).)C- ).1.- ).*-) ).9-? - - - - -
9 ).)C- ).1@) ).*@9 - - - - - - - - - -
9.- ).1)C ).*)6 ).69) - - - - - - - - - -
- ).1*) ).*)6 ).6@) - - - - - - - - - -

Nu(erical Place Value $&art
"#$ %&am'le 2 ( 2 6 2 ( 3 5 7 . 6 1 9 8 4 4
2 )ILLIO*+ 1(000(000 D 6 ,%*,-+ 1/10 0.1
2
-.*D/%D
,-O.+A*D+
100(000 % 1 -.*D/%D,-+ 1/100 0.01
6
,%*
,-O.+A*D+
10(000 0 9 ,-O.+A*D,-+ 1/1(000 0.001
2 ,-O.+A*D+ 1(000 I 8
,%*
,-O.+A*D,-+
1/10(000 0.0001
3 -.*D/%D+ 100 ) 4
-.*D/%D ,%*
,-O.+A*D,-+
1/100(000 0.00001
5 ,%*+ 10 A 4 )ILLIO*,-+ 1/1(000(000 0.000001
7 .*I,+ 1 L
.raction to Deci(al "quivalent
1/ 64 .015625 33/ 64 .515625
1/ 32 .03125 17/ 32 .53125
3/ 64 .046875 35/ 64 .546875
1/ 16 .0625 9/ 16 .5625
5/ 64 .078125 37/ 64 .578125
3/ 32 .09375 19/ 32 .59375
7/ 64 .109375 39/ 64 .609375
1/ 8 .125 5/ 8 .625
9/ 64 .140625 41/ 64 .640625
5/ 32 .15625 21/ 32 .65625
11/ 64 .171875 43/ 64 .671875
3/ 16 .1875 11/ 16 .6875
13/ 64 .203125 45/ 64 .703125
7/ 32 .21875 23/ 32 .71875
15/ 64 .234375 47/ 64 .734375
1/ 4 .250 3/ 4 .750
17/ 64 .265625 49/ 64 .765625
9/ 32 .28125 25/ 32 .78125
19/ 64 .296875 51/ 64 .796875
5/ 16 .3125 13/ 16 .8125
21/ 64 .328125 53/ 64 .828125
11/ 32 .34375 27/ 32 .84375
23/ 64 .359375 55/ 64 .859375
3/ 8 .375 7/ 8 .875
25/ 64 .390625 57/ 64 .890625
13/ 32 .40625 29/ 32 .90625
27/ 64 .421875 59/ 64 .921875
7/ 16 .4375 15/ 16 .9375
29/ 64 .453125 61/ 64 .953125
15/ 32 .46875 31/ 32 .96875
31/ 64 .484375 63/ 64 .984375
1/ 2 .500 1/ 1 1
Deci(al to )econd $onversion
DECIMAL SECOND DECIMAL SECOND
.017 1 .517 31
.033 2 .533 32
.050 3 .550 33
.067 4 .567 34
.083 5 .583 35
.100 6 .600 36
.117 7 .617 37
.133 8 .633 38
.150 9 .650 39
.167 10 .667 40
.183 11 .683 41
.200 12 .700 42
.217 13 .717 43
.233 14 .733 44
.250 15 .750 45
.267 16 .767 46
.283 17 .783 47
.300 18 .800 48
.317 19 .817 49
.333 20 .833 50
.350 21 .850 51
.367 22 .867 52
.383 23 .883 53
.400 24 .900 54
.417 25 .917 55
.433 26 .933 56
.450 27 .950 57
.467 28 .967 58
.483 29 .983 59
.500 30 1.00 60
1/60 1 +%0O*D+ = D%0I)AL 2/O.*D%D .3 ,O ,-% ,-I/D
3LA0%4
"le(ents o' a Nondestructive "Aa(ination )#(bol
"le(ents o' a 3elding )#(bol
"I*I+- +5)6OL
0O*,O./ +5)6OL
F
A L%*7,- O" W%LD
3I,0- O" W%LD+
"I%LD W%LD
,AIL !N"
7/OO8% W%LD +I9%
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3L.7 A*D +LO, W%LD+
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+3%0I"I0A,IO* O/ O,-%/
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"Aa(ples o' 0rooves
5asic >oints (3elding)
%"uare %ingle ; %ingle :evel
%ingle 7ee %ingle G ouble :evel
:utt Aap
0orner
Tee 5dge
/rder o' Per'or(ing 4rit&(etic /perations
&hen several numbers or "uantities in a formula are connected b! signs indicating that additions,
subtractions, multiplications, or divisions are to be made, the multiplications and divisions should be carried out
first, in the order in which the! appear, before the additions or subtractions are performed.
58amplesE 1) N *. K ? - * L 1) N1@* - * L 1C)
1@ . N 1- K 6 L 6 N 9- L 9@
1* N 19 * - 9 L 1* N ? - 9 L 1-
&hen it is re"uired that certain additions and subtractions should precede multiplicationOs and divisions, use
is made of parentheses <= and brackets PQ.
These indicate that the calculation inside the parentheses or brackets should be carried out complete b! itself
before the remaining calculations are commenced. If one bracket is placed inside of another, the one inside is first
calculated.
58amplesE <. - *= K - N @ L 9 K - N @ L *) N @ L *@
. K <9 N ?= ** L . K 11 ** L .. ** L 6
* N P1) K .<@ N *= - 9Q K * L * N P1) K . K 1) - 9Q K *
L * N P.)) - 9Q K * L * N -C. K * L * N 11C* L 11C9
The parentheses are considered as a sign of multiplicationR for e8ample, .<@ N *= L . 8 <@ N *=.
The line or bar between the numerator and denominator in a fractional e8pression is to be considered as a
division sign. 4or 58ample,
1* N 1. N **
--------------- L <1* N 1. N **= 1) L -) 1) L -
1)
In formulas the multiplication sign <K= is often left out between s!mbols or letters, the values of which are to be
multiplied. Thus
+:0
+: L + K :, and ------ L <+ K : K 0=

%atio 4nd Proportion
The ratio between two "uantities is the "uotient obtained b! dividing the first "uantit! b! the second. 4or
e8ample, the ration between 6 and 1* is
1
H
9
, and the ratio between 1* and 6 is 9. >atio is generall! indicated b! the
sign <E=R thus 1* E 6 indicates the ratio of 1* to 6.
+ reciprocal or inverse ratio is the reciprocal or the original ratio. Thus, the inverse ratio - E ? is ? E -.
In a compound ratio each term is the product of the corresponding terms in two or more simple ratios.
Thus when
@ E * L 9, C E 6 L 6, 1) E - L *,
then the compound ratio isE
@ K C K 1)E * K 6 K - L 9 K 6 K *,
?*) E 6) L *9
3rop is the e"ualit! of ratios. Thus,
. E 6 L 1) E -, or . E 6 EE 1) E -
The first and last terms in a proportion are called the e8tremesR the second and thirds, the means. The
product of the e8tremes is e"ual to the product of the means. Thus,
*- E * L 1)) E @ and *- K @ L * K 1))
If third terms in the proportion are known, the remaining term ma! be found b! the following rulesE
1= The first term is e"ual to the product of the second and third terms, divided b! the fourth term.
*= The second term is e"ual to the product of the first and fourth terms, divided b! the third.
6= The third term is e"ual to the product of the first and fourth terms, divided b! the second.
9= The fourth term is e"ual to the product of the second and third terms, divided b! the first.
$alculation o' 4rea
Square/Rectangle = Length * Width
Circles =
r
*
Triangle = Height * Base * 1/2
Sphere = 4
*
r
3eld 4rea $alculation
Structural Welds = Length * Width (easured!
"iping Welds = Circu#erence($%* ! * Width

S&c'et Welds = L ( W
L = (($% at ) * $% at B! / 2! *
W = Width &# the +eld is easured,
$o((on )#(bols and Ter(s
= -,141.
r = %iaeter / 2
/% = /nside %iaeter
$% = $utside %iaeter
0 = Less Than (ie 102!
3 = 4reater Than (ie 231!
0 = 5qual T& &r Less Than
3 = 5qual T& &r 4reater Than
* = "lus &r 6inus
)qB 4rea
L
W
+
:
Change percent (7! t& decial (8,8!,
6&9e decial p&int 2 spaces t& the le#t and dr&p the percent sign,
5(aple: 27 = 2,87 = ,82
Change decial (8,8! t& percent (7!,
6&9e decial p&int 2 units t& the right and add the percent sign,
5(aple: ,4- = 4-7
Change a #racti&n t& a decial,
%i9ide the nuerat&r ;< the den&inat&r,
5(aple: 1/2 = 1 di9ided ;< 2 = ,.
T = 6aterial Thic'ness= thic'ness &# the thinner e;er
e(cluding rein#&rceents,
Ts = Specien Thic'ness= thic'ness &# the thinner e;er
including rein#&rceents,
6iniu Weld Thr&at Thic'ness = ,> ( T
Based up&n 1T ? 1T
)olution o' %ig&t-angled Triangles
+s shown in the illustration, the sides of the right-
angled triangle are designated a and b and the
h!potenuse, c. The angles opposite each of these sides
are designated + and : respectivel!.
+ngle 0, opposite the h!potenuse c is the right
angle, and is therefore alwa!s one of the known
"uantities.
%ides and +ngles ,nown 4ormulas for %ides and +ngles to be 4ound
%ide a, side b.....
c L a
*
N b
*
Tan + L
: L C) - +
%ide a, h!potenuse c..
b L c
*
- a
*
%in + L
: L C) - +
%ide b, h!potenuse c..
a L c
*
- b
*
%in : L
+ L C) - :
H!potenuse cR angle : b L c 8 sin : a L c 8 cos :
+ L C) - :
H!potenuse cR angle + b L c 8 cos + a L c 8 sin +
: L C) - +
%ide bR angle :
c L
a L b 8 cot :
+ L C) - :
%ide bR angle +
0 L
a L b 8 tan +
: L C) - +
%ide aR angle :
0 L
b L a 8 tan :
+ L C) - :
%ide aR angle +
0 L
b L a 8 cot +
: L C) - +
0 L
C)C)C)
+
:
c
a
b
b
%in :
b
0os +
a
0os :
a
%in +
a
b
a
c
b
c
C)
5asic Illustration o' a 3eld
WELD REINFORCEMENT
ACTUAL THROAT
WELD FACE
THEORETICAL
THROAT
TOE
FILLET LEG
SIZE OF WELD
FUSION ZONE
ROOT
PENETRATION
ZONE
TOE
F
U
S
I
O
N
Z
O
N
E
FILLET LEG
SIZE OF WELD
Tungsten
5lectrode
+rgon or helium
shielding gas
&ielding
direction
4iller
rod
0ontact
tube
3ower
source
%hielding gas
+rc
:ase metal
&eld pool &eld deposit
&I>5 2GI5
+N 0'NT+0T
TG:5
2+% N'SSA5
2+%5'G%
%HI5A
0G>>5NT 0'NG0T'>
%HI5AIN2 2+% IN
%'AI 5A50T>'5 &I>5
&5AIN2
5A50T>'5
+>0
I>50TI'N
'4 &5AIN2
:+%5
B5T+A
&5A
B5T+A
3elding Processes
%hielded Betal +rc &elding <%B+&=
+n arc welding process, which melts and
joins metals b! heating them with an arc
between a covered metal electrode and the
work. %hielding gas is obtained from the
electrode outer coating, often called flu8.
0ommonl! referred to as $stick( welding.
2as Betal
+rc &elding
<2B+&=
+n arc
welding process,
which joins
metals b! heating them with an arc. The arc is between a
continuousl!-fed filler metal <consumable= electrode and the
work piece. %hielding gas is supplied from an e8ternal
source of inert gas, normall! argon, helium, or a mi8ture of
the two. 0ommonl! referred to as $BI2( welding.
4lu 8 0ored +rc &elding <40+&=
+n arc welding process which melts and
joins metals b! heating them with an arc
between a continuous, consumable electrode
wire and the work. %hielding is obtained from a flu8
contained within the electrode core. epending upon the
t!pe of flu8-cored wire, added shielding ma! or ma! not
be provided from e8ternall! supplied gas or gas mi8ture.
2as
Tungsten
+rc
&elding
<2T+&=
Normall!
called
TI2
welding <Tungsten Inert 2as=, it is a welding process that joins
metals b! heating them with a tungsten electrode, which
should not become part of the completed weld. 4iller metal is
normall! used when welding. Gsuall! helium or argon, or
mi8ture, is used for shielding gas.
%'AII4I5 %A+2
&5A B5T+A
&5A 3''A
%HI5AIN2 +TB'%3H5>5
0'>5 &I>5
5A50T>'5 0'75>IN2
B5T+A +N %A+2
>'3A5T%
35N5T>+TI'N
53TH
:+%5 B5T+A
&5A B5T+A
I>50TI'N '4 &5AIN2
:+%5 B5T+A
5acking %ing $o((on De'ect Locations
$onsu(able Insert $o((on De'ect Locations
3I35 &+AA
0>+0,IN2
%A+2H'KI5 IN0AG%I'N%
TGN2%T5N IN0AG%I'N%
3'>'%ITD
'75>A+3
GN5>0GT
IN0'B3A5T5 <A+0, '4= 4G%I'N
0>+0,IN2
0>+0,% IN
:+0,IN2 >IN2
T+0, &5A%
IN0'B3A5T5 <A+0, '4= 35N5T>+TI'N
%A+2 '> GN5>0GT +T TH5 >''T T'5%
0>+0,IN2
:+ 4ITG3
%A+2 :5T&55N :+0,IN2
>IN2 +N 3I35 I
B5AT-TH>'G2H
:G>N-TH>'G2H
0>+0,IN2
%A+2H'KI5 IN0AG%I'N%
TGN2%T5N IN0AG%I'N%
3'>'%ITD
'75>A+3
GN5>0GT
IN0'B3A5T5 <A+0, '4= 4G%I'N
0>+0,IN2
0'N0+7ITD B5AT-TH>'G2H
:G>N-TH>'G2H IN0'B3A5T5 <A+0, '4= 4G%I'N
GN5>:5+ 0>+T5>% 05NT5>AIN5 0>5+%5
'75>A+3 0>+0,IN2
GN5>0GT +T TH5 >''T T'5%
:+0,IN2 2+% A'%%H'KI+TI'N IN0'B3A5T5 <A+0, '4= 35N5T>+TI'N
3I35 &+AA
3I35 &+AA 3I35 &+AA
Pri(ar# Processing Discontinuities
Process Discontinuit# $aused 5# Location
0asting
0old %hut
Aack of fusion between two intercepting surfaces
of metal as it flows into the cast
%urface
Hot Tear
ifference in cooling rates between thin sections
and thick sections
%urface
%hrinkage 0avit!
Aack of enough molten metal to fill the space
created b! shrinkage
%ubsurface
Bicroshrinkage
Improperl! designed mold causing premature
blockage at the mold gate
%ubsurface
:low Holes
Inabilit! of e8ternal gasses to escape from the
mold
%urface
3orosit! 5ntrapped internal gasses
%urface or
%ubsurface
4orging
Aap
4olding of metal in a thin plate on the surface of
the forging
%urface
:urst 4orging at improper temperature
%urface or
%ubsurface
%eams
Aaminations <flat plate=
4lattening and lengthening of discontinuities in
parent material
%ubsurface
%tringers <bar stock=
4lattening and lengthening of discontinuities
found in parent material
%ubsurface
%eams <bar stock=
Aengthening of surface cracks found in parent
material
%urface
&elded
3ipe
Aack of 4usion Incomplete weld
%urface
<inner and outer=
Aaminations
3resent in the parent material <sheet or parent
material=
%ubsurface
%eamless
3ipes and
Tubes
%eams 3resent in the parent material <round bar stock=
'uter
%urface
%lugs Betal buildup on piercing material
Inner
%urface
2ouges %i#ing mandrel dragging
Inner
%urface
58trusions
%eams 3resent in parent material %urface
3orosit! 3resent in parent material
%urface or
%ubsurface
2alling <cracks= Improper metal flow through the die %urface
.inis& Processing Discontinuities
Process Discontinuit# $aused 5# Location
2rinding 0racks
58cess locali#ed heat created between the
grinding wheel and the material
%urface
Heat Treating %tress 0racks
%tress built up b! improper processing F une"ual
heating and cooling
%urface
58plosive
4orming
0racks and Tears 58treme deformation overstresses the material %urface
&elding
0rater 0racks <star,
transverse, and
longitudinal=
Improper use of heat source
%urface or
%ubsurface
%tress 0racks
%tresses built up b! the weld contraction <if
material is restrained=
%urface
3orosit! 5ntrapped gasses
%urface or
%ubsurface
%lag Inclusions
Incomplete cleaning of slag from the weld
between passes
%urface or
%ubsurface
Tungsten Inclusions 58cessive current used during 2T+& %ubsurface
Aack of 3enetration Improper welding techni"ue
%urface or
%ubsurface
Aack of 4usion Improper welding techni"ue %ubsurface
Gndercut Improper welding techni"ue %urface
'verlapping &eld overlaps parent material F not fused %urface
:ending 0racks 'verstress of material %urface
Bachining Tears &orking with dull tools or cutting too deep %urface
3ickling or
5tching
0racks >elief of internal stress %urface
5lectroplating 0racks >elief of internal stress %urface
Dial Indicating $alipers
1. 7erif! the calipers calibration date is current, and clean all dirt from measuring faces. 3erform user
calibration on dial indicator, ensure reading is #ero, and tighten the be#el clamp as needed.
*. +djust measuring faces, contact points, to fit item being measured.
6. +ppl! firm pressure to fine adjusting roll and ensure measuring contacts are in contact with the material
being measured.
9. +ppl! lock screw and read measurement in place if practical. If not, remove calipers carefull! to prevent
false measurements.
icro(eter
9. %lip the micrometer over the area to be measured b! placing the anvil firml! against the material and slowl! turn
the thimble clockwise until spindle is firml! against the material. Then turn the ratchet three clicks to be sure e"ual
pressure is applied.
-. Take reading in place, or set the locking nut and remove from the item. etermine reading on scale and note
accordingl!. o not forget to minus the ball measurement if used.
1. 7erif! that the micrometers calibration
date is current, and clean all dirt from
measuring contacts.
*. +ttach ball if measuring curved
surfaces.
6. +djust micrometer to fit the item being
measured, do not spin frame to adjust the
micrometer.
FRAME
THIMBLE
RATCHET
GRADUATIONS
FIXED ANVIL
READING LINE
GRADUATIONS TO
BE READ
PART TO BE MEASURED
SPINDLE
LOCK NUT
SLEEVE
T&read Ter(inolog# ('asteners)
Tap and Drill )i@e $&art
%HEAD
SI&E
Coarse Thread
DILL
DIAME%E
%A# DILL
SI&E
1-64 .0595 *#. 53
2-56 .0700 *#. 50
3-48 .0785 *#. 47
4-40 .0890 *#. 43
5-40 .1015 *#. 38
6-32 .1065 *#. 36
8-32 .1360 *#. 29
10-24 .1495 *#. 25
12-24 .1770 *#. 16
1/4-20 .2010 *#. 7
5/16-18 .2570 >">
3/8-16 .3125 5/16
7/16-14 .3680 >.>
1/2-13 .4219 27/64
9/16-12 .4844 31/64
5/8-11 .5312 17/32
3/4-10 .6562 21/32
7/8-9 .7656 49/64
1"-8 .8750 7/8
%HEAD
SI&E
Fine Thread
DILL
DIAME%E
%A#
DILL
SI&E
0-80 .0469 3/64
1-72 .0595 *#. 53
2-64 .0700 *#. 50
3-56 .0820 *#. 45
4-48 .0935 *#. 42
5-44 .1040 *#. 37
6-40 .1130 *#. 33
8-36 .1360 *#. 29
10-32 .1590 *#. 21
12-28 .1820 *#. 14
1/4-28 .2130 *#. 3
5/16-24 .2720 >I>
3/8-24 .3320 >?>
7/16-20 .3906 25/64
1/2-20 .4531 29/64
9/16-18 .5156 33/64
5/8-18 .5781 37/64
3/4-16 .6875 11/16
7/8-14 .8125 13/16
1"-14 .9375 59/64
+KI%
0>5%T
H5I2HT '>
53TH '4 TH>5+
>''T
4A+N,%
TH>5+
+N2A5
%0>5&
5KT5>N+A TH>5+%
INT5>N+A TH>5+%
B
I
N
'
>

I
+
B
5
T
5
>
B
+
;
'
>

I
+
B
5
T
5
>
0>5%T
>''T
3IT0H
I+B5T5>
>ulian Date $alendar (Perpetual)
Da@ =an "eA )a$ A'$ )a@ =Bne =Bl@ ABC +e' OcD *#E Dec Da@
1 001 032 060 091 121 152 182 213 244 274 305 335 1
2 002 033 061 092 122 153 183 214 245 275 306 336 2
3 003 034 062 093 123 154 184 215 246 276 307 337 3
4 004 035 063 094 124 155 185 216 247 277 308 338 4
5 005 036 064 095 125 156 186 217 248 278 309 339 5
6 006 037 065 096 126 157 187 218 249 279 310 340 6
7 007 038 066 097 127 158 188 219 250 280 311 341 7
8 008 039 067 098 128 159 189 220 251 281 312 342 8
9 009 040 068 099 129 160 190 221 252 282 313 343 9
10 010 041 069 100 130 161 191 222 253 283 314 344 10
11 011 042 070 101 131 162 192 223 254 284 315 345 11
12 012 043 071 102 132 163 193 224 255 285 316 346 12
13 013 044 072 103 133 164 194 225 256 286 317 347 13
14 014 045 073 104 134 165 195 226 257 287 318 348 14
15 015 046 074 105 135 166 196 227 258 288 319 349 15
16 016 047 075 106 136 167 197 228 259 289 320 350 16
17 017 048 076 107 137 168 198 229 260 290 321 351 17
18 018 049 077 108 138 169 199 230 261 291 322 352 18
19 019 050 078 109 139 170 200 231 262 292 323 353 19
20 020 051 079 110 140 171 201 232 263 293 324 354 20
21 021 052 080 111 141 172 202 233 264 294 325 355 21
22 022 053 081 112 142 173 203 234 265 295 326 356 22
23 023 054 082 113 143 174 204 235 266 296 327 357 23
24 024 055 083 114 144 175 205 236 267 297 328 358 24
25 025 056 084 115 145 176 206 237 268 298 329 359 25
26 026 057 085 116 146 177 207 238 269 299 330 360 26
27 027 058 086 117 147 178 208 239 270 300 331 361 27
28 028 059 087 118 148 179 209 240 271 301 332 362 28
29 029 088 119 149 180 210 241 272 302 333 363 29
30 030 089 120 150 181 211 242 273 303 334 364 30
31 031 090 151 212 243 304 365 31
>ulian Date $alendar (Leap 8ear)
Da@ =an "eA )a$ A'$ )a@ =Bne =Bl@ ABC +e' OcD *#E Dec Da@
1 001 032 061 092 122 153 183 214 245 275 306 336 1
2 002 033 062 093 123 154 184 215 246 276 307 337 2
3 003 034 063 094 124 155 185 216 247 277 308 338 3
4 004 035 064 095 125 156 186 217 248 278 309 339 4
5 005 036 065 096 126 157 187 218 249 279 310 340 5
6 006 037 066 097 127 158 188 219 250 280 311 341 6
7 007 038 067 098 128 159 189 220 251 281 312 342 7
8 008 039 068 099 129 160 190 221 252 282 313 343 8
9 009 040 069 100 130 161 191 222 253 283 314 344 9
10 010 041 070 101 131 162 192 223 254 284 315 345 10
11 011 042 071 102 132 163 193 224 255 285 316 346 11
12 012 043 072 103 133 164 194 225 256 286 317 347 12
13 013 044 073 104 134 165 195 226 257 287 318 348 13
14 014 045 074 105 135 166 196 227 258 288 319 349 14
15 015 046 075 106 136 167 197 228 259 289 320 350 15
16 016 047 076 107 137 168 198 229 260 290 321 351 16
17 017 048 077 108 138 169 199 230 261 291 322 352 17
18 018 049 078 109 139 170 200 231 262 292 323 353 18
19 019 050 079 110 140 171 201 232 263 293 324 354 19
20 020 051 080 111 141 172 202 233 264 294 325 355 20
21 021 052 081 112 142 173 203 234 265 295 326 356 21
22 022 053 082 113 143 174 204 235 266 296 327 357 22
23 023 054 083 114 144 175 205 236 267 297 328 358 23
24 024 055 084 115 145 176 206 237 268 298 329 359 24
25 025 056 085 116 146 177 207 238 269 299 330 360 25
26 026 057 086 117 147 178 208 239 270 300 331 361 26
27 027 058 087 118 148 179 209 240 271 301 332 362 27
28 028 059 088 119 149 180 210 241 272 302 333 363 28
29 029 060 089 120 150 181 211 242 273 303 334 364 29
30 030 090 121 151 182 212 243 274 304 335 365 30
31 031 091 152 213 244 305 366 31
.loC $&art .or 4 Discontinuit#
iscontinuit!
$&apter * - Visual Inspection
$o((on De'initions and "Aa(ples
+ligned rounded indications
4our or more indications in a line, where each is separated
from the adjacent indication b! less then 1H1. inch or , whichever
is greater, where is the major diameter of the larger of the adjacent
indication.
+rc strike
+n! locali#ed heat-effected #one or change in the contour of
the surface of the finished weld or adjacent base metal resulting from
an arc or heat generated b! the passage of electrical energ! between
the surface of the finished weld or base metal and a current source,
such as welding electrodes or magnetic particle inspection prods.
:urn through
+ void or open hole that e8tends through a backing ring, strip, fused root, or adjacent base metal.
:urst
+ rupture caused b! forging at improper temperatures. :ursts ma! be either internal or e8ternal to the
surface.
0old shut
The result of pouring metal over solidified metal.
0rack or tear
+ linear rupture of metal under stress.
0rater pit
+n appro8imatel! circular surface condition e8ceeding into
the weld in an irregular manner caused b! insufficient filler metal at
the weld stop.
efect
'ne or more flaws whose aggregateR si#e, shape, orientation,
location, or properties do not meet the specified acceptance criteria
and are rejectable.
iscontinuit!
+n! interruption in the normal ph!sical structure or
configuration of a part, which will cause a detectable indication or
signal when nondestructivel! e8amined.
5valuation
+ review, following interpretation of the indications noted, to determine whether the! meet specified
acceptance criteria.
aligned rounded indications with crack
crack
crater pit
4alse indication
+n indication that is interpreted to be caused b! a condition other than a discontinuit! or imperfection.
Heat checks
4issures or tears in the weld heat affected #one of material containing low melting point.
Imperfection
+ departure of "ualit! characteristic from its intended condition.
Indication
5vidence of a discontinuit! that re"uires interpretation to determine its significance.
Incomplete fusion
Aack of complete fusion of some portion of the metal in a
weld joint with adjacent metal. The adjacent metal ma! be either base
metal or previousl! deposited weld metal, or consumable insert.
Incomplete penetration
Aack of penetration of the weld through the thickness of the
joint, or penetration which is less than specified.
Interpretation
The determination of whether indications are relevant,
nonrelevant, or false.
Aap <forgings=
4olding of metal on the surface of the forging, usuall! occurs when
some of the forging metal is s"uee#ed out between the two dies.
Ainear indication
+n indication in which the length is e"ual to or
greater than three times the width.
Belt through
+ conve8 or concave irregularit! on the surface of a backing ring or strip, fused root, or adjacent base metal
resulting from fusion completel! through a locali#ed region but without development of a void or open hole.
Non-linear rounded indications
Indication whose length is less than three times its width.
Nonrelevant indications
+n indication that is caused b! a condition or t!pe of discontinuit! that is not relevant.
incomplete fusion
incomplete penetration
incomplete penetration
'8idation
+ condition resulting from partial or complete lack of inert gas shielding of a surface which is heated
during welding resulting in formation of o8ide on the surface. This condition ma! range from slight o8idation
evidenced b! a multicolored or tightl! adhering black film to the e8treme of a ver! rough surface having a
cr!stalline appearance.
3orosit!
2as pockets or voids in weld metal or castings.
Juench crack
+ crack formed as a result of thermal stresses produced b!
rapid cooling from a high temperature.
>oot surface concavit!
+ depression on the root surface of a weld which ma! be due
to gravit!, internal purge, or shrinkage.
>oot surface centerline crease or shrinkage
+n intermittent or continuous peripheral centerline concavit! formed on the root surface.
>oot undercut
+ groove in the internal surface of a base metal or backing ring or strip along the edge of the root of the
weld.
%hrinkage
7oid, or voids, that ma! occur in molten metal due to
contraction during solidification.
%lag
Non-metallic solid material entrapped in the weld metal,
between weld metal and base metal, or in a casting.
Tungsten inclusion
Tungsten entrapped in the weld deposit.
Gndercut
+ groove melted into the base metal at the toe of the weld and left unfilled b! weld metal.
Gnfused chaplet
+ metal support used in the casting process, which has not
fused with casting material.
&eld spatter
Betal particles which deposit on the surface of the weld or
adjacent base metal during welding and which do not form a part of
the weld.
porosit!
slag
weld
spatter
$&apter : - Liquid Penetrant Testing
$o((on Ter(s and De'initions
+lkaline
+n! soluble mineral salt or mi8tures of salt capable of neutrali#ing acids.
+ngstrom Gnit <+=
+ unit of length e"ual to 1)
@
cm and used to e8press wavelengths of lightR i.e., electromagnetic radiation.
:ackground
The surface upon which an indication is viewed. It ma! be the natural surface of the test article or it ma! be
the developer coating on the surface. This background ma! contain traces of unremoved penetrant <fluorescent or
visible=, which, if present, can interfere with the visibilit! of indications.
:ackground 4luorescence
4luorescent residues observed over the general surface of the test article during fluorescent penetrant
inspection.
:ath
Term used collo"uiall! to designate the li"uid penetrant inspection materials into which test articles are
immersed during inspection process.
:lack Aight
Aight radiation in the near ultraviolet range of wavelengths <6*)) to 9))) +=, just shorter than visible light.
:lack Aight 4ilter
+ filter that transmits black light while suppressing visible light and hard ultraviolet radiation with
wavelengths less than 6*)) angstroms.
:leedout
The action of the entrapped 3enetrant in spreading out from surface discontinuities to form an indication.
:lotting
The action of the developer in soaking up the entrapped penetrant from surface discontinuities to form an
indication.
0apillar! +ction or 0apillarit!
The tendenc! of li"uids to penetrate or migrate into small openings such as cracks, pits, or fissures.
0arrier 4luid <7ehicle or Bedium=
+ fluid in which li"uid penetrant inspection materials are dissolved or suspended.
0lean
4ree from interfering solid or li"uid contamination on the surface.
0omparative Test :lock
+n intentionall! cracked metal block having two separate but adjacent areas for the application of different
penetrants so that a direct comparison of their relative effectiveness can be obtained. 0an also be used to evaluate
penetrant test techni"ues and test conditions.
0ontact 5mulsifier
+n emulsifier that begins emulsif!ing penetrant upon simple contact with the penetrantR usuall! oil-base
<Aipophilic=.
0ontrast
The difference in visibilit! <brightness or coloration= between an indication and the surrounding surface.
ark +daptation
The adjustment of the e!es when one passes from a bright to a darkened area.
etergent >emover
+ penetrant remover that is a solution of a detergent in water. +lso H!drophilic 5mulsifier.
eveloper
+ material that is applied to the test article surface after e8cess penetrant has been removed and that is
designed to enhance the penetrant bleedout to form indications. The developer ma! be a fine powder, a solution
that dries to a fine powder, or a suspension <in solvent, water, alcohol, etc.= that dries leaving an absorptive film on
the test surface.
eveloping Time
The elapsed time necessar! for the applied developer to bring out indications from penetrant entrapments.
+lso called evelopment Time.
ragout
The carr!out or loss of penetrant materials as a result of their adherence to the articles being processed.
rain Time
That portion of the penetrant inspection process during which the e8cess penetrant, emulsifier, detergent
remover, or developer is allowed to drain from the test article.
r! eveloper
+ fine, dr! powder developer that does not emplo! a carrier fluid.
r!ing 'ven
+n oven used for dr!ing test articles.
r!ing Time
+ time allotted for a test article to dr!.
ual-response 3enetrant
+ penetrant that contains a combination of visible and fluorescent d!es.
well Time
The total time that the penetrant or emulsifier is in contact with the test surface, including the time re"uired
for application and the drain time. +lso see 5mulsification Time.
5lectrostatic %pra!ing
+ techni"ue of spra!ing wherein the material being spra!ed is given a high electrical charge while the test
article is grounded.
5mulsification Time
The period of time that an emulsifier is permitted to combine with the penetrant prior to removal. +lso
called 5mulsifier well Time.
5mulsifier
+ li"uid that combines with an oil! penetrant to make the penetrant water-washable. +lso see H!drophilic
5mulsifier and Aipophilic 5mulsifier.
4lash 3oint
The lowest temperature at which a volatile, flammable li"uid will give off enough vapor to make a
combustible e8plosive mi8ture in the air space surrounding the li"uid surface.
4luorescence
The emission of visible radiation b! a substance as a result of, and onl! during, the absorption of black light
radiation.
4luorescent !e 3enetrant
+n inspection penetrant that is characteri#ed b! its abilit! to fluoresce when e8cited b! black light.
Halogen <Halogenous=
+n! of four ver! active nonmetallic elementsR chlorine, iodine, fluorine and bromine.
H!drophilic 5mulsifier
+ water-base agent that, when applied to an oil! penetrant, renders the penetrant water-washable. 0an be
used as a 0ontact 5mulsifier, but more often the emulsifier is added to the water rinse and accompanied b! some
form of mechanical agitation or scrubbing to remove e8cess penetrant. %ometimes called a H!drophilic %crubber.
Aeak Testing
+ techni"ue of li"uid penetrant testing in which the penetrant is applied to one side of the surface while the
other side is inspected for indications that would indicate a through-leak or void.
Aipophilic 5mulsifier
+n oil-base agent that, when applied to an oil! penetrant, renders the penetrant water-washable. Gsuall!
applied as a 0ontact 5mulsifier.
Near %urface iscontinuit!
+ discontinuit! not open to, but located near, the surface of a test article.
Nona"ueous &et eveloper
+ developer in which the developing powder is applied as a suspension in a "uick-dr!ing solvent. +lso
called %olvent eveloper.
3enetrabilit!
The propert! of a penetrant that causes it to find its wa! into ver! fine openings, such as cracks.
3enetrant
+ li"uid <sometimes gas= capable of entering discontinuities open to the surface, and which is adapted to
the inspection process b! being made highl! visible in small traces. 4luorescent penetrants fluoresce brightl! under
black light while the visible penetrants are intensel! colored to be noticeable under visible light.
3ost-emulsification 3enetrant
+ penetrant that re"uires the application of a separate emulsifier to render the surface penetrant water-
washable. +lso can be removed b! appl!ing a solvent remover.
3recleaning
The removal of surface contaminants or smeared metal from the test article so that the! cannot interfere
with the penetrant inspection process.
Juenching of 4luorescence
The e8tinction of fluorescence b! causes other than removal of black light <the e8citing radiation=.
>esolution
The propert! of a test s!stem that enables the separation of indications of close pro8imit! in a test article..
>inse
The process of removing li"uid penetrant inspection materials from the surface of an article b! washing or
flooding with another li"uid-usuall! water. +lso called &ash.
%ee-abilit!
The characteristic of an indication that enables the observer to see it against the conditions of background,
outside light, etc.
%elf-developing 3enetrant
+ penetrant not re"uiring the use of a developer. Gseful for production work in the detection of gross
discontinuities.
%ensitivit!
The abilit! of the penetrant process to detect minute surface discontinuities.
%olvent >emoved
+ penetrant-removal techni"ue wherein the e8cess penetrant is washed or wiped from the test surface with
a solvent remover.
%olvent >emover
+ volatile li"uid used to remove e8cess surface penetrant from the test article. %ometimes called 3enetrant
>emover.
%urface Tension
That propert! of li"uids which, due to molecular forces, tends to bring the contained volume into a form
having the least superficial area.
7iscosit!
The state or degree of being viscous. The resistance of a fluid to the motion of its particles.
7isible !e 3enetrant
+n inspection penetrant that is characteri#ed b! its intense visible color-usuall! red. +lso called 0olor
0ontrast or Nonfluorescent 3enetrant.
&ater-soluble eveloper
+ developer in which the developer powder is dissolved in a water carrier to form a solution. Not a
suspension.
&ater-suspended 3article eveloper
+ developer in which the developer particles are mi8ed with water to form a suspension.
&ater-wash
+ penetrant-removal techni"ue wherein e8cess penetrant is washed or flushed from the test surface with
water.
&ater-washable 3enetrant
+ t!pe of penetrant that contains its own emulsifier, making it water-washable.
&ater Tolerance
The amount of water that a penetrant, emulsifier, or wet developer can absorb before its effectiveness is
impaired.
&et eveloper
+ developer in which the developer powder is applied as a suspension or solution in a li"uid-usuall! water
or alcohol.
&etting +bilit!
The abilit! of a li"uid to spread out spontaneousl! and adhere to the test articleOs surfaces.
Prorated aAi(u( Nu(ber o' Indications
MA'IMUM OF 6 INDICA%IONS IN A (6 INCH S)UAE AEA
AcDBal A$ea 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
3$#$aDe
InicaDi#ns
0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 6

AcDBal A$ea 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
3$#$aDe
InicaDi#ns
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 8

AcDBal A$ea 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
3$#$aDe
InicaDi#ns
0 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 10

AcDBal A$ea 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
3$#$aDe
InicaDi#ns
0 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 6 6 6 7 7 7 8 8 8 9 9 9 10 10 10 11 11 11 12

AcDBal A$ea 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
3$#$aDe
InicaDi#ns
0 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 8 9 9 10 10 11 11 12 12 12 13 13 14 14 15 15 16
2)A1 F O" I*DI0A,IO*+/364 1 A0,.AL A/%A = *%W )A1 F O" I*DI0A,IO*+
4reas o' $ircles
DiameDe$ 2inches4 A$ea 2sGBa$e inches4 DiameDe$ 2inches4 A$ea 2sGBa$e inches4
1/32 .0008 .0195 .0003
3/64 .0017 .020 .0003
1/16 .0031 .024 .0005
5/64 .0048 .025 .0005
3/32 .0069 .0275 .0006
7/64 .0094 .031 .0008
1/8 .0123 .034 .0009
9/64 .0155 .037 .0011
5/32 .0192 .039 .0012
11/64 .0232 .048 .0018
3/16 .0276 .049 .0019
13/64 .0324 .050 .0020
7/32 .0376 .055 .0024
15/64 .0431 .075 .0044
1/4 .0491 .078 .0048
--- --- .100 .0079
A$ea = $T

Penetrant 3etting $&aracteristics
roplet
2ood &etting
roplet
3oor &etting
roplet
$&apter 1 - agnetic Particle Testing

+ir gap
&hen a magnetic circuit contains a small gap, which the magnetic flu8 must cross, the space is referred to
as an air gap. 0racks produce small air gaps on the surface of an article.
+lternating current
5lectric current periodicall! reversing in polarit! or direction of flow.
+mpere
The unit of electrical current. 'ne ampere is the current that flows through a conductor having a resistance
of one ohm at a potential of one volt.
+mpere turns
The product of the number of turns in a coil and the number of amperes flowing through it. + measure of
the magneti#ing or demagneti#ing strength of the coil.
:ath
The suspension of iron o8ide particles in a li"uid vehicle <light oil or water=.
:lack light
>adiant energ! in the near ultraviolet range. This light has a wavelength of 6*)) to 9))) angstrom units
<+=, peaking at 6.-) +, on the spectrum. This between visible light and ultraviolet light.
:lack light filter
+ filter that transmits black light while surprising the transmission of visible light and harmful ultraviolet
radiation.
0arbon steel
%teel that does not contain significant amounts of allo!ing elements other than carbon and maganese.
0arrier fluid
The fluid in which fluorescent and non-fluorescent magnetic particles are suspended to facilitate their
application in the wet method.
0entral conductor
+n electrical conductor that is passed through the opening in a ring or tube, or an! hole in an article, for the
purpose of creating a circular field in the ring or tube, or around the hole.
0ircular field
%ee 4ield, 0ircular Bagnetic.
0ircular magneti#ation
+ method of inducing a magnetic field in an article so that the magnetic lines of force take the form of
concentric rings about the a8is of the current. This is accomplished b! passing the current directl! through the
article or through a conductor which passes into or through a hole in the article. The circular method is applicable
for the detection of discontinuities with a8es appro8imatel! parallel to the a8is of current through the article.
0oercive force
The reverse magneti#ing force necessar! to remove residual magnetism in demagneti#ing an article.
0oil shot
+ pulse of magneti#ing current passed through a coil surrounding an article for the purpose of longitudinal
magneti#ation.
0ontact headshot
The electrode, fi8ed to the magnetic particle testing unit, through which the magneti#ing current is drawn.
0ontact pads
>eplaceable metal pads, usuall! of copper braid, placed on contact heads to give good electrical contact
thereb! preventing damage to the article under test.
0ontinuous method
+n inspection method in which ample amounts of magnetic particles are applied, or are present on the
piece, during the time the magneti#ing current is applied.
0ore
That part of the magnetic circuit that is within the electrical winding.
0urie point
The temperature at which ferromagnetic materials can no longer be magneti#ed b! outside forces, and at
which the! lose their residual magnetismE appro8imatel! 1*)) to 1.))U 4 <.9. to @?1U 0= for man! metals.
0urrent 4low Techni"ue
+ techni"ue of circular magneti#ation in which current is passed through an article via prods or contact
heads. The current ma! be alternating, half-wave rectified, rectified alternating, or direct.
0urrent Induction Techni"ue
+ techni"ue of magneti#ation in which a circulating current is induced in a ring-shaped component b! a
fluctuating magnetic field.
emagneti#ation
The reduction in the degree of residual magnetism to an acceptable level.
iamagnetic
Baterials whose atomic structure wonOt permit an! real magneti#ation. Baterials such as bismuth and
copper are diamagnetic.
iffused Indications
Indications that are not clearl! defined, such as indications of subsurface defects.
irect 0ontact Bagneti#ation
+ magnetic particle testing techni"ue in which current is passed through the test article. These include
headshots and prod shots.
irect 0urrent
+n electrical current, which flows steadil! in one direction
istorted 4ield
+ field that does not follow a straight path or have a uniform distribution. This occurs in irregularl! shaped
objects.
r! Bedium
Bagnetic particle inspection in which the particles emplo!ed are in the dr! powder form.
r! 3owder
4inel! divided ferromagnetic particles suitabl! selected and prepared for magnetic particle inspection.
5lectromagnet
+ magnet created b! inserting a suitable metal core within or near a magneti#ing field formed b! passing
electric current through a coil of insulated wire.
5tching
The process of e8posing subsurface conditions of metal articles b! removal of the outside surface through
the use of chemical agents. ue to the action of the chemicals in eating awa! the surface, various surface or
subsurface conditions are e8posed or e8aggerated and made visible to the e!e.
4erromagnetic
+ term applied to materials that can be magneti#ed and strongl! attracted b! a magnetic field.
4ield, 0ircular Bagnetic
2enerall! the magnetic field in and surrounding an! electrical conductor or article resulting from a current
being passed through the conductor or article or from prods.
4ield, Aongitudinal Bagnetic
+ magnetic field wherein the flu8 lines traverse the component in a direction essentiall! parallel with the
a8is of the magneti#ing coil or to a line connecting the two poles at the magneti#ing !oke.
4ield, Bagnetic
The space within and surrounding a magneti#ed article, or a conductor carr!ing current in which the
magnetic force is present.
4ield, Bagnetic Aeakage
The magnetic field that leaves or enters the surface of an article at a magnetic pole.
4ield, Bultidirectional
+ magnetic field that is the result of two magnetic forces impressed upon the same area of a magneti#able
object at the sametime-sometimes called a Vvector field.V
4ield, >esidual Bagnetic
The field that remains in magneti#able material after the magneti#ing force has been removed
4lash Bagneti#ation
Bagneti#ation b! a current flow of ver! brief duration.
4luorescence
The emission of visible radiation b! a substance as the result of and onl! during the absorption of black
light radiation.
4luorescent Bagnetic 3article Inspection
The magnetic particle inspection process emplo!ing a finel! divided fluorescent ferromagnetic inspection
medium that fluoresces when activated b! black light.
4lu8 ensit!
The normal magnetic flu8 per unit area. It is designated b! the letter V:V and is e8pressed in telsa <%I units=
or gauss <cgs units=.
4lu8 Aeakage
Bagnetic lines of force which leave and enter an article at poles on the surface.
4lu8 Aines
Imaginar! magnetic lines used as a means of e8plaining the behavior of magnetic fields. Their conception
is based on the pattern of lines produced when iron filings are sprinkled over a piece of paper laid over a
permanent magnet. +lso called Aines of 4orce.
4lu8 3enetration, Bagnetic
The depth to which a magnetic flu8 is present in an article.
4urring
:uildup or bristling of magnetic particles due to e8cessive magneti#ation of the article.
2auss
The unit of flu8 densit!. Numericall!, one gauss is one line of flu8 per s"uare centimeter of area and is
designated b! the letter V:.V
Head %hot
+ short pulse of magneti#ing current passed through an article or a central conductor while clamped
between the head contacts of a stationar! magneti#ing unit for the purpose of circularl! magneti#ing the article.
Heads
The clamping contacts on a stationar! magneti#ing unit.
Horseshoe Bagnet
+ bar magnet bent into the shape of a horseshoe so that the two poles are adjacent. Gsuall! the term applies
to a permanent magnet.
H!steresis
The lagging of the magnetic effect when the magnetic force acting upon a ferromagnetic bod! is changedR
the phenomenon e8hibited b! a magnetic s!stem wherein its state is influenced b! its previous magnetic histor!.
H!steresis Aoop
+ curve showing the flu8 densit!, V:,V plotted as a function of magneti#ing force, VH.V +s the magneti#ing
force is increased to the saturation point in the positive, negative, and positive direction se"uentiall!, the curve
forms a characteristic %-shaped loop. Intercepts of the loop with the V:V and VHV a8es and the points of ma8imum
and minimum magneti#ing force define important magnetic characteristics of the material.
Inductance
The magnetism produced in a ferromagnetic bod! b! some outside magneti#ing force. The magnetism is
not the result of passing current through the article.
Aeakage 4ield
The magnetic field forced out into the air b! the distortion of the field within an article.
Aight Intensit!
The light energ! reaching a unit of surface area per of time.
Aongitudinal Bagneti#ation
The process of inducing a magnetic field into the article such that the magnetic lines of force e8tending
through the article are appro8imatel! parallel to the a8is of the magneti#ing coil or to a line connecting the two
poles when !okes <electromagnets= are used.
Bagnet, 3ermanent
+ highl!-retentive metal that has been strongl! magneti#edR i.e., the allo! +lnico.
Bagnetic 4ield Indicator
+n instrument designed to detect andHor measure the flu8 densit! and polarit! of magnetic fields.
Bagnetic 4ield %trength
The measured intensit!. of a magnetic field at a point alwa!s e8ternal to the magnet or conductorR usuall!
e8pressed in amperes per meter or oersted <'e=.
Bagnetic Baterial
Those materials that are attracted b! magnetism.

Bagnetic 3articles
4inel! divided ferromagnetic material.
Bagnetic 3article Inspection
+ nondestructive inspection method for locating discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials.
Bagnetic 3oles
0oncentration of flu8 leakage in areas of discontinuities, shape changes, permeabilit! variations, etc.
Bagnetic &riting
+ form of nonrelevant indications caused when the surface of a magneti#ed part comes in contact with
another piece of ferromagnetic material that is magneti#ed to a different value.
Bagneti#ing 0urrent
The flow of either alternating, rectified alternating, or direct current used to induce magnetism into the
article being inspected.
Bagneti#ing 4orce
The magneti#ing field applied to a ferromagnetic material to induce magneti#ation.
Bedium
The fluid in which fluorescent and nonfluorescent magnetic particles are suspended to facilitate their
application in the wet method.
Near %urface iscontinuit!
+ discontinuit! not open to, but located near, the surface of a test article.
'ersted
+ unit of field strength, which produces magnetic induction and is designated b! the letter VH.V
3aramagnetic
Baterials which are slightl! affected b! a magnetic field. 58amples are chromium, manganese, aluminum
and platinum. + small group of these materials are classified as ferromagnetic.
3ermeabilit!
The ease with which the lines of force are able to pass through an article.
3ole
The area on a magneti#ed article from which the magnetic field is leaving or returning to the article.
3rods
Hand-held electrodes attached to cables used to transmit the magneti#ing current from the source to the
article under inspection.
>ectified +lternating 0urrent
+lternating current, which has been converted into direct current.
>eluctance
The resistance of a magnetic material to changes in magnetic field strength.
>esidual Bagnetism
The amount of magnetism that a magnetic material retains after the magneti#ing force is removed. +lso
called Vresidual fieldV or Vremanence.V
>esidual Techni"ue
+ procedure in which the indicating material is applied after the magneti#ing force has been discontinued.
>etentivit!
The abilit! of a material to retain a certain portion of residual magneti#ation. +lso known as remanence.
%aturation
The point at which increasing the magneti#ing force produces no further magnetism in a material.
%ensitivit!
The capacit! or degree of responsiveness to magnetic particle inspection.
%ettling Test
+ procedure used to determine the concentration of magnetic particles in a medium or vehicle.
%kin 5ffect
The description given to alternating current magneti#ation due to its containment to the surface of a test
article.
%olenoid <0oil=
+n electric conductor formed into a coil often wrapped around a central core of highl! permeable material.
+T L
9-,))) <NH- 1)I=
<AH=
+ L
9-,))) <NH- 1)I=
<AH=
(
!
T
!
T L
9-,))) <NH- 1)I=
<AH=
(
+
L
9-,))) <NH- 1)I=
A<+T=
A L
9-,))) <NH- 1)I=
+T
8
+ L ampere
T L turns of the coil
A L length of the item
L diameter or cross section of the item
The minimum AH ratio is *
The ma8imum A used in calculations is *) inches
%uspension
The correct term applied to the li"uid bath in which the ferromagnetic particles used in the wet magnetic
particle inspection method are suspended.
Test +rticle
+n article containing known artificial or natural defects used for checking the efficienc! of magnetic
particle flaw detection processes.
&et Bedium
+n inspection emplo!ing ferromagnetic particles suspended in a li"uid <oil or water= as a vehicle.
Doke
+ G-shaped or 0-shaped piece of highl! permeable magnetic material, either solid or laminated, sometimes
with adjustable pole pieces <legs= around which is wound a coil carr!ing the magneti#ing current.
Doke Bagneti#ation
+ longitudinal magnetic field induced in an article or in an area of an article b! means of an e8ternal
electromagnet shaped like a !oke.
Longitudinal agneti@ation at& .or(ula
Prorated aAi(u( Nu(ber o' Indications
AcDBal A$ea 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
3$#$aDe
InicaDi#ns
0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 6

AcDBal A$ea 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
3$#$aDe
InicaDi#ns
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 8

AcDBal A$ea 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
3$#$aDe
InicaDi#ns
0 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 10

AcDBal A$ea 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
3$#$aDe
InicaDi#ns
0 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 6 6 6 7 7 7 8 8 8 9 9 9 10 10 10 11 11 11 12

AcDBal A$ea 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
3$#$aDe
InicaDi#ns
0 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 8 9 9 10 10 11 11 12 12 12 13 13 14 14 15 15 16
2)A1 F O" I*DI0A,IO*+/364 1 A0,.AL A/%A = *%W )A1 F O" I*DI0A,IO*+
4reas o' $ircles
DiameDe$ 2inches4 A$ea 2sGBa$e inches4 DiameDe$ 2inches4 A$ea 2sGBa$e inches4
1/32 .0008 .0195 .0003
3/64 .0017 .020 .0003
1/16 .0031 .024 .0005
5/64 .0048 .025 .0005
3/32 .0069 .0275 .0006
7/64 .0094 .031 .0008
1/8 .0123 .034 .0009
9/64 .0155 .037 .0011
5/32 .0192 .039 .0012
11/64 .0232 .048 .0018
3/16 .0276 .049 .0019
13/64 .0324 .050 .0020
7/32 .0376 .055 .0024
15/64 .0431 .075 .0044
1/4 .0491 .078 .0048
--- --- .100 .0079
A$ea = $T
$o((on T#pes o' agneti@ation

0entral 0onductor <circular= Horse shoe <longitudinal=

0oil %hot <longitudinal=
Doke <longitudinal=
3rods <circular=

T&eor#D E%ig&t?Hand %uleF
%
N
Horseshoe
Bagnet
5lectromagnetic
Doke
&orkpiece
iscontinuities
&eld
Bagnetic field
<N=
<-=
0G>>5NT
4A'&
H#steresis $urve

' F + L >eferred to as the virgin curve
+ L %aturation point
: L >esidual field
' F 0 L 0oercive force
L >everse saturation point
5 L >everse residual field
' F 4 L >everse coercive force
0 ' 4
:
5
+
:N <4AGK 5N%ITD=
:- <4AGK 5N%ITD '4
'33'%IT5 3'A+>ITD T' :N=
H- <B+2N5TISIN2 4'>05 '4
'33'%IT5 3'A+>ITD T' HN= HL <B+2N5TISIN2 4'>05=
)L"ND"% L//P
HI2H 35>B5+:IAITD
A'& >5NT5NTI7ITD
A'& 0'5>0I75 4'>05
A'& >5AG0T+N05
A'& >5%IG+A B+2N5TI%B
3ID" L//P
A'& 35>B5+:IAITD
HI2H >5NT5NTI7ITD
HI2H 0'5>0I75 4'>05
HI2H >5AG0T+N05
HI2H >5%IG+A B+2N5TI%B
agnetic Particle .ield Indicator (Pie 0age)
1 in.
1H6* in
ma8
5ight low carbon steel pie
sections, furnace bra#ed
together
+rtificial flaw <all segment
interfaces=
Nonferrous handle of an!
0onvenient length
:ra#e weld or mechanicall!
attach nonferrous trunnions
1H@
0opper plate
).)1) in N ).))1 in
thick
$&apter ; - !ltrasonic Testing
+-scan ispla!
+ displa! in which the received signal is displa!ed as a vertical displacement from the hori#ontal sweep
time trace, while the hori#ontal distance between an! two signals represents the sound path distance <or time of
travel= between the two.
+bsorption 0oefficient, Ainear
The fractional decrease in transmitted intensit! per unit of absorber thickness. It is usuall! designated b!
the s!mbol and e8pressed in units of cm
-1
.
+cceptance %tandard
+ control specimen containing natural or artificial discontinuities that are well defined and, in si#e or
e8tent, similar to the ma8imum acceptable in the product. +lso ma! refer to the document defining acceptable
discontinuit! si#e limits.
+coustic Impedance
The factor which controls the propagation of an ultrasonic wave at a boundar! interface. It is the product of
the material densit! and the acoustic wave velocit! within that material.
+mplifier
+ device to increase or amplif! electrical impulses.
+mplitude, Indication
The vertical height of a received indication, measured from base-to-peak or peak-to-peak.
+ngle :eam Testing
+ testing method in which transmission is at an angle to the sound entr! surface.
+ngle of Incidence
The angle between the incident <transmitted= beam and a normal to the boundar! interface.
+ngle of >eflection
The angle between the reflected beam and a normal to the boundar! interface. The angle of reflection is
e"ual to the angle of incidence.
+ngle of >efraction
The angle between the refracted ra!s of an ultrasonic beam and the normal <or perpendicular line= to the
refracting surface.
+ngle Transducer
+ transducer that transmits or receives the acoustic energ! at an acute angle to the surface to achieve a
specific effect such up the setting up of shear or surface waves in the part being inspected.
+nisotropic
+ condition in which properties of a medium <velocit!, for e8ample= var! according to the direction in
which the! are measured.
+rra! Transducer
+ transducer made up of several pie#oelectric elements individuall! connected so that the signals the!
transmit or receive na! be treated separatel! or combined as desired.
+ttenuation 0oefficient
+ factor which is determined b! the degree of scatter or absorption of ultrasound energ! per unit distance
traveled.
+ttenuator
+ device for measuring attenuation, usuall! calibrated in decibels <d:=.
:-scan ispla!
+ cathode-ra! tube displa! in which the received signal is displa!ed as an illuminated spot. The face of the
0>T represents the area of a vertical plane through the material. The displa! shows the location of a discontinuit!,
as it would appear in a vertical section view through the thickness direction of the material.
:ack >eflection
The signal received from the back surface of a test object.
:ack %catter
%cattered signals that are directed back to the transmitterHreceiver.
:ackground Noise
58traneous signals caused b! signal sources within the ultrasonic testing s!stem, including the material in
test.
:arium Titanate <3ol!cr!stalline :arium Titanate - :aTi'
6
=
+ ceramic transducer material composed of man! individual cr!stals fired together and polari#ed b! the
application of a dc field.
:aseline
The hori#ontal line across the bottom of the 0>T created b! the sweep circuit.
:asic 0alibration
The procedure of standardi#ing an instrument using calibration reflectors described in an application
document.
:i-modal
The propagation of sound in a test article where at least a shear wave and a longitudinal wave e8ists. The
operation of angle beam testing at less than first critical angle.
:oundar! Indication
+ reflection of an ultrasonic beam from an interface.
:road :anded
Having a relativel! wide fre"uenc! bandwidth. Gsed to describe pulses which displa! a wide fre"uenc!
spectrum and receivers capable of amplif!ing them.
0-scan
+ data presentation method !ielding a plan <top= view through the scanned surface of the part. Through
gating, onl! indications arising from the interior of the test object are indicated.
0alibration
To determine or mark the graduations of the ultrasonic s!stemOs displa! relative to a known standard or
reference.
0alibration >eflector
+ reflector with a known dimensioned surface established to provide an accuratel! reproducible reference.
0ollimator
+n attachment designed to reduce the ultrasonic beam spread.
0ompensator
+n electrical matching network to compensate for circuit impedance differences.
0ompressional &ave
+ wave in which the particle motion or vibration is in the same direction as the propagated wave
<longitudinal wave=.
0ontact Testing
+ techni"ue of testing in which the transducer contacts the test surface, either directl! or through a thin
la!er of couplant.
0ontact Transducer
+ transducer which is coupled to a test surface either directl! or through a thin film of couplant.
0ontinuous &ave
+ wave that continues without interruption.
0ontracted %weep
+ contraction of the hori#ontal sweep on the viewing screen of the ultrasonic instrument. 0ontraction of
this sweep permits viewing reflections occurring over a greater sound-path distance or duration of time.
0orner 5ffect
The strong reflection obtained when an ultrasonic beam is directed toward the inner section of two or three
mutuall! perpendicular surfaces.
0ouplant
+ substance used between the face of the transducer and test surface to permit or improve transmission of
ultrasonic energ! across this boundar! or interface. 3rimaril! used to remove the air in the interface.
0ritical +ngle
The incident angle of the sound beam be!ond which a specific refracted mode of vibration no longer e8ists.
0ross Talk
+n unwanted condition in which acoustic energ! is coupled from the transmitting cr!stal to the receiving
cr!stal without propagating along the intended path through the material.
amping <transducer=
Aimiting the duration of vibration in the search unit b! either electrical or mechanical means.
ead Sone
The distance in a material from the sound entr! surface to the nearest inspectable sound path.
ecibel <d:=
The logarithmic e8pression of a ratio of two amplitudes or intensities of acoustic energ!
elamination
+ laminar discontinuit!, generall! an area of unbonded materials.
ela! Aine
+ material <li"uid or solid= placed in front of a transducer to use a time dela! between the initial pulse and
the front surface reflection.
ela!ed %weep
+ means of dela!ing the start of hori#ontal sweep, hereb! eliminating the presentation of earl! response
data.
elta 5ffect
+coustic energ! re-radiated b! a discontinuit!.
etectabilit!
The abilit! of the ultrasonic s!stem to locate a discontinuit!.
iffraction
The deflection, or Vbending,V of a wave front when passing the edge or edges of a discontinuit!.
iffuse >eflection
%cattered, incoherent reflections caused b! rough surfaces or associate interface reflection of ultrasonic
waves from irregularities of the same order of magnitude or greater than the wavelength.
iscontinuit!
+n interruption or change in the ph!sical structure or characteristics of a material.
ispersion, %ound
%cattering of an ultrasonic beam as a result of diffuse reflection from a highl!-irregular surface.
istance +mplitude 0orrection <+0=
0ompensation of gain as a function of time for difference in amplitude of reflections from e"ual reflectors
at different sound travel distances. +lso referred to as time corrected gain <T02=, time variable gain <T72= and
sensitivit! time control <%T0=.
ivergence
%preading of ultrasonic waves after leaving search unit, and is a function of diameter and fre"uenc!.
ual-5lement Techni"ue
The techni"ue of ultrasonic testing using two transducers with one acting as the transmitter and one as the
receiver.
ual-5lement Transducer
+ single transducer housing containing two pie#oelectric elements, one for transmitting and one for
receiving.
5ffective 3enetration
The ma8imum depth in a material at which the ultrasonic transmission is sufficient for proper detection of
discontinuities.
5lectrical Noise
58traneous signals caused b! e8ternall! radiated electrical signals or from electrical interferences within
the ultrasonic instrumentation.
5lectromagnetic +coustic Transducer <5B+T=
+ device using the magneto effect to generate and receive acoustic signals for ultrasonic nondestructive
tests.
4ar 4ield
The region be!ond the near field in which areas of high and low acoustic intensit! cease to occur.
4irst Aeg
The sound path beginning at the e8it point of the probe and e8tending to the point of contact opposite the
e8amination surface when performing angle beam testing.
4ocused Transducer
+ transducer with a concave face which converges the acoustic beam to a focal point or line at a defined
distance from the race.
4ocusing
0oncentration or convergence of energ! into a smaller beam.
4re"uenc!
Number of complete c!cles of a wave motion passing a given point in a unit time <1 second=R number of
times a vibration is repeated at the same point in the same direction per unit time <usuall! per second=.
2ate
+n electronic means to monitor an associated segment of time, distance, or impulse.
2host
+n indication which has no direct relation to reflected pulses from discontinuities in the materials being
tested.
Hert# <H#=
'ne c!cle per second.
Hori#ontal Ainearit!
+ measure of the proportionalit! between the positions of the indications appearing on the baseline and the
positions of their sources.
Immersion Testing
+ techni"ue of testing, using a li"uid as an ultrasonic couplant, in which the test part and at least the
transducer face is immersed in the couplant and the transducer is not in contact with the test part.
Impedance <acoustic=
+ material characteristic defined as a product of particle velocit! and material densit!.
Indication <ultrasonics=
The signal displa!ed or read on the ultrasonic s!stems displa!.
Initial 3ulse
The first indication which ma! appear on the screen. This indication represents the emission of ultrasonic
energ! from the cr!stal face <main bang=.
Interface
The ph!sical boundar! between two adjacent acoustic mediums.
Insonification
Irradiation with sound.
Isotrop!
+ condition in which significant medium properties <velocit!, for e8ample= are the same in all directions.
Aamb &ave
+ t!pe of ultrasonic vibration guided b! parallel surfaces of thin mediums capable of propagation in
different modes.
Ainearit! <area=
+ s!stem response in which a linear relationship e8ists between amplitude of response and the
discontinuit! si#es being evaluated necessaril! limited b! the si#e of the ultrasonic beam.
Ainearit! <depth=
+ s!stem response where a linear relationship e8ists with var!ing depth for a constant si#e discontinuit!.
Aongitudinal &ave 7elocit!
The unit speed of propagation of a longitudinal <compressional= wave through a material.
Aoss of :ack >eflection
+bsence of or a significant reduction of an indication from the back surface of the article being inspected.
Bajor %creen ivisions
The vertical graticule used to divide the 0>T into 1) e"ual hori#ontal segments.
Banipulator
+ device used to orient the transducer assembl!. +s applied to immersion techni"ues, it provides either
angular or normal incidence and fi8es the transducer-to-part distance.
Baterial Noise
58traneous signals caused b! the structure of the material being tested.
Biniature +ngle :eam :lock
+ specific t!pe of reference standard used primaril! for the angle beam method, but also used for straight
beam and surface wave tests.
Binor %creen ivisions
The vertical graticule used to divide the 0>T into fift! e"ual segments. 5ach major screen division is
divided into five e"ual segments or minor divisions.
Bode 0onversion
The change of ultrasonic wave propagation upon reflection or refraction at acute angles at an interface.
Bode
The manner in which acoustic energ! is propagated through a material as characteri#ed b! the particle
motion of the wave.
Bultiple :ack >eflections
>epetitive indications from the back surface of the material being e8amined.
Nanosecond
'ne billionth of a second.
Narrow :anded
+ relative term denoting a restricted range of fre"uenc! response.
Near 4ield
+ distance immediatel! in front of a transducer composed of comple8 and changing wave front
characteristics. +lso known as the 4resnel field.
Node
The point on the e8amination surface where the 7-path begins or ends.
Noise
+n! undesired indications that tend to interfere with the interpretation or processing of the ultrasonic
informationR also referred to as Vgrass.V
Normal Incidence
+ condition where the angle of incidence is #ero.
'rientation
The angular relationship of a surface, plane, defect a8is, etc., to a reference plane or sound entr! surface.
3enetration <ultrasonic=
3ropagation of ultrasonic energ! through an article.
3hased +rra!
+ mosaic of probe elements in which the timing of the elementOs e8citation can be individuall! controlled
to produce certain desired effects, such as steering the beam a8is or focusing the beam.
3ie#oelectric 5ffect
The characteristic of certain materials to generate electrical charges when subjected to mechanical
vibrations and, conversel! to generate mechanical vibrations when subjected to electrical pulses.
3olari#ed 0eramics
0eramic materials that are sintered <pressed=, created <appro8imatel! 1)))
)
0=, and polari#ed b! appl!ing a
direct voltage of a few thousand volts per centimeter of thickness. The polari#ation is the process that makes these
ceramics pie#oelectric. Includes sodium bismuth titanate, lead metaniobate, and several materials based on lead
#irconate titanate <3ST=.
3resentation
The method used to show ultrasonic information. This ma! include <among others= +-, :-, or 0-scans
displa!ed on various t!pes of recorders, 0>Ts, A0s or computeri#ed displa!s.
3robe
Transducer or search unit.
3ropagation
+dvancement of a wave through a medium.
3ulse 5cho Techni"ue
+n ultrasonic test techni"ue using e"uipment which transmits a series of pulses separated b! a constant
period of timeR e., energ! is not sent out continuousl!.
3ulse Aength
Time duration of the pulse from the search unit.
3ulse >ate
4or the pulse echo techni"ue, the number of pulses transmitted in a unit of time <also called pulse repetition
rate=.
>adio 4re"uenc! ispla! <>4=
The presentation of unrectified signals in a displa!.
>ange
The ma8imum ultrasonic path length that is displa!ed.
>arefaction
The thinning out or moving apart of the consistent particles in the propagating medium due to the
rela8ation phase of an ultrasonic c!cle. 'pposite in its effect to compression. The sound wave is composed of
alternate compressions and refractions of the particles in a material.
>a!leigh &aveH%urface &ave
+ wave that travels on or close to the surface and readil! follows the curvature of the part being e8amined.
>eflections occur onl! at sharp changes of direction of the surface.
>eceiver
The section of the ultrasonic instrument that amplifies the electronic signals returning from the test
specimen. +lso, the probe that receives the reflected signals.
>eference :locks
+ block or series of blocks of material containing artificial or actual discontinuities of one or more
reflecting areas at one or more distances from the sound entr! surface. These are used for calibrating instruments
and in defining the si#e and distance of discontinuous areas in materials.
>eflection
The characteristic of a surface to change the direction of propagating acoustic energ!R the return of sound
waves from surfaces.
>efraction
+ change in the direction and velocit! of acoustic energ! after it has passed at an acute angle through an
interface between two different mediums.
>efractive Inde8
The ratio of the velocit! of a incident wave to the velocit! of the refracted wave. It is a measure of the
amount a wave will be refracted when it enters the second medium after leaving the first.
>ejectH%uppression
+n instrument function or control used for reducing low amplitude signals. Gse of this control ma! affect
vertical linearit!.
>epetition >ate
The rate at which the individual pulses of acoustic energ! are generatedR also 3ulse >ate.
>esolving 3ower
The capabilit! measurement of an ultrasonic s!stem to separate in time two closel! spaced discontinuities
or to separate closel! spaced multiple reflections.
>esonance Techni"ue
+ techni"ue using the resonance principle for determining velocit!, thickness or presence of laminar
discontinuities.
>esonance
The condition in which the fre"uenc! of a forcing vibration <ultrasonic wave= is the same as the natural
vibration fre"uenc! of the propagation bod! <test object=, resulting in large amplitude vibrations.
%aturation <scope=
+ term used to describe an indication of such a si#e as to e8ceed full screen height <1))I=.
%canning <manual and automatic=
The moving of the search unit or units along a test surface to obtain complete testing of a material.
%cattering
ispersion of ultrasonic waves in a medium due to causes other than absorption
%econd Aeg
The sound path beginning at the point of contact on the opposite surface and e8tending to the point of
contact on the e8amination surface when performing angle beam testing.
%ensitivit!
The abilit! to detect small discontinuities at given distances. The level of amplification at which the
receiving circuit in an ultrasonic instrument is set.
%hear &ave
The wave in which the particles of the medium vibrate in a direction perpendicular to the direction of
propagation.
%ignal-to-Noise >atio <%N>=
The ratio of amplitudes of indications from he smallest discontinuit! considered significant and those
caused b! random factors, such as heterogeneit! in grain si#e, etc.
%kip istance
In angle beam tests of plate, pipe, or welds, the linear or surface distance from the sound entr! point to the
first reflection point on the same surface.
%nellOs Aaw
The law that defines the relationship between the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction across an
interface, based on a range in ultrasonic velocit!.
%pecific +coustic Impedance
+ characteristic which acts to determine the amount of reflection which occurs at an interface and
represents the wave velocit! and the product of the densit! of the medium in which the wave is propagating.
%traight :eam
+n ultrasonic wave traveling normal to the test surface.
%weep
The uniform and repeated movement of a spot across the screen of a 0>T to form the baseline.
Through-Transmission
+ test techni"ue using two transducers in which the ultrasonic vibrations are emitted b! one and received
b! the other, usuall! on the opposite side of the part. The ratio of the magnitudes of vibrations transmitted and
received is used as the criterion of soundness.
Tip iffraction
The process b! which a signal is generated from the tip <i.e., top of a fatigue crack= of a discontinuit!
through the interruption of an incident sound beam propagating through a material.
Transducer <search unit=
+n assembl! consisting basicall! of a housing, pie#oelectric element, backing material, wear plate
<optional= and electrical leads for converting electrical impulses into mechanical energ! and vice versa.
Transmission +ngle
The incident angle of the transmitted ultrasonic beam. It is #ero degrees when the ultrasonic beam is
perpendicular to the test surface.
Transmitter
The electrical circuit of an ultrasonic instrument that generates the pulses emitted to the search unit. +lso
the probe that emits ultrasonic signals.
Two 3robe Bethod
Gse of two transducers for sending and receiving. Ba! be either send-receive or through transmission.
Gltrasonic +bsorption
+ damping of ultrasonic vibrations that occurs when the wave transverses a medium.
Gltrasonic %pectrum
The fre"uenc! span of elastic waves greater than the highest audible fre"uenc!, generall! regarded as being
higher than *),))) hert#, to appro8imatel! 1))) megahert#.
Gltrasonic %!stem
The totalit! of components utili#ed to perform an ultrasonic test on a test article.
7-path
The path of the ultrasonic beam in the test object from the point of entr! on the e8amination surface to the
back surface and reflecting to the front surface again.
7elocit!
The speed at which sound travels through a medium.
7ideo 3resentation
+ 0>T presentation in which radio fre"uenc! signals nave been rectified and usuall! filtered.
&ater 3ath
The distance from the face of the search unit to the entr! surface of the material under test in immersion
testing.
&avelength
The distance in the direction of propagation for a wave to go through one complete c!cle.
&edgeH%hoe
+ device used to adapt a straight beam probe for use in a specific t!pe of testing, including angle beam or
surface wave tests and tests on curved surfaces.
&raparound
Nonrelevant indications that appear on the 0>T as a result of a short pulse repetition rate in the pulser
circuit of the test instrument.
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$&apter < - "dd# $urrent Testing
+bsolute 0oil
+ test arrangement which tests the specimen without an! comparison to either another portion of the test
specimen or to a known reference.
+lternating
+ voltage, current or magnetic field that reverses direction at regularl! recurring intervals.
:obbin 0oil
+ coil or coil assembl! used for edd! current testing b! insertion into the test pieceR e.g., an inside probe
for tubing. +lso referred to as Inside 0oil or I3 0oil.
0oil
0onductor wound in one or more loops to produce an a8ial magnetic field when current is passed through
it.
0oil %pacing
The a8ial distance between two encircling coils of a differential s!stem.
0onductivit!
The willingness of a test circuit or test specimen to conduct current.
0oupling
+ measure of the degree to which the magnetic field of the coil passes through the test specimen and is
affected b! the magnetic field created b! the flow of edd! currents.
efect >esolution
+ propert! of a test s!stem which enables the separation of signals due to defects in the test specimen that
are located in close pro8imit! to each other.
iamagnetic
+ material having a permeabilit! less than that of a vacuum.
ifferential 0oil
+ test arrangement which tests the specimen b! comparing the portion being tested with either another
portion of the same specimen or to a known reference specimen.
iscontinuit!, +rtificial
>eference discontinuities, such as holes, grooves, or notches, which are introduced into a reference
standard to provide accuratel! reproducible sensitivit! levels for electromagnetic test e"uipment.
ouble 0oil
+ test arrangement where the alternating current is supplied through one coil while the change in material
condition is measured from a second coil.
5dd! 0urrent
+ circulating electrical current induced in a conductive material b! an alternating magnetic field.
5dge or 5nd 5ffect
The disturbance of the magnetic field and edd! currents due to the pro8imit! of an abrupt change in
geometr! <edge, end=. The effect generall! results in the masking of discontinuities within the affected region.
5ffective epth of 3enetration
The depth in a material be!ond which a test s!stem can no longer detect a change in material properties.
5ffective 3ermeabilit!
+ h!pothetical "uantit! which is used to describe the magnetic field distribution within a c!lindrical
conductor in an encircling coil. The field strength of the applied magnetic field is assumed to be uniform over the
entire cross section of the test specimen with the effective permeabilit!, which is characteri#ed b! the conductivit!
and diameter of the test specimen and test fre"uenc!, assuming values between #ero and one, such that its
associated amplitude is alwa!s less than one within the specimen.
5lectromagnetic Induction
The process b! which a var!ing or alternating current <edd! current= is induced into an electricall!
conductive test object b! a var!ing electromagnetic field.
5lectromagnetic Testing
That nondestructive test method for engineering materials, including magnetic materials, which uses
electromagnetic energ! having fre"uencies less than those of visible light to !ield information regarding the "ualit!
of the tested material.
5ncircling 0oil
+ coil, coils, or coil assembl! that surrounds the part to be tested. 0oils of this t!pe are also referred to as
circumferential, ' or feed-through coils.
58ternal >eference ifferential
+ differential test arrangement that compares a portion of the test specimen to a known reference standard.
4erromagnetic
+ material which, in general, e8hibits h!steresis phenomena, and whose permeabilit! is dependent on the
magneti#ing force.
4ill 4actor
4or an inside coil, it is the ratio of the outside diameter of the coil s"uared to the inside diameter of the
specimen s"uared. 4or an encircling coil, it is the ratio of the outside diameter of the specimen s"uared to the
inside diameter of the coil s"uared.
4lu8 ensit!
+ measure of the strength of a magnetic field e8pressed as a number of flu8 lines passing through a given
area.
Henr!
The unit of inductance. Bore precisel!, a circuit in which an electromotive force of one volt is induced
when the current is changing at a rate of one ampere per second will have an inductance of one henr!. <%!mbolE H=
Hert#
The unit of fre"uenc! <one c!cle per second=. <%!mbolE H#=
High 3ass 4ilter
+n electronic circuit designed to block signals of low fre"uenc! while passing high fre"uenc! signals.
I+0%
The International +nnealed 0opper %tandard. + value of conductivit! established as a standard against
which other conductivit! values are referred to in percent I+0%.
Impedance
The opposition to current flow in a test circuit or a coil due to the resistance of that circuit or coil, plus the
electrical properties of the coil as affected b! the coilOs magnetic field.
Impedance +nal!sis
+n anal!tical method which consists of correlating changes in the amplitude, phase, or "uadrature
components <or all of these= of a comple8 test signal voltage to the electromagnetic conditions within the
specimen.
Impedance-plane iagram
+ graphical representation of the locus of points indicating the variations in the impedance of a test coil as
a function of basic test parameters.
Inductance
The inertial element of the electric circuit. +n inductor resists an! sudden change in the current flowing
through it.
Inductive >eactance
The opposition to current flow in a test circuit or coil when an alternating voltage source is applied and due
solel! to the electrical properties of the coil as affected b! the magnetic field.
Inertia
The propert! of matter which manifests itself as a resistance to an! change in the momentum of a bod!.
Aift-off
The distance between a surface probe coil and the specimen.
Aift-off 5ffect
The effect observed due to a change in magnetic coupling between a test specimen and a probe coil
whenever the distance between them is varied.
Aow 3ass 4ilter
+n electronic circuit designed to block signals of high fre"uenc! while passing low fre"uenc! signals.
Bagnetic 4ield
+ condition of space near a magnet or current-carr!ing wire in which forces can be detected.
Bagnetic 4lu8 Aines
+ closed curve in a magnetic field through points having e"ual magnetic force and direction.
Noise
+n! undesired signal that tends to interfere with the normal reception or processing of a desired signal.. In
flaw detection, undesired response to dimensional and ph!sical variables <other than flaws= in the test part is called
Vpart noise.
Nonferromagnetic
+ material that is not magneti#able and hence, essentiall! not affected b! magnetic fields. This would
include paramagnetic materials having a magnetic permeabilit! slightl! greater than that of a vacuum and
appro8imatel! independent bf the magneti#ing force and diamagnetic materials having a permeabilit! less than that
of a vacuum.
3aramagnetic
+ material having a permeabilit! which is slightl! greater than that of a vacuum, and which is
appro8imatel! independent of the magneti#ing force.
3ermeabilit!
+ measure of the ease with which the magnetic domains of a material align themselves with an e8ternall!
applied magnetic field.
3ermeabilit! 7ariations
Bagnetic inhomogeneities of a material.
3hase +nal!sis
+n instrumentation techni"ue which discriminates between variables in the test part b! the different phase
angle changes which these conditions produce in the test signal.
3hase +ngle
The angle measured in degrees that the current in the test circuit leads or lags the voltage. 'ne complete
c!cle is e"ual to 6.).
3hase %hift
+ change in the phase relationship between two alternating "uantities of the same fre"uenc!.
3robe 0oil
+ small coil or coil assembl! normall! used for surface inspections.
>eference %tandard
+ test specimen used as a basis for calibrating test e"uipment or as a comparison when evaluating test
results.
>ejection Aevel
The setting of the signal level above or below which all parts are rejectable or in an automatic s!stem at
which objectional parts will actuate the reject mechanism of the s!stem.
>esistance
The opposition to current flow in a test circuit or coil based on specific material properties and cross-
sectional area and length of a conductor.
>esponse +mplitude
The propert! of the test s!stem whereb! the amplitude of the detected signal is measured without regard to
phase.
%aturation
The degree of magneti#ation produced in a ferromagnetic material for which the incremental permeabilit!
has decreased substantiall! to unit!.
%elf-comparison ifferential
+ differential test arrangement that compares two portions of the same test specimen.
%ignal-to-noise >atio
The ratio of response or amplitude of signals of interest to the response or amplitude of signals containing
no useful information.
%ingle 0oil
+ test arrangement where the alternating current is supplied through the same coil from which the
indication is taken.
%kin 5ffect
+ phenomenon where, at high fre"uencies, the edd! current flow is restricted to a thin la!er of the test
specimen close to the coil.
%tandard
+ reference used as a basis for comparison or calibrationR a concept that has been established b! authorit!,
custom, or agreement to serve as a model or rule in the measurement of "uantit! or the establishment of a practice
or a procedure.
%tandard epth of 3enetration
The depth in a test specimen where the magnitude of edd! current flow is e"ual to 6? percent of the edd!
current flow at the surface.
TCo T#pes o' "lectrical $urrent
irect 0urrent <0=
- 0urrent flow is constant over time
- 0urrent is distributed uniforml! over the cross-section of the conductor
- 58ampleE batter!
0urrent strength and direction remain constant over time
Time
+lternating 0urrent <+0=
- 0urrent flow varies over time
- 0urrent flows at or near the surface of the conductor - this phenomenon is called the skin
effect
- 58ampleE .) c!cle ac in wall sockets
0urrent strength varies over timeR current
direction reverses ever! 1H* c!cle

Time
$onductivit# and t&e I4$)
0onductivit! of a metal is usuall! e8pressed as a percentage <I= and is based on the international annealed copper
standard <I+0%=.
+ specific grade of high purit! copper was designated as 1)) I conductivit!. +ll other metals <e8cept silver= are
designated some I less then 1)) I. These percentages indicate the relative efficiencies of the various metals for
carr!ing electric current.
%ig&t Hand %ule
+n eas! method for finding the direction of an electricall! induced magnetic field is to imagine grasping the
conductor in the right hand with the thumb pointing in the direction of the current flow. The fingers will then point
in the direction of the lines of force. This is the right hand rule and is shown below. 4rom this figure it can be seen
that the current flow in the conductor creates circular lines of force.
<N=
<-=
0G>>5NT
4A'&
The coilOs magnetic field intensit! <strength= decreases with increasing distance awa! from the outside of the coil.
The coilOs field intensit! <strength= is assumed to be constant across the inside
diameter of the coil. This assumption is based on the use of +0 and small
diameter coils, and for all practical purposes the assumption is valid.
The coilOs magnetic field can be viewed as a distribution of lines of
force around the coil. These lines of force are call magnetic flu8, and
represent the coilOs magnetic force <s!mbol OHO=.
&hen a metal rod is placed inside the coil, the coil flu8 passes through the
rod. The number of lines of force in the rod divided b! the cross-sectional
area of the rod e"uals the flu8 densit! <s!mbol O:O= in the rod. The flu8
densit! in the rod depends on the metalOs willingness to carr! the magnetic
flu8. The metalOs willingness to carr! these magnetic flu8 lines is called
permeabilit!. The s!mbol for permeabilit! is O O <mu=.
The field intensit! at point 0 is less than
at point :, and point :Os intensit! is less
than point +Os
+0
+
:
0
+0
+0
Aines of
4orce
0urrent
in
0urrent
out
Bathematicall!, permeabilit! is e8pressed as the flu8 densit! in the material <:= divided b! the magneti#ing force
<H= that caused it.
Aike conductivit!, permeabilit! is a material propert! that is the same for all samples of a particular material
<assume same chemistr!, etc.=.
e8ampleE for air L 1
for copper allo!s L 1
for steels L several thousand
The permeabilit! value of 1 for air and copper allo!s <and all other non-magnetic materials= means that the
magnetic flu8 in the material is e8actl! e"ual to the flu8 coming from the
coil.
stated another wa!E bHh L 1 onl! when b L h
The high permeabilit! value of steels <and all other ferromagnetic metals=
means that the magnetic flu8 in the metal is thousands of times greater
than the applied flu8 from the coil.
stated another wa!E bHh L *))) means b
flu8
L *))) 8 h
flu8
agnetic Do(ains
'bviousl!, something is happening in the ferromagnetic metals to create
all this additional flu8 that is not happening in the non-magnetic
materials. Bagnetic domains are groups of atoms within a ferromagnetic
metal which behave like tin! permanent magnets.
3ermeabilit! L
:
H
or
L

L
4lu8 densit!
Bagneti#ing force
H
:
3artiall! 'riented omains
0ompletel! 'riented
omains <saturation=
>andoml! 'riented omains
In unmagneti#ed magnetic materials, the domains are randoml! oriented and neutrali#e each other, producing no
observable magnetic flu8 in the metal.
&hen the magneti#ing force from the coil, is applied, the domains begin to align in the direction of the applied
flu8. Their combined individual magnetism starts to produce an observable increase in the flu8 in the metal, over
and above the applied flu8 <H=.
&hen the domains are completel! aligned, the metal is said to be saturated, and the flu8 O:O is man! thousands of
times greater than the applied flu8 OHO. This domain behavior is responsible for the non-linear relationship between
<:= and <H= in ferromagnetic metals and for the h!steresis effect.
&hen a coil of wire carr!ing alternating current is brought into pro8imit! to a conducting article. The alternating
magnetic field that surrounds the coil will penetrate the article, generating small circulating electrical currents,
called edd! currents, in an article.
5dd! currents are circulating electrical currents induced in an isolated conductor b! an alternating magnetic field.
Note that there is no direct electrical contact between the coil and the test article - edd! currents are generated b!
electromagnetic induction.
5lectrical current
Test coil
+rticle being tested
2enerator
5dd! currents
NoteE &hen a generators electrical
current reverses it direction, the
direction of the edd! currents will
also reverse.
The Vprimar!V magnetic field
surrounding the ac coil will penetrate
the test articles and induce edd!
currents in the article. The circulating
edd! currents possess their own
Vsecondar!V magnetic field. This
secondar! field will oppose the coils
and reduce the si#e and strength of the
coils field.
+0 Indicator
irection of coils field
5dd! current field
opposes coils field
0hanges in the strength or shape of the secondar! field will affect the primar! field, which will affect the +0
flowing in the coil, where it will be sensed.
In this wa!, variations of the test article that disturb or alter the flow of the edd! currents will disturb the
electromagnetic coupling between the two fields and cause indications on the test instrument
$&aracteristics o' "dd# $urrent
1= 0an onl! be induced in conductors
0oated <i.e. painted=
articles ma! be tested, since the
coils field will pass through the
nonconducting coating and
generate edd! currents in the metal
beneath.
3lated articles should not be
tested, since the coilOs field will
generate edd! currents in both the
metallic plating and the base
material. 0onse"uentl!, 5T
indications could originate from
either the base metal or the
plating, confusing the inspection.
*= 0an be generated onl! b! an alternating magnetic field - there must be relative motion between the field and
the test article. + 0 field will not generate edd! currents. The moving +0 field which builds up, then breaks
down and reverses direction ever! 1H* c!cle, is essential to the production of edd! currents.
6= 5dd! currents flow in
circular paths, parallel to
the coil windings.
0hanges in
conductivit!
0hange in
meter reading
0hange in coils
impedance
0hange in coils
magnetic field
Test circuit
Baterial
Nonconductive material
0onductive material
0onductive material
0onductive material
Dept& o' Penetration
5dd! currents are strongest at the surface nearest the coil <due to skin effect= and weaken with depth. The depth of
edd! current penetration below the surface is directl! affected b! the nearness of the coil to the test article, the
operating fre"uenc!, and the test article conductivit! and permeabilit!.
<+= 0oil position - since the coilOs field is limited in si#e and decreases in strength with increasing distance awa!
from the coil, ma8imum field penetration into the article and, therefore, ma8imum depth of edd! current
penetration is achieved b! moving the coil as close as practical to the test article surface.
<:= 'perating fre"uenc! - a relationship also e8ists between the fre"uenc! of the ac applies to the test coil and the
edd! current depth of penetration. +s the fre"uenc! is increased, edd! current distribution concentrates near
the surface and decreases deep with the test article. The reverse is also true. +s the fre"uenc! is lowered, the
edd! current distribution e8tends deeper into the article.
In both view + and : above, the material and the test coil are the same. %ince view a shows deeper edd! current
penetration into the material, this means that a lower fre"uenc! was used. 7iew : shows shallower penetration, so
a high fre"uenc! was used. ,eep in mind that a high fre"uenc! causes the edd! currents to accumulate near the
surface closest to the test coil.
0oil far awa!
from article
being tested
0oil as close as
possible to the
article being
tested
4re"uenc!
7iew +
0oil
epth of
5dd! 0urrent
3enetration
4re"uenc!
7iew :
0oil
epth of
5dd! 0urrent
3enetration
c= 0onductivit! - the figure below illustrates that the depth of edd! current penetration also varies with metalOs
electrical conductivit!. +s conductivit! increases, the depth of edd! currents decreases.
In the figure, the coil and test fre"uenc! are the same in each view. 'nl! the material t!pe is different. Dou can
verif! that tin is more conductive the lead, and that copper is much more conductive than either, b! referring to the
I I+0% conductivit! chart shown earlier. +s the figure shows, the less conductive metals achieve deeper edd!
current penetration than the more conductive metals.
d= Bagnetic permeabilit! - finall!, a metalOs magnetic permeabilit! <) affects the depth of edd! current
penetration. The depth of penetration decrease as the permeabilit! increases. There are 6 basic t!pes of edd!
current testE surface , encircling , and inside.
+ surface coil is designed to be used on locali#ed areas on a surface, and is usuall! contained in a hand-held probe.
+n encircling coil, on the other hand, is large enough to surround an object about one of its a8es and is designed to
test an entire segment of the object at one time.
Indicator
Aead
0oil
epth of
5dd!
0urrent
3enetration
Indicator
0oil
epth of
5dd!
0urrent
3enetration
Indicator
0oil
epth of
5dd!
0urrent
3enetration
0opper Tin
+n inside coil is designed to be placed inside a hole or cavit! in the object, and is especiall! suited for testing thin
wall tubing.
Note that with each of the coil t!pesE
- The edd! currents circulate parallel to the coil windings
- The edd! currents hug the surface that is nearest the coil
5ach of these 6 coil t!pes ma! be used in either the differential or absolute test mode.
In the differential coil arrangement, two side-b!-side coils are wound and connected so that the output of on
cancels the output of the other as long as the test object properties are the same under both coils. This mode is most
sensitive to small defects and is relativel! insensitive to material variations such as hardness, gross surface
irregularities, etc.
In the absolute mode, a single coil tests the area of the test object beneath it without comparison to a reference
area. This mode is most sensitive to large defects longer than the coil, and to material variations such as hardness,
gross surface irregularities, etc.
The 6 general material variables <properties= that affect the flow of edd! currents in the material areE
1= 0hanges in conductivit! - conductivit! changes ma! be caused b! variations in allo! chemistr! or heat
treatment, or ma! be due to the presence of defects. %ince cracks or other discontinuities force the edd!
currents to take a longer path b! flowing around them, the overall effect of the discontinuit! is to reduce the
conductivit! of the metal.
+s the figure illustrates, the edd! currents must flow around the crack, effectivel! reducing the conductivit! of the
metal.
*= The second material variable affecting edd! current flow is magnetic permeabilit!. 5dd! currents are induced
b! flu8 changes in the metal and are directl! related to the densit! or amount of flu8. %ince changes in
permeabilit! cause changes in the amount of flu8 in the metal, the! also cause a pronounced <and detectable=
change in the edd! current flow.
6= 0hanges in the ph!sical dimensions, or si#e and shape of the test object also affect the edd! current flow.
+lthough the figure below is a gross e8ample, it clearl! illustrates how a change in ph!sical dimension can
alter the electromagnetic coupling between the coil and the object.
Two more dimensional of edd! current testing is edge effect and lift-off.
5dge effect is the false indication caused b! disruption of b! disruption of the edd! current path when the coil
approaches an end or edge of the material.
The effect is strong enough to VmaskO an! changes due to other factors. In effect, the edge of the material looks like
a ver! large crack to the edd! current instrument.
'n the other hand, the false indication caused b! changing the spacing between the test coil and the material
surface is called lift-off.
Aift-off has a ver! large effect on the 5T output displa! due to the decrease in primar! field flu8 in the material as
the coil distance from the materials surface is increased.
The lift-off effect can be used to measure the thickness of non-conducting coatings, such as paint, on a conducting
object.
%ince edd! currents cannot be generated in the non-conductor, a coil placed in contact with the painted surface
VseesV the paint thickness simpl! as lift-off distance.
+nother important relationship between edd! current flow and the presence of discontinuities is that the
discontinuit! must lie perpendicular to the direction of edd! current flow to be detected.
In the situation above, a surface coil passes over a surface crack and a subsurface lamination in the metal. It is eas!
to see that the crack will force the edd! currents to take a longer path around it, causing a detectable disruption in
their flow. The lamination on the other hand, will not cause much disruption of the edd! current path since the
metal separation lies parallel to the direction of current flow.
Li(itations o' "dd# $urrent Testing
1. Inspect onl! conducting articles <i.e. metals=.
*. 0an locate onl! surface and shallow subsurface discontinuitiesR inspection depth is limited to less then 1 inch.
6. %eparation of the effects of conductivit!, permeabilit!, and dimension variables is difficult and often not
possible.
9. 5T is an indirect inspection re"uiring the use of calibration standardsR !ou must know what !ou are looking for
in order to find it.
4dvantages o' "dd# $urrent Testing
1. +ble to inspect through non-conductive coatings <i.e. paint=.
*. 4ast, real-time inspection.
6. Totall! nondestructiveR no interference with the test item.
)u((ar# o' Properties o' "dd# $urrents
1. 2enerated b! an alternating magnetic field.
*. 4low onl! in conductors.
6. 0irculates parallel to coil windings.
9. 5dd! current flow is affected b! changes in the materialOs conductivit!, dimension, magnetic permeabilit!.
-. Aimited to surfaceHshallow subsurface testing.
.. epth of penetration is affected b! conductivit! and permeabilit! of test object, b! test fre"uenc!, and b!
nearness of the coil to the test object.
?. +ble to test through surface coatings <nonconducting= but not through plating <metal=.
"dd# $urrent %elations&ip o' Properties
Penetration .requenc# $onductivit# Per(eabilit#
ecrease Increase Increase Increase
Increase ecrease ecrease ecrease
$&apter + - %adiograp&ic Inspection
+bsorbed dose
The amount of energ! imparted to matter b! an ioni#ing particle per unit mass of irradiated material at the
place of interest. It is e8pressed in $rads.(
+ccelerator
+ device that accelerates charged atomic particles to high energies. +n 8-ra! machine is an accelerator.
+ctivit!
+ measure of how radioactive a particular radioisotope is. The number of atoms deca!ing per unit of time
calculates activation. Its unit of measurement is the $curie.(
+lpha particle
+ positivel! charged particle emitted b! certain radioactive materials. It is made up of two neutrons and
two protonsR hence it is identical with the nucleus of a helium atom.
+lpha ra!
+ stream of fast-moving helium nuclei <alpha particles=. This radiation is strongl! ioni#ing with ver! weak
penetration.
+ngstrom
+ unit of length used to e8press wavelength. 'ne angstrom e"uals 1)
-@
centimeters.
+node <target side=
The positive terminal of an 8-ra! tube. It is a high melting point element that receives the electron
bombardment from the cathode <filament=.
+tom
The smallest part of an element. The atom consists of a nucleus composed, with the e8ception of h!drogen,
of a number of protons and neutrons. Included in the atom is an e8tranuclear portion composed of electrons e"ual
in number to the protons in the nucleus. The h!drogen atom includes a nucleus of one proton and e8tranuclear
portion of one electron.
+utotransformer
+ special t!pe of transformer in which the output voltage can be easil! varied. The autotransformer is
emplo!ed to adjust the primar! voltage applied to the step-up transformer that produces the high voltage applied to
the 8-ra! tube.
:ackground radiation
The radiation of mans radiation natural environment, consisting of radiation that comes from cosmic ra!s
and from the naturall! radioactive elements of the earth, including radiation from within mans bod!. The term
ma! also mean radiation e8traneous to an e8periment.
:ackscatter
>adiation scattered from the floor, walls, e"uipment, and other items in the area of a radiation source.
:ackscatter includes secondar! radiation resulting from the interaction between the primar! radiation from the
source and the material being radiated.
:eta particle
+n electron or position emitted from a nucleus during radioactive deca!.
:remsstrahlung
5lectromagnetic radiation <photon= emitted b! charged particles when the! are slowed down b! electric
fields in their passage through matter. Aiterall! means, $braking radiation( in 2erman.
0assette
+ lightproof container, which ma! or ma! not contain intensif!ing andHor filter screens, that is used for
holding the radiographic films in position during the radiographic e8posure.
0athode <filament side=
The negativel!-biased electrode of the 8-ra! tube.
0ollimator
+ device used to surround a radiation source and so constructed as to both minimi#e the scattered radiation
and to direct the primar! or useful radiation into a more or less parallel beam onto a locali#ed area.
0ompton 5ffect
The glancing collision of an 8-ra! or gamma ra! with an electron to an orbital electron in matter with a
lower energ! in matter with a lower energ! photon scattered at an angle to the original photon path. The electron
does not absorb all of the energ!.
High energ!
3hoton
5jected electron
3hoton
continues with
less energ!
9)) ,ev 5lectron
*)) ,ev 5lectron Aeaving
*)) ,ev K->a!
0ontrast <film=
The change in densit! recorded on the film that results from a given change in radiation input. 0ontrast is
determined from the slope of the characteristic curve.
0ontrast <radiographic=
The measure of difference in the film blackening resulting from various 8-ra! intensities transmitted
through the object and recorded as densit! differences in the image. Thus, difference in film blackening from one
area to another is contrast.
0ontrast <subject=
The ratio of radiation intensities passing through selected portions of a specimen.
efinition
The measure of sharpness in the outline of the image of an object recorded on filmR the sharpness is the
function of the t!pes of screens, e8posure geometr!, radiation energ! and film characteristic.
ensitometer
+n instrument utili#ing the photoelectric principle to determine the degree of darkening of developed
photographic film.
eveloper
+ chemical solution that reduces e8posed silver halide cr!stals to metallic silver.
ose
The amount of ioni#ing radiation energ! absorbed per unit mass of irradiated material at a specific location,
such as a part of the human bod!.
ose rate
The radiation dose delivered per unit time and measured, for instance, in rems per hour.
osimeter
+ device that measures radiation dose, such as a film badge or ioni#ation chamber.
ut! c!cle
Gsuall! e8pressed in a percentage to represent the time used versus the time not used.
5lectromagnetic %pectrum
>epresents the electromagnetic waves of different wave lengths. The lines are not definite boundaries but
rather phase into one another.
K->+D%
+N
2+BB+
>+D%
GAT>+7I'A5T
>+D%
AI2HT
>+D%
IN4>+>5
>+D%
>++>
&+75%
%H'>T
&+75
>+I'
A'N2
&+75
>+I'
50>5+%IN2 &+75A5N2TH IN0>5+%IN2
IN0>5+%IN2 4>5JG5N0D 50>5+%IN2
IN0>5+%IN2 5N5>2D 50>5+%IN2
5lectron volt
Is an amount of energ! e"ual to the energ! gained b! one electron when it is accelerated b! one volt.
5mulsion
+ gelatin and silver bromide cr!stal mi8ture coated onto a transparent film base.
5ncapsulation
The process of sealing radioactive materials to prevent contamination.
4ilament
+ piece of wire in the cathode side, negative side, of the 8-ra! tube used to produce electrons when heated.
4ilm
%peciali#ed film used for radiographic purposes. The components of the film are two protective la!ers, two
emulsion la!ers, and one acetate base la!er.
4ilm badge
+ package of photographic film worn as a badge b! workers in the nuclear industr! to measure e8posure to
ioni#ation radiation. The absorbed dose can be calculated b! the degree of film darkening caused b! the irradiation.
4ilter
+ la!er of absorptive material that is placed in the beam of radiation for the purpose of absorbing ra!s of
certain wavelengths and thus controlling the "ualit! of the radiograph.
4i8er
+ chemical solution that dissolves une8posed silver halide cr!stals from developed film emulsions.
4og
+ darkening of the film resulting from chemical action of the developer, aging, scattered or secondar!
radiation, pre-e8posure to radiation, or e8posure to visible light.
2eiger counter
+ radiation detection and measuring instrument. It contains a gas-filled tube that discharges electricall!
when ioni#ing radiation passes through it. ischarges are counted to measure the radiations intensit!.
2raininess
+ film characteristic that consists of the grouping or clumping together of the countless small silver grains
into relativel! large masses visible to the naked e!e or with slight magnification.
Half-life
The time in which half the atoms in a radioactive substance deca!. Time is dependant upon the element.
Half-life <biological=
The time re"uired for a biological s!stem, such as a man or an animal, to eliminate, b! natural processes,
half the amount of a substance that has entered it.
protective
la!ers
acetate
base
emulsion
<image la!er=
Half-value la!er
The thickness of a material re"uired to absorb one half of the impinging radiation.
Intensif!ing screen
+ la!er of material placed in contact with the film to increase the effect of the radiation, thereb! shortening
the e8posure.
Interlock
+ device for precluding access to an area of radiation ha#ard either b! preventing entr! or b! automaticall!
removing the ha#ard.
Ion
+ charged atom or molecularl!-bound group of atomsR sometimes also a free electron or other charged
subatomic particles.
Ion pairs
+ positive ion and a negative ion, or electron, having charges of the same magnitude and formed from a
neutral atom or molecule b! the action of radiation or b! an! other agenc! that supplies energ!.
Ioni#ation
The process of adding electrons to, or knocking electrons from, atoms or molecules thereb! creating ions.
High temperatures, electrical discharges, and nuclear radiation can cause ioni#ation.
Ioni#ation chamber
+n instrument that detects and measures ioni#ing radiation b! observing the electrical current created when
radiation ioni#es gas in the chamber making the gas a conductor of electricit!.
Ioni#ing radiation
+n! radiation that directl! or indirectl! displaces electrons from the orbital shells of atoms.
,ev
The energ! of K-ra!s or gamma ra!s measured in thousand electron volts.
Aatent image
The potential image that is stored in the form of chemical changes in the film emulsion and is brought out
b! development of the film.
Aatitude
Aatitude most closel! aligned with contrast is commonl! called the scale of the film. Aatitude is the range
of thickness of material that can be transferred or recorded on the radiograph within the useful reading range of
film densit!. + high contrast film has little latitude and conversel! a low contrast film has great latitude.
Aeak test
+ test on sealed sources to assure that radioactive material is not being released.
Aicensed material
%ource material, special nuclear material, or b!-product material received, possessed, used, or transferred
under a general or special license issued b! the Nuclear >egulator! 0ommission.
Bev
The energ! of K-ra!s or gamma ra!s measured in million electron volts.
Bicroshrinkage
0racks that appear as dark feather! streaks, or irregular patches, that indicate cavities in the grain
boundaries.
Bonochromatic radiation
+ rare condition, h!pothetical, in which all gamma ra!s or 8-ra!s produced are of the same wavelength.
3air production
The transformation of a high-energ! ra! into pair of particles <an electron and a positron= during its passage
through matter.
3article
+ minute constituent of matter with a measurable mass, such as a neutron, proton, or meson.
3enetrameter
+ small strip of material of the same
composition as the specimen being tested. Its thickness
represents a percentage of the specimen thickness.
&hen placed in the path of the ra!s, its image on the
radiograph provides a check on the radiographic techni"ue
emplo!ed.
3enumbra
The shadow cast when the incident radiation is partl!, but not wholl!, cut off b! an intervening bod!R the
space of partial illumination between the umbra, or perfect shadow, on all sides and the full light.
3hotoelectric effect
This process involves the complete absorption of the photon during the process of knocking an electron out
of orbit. It occurs primaril! with lower energ! K-ra!s photons of 1) ,ev to -)) ,ev.
+pproaching 3hoton
3hoton
+ discrete "uantit! of electromagnetic energ!. 3hotons have no momentum but no mass or electrical
charge.
3hoton absorbed
0harged atom
<positive atom=
5jected electron
<negative ion=
T L thickness
9T I+ T I+ *T I+
T
3ositron
+ fundamental atomic particle having a mass e"ual to that of the electron and possessing a positive charge
e"ual to the negative charge of the electron.
>oentgen
+ unit of e8posure dose of ioni#ing radiation. It is that amount of gamma or 8-ra!s re"uired to produce ions
carr!ing 1 electrostatic unit of electrical charge in one cubic centimeter of dr! air under standard conditions.
%afelight
+ special lamp used in the darkroom to provide working visibilit! without affecting the photosensitive
emulsion of the radiographic film.
%catter
%econdar! radiation that is emitted in all directions.
%creens
Betallic or fluorescent sheets used to intensif! the radiation effects on films.
%ensitivit!
+ term usuall! referring to the abilit! of the radiographic procedure to detect discontinuities.
%pecific activit!
Total radioactivit! of a given isotope per gram of element.
%ource-film-distance
The distance between the focal spot of an 8-ra! tube or radiation source and the filmR generall! e8pressed
in inches.
Target
The piece of material, usuall! tungsten, embedded in the anode side, positive side, of the 8-ra! tube. +
effective and efficient target has the following four properties high atomic number, high melting point, high
thermal conductivit!, and low vapor pressure.
Two-film techni"ue
+ procedure wherein two films of different relative speeds are used simultaneousl! to radiograph both the
thick and the thin sections of an item.
)tructure o' t&e 4to( and an "le(ent
3roton F + heav! atomic particle with a positive charge.
Neutron F 0lose to the same weight and si#e of the proton with a neutral charge.
5lectron F + negative charged particle weighing about 1H1@9)
th
of a proton or a neutron.
Nucleus F The proton<s= and neutron<s= are group here in the center of the atom.
+tomic number $S( F This number represents the number of protons in the atom.
Bass number $+( F This number represent the number of protons and neutrons in the atom.
5 L element s!mbol
S L atomic number
+ L mass number
$o(ponents o' an Isotope
Isotope F 'ne or more of the same element having the same number of protons but not the same number of
neutrons.
Natural isotopes F Those that occur naturall!.
+rtificial isotope F Those elements that are created b! bombarding with swarms of neutrons.
+ctivation F This is the process of creating artificial isotopes.
%table isotopes F +toms that are not radioactive.
Gnstable isotopes F +toms that are radioactive.
$&aracteristics o' 4 %adioactive "le(ent
uring the deca! or disintegration process tin! particles of energ! are emitted in the form of particles and
waves from the nucleus.
+lpha particles <Y= F The biggest and heaviest of the radiation particles and is composed of two protons and two
neutrons.
:eta particles <Z= F + ver! light particle, actuall! a high-speed electron.
2amma ra!s <[= F + form of energ! that is a wave not a particle.
TCo T#pes o' %adiation
2amma radiation F + product of nuclear disintegration or deca! of radioactive elements.
K-ra!s F +n artificial produced wave from a high voltage electron tube.
1= %oft 8-ra!s F low energ!.
*= Hard 8-ra!s F high energ!.
Helium +tom
5
S
+
Histor# o' %adiograp&#
K-ra!s were discovered in 1@C- b! &ilhelm 0onrad >oentgen <1@9--1C*6=
who was a 3rofessor at &uer#burg Gniversit! in 2erman!. &orking with a cathode-
ra! tube in his laborator!, >oentgen observed a fluorescent glow of cr!stals on a
table near his tube. The tube that >oentgen was working with consisted of a glass
envelope <bulb= with electricall! positive and negative electrodes encapsulated in it.
The tube was evacuated of air, and when a high voltage was applied to it, the tube
would produce a fluorescent glow. >oentgen shielded the tube with heav! black
paper, and found that a green colored fluorescent light could be seen from a screen
setting a few feet awa! from the tube. He concluded that a new t!pe of ra! emitted
from the tube. This ra! was capable of passing through the heav! paper covering. He
also found that the new ra! would pass through most substances casting shadows of
solid objects. In his discover!, >oentgen found that the ra! would pass through the
tissue of humans leaving the bones and metals visible. 'ne of >oentgenOs first
e8periments late in 1@C- was a film of his wife, :erthaOs hand with a ring on.
However, it can be argued that the first use of K-ra!s was for an industrial <not
medical= application as >oentgen produced a radiograph of a set of weights in a bo8
to show his colleagues.
>oentgenOs discover! was a scientific bombshell, and was received with
e8traordinar! interest b! both scientist and la!men. %cientists ever!where could
duplicate his e8periment because the cathode tube was ver! well known during this
period. Ban! scientist dropped other lines of research to pursue the m!sterious ra!s,
and the newspapers and maga#ines of the da! provided the public with numerous
stories, some true, others fanciful, about the properties of the newl! discovered ra!s.
The public fanc! was caught b! the invisible ra! with the abilit! to pass through solid
matter, and, in conjunction with a photographic plate, provide a picture, albeit a
shadow! diffuse one, of the bones and interior of the bod!. %cientific fanc! was
captured b! an e8traordinar! new radiation, of shorter wavelength than light, that
presaged new and great vistas in ph!sics, and the structure of matter. :oth the
scientist and the public were enthusiastic about potential applications of the newl!
discovered ra!s as an aid in medicine and surger!. Thus, within a month after the
announcement of the discover!, several medical radiographs had been made in 5urope and the Gnited %tates that
were used b! surgeons to guide them in their work. In ;une 1@C., onl! . months after >oentgen announced his
discover!, K-ra!s were being used b! battlefield ph!sicians to locate bullets in wounded soldiers.
3rior to 1C1*, K-ra!s were used little outside the realms
of medicine, and dentistr!, though some K-ra! pictures of metals
were produced. The main reason that were not used in industrial
application before this date was because the K-ra! tubes <the
source of the K-ra!s= of that period broke down under the
voltages re"uired to produce ra!s of satisfactor! penetrating
power for industrial purpose. However, that changed in 1C16
when the high vacuum K-ra! tubes designed b! 0oolidge
became available. The high vacuum tubes were an intense and
reliable K-ra! sources, operating at energies up to 1)),))) volts.
In 1C**, industrial radiograph! took another step forward with the advent of the *)),)))-volt K-ra! tube that
allowed radiographs of three inches thick steel parts to be produced in a reasonable amount of time. In 1C61,
2eneral 5lectric 0ompan! developed 1))), ))) volt K-ra! generators. That same !ear, the +merican %ociet! of
Bechanical 5ngineers <+%B5= permitted K-ra! approval of fusion welded pressure vessels.
%hortl! after the discover! of K-ra!s, another form of penetrating ra!s was discovered. In 1@C., 4rench
scientist Henri :ec"uerel discovered radioactivit! somewhat b! accident, like man! other great scientific
discoveries. Ban! of the scientists of the period were working with cathode ra!s, and other scientists were
gathering evidence on the theor! that the atom could be subdivided. %ome of this new evidence showed that certain
t!pes of atoms disintegrate b! themselves. It was Henri :ec"uerel who discovered this phenomenon while
investigating the properties of fluorescent minerals. :ec"uerel was working on the principles of fluorescence,
certain minerals glow <fluoresce= when e8posed to sunlight. He utili#ed photographic plates to record this
fluorescence.
'ne of the minerals :ec"uerel worked with was a uranium compound. 'n a da! when it was too cloud! to
e8pose his samples to direct sunlight, :ec"uerel stored some of the compound in a drawer with photographic
plates. &hen he developed these plates a couple of da!s later, he discovered that the! were fogged. :ec"uerel
"uestioned what would have caused this fogging. He knew he had wrapped the plates tightl! before using them, so
the fogging was not due to stra! light. In addition, he noticed that onl! the plates that were in the drawer with the
uranium compound were fogged. :ec"uerel concluded that the uranium compound gave off a t!pe of radiation that
could penetrate heav! paper and affect photographic film. :ec"uerel continued to test man! samples of uranium
compounds and determined that the source of radiation was the element uranium. +t this time, enough information
was gathered to determine that an element, which gives off radiation, is said to be radioactive, and possesses the
propert! of radioactivit!. :ec"uerelOs discover! was, unlike that of the K-ra!s, virtuall! unnoted b! the la!man and
scientist alike. 'nl! a relativel! few scientist were interested in :ec"uerelOs findings, and it was not until the
discover! of radium b! the 0uries two !ears later that interest in radioactivit! became wide spread.
&hile working in 4rance at the time of :ec"uerelOs discover!, 3olish scientist Barie 0urie became ver!
interested in his work. %he too, suspected that a uranium ore known as pitchblende contained other radioactive
elements. Barie and her husband, a 4rench scientist, 3ierre 0urie started looking for these other elements. In 1@C@,
the 0uries discovered another radioactive element in pitchblendeR the! named it \poloniumO in honor of Barie
0urieOs native homeland. Aater that same !ear, the 0urieOs discovered another radioactive element for which the!
named \radiumO, or shining element. :oth polonium and radium are more radioactive than uranium. %ince these
discoveries, man! other radioactive elements have been discovered or produced.
The initial gamma ra! source was radium, which allows radiograph! of castings up to 1) to 1* inches thick.
uring &orld &ar II, industrial radiograph! grew tremendousl! as part of the Nav!Os shipbuilding program.
%hortl! after the war, manmade gamma ra! sources such as cobalt and iridium became available in 1C9.. These
new sources were far stronger than radium sources and were less e8pensive. Thus the manmade sources rapidl!
replaced radium, and the use of gamma ra!s grew "uickl! in industrial radiograph!.
<9 $overage 'or Pipes and Location arker easure(ents
1/2" 0.840 2.638 0.440 0.528 0.440 0.377 0.330 0.293 0.264 0.240 0.220
3/4" 1.050 3.299 0.550 0.660 0.550 0.471 0.412 0.367 0.330 0.300 0.275
1" 1.315 4.131 0.689 0.826 0.689 0.590 0.516 0.459 0.413 0.376 0.344
1-1/4" 1.660 5.215 0.869 1.043 0.869 0.745 0.652 0.579 0.522 0.474 0.435
1-1/2" 1.900 5.969 0.995 1.194 0.995 0.853 0.746 0.663 0.597 0.543 0.497
2" 2.375 7.461 1.244 1.492 1.244 1.066 0.933 0.829 0.746 0.678 0.622
2-1/2" 2.875 9.032 1.505 1.806 1.505 1.290 1.129 1.004 0.903 0.821 0.753
3" 3.500 10.996 1.833 2.199 1.833 1.571 1.374 1.222 1.100 1.000 0.916
3-1/2" 4.000 12.566 2.094 2.513 2.094 1.795 1.571 1.396 1.257 1.142 1.047
4" 4.500 14.137 2.356 2.827 2.356 2.020 1.767 1.571 1.414 1.285 1.178
5" 5.563 17.477 2.913 3.495 2.913 2.497 2.185 1.942 1.748 1.589 1.456
6" 6.625 20.813 3.469 4.163 3.469 2.973 2.602 2.313 2.081 1.892 1.734
8" 8.625 27.096 4.516 5.419 4.516 3.871 3.387 3.011 2.710 2.463 2.258
1/2" 0.840 2.638 0.440 0.203 0.188 0.176 0.165 0.155 0.147 0.139 0.132
3/4" 1.050 3.299 0.550 0.254 0.236 0.220 0.206 0.194 0.183 0.174 0.165
1" 1.315 4.131 0.689 0.318 0.295 0.275 0.258 0.243 0.230 0.217 0.207
1-1/4" 1.660 5.215 0.869 0.401 0.373 0.348 0.326 0.307 0.290 0.274 0.261
1-1/2" 1.900 5.969 0.995 0.459 0.426 0.398 0.373 0.351 0.332 0.314 0.298
2" 2.375 7.461 1.244 0.574 0.533 0.497 0.466 0.439 0.415 0.393 0.373
2-1/2" 2.875 9.032 1.505 0.695 0.645 0.602 0.565 0.531 0.502 0.475 0.452
3" 3.500 10.996 1.833 0.846 0.785 0.733 0.687 0.647 0.611 0.579 0.550
3-1/2" 4.000 12.566 2.094 0.967 0.898 0.838 0.785 0.739 0.698 0.661 0.628
4" 4.500 14.137 2.356 1.087 1.010 0.942 0.884 0.832 0.785 0.744 0.707
5" 5.563 17.477 2.913 1.344 1.248 1.165 1.092 1.028 0.971 0.920 0.874
6" 6.625 20.813 3.469 1.601 1.487 1.388 1.301 1.224 1.156 1.095 1.041
8" 8.625 27.096 4.516 2.084 1.935 1.806 1.694 1.594 1.505 1.426 1.355
6 7 8 9
*3+
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'
'
7/O.3 1
+-1( +-2( +-3( +-4( +-5( +-6(
+Dainless sDeel +-7( +-8( +-10-( +-11A( +-116(
)anCanesse-nicIel-alBminBm A$#nNe +-110( +-11D( +-366( +-37A(
+-376
AlBminBm A$#nNe
'
'
7/O.3 2
*icIel-alBminBm-A$#nNe
*icIel-ch$#miBm-
i$#n all#@
'
'
7/O.3 3
*icIel-c#''e$ all#@s
'
'
7/O.3 4
0#''e$-nicIel all#@s
,in A$#nNe
7Bn meDals
'
'
7/O.3 5
8alEe A$#nNe
+-34
+-38
+-21( +-22( +-25( +-26
+-51( +-52( +-53
+-35( +-36
+-42( +-43( +-44
Penn# T-Hole aAi(u( Densit#
LAI
MA'
%$HOLE
DENSI%-
LAI
MA'
%$HOLE
DENSI%-
LAI
MA'
%$HOLE
DENSI%-
LAI
MA'
%$HOLE
DENSI%-
LAI
MA'
%$HOLE
DENSI%-
1.50 1.72 2.00 2.30 2.50 2.87 3.00 3.45 3.50 4.00
1.51 1.73 2.01 2.31 2.51 2.88 3.01 3.46 3.51 4.00
1.52 1.74 2.02 2.32 2.52 2.89 3.02 3.47 3.52 4.00
1.53 1.75 2.03 2.33 2.53 2.90 3.03 3.48 3.53 4.00
1.54 1.77 2.04 2.34 2.54 2.92 3.04 3.49 3.54 4.00
1.55 1.78 2.05 2.35 2.55 2.93 3.05 3.50 3.55 4.00
1.56 1.79 2.06 2.36 2.56 2.94 3.06 3.51 3.56 4.00
1.57 1.80 2.07 2.38 2.57 2.95 3.07 3.53 3.57 4.00
1.58 1.81 2.08 2.39 2.58 2.96 3.08 3.54 3.58 4.00
1.59 1.82 2.09 2.40 2.59 2.97 3.09 3.55 3.59 4.00
1.60 1.84 2.10 2.41 2.60 2.99 3.10 3.56 3.60 4.00
1.61 1.85 2.11 2.42 2.61 3.00 3.11 3.57 3.61 4.00
1.62 1.86 2.12 2.43 2.62 3.01 3.12 3.58 3.62 4.00
1.63 1.87 2.13 2.44 2.63 3.02 3.13 3.59 3.63 4.00
1.64 1.88 2.14 2.46 2.64 3.03 3.14 3.61 3.64 4.00
1.65 1.89 2.15 2.47 2.65 3.04 3.15 3.62 3.65 4.00
1.66 1.90 2.16 2.48 2.66 3.05 3.16 3.63 3.66 4.00
1.67 1.92 2.17 2.49 2.67 3.07 3.17 3.64 3.67 4.00
1.68 1.93 2.18 2.50 2.68 3.08 3.18 3.65 3.68 4.00
1.69 1.94 2.19 2.51 2.69 3.09 3.19 3.66 3.69 4.00
1.70 1.95 2.20 2.53 2.70 3.10 3.20 3.68 3.70 4.00
1.71 1.96 2.21 2.54 2.71 3.11 3.21 3.69 3.71 4.00
1.72 1.97 2.22 2.55 2.72 3.12 3.22 3.70 3.72 4.00
1.73 1.98 2.23 2.56 2.73 3.13 3.23 3.71 3.73 4.00
1.74 2.00 2.24 2.57 2.74 3.15 3.24 3.72 3.74 4.00
1.75 2.01 2.25 2.58 2.75 3.16 3.25 3.73 3.75 4.00
1.76 2.02 2.26 2.59 2.76 3.17 3.26 3.74 3.76 4.00
1.77 2.03 2.27 2.61 2.77 3.18 3.27 3.76 3.77 4.00
1.78 2.04 2.28 2.62 2.78 3.19 3.28 3.77 3.78 4.00
1.79 2.05 2.29 2.63 2.79 3.20 3.29 3.78 3.79 4.00
1.80 2.07 2.30 2.64 2.80 3.22 3.30 3.79 3.80 4.00
1.81 2.08 2.31 2.65 2.81 3.23 3.31 3.80 3.81 4.00
1.82 2.09 2.32 2.66 2.82 3.24 3.32 3.81 3.82 4.00
1.83 2.10 2.33 2.67 2.83 3.25 3.33 3.82 3.83 4.00
1.84 2.11 2.34 2.69 2.84 3.26 3.34 3.84 3.84 4.00
1.85 2.12 2.35 2.7 2.85 3.27 3.35 3.85 3.85 4.00
1.86 2.13 2.36 2.71 2.86 3.28 3.36 3.86 3.86 4.00
1.87 2.15 2.37 2.72 2.87 3.30 3.37 3.87 3.87 4.00
1.88 2.16 2.38 2.73 2.88 3.31 3.38 3.88 3.88 4.00
1.89 2.17 2.39 2.74 2.89 3.32 3.39 3.89 3.89 4.00
1.90 2.18 2.40 2.76 2.90 3.33 3.40 3.91 3.90 4.00
1.91 2.19 2.41 2.77 2.91 3.34 3.41 3.92 3.91 4.00
1.92 2.20 2.42 2.78 2.92 3.35 3.42 3.93 3.92 4.00
1.93 2.21 2.43 2.79 2.93 3.36 3.43 3.94 3.93 4.00
1.94 2.23 2.44 2.80 2.94 3.38 3.44 3.95 3.94 4.00
1.95 2.24 2.45 2.81 2.95 3.39 3.45 3.96 3.95 4.00
1.96 2.25 2.46 2.82 2.96 3.40 3.46 3.97 3.96 4.00
1.97 2.26 2.47 2.84 2.97 3.41 3.47 3.99 3.97 4.00
1.98 2.27 2.48 2.85 2.98 3.42 3.48 4.00 3.98 4.00
1.99 2.28 2.49 2.86 2.99 3.43 3.49 4.00 3.99 4.00
2.00 2.30 2.50 2.87 3.00 3.45 3.50 4.00 4.00 4.00
LAI & 1.15 = )A1 3%**5 D%*+I,5
*I Penetra(eter -ualit# $onversion $&art (J-%48 /NL8)
%HIC*NESS
%HIC*NESS
. 1/
2$
#ENN-
E)0
%HIC*NESS
. 2/
2$
#ENN-
%HIC*NESS
. 4/
2$#ENN-
E)0
1/ 64 .015625 .00015625 .25 .0003125 .25 .000625 .25
1/ 32 .03125 .0003125 .25 .000625 .25 .00125 .25
3/ 64 .046875 .00046875 .25 .0009375 .25 .001875 .25
1/ 16 .0625 .000625 .25 .00125 .25 .0025 .25
5/ 64 .078125 .00078125 .25 .0015625 .25 .003125 .25
3/ 32 .09375 .0009375 .25 .001875 .25 .00375 .25
7/ 64 .109375 .00109375 .25 .0021875 .25 .004375 .25
1/ 8 .125 .00125 .25 .0025 .25 .005 .25
9/ 64 .140625 .00140625 .25 .0028125 .25 .005625 .28
5/ 32 .15625 .0015625 .25 .003125 .25 .00625 .31
11/ 64 .171875 .00171875 .25 .0034375 .25 .006875 .34
3/ 16 .1875 .001875 .25 .00375 .25 .0075 .37
13/ 64 .203125 .00203125 .25 .0040625 .25 .008125 .40
7/ 32 .21875 .0021875 .25 .004375 .25 .00875 .43
15/ 64 .234375 .00234375 .25 .0046875 .25 .009375 .46
1/ 4 .250 .0025 .25 .005 .25 .01 .50
17/ 64 .265625 .00265625 .25 .0053125 .26 .010625 .53
9/ 32 .28125 .0028125 .25 .005625 .28 .01125 .56
19/ 64 .296875 .00296875 .25 .0059375 .29 .011875 .59
5/ 16 .3125 .003125 .25 .00625 .31 .0125 .62
21/ 64 .328125 .00328125 .25 .0065625 .32 .013125 .65
11/ 32 .34375 .0034375 .25 .006875 .34 .01375 .68
23/ 64 .359375 .00359375 .25 .0071875 .35 .014375 .71
3/ 8 .375 .00375 .25 .0075 .37 .015 .75
25/ 64 .390625 .00390625 .25 .0078125 .39 .015625 .78
13/ 32 .40625 .0040625 .25 .008125 .40 .01625 .81
27/ 64 .421875 .00421875 .25 .0084375 .42 .016875 .84
7/ 16 .4375 .004375 .25 .00875 .43 .0175 .87
29/ 64 .453125 .00453125 .25 .0090625 .45 .018125 .90
15/ 32 .46875 .0046875 .25 .009375 .46 .01875 .93
31/ 64 .484375 .00484375 .25 .0096875 .48 .019375 .96
1/ 2 .500 .005 .25 .01 .50 .02 1.0
33/ 64 .515625 .00515625 .25 .0103125 .51 .020625 1.0
17/ 32 .53125 .0053125 .26 .010625 .53 .02125 1.0
35/ 64 .546875 .00546875 .27 .0109375 .54 .021875 1.0
9/ 16 .5625 .005625 .28 .01125 .56 .0225 1.1
37/ 64 .578125 .00578125 .28 .0115625 .57 .023125 1.1
19/ 32 .59375 .0059375 .29 .011875 .59 .02375 1.1
39/ 64 .609375 .00609375 .30 .0121875 .60 .024375 1.2
5/ 8 .625 .00625 .31 .0125 .62 .025 1.2
%HIC*NESS
%HIC*NESS
. 1/
2$
#ENN-
E)0
%HIC*NESS
. 2/
2$
#ENN-
%HIC*NESS
. 4/
2$
#ENN-
E)0
41/ 64 .640625 .00640625 .32 .0128125 .64 .025625 1.2
21/ 32 .65625 .0065625 .32 .013125 .65 .02625 1.3
43/ 64 .671875 .00671875 .33 .0134375 .67 .026875 1.3
11/ 16 .6875 .006875 .34 .01375 .68 .0275 1.3
45/ 64 .703125 .00703125 .35 .0140625 .70 .028125 1.4
23/ 32 .71875 .0071875 .35 .014375 .71 .02875 1.4
47/ 64 .734375 .00734375 .36 .0146875 .73 .029375 1.4
3/ 4 .750 .0075 .37 .015 .75 .03 1.5
49/ 64 .765625 .00765625 .38 .0153125 .76 .030625 1.5
25/ 32 .78125 .0078125 .39 .015625 .78 .03125 1.5
51/ 64 .796875 .00796875 .39 .0159375 .79 .031875 1.5
13/ 16 .8125 .008125 .40 .01625 .81 .0325 1.6
53/ 64 .828125 .00828125 .41 .0165625 .82 .033125 1.6
27/ 32 .84375 .0084375 .42 .016875 .84 .03375 1.6
55/ 64 .859375 .00859375 .42 .0171875 .85 .034375 1.7
7/ 8 .875 .00875 .43 .0175 .87 .035 1.7
57/ 64 .890625 .00890625 .44 .0178125 .89 .035625 1.7
29/ 32 .90625 .0090625 .45 .018125 .90 .03625 1.8
59/ 64 .921875 .00921875 .46 .0184375 .92 .036875 1.8
15/ 16 .9375 .009375 .46 .01875 .93 .0375 1.8
61/ 64 .953125 .00953125 .47 .0190625 .95 .038125 1.9
31/ 32 .96875 .0096875 .48 .019375 .96 .03875 1.9
63/ 64 .984375 .00984375 .49 .0196875 .98 .039375 1.9
1 1 .01 .50 .02 1.0 .04 2.0
1- 1/ 64 1.015625 .01015625 .50 .0203125 1.0 .040625 2.0
1- 1/ 32 1.03125 .0103125 .50 .020625 1.0 .04125 2.0
1- 3/ 64 1.046875 .01046875 .50 .0209375 1.0 .041875 2.0
1- 1/ 16 1.0625 .010625 .50 .02125 1.0 .0425 2.1
1- 5/ 64 1.078125 .01078125 .50 .0215625 1.0 .043125 2.1
1- 3/ 32 1.09375 .0109375 .50 .021875 1.0 .04375 2.1
1- 7/ 64 1.109375 .01109375 .55 .0221875 1.1 .044375 2.2
1- 1/ 8 1.125 .01125 .55 .0225 1.1 .045 2.2
1- 9/ 64 1.140625 .01140625 .55 .0228125 1.1 .045625 2.2
1- 5/ 32 1.15625 .0115625 .55 .023125 1.1 .04625 2.3
1- 11/ 64 1.171875 .01171875 .55 .0234375 1.1 .046875 2.3
1- 3/ 16 1.1875 .011875 .55 .02375 1.1 .0475 2.3
1- 13/ 64 1.203125 .01203125 .60 .0240625 1.2 .048125 2.4
1- 7/ 32 1.21875 .0121875 .60 .024375 1.2 .04875 2.4
1- 15/ 64 1.234375 .01234375 .60 .0246875 1.2 .049375 2.4
1- 1/ 4 1.25 .0125 .60 .025 1.2 .05 2.5
MA%EIAL
%HIC*NESS
%HIC*NESS
. 1/
2$
#ENN-
E)0
%HIC*NESS
. 2/
2$
#ENN-
%HIC*NESS
. 4/
2$
#ENN-
E)0
1- 17/ 64 1.265625 .01265625 .60 .0253125 1.2 .050625 2.5
1- 9/ 32 1.28125 .0128125 .60 .025625 1.2 .05125 2.5
1- 19/ 64 1.296875 .01296875 .60 .0259375 1.2 .051875 2.5
1- 5/ 16 1.3125 .013125 .65 .02625 1.3 .0525 2.6
1- 21/ 64 1.328125 .01328125 .65 .0265625 1.3 .053125 2.6
1- 11/ 32 1.34375 .0134375 .65 .026875 1.3 .05375 2.6
1- 23/ 64 1.359375 .01359375 .65 .0271875 1.3 .054375 2.7
1- 3/ 8 1.375 .01375 .65 .0275 1.3 .055 2.7
1- 25/ 64 1.390625 .01390625 .65 .0278125 1.3 .055625 2.7
1- 13/ 32 1.40625 .0140625 .70 .028125 1.4 .05625 2.8
1- 27/ 64 1.421875 .01421875 .70 .0284375 1.4 .056875 2.8
1- 7/ 16 1.4375 .014375 .70 .02875 1.4 .0575 2.8
1- 29/ 64 1.453125 .01453125 .70 .0290625 1.4 .058125 2.9
1- 15/ 32 1.46875 .0146875 .70 .029375 1.4 .05875 2.9
1- 31/ 64 1.484375 .01484375 .70 .0296875 1.4 .059375 2.9
1- 1/ 2 1.5 .015 .75 .03 1.5 .06 3.0
1- 33/ 64 1.515625 .01515625 .75 .0303125 1.5 .060625 3.0
1- 17/ 32 1.53125 .0153125 .75 .030625 1.5 .06125 3.0
1- 35/ 64 1.546875 .01546875 .75 .0309375 1.5 .061875 3.0
1- 9/ 16 1.5625 .015625 .75 .03125 1.5 .0625 3.1
1- 37/ 64 1.578125 .01578125 .75 .0315625 1.5 .063125 3.1
1- 19/ 32 1.59375 .0159375 .75 .031875 1.5 .06375 3.1
1- 39/ 64 1.609375 .01609375 .80 .0321875 1.6 .064375 3.2
1- 5/ 8 1.625 .01625 .80 .0325 1.6 .065 3.2
1- 41/ 64 1.640625 .01640625 .80 .0328125 1.6 .065625 3.2
1- 21/ 32 1.65625 .0165625 .80 .033125 1.6 .06625 3.3
1- 43/ 64 1.671875 .01671875 .80 .0334375 1.6 .066875 3.3
1- 11/ 16 1.6875 .016875 .80 .03375 1.6 .0675 3.3
1- 45/ 64 1.703125 .01703125 .85 .0340625 1.7 .068125 3.4
1- 23/ 32 1.71875 .0171875 .85 .034375 1.7 .06875 3.4
1- 47/ 64 1.734375 .01734375 .85 .0346875 1.7 .069375 3.4
1- 3/ 4 1.75 .0175 .85 .035 1.7 .07 3.5
1- 49/ 64 1.765625 .01765625 .85 .0353125 1.7 .070625 3.5
1- 25/ 32 1.78125 .0178125 .85 .035625 1.7 .07125 3.5
1- 51/ 64 1.796875 .01796875 .85 .0359375 1.7 .071875 3.5
1- 13/ 16 1.8125 .018125 .90 .03625 1.8 .0725 3.6
1- 53/ 64 1.828125 .01828125 .90 .0365625 1.8 .073125 3.6
1- 27/ 32 1.84375 .0184375 .90 .036875 1.8 .07375 3.6
1- 55/ 64 1.859375 .01859375 .90 .0371875 1.8 .074375 3.7
MA%EIAL
%HIC*NESS
%HIC*NESS
. 1/
2$
#ENN-
E)0
%HIC*NESS
. 2/
2$
#ENN-
%HIC*NESS
. 4/
2$
#ENN-
E)0
1- 7/ 8 1.875 .01875 .90 .0375 1.8 .075 3.7
1- 57/ 64 1.890625 .01890625 .90 .0378125 1.8 .075625 3.7
1- 29/ 32 1.90625 .0190625 .95 .038125 1.9 .07625 3.8
1- 59/ 64 1.921875 .01921875 .95 .0384375 1.9 .076875 3.8
1- 15/ 16 1.9375 .019375 .95 .03875 1.9 .0775 3.8
1- 61/ 64 1.953125 .01953125 .95 .0390625 1.9 .078125 3.9
1- 31/ 32 1.96875 .0196875 .95 .039375 1.9 .07875 3.9
1- 63/ 64 1.984375 .01984375 .95 .0396875 1.9 .079375 3.9
2 2 .02 1.0 .04 2.0 .08 4.0
2- 1/ 64 2.015625 .02015625 1.0 .0403125 2.0 .080625 4.0
2- 1/ 32 2.03125 .0203125 1.0 .040625 2.0 .08125 4.0
2- 3/ 64 2.046875 .02046875 1.0 .0409375 2.0 .081875 4.0
2- 1/ 16 2.0625 .020625 1.0 .04125 2.0 .0825 4.1
2- 5/ 64 2.078125 .02078125 1.0 .0415625 2.0 .083125 4.1
2- 3/ 32 2.09375 .0209375 1.0 .041875 2.0 .08375 4.1
2- 7/ 64 2.109375 .02109375 1.0 .0421875 2.1 .084375 4.2
2- 1/ 8 2.125 .02125 1.0 .0425 2.1 .085 4.2
2- 9/ 64 2.140625 .02140625 1.0 .0428125 2.1 .085625 4.2
2- 5/ 32 2.15625 .0215625 1.0 .043125 2.1 .08625 4.3
2- 11/ 64 2.171875 .02171875 1.0 .0434375 2.1 .086875 4.3
2- 3/ 16 2.1875 .021875 1.0 .04375 2.1 .0875 4.3
2- 13/ 64 2.203125 .02203125 1.1 .0440625 2.2 .088125 4.4
2- 7/ 32 2.21875 .0221875 1.1 .044375 2.2 .08875 4.4
2- 15/ 64 2.234375 .02234375 1.1 .0446875 2.2 .089375 4.4
2- 1/ 4 2.25 .0225 1.1 .045 2.2 .09 4.5
2- 17/ 64 2.265625 .02265625 1.1 .0453125 2.2 .090625 4.5
2- 9/ 32 2.28125 .0228125 1.1 .045625 2.2 .09125 4.5
2- 19/ 64 2.296875 .02296875 1.1 .0459375 2.2 .091875 4.5
2- 5/ 16 2.3125 .023125 1.1 .04625 2.3 .0925 4.6
2- 21/ 64 2.328125 .02328125 1.1 .0465625 2.3 .093125 4.6
2- 11/ 32 2.34375 .0234375 1.1 .046875 2.3 .09375 4.6
2- 23/ 64 2.359375 .02359375 1.1 .0471875 2.3 .094375 4.7
2- 3/ 8 2.375 .02375 1.1 .0475 2.3 .095 4.7
2- 25/ 64 2.390625 .02390625 1.1 .0478125 2.3 .095625 4.7
2- 13/ 32 2.40625 .0240625 1.2 .048125 2.4 .09625 4.8
2- 27/ 64 2.421875 .02421875 1.2 .0484375 2.4 .096875 4.8
2- 7/ 16 2.4375 .024375 1.2 .04875 2.4 .0975 4.8
2- 29/ 64 2.453125 .02453125 1.2 .0490625 2.4 .098125 4.9
2- 15/ 32 2.46875 .0246875 1.2 .049375 2.4 .09875 4.9
2- 31/ 64 2.484375 .02484375 1.2 .0496875 2.4 .099375 4.9
MA%EIAL
%HIC*NESS
%HIC*NESS
. 1/
2$
#ENN-
E)0
%HIC*NESS
. 2/
2$
#ENN-
%HIC*NESS
. 4/
2$
#ENN-
E)0
2- 1/ 2 2.5 .025 1.2 .05 2.5 .1 5.0
2- 33/ 64 2.515625 .02515625 1.2 .0503125 2.5 .100625 5.0
2- 17/ 32 2.53125 .0253125 1.2 .050625 2.5 .10125 5.0
2- 35/ 64 2.546875 .02546875 1.2 .0509375 2.5 .101875 5.0
2- 9/ 16 2.5625 .025625 1.2 .05125 2.5 .1025 5.1
2- 37/ 64 2.578125 .02578125 1.2 .0515625 2.5 .103125 5.1
2- 19/ 32 2.59375 .0259375 1.2 .051875 2.5 .10375 5.1
2- 39/ 64 2.609375 .02609375 1.3 .0521875 2.6 .104375 5.2
2- 5/ 8 2.625 .02625 1.3 .0525 2.6 .105 5.2
2- 41/ 64 2.640625 .02640625 1.3 .0528125 2.6 .105625 5.2
2- 21/ 32 2.65625 .0265625 1.3 .053125 2.6 .10625 5.3
2- 43/ 64 2.671875 .02671875 1.3 .0534375 2.6 .106875 5.3
2- 11/ 16 2.6875 .026875 1.3 .05375 2.6 .1075 5.3
2- 45/ 64 2.703125 .02703125 1.3 .0540625 2.7 .108125 5.4
2- 23/ 32 2.71875 .0271875 1.3 .054375 2.7 .10875 5.4
2- 47/ 64 2.734375 .02734375 1.3 .0546875 2.7 .109375 5.4
2- 3/ 4 2.75 .0275 1.3 .055 2.7 .11 5.5
2- 49/ 64 2.765625 .02765625 1.3 .0553125 2.7 .110625 5.5
2- 25/ 32 2.78125 .0278125 1.3 .055625 2.7 .11125 5.5
2- 51/ 64 2.796875 .02796875 1.3 .0559375 2.7 .111875 5.5
2- 13/ 16 2.8125 .028125 1.4 .05625 2.8 .1125 5.6
2- 53/ 64 2.828125 .02828125 1.4 .0565625 2.8 .113125 5.6
2- 27/ 32 2.84375 .0284375 1.4 .056875 2.8 .11375 5.6
2- 55/ 64 2.859375 .02859375 1.4 .0571875 2.8 .114375 5.7
2- 7/ 8 2.875 .02875 1.4 .0575 2.8 .115 5.7
2- 57/ 64 2.890625 .02890625 1.4 .0578125 2.8 .115625 5.7
2- 29/ 32 2.90625 .0290625 1.4 .058125 2.9 .11625 5.8
2- 59/ 64 2.921875 .02921875 1.4 .0584375 2.9 .116875 5.8
2- 15/ 16 2.9375 .029375 1.4 .05875 2.9 .1175 5.80
2- 61/ 64 2.953125 .02953125 1.4 .0590625 2.9 .118125 5.9
2- 31/ 32 2.96875 .0296875 1.4 .059375 2.9 .11875 5.9
2- 63/ 64 2.984375 .02984375 1.4 .0596875 2.9 .119375 5.9
3 3 .03 1.5 .06 3.0 .12 6.0
5asic $o(ponents o' an J-ra# Tube
T#pes o' )catter %adiation
0athode %tructure
Aow-voltage
power
suppl!
4ocusing cup
4ocal
spot
K-ra! beam
4ilament
High-voltage
3ower suppl!
5lectron
beam
Target
+node
structure
Tube
envelope
Test piece
<a= Internal
scatter
<b= %ide
scatter
<c= :ack
scatter
%adiograp&ic .il( Interpretation
+rc strikes
54INITI'NE
+n! locali#ed heat-affected #one or change in the contour of the surface of the finished weld or adjacent
base metal resulting from an arc or heat generated b! the passage of electrical energ! between the surface of the
finished weld, base material and a current source, such as welding electrodes or magnetic particle inspection
electrodes.
>+I'2>+3HI0 +335+>+N05E
+ locali#ed area, rounded or irregular, and generall! found adjacent to the edge of the weld image on the
base metal. The densit! of the indication appears lighter when the discontinuit! is conve8 from the addition of
filler metal with arc strikes resulting from %B+& process. The densit! of the indication appears darker when the
discontinuit! is concave resulting from a gouging of the material with arc strikes resulting from the 2T+& or
%B+& processes.
0+G%5%E
Not initiating the arc as re"uired b! the welding procedure.
+ccidentall! striking an arc on the completed weld or base material.
5ngaging the magneti#ing current prior to establishing firm contact with the test surface when using prods.
Boving or removing the prods from the test surface without disengaging the magneti#ing current.
>5B+>,%H%350I+A 0'N%I5>+TI'N%E
+rc strikes from welding and BT are generall! revealed and dispositioned upon acceptance 7isual inspection.
However, welding arc strikes ma! occur from another welding operation in the area after the 7TH3T inspections
and prior to the >T. +rc strikes occurring in this se"uence have a random location and can be found on the weld as
well as on the base metal.
+rc strikes from BT will be difficult to detect b! >T.
7isual inspection should alwa!s be performed to confirm arc strikes.
:urn through
54INITI'NE
+ void or open hole e8tending into a backing ring or strip, fused
root or adjacent base metal.
>+I'2>+3HI0 +335+>+N05E
+n irregular locali#ed area of darker densit!, often rounded,
generall! found at the center of the weld image. If e8cessive globules of
the weld puddle resulting from the burn through, are present on the
inside of the weld joint, their appearance will have a lighter densit! due
to the additional weld metal. The nature of burn through is such that the
outline or edges of the indication ma! or ma! not be sharpl! defined.
0+G%5%E
Gsing a weld current higher than allowed b! the welding procedure.
Improperl! preparing the tungsten electrode tip.
Gsing too slow a welding speed of travel will cause overheating of the
weld puddle.
Improper fit up of the weld joint <unacceptable root gap=.
>5B+>,%H%350I+A 0'N%I5>+TI'N%E
The distinguishing feature between a burn through and a melt through
is that a burn through results in an open hole on the I of the pipe.
:urn through most often occur during the welding of the root pass, although it is possible for this discontinuit! to
be introduced during the welding of the second la!er.
:urn through fre"uentl! occur during weld repairs, especiall! when the repair cavit! is at the root depth.
7isual inspection should alwa!s be performed, if possible, to confirm bum through.
0oncavit!
54INITI'NE
>+I'2>+3HI0 +335+>+N05E
0+G%5%E
>5B+>,%H%350I+A 0'N%I5>+TI'N%E
0rack, crater
54INITI'NE
>+I'2>+3HI0 +335+>+N05E
2enerall! a star shaped indication with irregular, feather!, twisting lines of darker densit! oriented within a
weld crater. The discontinuit! is usuall! shallow, therefore, the indication ma! not be as pronounced as indications
produced from other t!pes of cracking.
0+G%5%E
Improper termination of the welding arc b! abruptl! removing the arc.
Not adhering to the parameters of the welding procedure.
Incomplete filling of the weld crater.
>5B+>,%H%350I+A 0'N%I5>+TI'N%E
It is to be emphasi#ed that although the discontinuit! and resulting radiographic indication is generall! star
shaped, crater cracking does not alwa!s take this shape.
>andom radiographic indications from crater cracking ma! be oriented in an! direction to the weld a8is.
0rack, longitudinal
<shown in the root=
54INITI'NE
>+I'2>+3HI0 +335+>+N05E
Irregularl! shaped, feather!, twisting lines of darker densit!
oriented along the a8is of the weld.
0+G%5%E
Improper fit-up of joint.
0ontamination of base material.
7iolation of the welding procedures.
>5B+>,%H%350I+A 0'N%I5>+TI'N%E
Aongitudinal cracks can occur throughout the weldR in the centerline,
fusion lines and in the root.
0racking can, at times, be difficult to detect due to the geometric
principles of the radiographic techni"ue.
0rack, transverse
54INITI'NE
>+I'2>+3HI0 +335+>+N05E
Irregularl! shaped, feather!, twisting lines of darker densit!
oriented perpendicular to the a8is of the weld. Transverse cracks are
generall! tight discontinuities, therefore producing subtle indications on
the radiograph.
0+G%5%E
Transverse cracks are generall! the result of longitudinal shrinkage
strains acting on weld metal of low ductilit!. Bost commonl! found in
weld joints having a high degree of restraint.
>5B+>,%H%350I+A 0'N%I5>+TI'N%E
0racks ma! be limited in si#e and completel! within the weld metal,
but ma! also propagate from the weld metal into the adjacent heat
affected #one.
'rientation and subtleness of the discontinuit! can, at times, be
difficult to detect due to the geometric principles of the radiographic
techni"ue.
0racking indications can be masked in the as-welded condition.
0rater pits
54INITI'NE
+n appro8imatel! circular surface condition e8tending into the weld in an irregular manner.
>+I'2>+3HI0 +335+>+N05E
The indication will appear as a circular dot with darker densit!, similar to porosit!, in the root area of
consumable insert welds. However, due to the irregular nature of discontinuit!, the edge of the indication is usuall!
not as defined as porosit!. The irregularit! of the discontintinuit! can produce a VhaloV effect on the edge of the
indication, distinguishing a crater pit from porosit!. The radiographic indication from crater pits can range from
subtle to pronounced, depending on the severit! of the pit.
0+G%5%E
Improper termination of the welding arc.
Not adhering to the parameters of the welding procedure.
>5B+>,%H%350I+A 0'N%I5>+TI'N%E
The indications from crater pits can be misinterpreted as porosit!.
3orosit! can occur an!where in the weld, while crater pits occur in the weld root area.
7isual inspection should alwa!s performed, if possible to confirm crater pits.
+dditional radiograph!, e.g. putting the indication in the sidewall or profile view, ma! be emplo!ed to assist in
confirmation of the discontinuit!.
Incomplete fusion of a consumable insert
54INITI'NE
Incomplete melting of the consumable insert without fusion and bonding to the base metal along one or
both sides of the consumable insert.
>+I'2>+3HI0 +335+>+N05E
+ uniform elongated band or locali#ed bad of lighter densit! in the center of the weld image, oriented along
the a8is of the weld. The width of the band appears appro8imatel! e"ual to the diameter of the consumable insert.
The indication ma! appear in the following wa!s
The indication ma! appear with both edges straight with abrupt densit! transitions from the insert area to the base
material area. This indicates lack of filling or blending to the base metal, with both sides of the insert not fused.
The indication ma! appear with one edge having a smooth, gradual densit! transition from the insert area to the
base material area and the other edge straight with an abrupt densit! transition from the insert area to the base
material area. This indicates the former edge is blended with fusion into the adjacent base metal and the latter edge
is not fused.
0+G%5%E
Improper fit up of the weld joint.
Gsing too low a welding current.
Gsing too fast of a travel speed.
+n incorrect torch angle.
+n improper motion or weaving techni"ue of the torch.
>5B+>,%H%350I+A 0'N%I5>+TI'N%E
7isual inspection should alwa!s be performed, where possible, to confirm incomplete fusion of the insert, when
viewed on radiographs.
Aack of fusion
54INITI'NE
Aack of complete fusion of some portion of the metal in a weld
joint with the adjacent metal. The adjacent metal ma! be either base
metal or previousl! deposited weld metal. &hen the discontinuit! occurs
between a weld bead and the adjacent base metal, the term Vlack of
sidewall fusionV is often used, does not occur in the root.
>+I'2>+3HI0 +335+>+N05E
Irregularl! edged, or straight and irregularl! edged lines of
darker densit! oriented along the a8is of the weld. If lack .f fusion
occurs between weld beads, both edges of the indication ma! be
irregular as the! indicate the weld puddle not fusing to the contour of the
previousl! deposited weld beads. If the lack of fusion occurs between a
weld bead and base metal, one edge of the indication will be straight, as
it indicates the weld puddle not fusing to the prepared base meal.
%ometimes the lines are interspersed with darker densit! spots, of
var!ing shapes, indicating voids resulting from the lack of fusion.
0+G%5%E
Insufficient welding current to melt the adjacent metal.
Too fast a welding speed of travel will not allow for fusion to the
adjacent metal.
Too fast a welding current to melt the adjacent metal.
Improper torch or electrode angle ma! prohibit melting of the adjacent metal.
Improper placement of weld passes ma! cause a sharp valle! to form.
Aack of proper access to the face of weld joint.
Tightl! adhering o8ides resulting from improper cleaning of items to be welded.
>5B+>,%H%350I+A 0'N%I5>+TI'N%E
Aack of fusion on the under bead side of the weld, l!ing in a hori#ontal plane, tends to be undetectable but often
the sides of lack of fusion lines tend to curl out of the hori#ontal plane and are recorded on the radiograph.
+ distinguishing characteristic between lack of fusion and incomplete penetration is that lack of fusion can occur
an!where in the weld and incomplete penetration occurs at the weld root.
Aack of penetration
<left F normal fit-up, right F mismatch=
54INITI'NE
Aack of penetration of the weld through the thickness of the joint or penetration which is less than
specified.
>+I'2>+3HI0 +335+>+N05E
%traight, fine edged lines of darker densit! oriented along the a8is of the weld in the area of the root. The
straightness of both edges of the indicationOs image and location in the center of the weld image help to distinguish
incomplete penetration from lack of fusion.
0+G%5%E
Insufficient welding current or to fast travel speed.
Improper torch or electrode angle to melt the root land.
In both backing ring joints and joints to be welded from both sides, improper placement of initial weld pass ma!
cause a sharp valle! to form at the root weld.
;oints welded from both sides, insufficient removal of the backside prior to welding.
>5B+>,%H%350I+A 0'N%I5>+TI'N%E
'ccurs at the weld root and is alwa!s straight, as it is a >T indication of the actual weld joint preparation. The
indication can be prominent or subtle depending on the severit! of the discontinuit!.
Belt through
54INITI'NE
+ conve8 or concave irregularit! on the surface of a backing ring
or strip, fused root or adjacent base metal resulting from fusing completel!
through a locali#ed region but without development of a void or open
hole.
>+I'2>+3HI0 +335+>+N05E
+ locali#ed area, usuall! rounded, and generall! found at the
center of the weld image. The densit! of the indication appears lighter
when the discontinuit! is conve8 and darker when the discontinuit! is
concave.
0+G%5%E
Gsing a weld current higher than allowed b! the welding procedure.
Improperl! preparing the tungsten electrode tip.
Gsing too slow a welding speed of travel will cause overheating.
Improper fit up of the weld joint <unacceptable root gap=.
>5B+>,%H%350I+A 0'N%I5>+TI'N%E
The entire thickness of metal is melted or re-melted and deforms, no
hole or void develops as with a burn through.
Belt through most often occurs during the welding of the root pass,
although it is possible for this discontinuit! to be introduced during the welding of the second la!er. 7isual
inspection should alwa!s be performed, if possible, to confirm melt through.
'ffset
<misalignmentHmismatch, shown with A'3=
54INITI'NE
Aateral misalignment of two butt joint members of e"ual
thickness.
>+I'2>+3HI0 +335+>+N05E
'ffset on piping weld joints can appear on the film in different
wa!s. The radiographic image is dependent upon the orientation of the
offset to the beam of radiation. &hen the offset condition is parallel to
the beam of radiation, the offset image ma! appear as an abrupt
densit! change, generall! half wa! across the width of the weld image.
&hen the offset condition is perpendicular to the beam of radiation,
and the entire image of the item is on the film, the offset image will
appear in the sidewall or profile view, as lateral misalignment of the
members with a high-low effect of the pipesO I and '.
0+G%5%E
Improper fit-up or fi8turing ma! cause the members to be offset.
Improper welding block se"uencing on the root pass.
>5B+>,%H%350I+A 0'N%I5>+TI'N%E
7isual inspection should alwa!s be performed to confirm "uestionable offset conditions when viewed on
radiographs.
'8idation
54INITI'NE
+ condition resulting from partial or complete lack of purge of a surface which is heated during welding
resulting in formation of o8ide on the surface. This condition ma! range from slight o8idation through the
formation of heav! black scale to the e8treme of a ver! rough surface having a rough cr!stalline appearance.
>+I'2>+3HI0 +335+>+N05E
Highl! irregular, low densit! area, with a wrinkled or sugared appearance in the center of the weld image.
The condition ma! e8tend for the entire circumference of the weld when there is a complete loss of purge. The
condition ma! onl! be locali#ed, in one or more areas of the weld, occurring whenever the purge is partiall!
interrupted.
0+G%5%E
Aoss of internal purge gas resulting in an unshielded molten weld puddle on the I.
High o8!gen content in purge gas or path.
Boisture in the area of the weld, due to inade"uate dr!ing of the purge path, leakage, etc...
>5B+>,%H%350I+A 0'N%I5>+TI'N%E
+ visual inspection should alwa!s be performed, if possible, to confirm o8idation.
'8idation generall! occurs during the flowing of the weld root. However, this condition ma! occur during
welding if there is a degree of root reflow, loss of purge, or moisture present. '8idation fre"uentl! occurs during
weld repairs.
'verlap <re-entrant angle=
54INITI'NE
The protrusion of weld metal be!ond the weld toes or weld root.
>+I'2>+3HI0 +335+>+N05E
'verlap conditions on the ' of piping butt weld joints should be an e8tremel! rare occurrence in as much
as a satisfactor! 7T and other surface inspections, such as 3T or BT are re"uired prior to >T. However, overlap
on the internal weld surface consumable insert piping weld butt joints can appear on the film in different wa!s. The
radiographic image is dependent upon the orientation of the overlap to the beam of radiation. &hen the overlap
condition is not located in the sidewall or profile view, the overlap image will appear consistent with that of
conve8it! with an abrupt densit! change at the fusion line of the weld root image. &hen the offset image is in the
sidewall or profile view, it will appear as roll over of the weld root reinforcement with an unsatisfactor! blending
at the fusion line of the weld root image.
0+G%5%E
Too slow of a welding speed.
Too low or too high of a welding current.
Incorrect torch or electrode angle.
>5B+>,%H%350I+A 0'N%I5>+TI'N%E
7isual inspection should alwa!s be performed, where possible, to confirm "uestionable root surface conditions
when viewed on radiographs.
3orosit!
<right F clustered porosit!, bottom left F distributed porosit!, bottom
right - aligned porosit! in the root=
54INITI'NE
2as pockets or voids in weld metal.
>+I'2>+3HI0 +335+>+N05E
Gsuall! sphericall! shaped areas of darker densit! and ma! be
scattered throughout single pass welds or throughout several passes of
multiple pass welds. +lthough usuall! spherical in shape, porosit! ma!
also occur as nonspherical pockets and appear on the radiograph as
elongated voids, sometimes referred to as Vpiping or wormhole
porosit!V. The densit! of the indication varies directl! with the diameter
or magnitude of the pore.
0+G%5%E
4ault! welding techni"ues such as using too long an arc with the
%B+& process.
Improper cleaning of the weld joint.
>5B+>,%H%350I+A 0'N%I5>+TI'N%E
None.
>oot ra#orback condition
54INITI'NE
+n o8ide membrane, gra! in color, with a sharp ridge or peak and ribs from the peak to the edge giving it a
herringbone effect. +lso known as Vreverse center line crease.V
>+I'2>+3HI0 +335+>+N05E
The image of root ra#orback is consistent with that of conve8it! with an associated herringbone appearance
and sharp peak at the center. The lightest densit! of the image is in the center and is dependent upon the height of
peaked condition. The densit! of the image graduall! increases as the condition blends into the base metal.
0+G%5%E
Boisture in the area of the weld. Boisture in the purge gas.
>5B+>,%H%350I+A 0'N%I5>+TI'N%E
This is one of the most common root surface defects encountered when welding Ni-0u and Ni-0-r-4e.
7isual inspection should alwa!s be performed, where possible, to confirm root ra#orback condition when viewed
on radiographs.
>oot surface centerline crease
54INITI'NE
+n intermittent or continuous peripheral centerline concavit! formed on the root surface.
>+I'2>+3HI0 +335+>+N05E
The image of centerline crease is consistent with that of concavit! with an associated herringbone
appearance. If the crease has a notch or a "uestionable blending condition at the center, the image will crease
oriented along the a8is of the weld.
0+G%5%E
Thick cover pass over a consumable insert that had minor concavit!. 58cessive welding current.
>5B+>,%H%350I+A 0'N%I5>+TI'N%E
7isual inspection should alwa!s be preformed, where possible to confirm "uestionable centerline crease when
viewed on radiograph.
+pproved workmanship sample radiographs ma! be emplo!ed to evaluate centerline crease when a visual
inspection is not possible.
>oot surface concavit!
54INITI'NE
+ depression on the root surface of the weld, which ma! be due to
gravit!, internal purge or shrinkage.
>+I'2>+3HI0 +335+>+N05E
The image of concavit! ma! appear as intermittent elliptical areas
or elongated bands of darker film densit! oriented along the a8is of the
weld in the center of the weld image. The width of the image is consistent
with the weld root width. The darkest densit! of the concavit!Os image is
generall! in the center and is dependent up.n the depth of the concavit!.
The densit! of the image graduall! decreases as the concavit! blends into
the base metal.
0+G%5%E
Gsing too high of a welding current, too slow of a travel speed, or
e8tremel! high purge gas flow rate.
>5B+>,%H%350I+A 0'N%I5>+TI'N%E
7isual inspection should alwa!s be preformed, where possible to
confirm "uestionable concavit! when viewed on radiograph.
>oot surface conve8it!
54INITI'NE
>einforcement of the root surface of a butt-fused t!pe weld.
>+I'2>+3HI0 +335+>+N05E
The image of conve8it! ma! appear as intermittent elliptical areas or elongated bands of lighter film
densit! oriented along the a8is of the weld in the center of the weld image. The width of the image is consistent
with the weld root width. The lightest densit! of the conve8it!Os image is generall! in the center and is dependent
upon the height of the conve8it! blends into the base metal.
0+G%5%E
Gsing to low or high of a welding current. Gsing too slow travel speed when welding.
>5B+>,%H%350I+A 0'N%I5>+TI'N%E
7isual inspection should alwa!s be performed, when possible, to confirm "uestionable conve8it! when viewed
on radiographs.
%lag
54INITI'NE
Non-metallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or
between weld metal and base metal.
>+I'2>+3HI0 +335+>+N05E
&ell defined, irregularl! shaped, uniforml! darker densit!
areas usuall! elongated along the a8is of the weld.
0+G%5%E
Improper fit-up, such as inade"uate bevel of the joint sides.
Gsing too low a welding current for the si#e of electrode.
4ault! welding techni"ues such as wrong electrode position or
orientation.
Improper bead placement causing sharp valle!s or undercutting
between the beads.
Improper interpass cleaning of slag from the surface.
>5B+>,%H%350I+A 0'N%I5>+TI'N%E
%lag is a b!-product of the burning of the flu8 covering on welding
roods. Thus, slag inclusions are associated with the %B+& process.
%lag inclusions can occur throughout the weld, in the center of the
weld, in fusion lines and in the root.
Tungsten inclusion
54INITI'NE
Betallic tungsten inclusions in the weld deposit.
>+I'2>+3HI0 +335+>+N05E
Irregularl! shaped spots of low film densit! areas, usuall!
random in si#e and location. The! are solid or li"uid bits of tungsten
electrode from the TI2 welding process that drop or are melted from the
electrode and become entrapped in the weld puddle. Tungsten inclusions
appear as low or light densit! areas on the radiograph because of the
differences of radiographic absorption between the inclusion and
surrounding metal. Tungsten is denser radiographicall! then the
surrounding metal and therefore absorbs more radiation. This, in turn,
allows fewer ra!s to reach the film.
0+G%5%E
'verheating the tungsten electrode due to e8cessive current for the
particular electrode si#e.
efective tungsten electrode <flaking of particles=.
ipping the tungsten into the molten puddle.
>5B+>,%H%350I+A 0'N%I5>+TI'N%E
None.
Gndercut
54INITI'NE
+n intermittent or continuous groove on the e8ternal surface of
the base metal along the edge of the weld.
>+I'2>+3HI0 +335+>+N05E
+n irregular, elongated area of darker densit! oriented along the
e8ternal fusion line of the weld image to the base metal.
0+G%5%E
58cessive welding current.
Gsing too long an arc length will result in a gouging effect.
Gsing e8cessive welding speed of travel.
&hen using the 2T+& process, adding an insufficient amount of filler
metal.
+n incorrect electrode angle can cause a gouging effect.
>5B+>,%H%350I+A 0'N%I5>+TI'N%E
58ternal undercut is readil! revealed and dispositioned upon
acceptance 7isual inspection.
7isual inspection should alwa!s be performed to confirm "uestionable
e8ternal undercut when viewed on radiographs.
Gndercut, root
54INITI'NE
+n intermittent or continuous groove in the internal
surface of the base metal, backing ringHstrip along the edge of the
root of the weld.
>+I'2>+3HI0 +335+>+N05E
+n irregular, elongated area of darker densit! oriented
along the internal fusion line of the weld image to the base metal.
0+G%5%E
58cessive current during welding
&hen using the 2T+& process, adding an insufficient amount
of filler metal. +n incorrect electrode angle can cause a gouging
effect.
>5B+>,%H%350I+A 0'N%I5>+TI'N%E
>adiographic evaluation of root undercut in backing ring joints
can be based on workmanship sample radiographs as well as the
use of slotted shims.
&eld splatter
54INITI'NE
In arc welding, the metal particles e8pelled during welding which do not form a part of the weld.
>+I'2>+3HI0 +335+>+N05E
%mall, rounded areas of lighter densit! generall! found adjacent to the edge of the weld image on the base
metal.
0+G%5%E
There will be some weld spatter when using the %B+& process. However, long arcing is a factor.
Aack of concentricit! or damage to the electrode flu8.
>5B+>,%H%350I+A 0'N%I5>+TI'N%E
&eld splatter is most commonl! found when the %B+& welding process is emplo!ed.
&eld spatter is generall! revealed and dispositioned upon acceptance 7isual inspection. However, weld spatter
ma! occur from another welding operation in the area after the acceptance 7TH3T inspections and prior to the >T.
Probable $auses and $orrective 4ction 'or 4uto(atic .il( Processing

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30Q #$ m#$e

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Non-Destructive Testing

$&apter 1 - agnetic Particle Testing

2, ".LL +<I3 = 2, ! ,A*

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