CHAPTER 2

WATER QUALITY
Water Quality Standards
and
Parameters
1
Content
PART 1: INTRODUCTION
i) Beneficial Water Use
ii) Water Resources
PART 2:WATER QUALITY
i) Definition i) Definition
ii) Objectives
iii) Water Quality Parameters
PART 3: WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS
i) Physical
ii) Chemical
iii) Microbiological
2
PART 1
INTRODUCTION
(i) Beneficial Water Use
(ii) Water Resources
3
Beneficial Water Uses
Municipal Uses
Agricultural Uses Agricultural Uses
Industrial Uses
Rural Uses
4
Water Resources
1. Snow / Rain
2. Surface Water
(i) Watershed Management
(ii) Lake /River /Reservoir (ii) Lake /River /Reservoir
(iii) Intake Structure
(iv) Pump
(v) Treatment Facilities
5
Cont.
3. Imported water
(i) Transmission Pipeline
(ii) Treatment Facilities
4.Groundwater 4.Groundwater
(i) Basin Management
Natural and artificial recharge
Quality Control
(ii) Wells
6
PART 2
Water Quality
i) Definition
ii) Objective
iii) Water quality parameters
7
Water Quality Definition
Is the technical term that is based
upon the characteristics of water in
relation to guideline values of what is relation to guideline values of what is
suitable for human consumption and
for all usual domestic purpose
8
Objective of Water Quality
To control the discharge of
pollutants so that water quality is
not degraded to an unacceptable
extent below the natural
background level
9
Water Quality Parameters
Are the natural and man-made
chemical, biological and
microbiological characteristics of microbiological characteristics of
rivers, lakes and groundwater.
It provides important information
about the health of a water body.
10
Are used to find out if the quality
water is good enough for drinking
water, recreation, irrigation and
Water Quality Parameters
water, recreation, irrigation and
aquatic life.
These include chemical, physical
and biological parameters
11
PART 3
WATER QUALITY
PARAMETERS
12
Water Quality Parameters
1. Physical
parameters
2. Chemical
parameters
parameters
3. Biological
parameters
parameters
13
Physical Parameters
This parameters respond to the sense of
sight, touch, taste or smell
14
Total Solids (TS)
TSS (Total Suspended Solids - TSS)
Dissolved Solids (DS) Dissolved Solids (DS)
Volatile Solids (VS)
Volatile Disolved Solids (VDS)
Unit: mg/l
15
16
Classification of Solids in Water
and Wastewater
Solids
Suspended (> 1mm)
Colloid (1mm 0.01mm)
Dissolved (<0.01mm)
17
Solids
Organic
Inorganic
Solids
Filterable
Non-filterable
Solids
Settleable
18
Solids
Non-settleable
Solids
Volatile
Non-Volatile
Suspended solids (SS)
SS contain
Organic matters
Plant Fibers Plant Fibers
Biological Solids
Inorganic matters
Clay (size less than 2 m)
Silt (size 2-60 m)
19
D
e
t
e
r
m
i
n
a
t
i
o
n

o
f

S
u
s
p
e
n
d
e
d

S
o
l
i
d
s
D
e
t
e
r
m
i
n
a
t
i
o
n

o
f

S
u
s
p
e
n
d
e
d

S
o
l
i
d
s
20
Analysis of Solids
The following test were obtained for a wastewater taken from a headwork
to a WTP. All the test were performed using sample size of 50 mL.
Determine the concentration of total solids (TS), total volatile solids (TVS),
suspende solids (SS), volatile suspended solids (VSS), total dissolved
solids (TDS) and volatile dissolved solids.
Data: Data:
Tare mass of evaporating dish = 53.5433 g
Mass of evaporating dish + residue after evaporation at 105
o
C =53.5794 g
Mass of evaporating dish + residue after ignition at 550
o
C = 53.5625 g
Tare mass of Whatman GF/C filter after drying at 105
o
C = 1.5433 g
Mass of Whatman GF/C filter + residue after drying at 105
o
C = 1.5554 g
Mass of Whatman GF/C filter + residue after ignition at 550
o
C = 1.5476 g
21
22
Caused by foreign matters such as organics compounds,
inorganic salts, bacteria, algae and dissolved gases
Measurement: Threshold Odor Number (TON)
Examples:
(i) addition of ammonia in the pipes (i) addition of ammonia in the pipes
(ii)excessive manganese & iron present in the finished
water.
** manganese & iron often found in groundwater
supplies where the overall quality of the water is good but
there is a high amount of soluble salt. These metals then
react with O2 in the distribution system to produced the
reduced and insoluble form of the metal**
23
Taste problems relating to water
could be indicators of changes in
water sources or treatment process water sources or treatment process
Inorganic compound such as
magnesium, calcium, sodium, copper,
iron and zinc are generally detected
by taste of water.
24
It is due to the presence of dissolved and
suspended matter (metallic ions, chemical
pollutants, plankton and plant pigments from
humus and peat).
These substance do not threaten stream
water quality, but indicate INCREASED
DEVELOPMENT in watershed.
25
Dissolved organic material from
humic substances generally lend a
brown or tea color to water
Dissolved organic material from
vegetation and certain inorganic
matter may cause color in water
26
Is a measure of the amount of particulate
matter that is suspended in water.
Unit-NTU (Nephlometric Turbidity Unit)
Water that has HIGH turbidity appears
CLOUDY/ OPAQUE. CLOUDY/ OPAQUE.
HIGH turbidity can cause INCREASED of
water TEMPERATURE and DECREASED
DO
WHY???
27
More suspended particles will absorb
more heat which in turn lowers dissolved
O
2
levels.
It is because
2
Such particles (SS clay, silt, finely
divided organic material, plankton) can
also prevent sunlight from reaching plants
below surface hence DECREASE the rate
of PHOTOSYNTHESIS.
So, LESS O
2
is produced by plant
28
It is a major factor in determining which
species are present in the stream
Temperature will impacts:
(i) the rates of metabolism and growth of
aquatic organism aquatic organism
(ii) rate of plant photosynthesis
(iii) solubility of O
2
in water[0C,
DO = 14.6 mg/l; 20C, DO = 9.1 mg/l]
(iv) organisms sensitivity to disease,
parasites and toxic materials
29
Cool water tastes better
Temperature affects rate of chemical
and microbiological reactions
The most suitable drinking waters are
consistently cool and do not have consistently cool and do not have
temperature fluctuations of more than
a few degrees
Groundwater and surface water from
mountain area generally meet these
criteria
30
CHEMICAL PARAMETERS
Dissolved Oxygen
(DO)
pH
Alkalinity
Hardness
Alkalinity
Biochemical Oxygen
Demand (BOD)
Nitrites and Nitrates
Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD)
31
Chemical Parameters
pH
It is a measure of the concentration of
hydrogen ions
The term pH was derived from the
manner in which the hydrogen ion
pH
The term pH was derived from the
manner in which the hydrogen ion
concentration is calculated
pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. A pH of 7
is considered to be neutral.
Substances with pH of less than 7 are
acidic; substances with pH greater than
7 are basic
32
pH Continues..
Affects chemical and
biological reactions
pH
biological reactions
Low pH is corrosive
High pH cause deposits
33
Example 1
Calculate the concentration of hydrogen ion (H+) for a water sample with pH
of 10.
pH = -log [H+]
10 = -log [H+]
Therefore, [H+]= antilog -10
pH Continues..
Therefore, [H+]= antilog -10
= 10
-10
mol/liter
Example 2
Calculate the pH value of a water sample which has hydrogen ion
concentration of 1 x 10
-6.4
mol/liter.
pH = -log [H+]
= -log (1 x 10
-6.4
)
= -[log 1 + log 10
-6.4
]
= -[0 + (-6.4)log 10]
= 6.4
34
Work Example
Find the Hydrogen ion
concentration and the
hydroxide ion concentration in
tomato juice having a pH of 4.1. tomato juice having a pH of 4.1.
Concentration unit mol/L then
mg/L
35
Solution
pH = -log [H
+
]
4.1 = -log [H
+
]
Therefore, [H
+
] = antilog -4.1
= 10
-4.1
mol/L
pH + pOH = 14 pH + pOH = 14
pOH = 14-4.1 = 9.9
pOH = -log [OH-]
9.9 = -log [OH
-
]
Therefore, OH
-
] = antilog -9.9
= 10
-9.9
mol/L
36
Conversionof Unit:
Mol/L to mg/L
H
+
== atomic weight = 1 g/mol
OH
-
== atomic weight = 17 OH == atomic weight = 17
g/mol
Mol/L (conc. ) x g/mol (atomic
wt) x 1000mg/1g = mg/L
37
Hardness
- Stream water hardness is the total
concentration of cations, specifically
calcium (Ca
2+
),magnesium (Mg
2+
), iron
(Fe
2+
), manganese (Mn
2+
) in the water. (Fe ), manganese (Mn ) in the water.
- Water rich in these cations is said to be
hard. Stream water hardness reflects
the geology of the catchment area.
- Sometimes it also provides a measure
of the influence of human activity
38
Hardness
For instance, acid mine drainage
often results in the release of iron into
a stream. The iron produces
extraordinarily high hardness is a
useful water quality indicator. useful water quality indicator.
Hardness is a reflection of the amount
of calcium and magnesium entering
the stream through the weathering of
rock such as limestone (CaCO
3
)
.
39
Carbonate hardness
Source: Combination of Ca and Mg
ions with ions of CO
3
2-
, or HCO
3-
.
These carbonate components can be
eliminated by softening methods such eliminated by softening methods such
as boiling, or by adding lime
When the carbonate components
settled then the water have become
soft water.
40
Ca
2+
Mg
2+
HCO
3
-
CO
3
2-
+
Carbonate hardness
Mg(HCO
3
)
2
Ca(HCO
3
)
2
CaCO
3
MgCO
3
41
Noncarbonate Hardness
Source: Combinations of Ca and Mg ions with ions of Cl
-
, SO
4
2-
,
or NO
3-
.
The non-carbonate ions cannot be eliminated by ordinary softening
methods as done on carbonate hardness.
Usually elimination of non carbonate hardness is done chemically by Usually elimination of non carbonate hardness is done chemically by
adding softening soda (soda ash or sodium carbonate)
Total hardness is measured in mg/L CaCO
3
:
Mg/L material X = Conc. of X (mg/L) (50 mg CaCO
3
/meq)
as CaCO
3
(Equivalent wt of X (mg/meq))
Total Hardness as CaCO
3
:
Total Hardness = Ca
2+
+ Mg
2+
42
+
Ca
2+
Mg
2+
Cl
-
SO
4
2-
NO
3
-
Noncarbonate Hardness
MgCl
2
Ca(NO
3
)
2
MgSO
4
Mg(NO
3
)
2
CaCl
2
CaSO
4
43
Keliatan Keliatan Bukan Bukan Karbonat Karbonat
( (Noncarbonate Noncarbonate hardness) hardness)
Keliatan air dinyatakan dalam unit CaCO
3
setara.
Pengkelasan keliatan:
Lembut (soft) 50mg/l CaCO
3
setara
Sederhana keras
(moderately hard) 50-150mg/l CaCO
3
setara
Keras (hard) 150-300 mg/l CaCO
3
setara
Sangat keras (very hard) >300 mg/l CaCO
3
setara
44
Calculation of Water Hardness
Find the equivalent weight (EW) of each of the following:
Ca
2+
, CO
3
2-
, CaCO
3
.
Solution:
Equivalent weight was defined as Equivalent weight was defined as
EW = atomic or molecular weight / n (valence)
units: grams/equivalent (g/eq) or milligrams/milliequivalent (mg/meq)
For calcium, n=2 (valence or oxidation state in water).
Atomic weight = 40.08, therefore the EW is then
EW = 40.08/2 = 20.04 g/eq or mg/meq
45
Cont..
For carbonate ion (CO
3
2-
), the oxidation state of
2-
is
used for n since the base CO
3
2-
can potentially
accept 2 H
+
. The molecular weight is 60.01.
Therefore,
EW = 60.01/2 = 30 g/eq or mg/meq EW = 60.01/2 = 30 g/eq or mg/meq
In CaCO
3
, n=2 since it would take 2H
+
to replace the
cation (Ca
2+
) to form carbonic acid, H
2
CO
3
. the MW
is 100.
Therefore,
EW = 100/2 = 50 g/eq or mg/meq
46
Calculation of water hardness
A sample of groundwater has 100 mg/L of Ca
2+
and 10
mg/L of Mg
2+
. Express it hardness in unit of mg/L as
CaCO
3
.
Solution:
recalled: Mg/L of X = concentration of X (mg/L) (50 mg CaCO3/meq)
as CaCO3 (equivalent weight of X (mg/meq))
1. Convert Ca
2+
and Mg
2+
to mg/L as CaCO
3
Ca
2+
: MW = 40, n=2, EW=40/2 = 20 g/eq or mg/meq
Mg
2+
: MW = 24.3, n=2, EW=24.3/2 = 12.2 g/eq or mg/meq
47
Cont..
Now, find the mg/L as CaCO
3
of cations
Ca
2+
= 100 (50/20) = 250
2+
Mg
2+
= 10 (50/12.2) = 41
Total Carbonate Hardness = Ca
2+
+ Mg
2+
= 250 + 41
= 291 mg/L as CaCO
3
48
Alkalinity
Is measured to determine the ability of a
stream to resist changes in pH.
Alkalinity results from the dissolution of
calcium carbonate (CaCO
3
) from limestone
bedrock which is eroded during the natural
processes of weathering
Alkalinity values of 20 -200 ppm are common Alkalinity values of 20 -200 ppm are common
in freshwater ecosystems. Alkalinity levels
below 10 ppm indicate poorly buffered
streams.
These stream are the least capable of
resisting changes in pH, therefore they are
most susceptible to problems which occur as
a result of acidic pollutants
49
Kealkalian (Alkalinity)
Mengukur kebolehan air menyerap (absorbs) ion
Hidrogen tanpa melibatkan perubahan pH yang
ketara.
Jadi, kealkalian adalah ukuran kapasiti penimbal
(buffer capacity) bagi air. (buffer capacity) bagi air.
spesies Karbonat yang menyumbang kepada
alkaliniti adalah:
Hydroksil (OH
-)
, Ion Karbonat (CO
3
2-
), Ion
Bikarbonat (HCO
3
-
),
Alkalinity (mol/L) = [HCO
3
-
] + 2[CO
3
2-
] + [OH
-
] [H
+
]
Alkalinity (mg/L as CaCO3) = (HCO
3
-
) + (CO
3
2-
) +
(OH
-
) (H
+
)
50
Nitrates, Nitrites and
Ammonia
Nitrogen is an essential nutrient that is
required by all plants and animals for the
formation of amino acids.
In its molecular form, nitrogen cannot be used
by most aquatic plants, therefore it must be
converted to another form. converted to another form.
One such form is ammonia (NH
3
). Ammonia
may be taken up by plants or oxidized by
bacteria into nitrate (NO
3
) or nitrite (NO
2
). Of
these two forms, nitrate is usually by the most
important.
Nitrosomonas Nitrobacter
51
Nutrients
Nitrogen is often the limiting nutrient in
ocean waters and some streams
Nitrogen can exist in numerous forms, but
nitrate (NO
-
), nitrite (NO
-
), ammonia nitrate (NO
3
-
), nitrite (NO
2
-
), ammonia
(NH
3
) are most commonly measured
Sources are primarily from fertilizers and
acid deposition
52
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
(BOD)
It is a measure of the quantity of oxygen
used by microorganisms (eg.aerobic
bacteria) in the oxidation of organic matter.
In other words: BOD measures the change In other words: BOD measures the change
in dissolved oxygen concentration caused
by the microorganisms as they degrade the
organic matter.
High BOD is an indication of poor water
quality
53
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
(BOD)
BOD bottles
54
Biochemical Oxygen
Demand Measurement
Take sample of waste; dilute with
oxygen saturated water; add nutrients
and microorganisms (seed)
Measure dissolved oxygen (DO) levels over 5 Measure dissolved oxygen (DO) levels over 5
days
Temperature 20 C
In dark (prevents algae from growing)
Final DO concentration must be > 2 mg/L
Need at least 2 mg/L change in DO over 5 days
55
Example 1
A BOD test was conducted in the
laboratory using wastewater being
dumped into Lake Spartan. The
samples are prepared by adding 3.00
mL of wastewater to the 300.0 mL BOD mL of wastewater to the 300.0 mL BOD
bottles. The bottles are filled to capacity
with seeded dilution water.
56
Example 1: Raw Data
Time
(days)
Diluted
sample
DO (mg/L)
Blank Seeded
Sample DO
(mg/L)
0 7.95 8.15
1 3.75 8.10 1 3.75 8.10
2 3.45 8.05
3 2.75 8.00
4 2.15 7.95
5 1.80 7.90
57
Example 1: Calculations
What is the BOD
5
of the sample?
volume total sample/ volume factor dilution P
P
P)] )(1 B (B - ) DO [(DO
BOD
f i f i
m
= =

=
Plot the BOD with respect to time.
sample diluted
the of ions concentrat DO final and initial DO , DO
(blank) water diluted seeded
the of ions concentrat DO final and initial B , B
f i
f i
=
=
58
Example 1: Time Concentration Plot
400
500
600
700
B
O
D

(
m
g
/
L
)
0
100
200
300
400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
time (days)
B
O
D

(
m
g
/
L
)
59
Modeling BOD as a First-order Reaction
3
4
5
6
C
o
n
c
.

(
m
g
/
L
)
Organic matter oxidized
0
1
2
3
0 10 20 30
time (days)
C
o
n
c
.

(
m
g
/
L
)
Organic matter remaining
60
Modeling BOD Reactions
Assume rate of decomposition of organic
waste is proportional to the waste that is left
in the flask.

t
t
- kL
dt
dL
=
demand oxygen us carbonaceo ultimate the is where

: yields equation this Solving
(time constant rate BOD the
t time after left demand oxygen of amount where
1 -
o
kt
o t
t
L
e L L
k
L
dt

=
=
=
)
61
Ultimate BOD
2
3
4
5
6
C
o
n
c
.

(
m
g
/
L
)
L
o
L
o
- L
t
BOD exerted
BOD
t
0
1
2
0 10 20 30
time (days)
C
o
n
c
.

(
m
g
/
L
)
L
t
L remaining
62
Ultimate Biochemical Oxygen
Demand
L
t
= amount of O
2
demand left in sample at
time, t
L
o
= amount of O
2
demand left initially (at time 0,
no DO demand has been exerted, so BOD = 0) no DO demand has been exerted, so BOD = 0)
At any time, L
o
= BOD
t
+ L
t
(that is the amount
of DO demand used up and the amount
of DO that could be used up eventually)
Assuming that DO depletion is first order
BOD
t
= L
o
(1 - e
-kt
)
63
Example 2
If the BOD
5
of a waste is 102 mg/L and the
BOD
20
(corresponds to the ultimate BOD) is
158 mg/L, what is k (base e)?
( )
kt
e L

= 1
0 t
BOD
kt
e
L

=
0
1
t
BOD
kt
L
=
|
|

\
|

0
1 ln
t
BOD
64
Example 2 (cont)
t
L
k
|
|

\
|

=
0
1 ln
t
BOD
day
mg/L
mg/L
5
158
102
1 ln
|
|

\
|

= k
-1
day 21 . 0 = k
65
Biological Oxygen Demand:
Temperature Dependence
Temperature dependence of biochemical
oxygen demand
As temperature increases, metabolism As temperature increases, metabolism
increases, utilization of DO also increases
k
t
= k
20

T-20
= 1.135 if T is between 4 - 20
o
C
= 1.056 if T is between 20 - 30
o
C
66
Example 3
The BOD rate constant, k, was determined
empirically to be 0.20 days
-1
at 20
o
C.
What is k if the temperature of the water
increases to 25
o
C? increases to 25 C?
What is k if the temperature of the water
decreases to 10
o
C?
67
Example 3 : Solution
( )
20 25
25
) 056 . 1 ( 20 . 0

=
-1
day k
-1
day 26 . 0
25
= k day 26 . 0
25
= k
( )
20 10
10
) 135 . 1 ( 20 . 0

=
-1
day k
-1
day 056 . 0
10
= k
68
Nitrogenous Oxygen Demand
So far we have dealt only with
carbonaceous demand (demand to
oxidize carbon compounds) oxidize carbon compounds)
Many other compounds, such as
proteins, consume oxygen
Mechanism of reactions are different
69
Nitrogenous Oxygen Demand
Nitrification (2 step process)
2 NH
3
+ 3O
2
2 NO
2
-
+ 2H
+
+ 2H
2
O
2 NO
2
-
+ O
2
2 NO
3
-
Overall reaction: Overall reaction:
NH
3
+ 2O
2
NO
3
-
+ H
+
+ H
2
O
Theoretical NBOD =
N /g O g 4.57
14
16 x 4
oxidized nitrogen of grams
used oxygen of grams
2
= =
70
Nitrogenous Oxygen Demand
71
Nitrogenous oxygen demand
Untreated domestic wastewater
ultimate-CBOD = 250 - 350 mg/L
ultimate-NBOD = 70 - 230 mg/L
Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (TKN) = total Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (TKN) = total
concentration of organic and ammonia
nitrogen in wastewater: 15 - 50 mg/L as N
Ultimate NBOD 4.57 x TKN
72
Other Measures of Oxygen
Demand Demand
73
Example 5
Theoretical oxygen demand (ThOD)
C
6
H
12
O
6
(glucose) + 6O
2
6 CO
2
+ 6H
2
O
If concentration of glucose is 10 mg/L what is the
theoretical oxygen demand (amount of DO theoretical oxygen demand (amount of DO
required?)
L
O mg
glucose mmol
glucose mg

O mmol
O mg
glucose mmol
O mmol

L
glucose mg
2
2
2 2
7 . 10
180
32 6
10 =
|
|
|
|
|

\
|
|
|

\
|
|
|

\
|
|

\
|
74
Chemical Oxygen Demand
Chemical oxygen demand - similar to BOD
but is determined by using a strong
oxidizing agent to break down chemical
(rather than bacteria) (rather than bacteria)
Still determines the equivalent amount of
oxygen that would be consumed
Value usually about 1.25 times BOD
75
Thomas method: Graphical determination of
BOD rate Constants
According to Thomas,
(1-e
-kt
) = kt (1+kt/6)
-3
Therefore
BOD
t
=L
o
(1-e
-kt
)
BOD
t
=L
o
(kt)[1+(1/6)kt]
-3
.....(1)
By rearranging terms & taking the cube root of both sides,
equation (1) can transformed to: equation (1) can transformed to:
(t/BOD
t
)
1/3
=(kL
o
)
-1/3
+ (k)
2/3
/6(L
o
)
1/3
(t) ....(2)
A plot of (t/BOD
t
)
1/3
versus t is linear. The intercept is
defined as:
A = (kL
o
)
-1/3
.(3)
76
Cont..
a slope is defined by:
B = (k)
2/3
/6(L
o
)
1/3
.(4)
y=(t/BOD)
1/3
Recalled , y = c + mx
x=t
C =(kL
o
)
-1/3
b
a
m=a/b = (k
2/3
/6L
o
1/3
)
77
Cont..
Solving L
o
1/3
in Eq.(3) substituting into Eq. (4) and solving for k
yields:
k= 6(B/A) (5)
Likewise, substituting Eq. (5) into Eq.(3) and solving for L
o
yields:
L = 1/6(A)
2
(B) (6) L
o
= 1/6(A)
2
(B) (6)
78
Example of determining BOD rate constant, k
and ultimate BOD, L
o
The following data were obtained from an experiment to
determine the BOD rate constant and ultimate BOD for an
untreated wastewater:
Time (day)
2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10
BOD (mg/L)
125 200 220 230 237
79
Example of determining BOD rate constant, k
and ultimate BOD, L
o
Solution:
Calculate values of (t/BOD
t
)
1/3
for each day.
Time (day) 2 4 6 8 10
BOD (mg/L) 125 200 220 230 237
Plot (t/BOD
t
)
1/3
versus t on graph paper and draw the line of
best fit by eye.
(t/BOD
t
)
1/3
0.252 0.271 0.301 0.326 0.348
80
0.3
0.4
0.5
B= k
2/3
/6L
o
1/3
Time (t)
A= 0.224
0
2
4
6 8 10
0.1
0.2
0.3
B= k /6L
o
=0.0125
81
Cont..
Determine the intercept (A) and slope (B) from the
plot.
A = 0.224
B = (0.348-0.224)/(10-0) B = (0.348-0.224)/(10-0)
= 0.0124
Calculate k and L
o
using the following formula
k = 6 (B/A) Lo = 1/ 6(A)
2
(B)
82
Cont..
Therefore:
k= 6(B/A)
= 6(0.0125/0.224)
= 0.335 / day = 0.335 / day
L
o
= 1/6(A)
2
(B)
= 266 mg/L
83
WATER QUALITY
MEASUREMENT
ThOD theoretical oxygen demand
(i) It is the amount of O
2
required to
oxidize a substance to CO
2
and H
2
O
(ii) Calculated by stoichiometry if the (ii) Calculated by stoichiometry if the
chemical composition of the substance
is known
(iii) The ThOD of X in mg/L
= (amount of X in mg/L )( MW of O
2
in g/
MW of X in g)
84
Example:
Compute the ThOD of 108.75 mg/L
of glucose (C
6
H
12
O
6
)
STEPS:
(i) write balanced equation for the (i) write balanced equation for the
reaction
(ii) Compute the grams molecular
weights of the reactants
(iii) Determine ThOD
BFC 3103
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
85
Example:
The balanced equation for the reaction
C
6
H
12
O
6 +
O
2
CO
2
+ H
2
O
The molecular weights (grams) of the
reactants
Glucose = Glucose =
Oxygen =
Thus, it takes ? of O2 to oxidize ? g of
glucose to CO
2
and H
2
O.
The ThOD of 108.75 mg/L of glucose is
(108.75 mg/L glucose)( ? g O
2
/ ? g
glucose) =116 mg/L O2
86
Example:
The balanced equation for the reaction
C
6
H
12
O
6 +
6O
2
6CO
2
+ 6H
2
O
The molecular weights (grams) of the reactants
Glucose = 6C=72, 12 H=12, 6O=96, = 180
Oxygen =6(2)O=192
Thus, it takes 192 of O2 to oxidize 180 g of
glucose to CO
2
and H
2
O.
The ThOD of 108.75 mg/L of glucose is
(108.75 mg/L glucose)(192 g O
2
/180 g glucose)
=116 mg/L O2
87
Exercise
(5.1, 5.2, 5.3-in the text book)
1. Glutamic acid (C
5
H
9
0
4
N) is used as one of
the reagents for a standard to check the BOD
test. Determine the ThOD of mg/L of glutamic
acid. Assume the following reaction apply:
C
5
H
9
0
4
N + 4.5O
2
5CO
2
+ 3H
2
O + NH
3
NH
3
+ 2O
2
NO
3
+ H
+
+ H
2
O
88
Pathogenic Organisms
Many organims that cause human or
animal diseases colonize the instinal tract
but can live for a period of time outside the
body
Carriers (who may or may not exhibit Carriers (who may or may not exhibit
disease symptoms) excrete these
intestinal tract organims in very large
numbers
When water is contaminated by excretia,
the organisms can be transmitted to those
who contact the water
89
Pathogenic Organisms
90
Pathogenic Organisms
91
Classification of Water
Associated Diseases
92
Disease Rates and Risk
93
Biological Parameters
It is biomonitor: defined as an organism
that provides quantitative information on
the quality of the environmental around
it. it.
It can be deduced through the study of
the content of certain elements or
compounds, morphological or cellular
structure, metabolic-biochemical
process behavior or population structure
94
Cont..
There are several types of bioindicators:
(i) plant indicators
- the presence or absence of certain plant or other
vegetative life in an ecosystem can provide important
clues about the health of the environment clues about the health of the environment
- lichens are organism comprising both fungi and algae.
Lichens are found on rocks and tree trunks, and they
respond to environmental changes in forest, including
changes in forest structure conservation biology, air
quality and climate
- The disappearance of lichens in a forest may indicate
environmental stresses, such as high level of sulfur
dioxide, sulfur-based pollutants and nitrogen oxides
95
Lichens
96
Cont
(ii) Animal indicator and toxins
- an increase or decrease in an animal
population may indicate damage to the
ecosystem caused by pollutant. For eg; if
population causes the depletion of
important food sources, animal species
dependent upon these food sources will
important food sources, animal species
dependent upon these food sources will
also be reduced in number: population
decline
- Submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV)
provides invaluable benefits to aquatic
ecosystems. It not only provides food and
shelter to fish and invertebrates but also
produces oxygen, trap sediment and
absorbs nutrients such as nitrogen and
phosphorus
97
Cont
(iii) Microbial indicators and chemical
pollutants
- Microorganisms can be used as
indicators of aquatic or terrestrial
ecosystem health ecosystem health
- Found in large quantities, microorganism
will produce new proteins, called stress
proteins when exposed to contaminants
like cadmium and benzene
- These stress proteins can be used as an
early warning system to detect high
levels of pollution
BFC 3103
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
98
Cont
(iv) Macroinvertebrate bioindicators
- Macroinvertebrate are useful and
convenient indicators of the ecological
health of a waterbody or river. They are
almost always present, and are easy to
sample and identify
almost always present, and are easy to
sample and identify
- Benthic refers to the bottom of a
waterway. Example of benthic
macroinvertebrates include insects in
their larval or nymph form, crayfish,
claims, snails and worms. Most live part
or most of their life cycle attached to
submerged rocks, logs and vegetation.
99
BFC 3103
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
Macroinvertebrata
100
101
Cont
- The basic principle behind the
study of macroinvertebrates is that
some are more sensitive to
pollution than others
- Therefore, if a stream site is
inhabited by organism that can
tolerate pollution and the more
pollution-sensitive organisms are
missing a pollution is likely
102
Microbiological
Bacteria( coliform test)
Virus
Protozoa Protozoa
Algae
103
Bacteria
Pathogenic bacteria causing cholera,
typhoid fever etc
Indicator bacteria
Coliform Coliform
Fecal Coliform( E. Coli)
104
Virus
One virus can cause
illness
Hard to detect
Specify treatment Specify treatment
process ( disinfection
dose and contact time)
instead of measuring
virus concentration
105
Algae
Taste and odor
Some algae could be harmful to animals
fish
birds birds
BFC 3103
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
106
EFFECTS ON WATER
QUALITY
1) Toxic inorganic 1) Toxic inorganic
2) Nontoxic organic
3) Toxic organic
107
Toxic inorganic elements and
radicals
Arsenic, Mercury, Cadmium,
Chromium, Lead-- accumulates in
body
Industrial wastes and plumbing Industrial wastes and plumbing
Nitrate--Blue baby
Perchlorate ( ClO
4
-
) --Thyroid
disorder, cancer
108
Nontoxic organics
NOC ( Natural organic matter)
Decayed vegetation etc
Form toxic disinfection by-products
with chlorine with chlorine
Lower concentrations up to 4 mg/l
may be removed by Enhanced
Coagulation.
109
Toxic organics
Causing cancer, mutation or
miscarriage
chlorinated hydrocarbons
Chlorophenoxy herbicides Chlorophenoxy herbicides
Trihalomethanes
VOCs and SOCs.
110
Other Contaminants
Asbestos
Radionuclides
Alpha and Beta radioactivity
Uranium, Radium, Radon Uranium, Radium, Radon
111
Dissolved oxygen (DO)
It is an essential for the survival of
nearly all aquatic life and measured
in mg/L
If oxygen levels are high, it was
presume that pollution levels in the presume that pollution levels in the
water are low.
Conversely, if oxygen levels are low,
one can presume there is a high
oxygen demand and that the body of
water is not of optimal health
112
Cont
Levels of DO vary depending on factors
including water temperature, time of day,
season, depth, altitude and rate of flow.
(i) water at higher temp and altitudes will have
LESS DO. so, demand O
2
will increased
because at higher temp, the rate of
2
because at higher temp, the rate of
metabolisme is increased.
(ii) at night, DO decreased as photosynthesis
has stopped while oxygen consuming
process such as respiration, oxidation
(iii) DO reaches its peak (HIGH) during the
day
113
DO sag curve
The concentration of DO in a river is an
indicator of the general health of the river.
All rivers have CAPACITY for self purification.
(i) As long as the discharge of oxygen
demanding wastes is well within the self demanding wastes is well within the self
purification capacity, the DO level remain HIGH
and a diverse population of plants and animals
(ii) As the amount of waste increase, the self
purification capacity can be exceeded, causing
detrimental changes in plant and animal life
114
cont.
(iii) then, the stream losses its ability to clean
itself and the DO level DECREASES.
(iv) when the DO drops below 4 to 5 mg/L,
most game fish will have been driven out.
(v) If the DO is completely removed, fish and (v) If the DO is completely removed, fish and
other higher animals are killed or driven
(v) The water become blackish and foul
smelling as the sewage and dead animal life
decompose under anaerobic condition
(without O2)
BFC 3103
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
115
Dissolved Oxygen Depletion
(From: Environmental Science: A Global Concern, 3rd ed. by W.P
Cunningham and B.W. Saigo, WC Brown Publishers, 1995)
116
Dissolved Oxygen Sag Curve
117
Mass Balance Approach
Originally developed by H.W. Streeter and
E.B. Phelps in 1925
River described as plug-flow reactor
Mass balance is simplified by selection of Mass balance is simplified by selection of
system boundaries
Oxygen is depleted by BOD exertion
Oxygen is gained through reaeration
118
Steps in Developing the DO
Sag Curve
1. Determine the initial conditions
2. Determine the reaeration rate from stream
geometry
3. Determine the deoxygenation rate from
BOD test and stream geometry
4. Calculate the DO deficit as a function of
time
5. Calculate the time and deficit at the critical
point
119
Selecting System Boundaries
120
Initial Mixing
Q
w
= waste flow (m
3
/s)
DO
w
= DO in waste (mg/L)
L = BOD in waste (mg/L)
Q
r
= river flow (m
3
/s)
DO
r
= DO in river (mg/L)
L
r
= BOD in river (mg/L)
Q
mix
= combined flow (m
3
/s)
DO = mixed DO (mg/L)
L
a
= mixed BOD (mg/L)
L
w
= BOD in waste (mg/L)
121
1. Determine Initial Conditions
a. Initial dissolved oxygen concentration
b. Initial dissolved oxygen deficit
r w
r r w w
Q Q
DO Q DO Q
DO
+
+
=
DO DO D
s
=
where D = DO deficit (mg/L)
DO
s
= saturation DO conc. (mg/L)
mix
r r w w
s a
Q
DO Q DO Q
DO D
+
=
DO DO D
s
=
122
1. Determine Initial Conditions
DO
sat
is a function of temperature. Values
can be found in Table A-2.
c. Initial ultimate BOD concentration
L Q L Q +
r w
r r w w
a
Q Q
L Q L Q
L
+
+
=
123
2. Determine Reaeration Rate
a. OConnor-Dobbins correlation
where k
r
= reaeration coefficient @ 20C (day
-1
)
u = average stream velocity (m/s)
2 / 3
2 / 1
9 . 3
h
u
k
r
=
u = average stream velocity (m/s)
h = average stream depth (m)
b. Correct rate coefficient for stream temperature
where = 1.024
20
20 ,

=
T
r r
k k
124
Determine the Deoxygenation Rate
a. rate of deoxygenation = k
d
L
t
where k
d
= deoxygenation rate coefficient
(day
-1
)
L
t
= ultimate BOD remaining at
time (of travel downdstream) t time (of travel downdstream) t
b. If k
d
(stream) = k (BOD test)
and
t k
t
d
e L L

=
0
t k
d
d
e L k

=
0
tion deoxygenta of rate
125
3. Determine the Deoxygenation Rate
c. However, k = k
d
only for deep, slow moving
streams. For others,
where = bed activity coefficient (0.1 0.6)

h
u
k k
d
+ =
where = bed activity coefficient (0.1 0.6)
d. Correct for temperature
where = 1.135 (4-20C) or 1.056 (20-30C)
h
20
20 ,

=
T
r r
k k
126
4. DO as function of time
Mass balance on moving element
Solution is
D k L k
dt
dD
r t d
=
Solution is
( ) ( )
t k
a
t k t k
d r
a d
t
r r d
e D e e
k k
L k
D

+

=
127
5. Calculate Critical time and DO
(

|
|

\
|

=
a d
d r
a
d
r
d r
c
L k
k k
D
k
k
k k
t 1 ln
1
( )
L k
( )
c r c r c d
t k
a
t k t k
a r
a d
c
e D e e
k k
L k
D

+

=
128
Example
A city of 200,000 people discharges 37.0
cfs of treated sewage having an ultimate
BOD of 28.0 mg/L and 1.8 mg/L DO into a
river with a flow of 250 cfs and velocity of
1.2 ft/sec. Upstream of the discharge 1.2 ft/sec. Upstream of the discharge
point, the river has a BOD of 3.6 mg/L and
a DO of 7.6 mg/L. The saturation DO is
8.5 mg/L, k
d
= 0.61 day
-1
, and k
r
= 0.76
day
-1.
Determine a) the critical DO and
critical distance, and b) the DO at 10 miles
downstream.
129
1. Determine Initial Conditions
a. Initial dissolved oxygen concentration
r w
r r w w
Q Q
DO Q DO Q
DO
+
+
=
( )( ) ( )( ) mg 250 6 . 7 0 . 37 8 . 1 +
b. Initial dissolved oxygen deficit
DO DO D
s
=
( )( ) ( )( )
L
mg
85 . 6
37 250
250 6 . 7 0 . 37 8 . 1
=
+
+
= DO
L
mg
6 . 1 85 . 6 5 . 8 = =
a
D
130
1. Determine Initial Conditions
c. Initial ultimate BOD concentration
r w
r r w w
a
Q Q
L Q L Q
L
+
+
=
( )( ) ( )( )
L
mg
75 . 6
37 250
250 6 . 3 0 . 37 28
=
+
+
=
a
L
131
Step 1. Variations
Flow given in cfs, not m
3
/s does not
matter for mixing calculations
Saturation DO given no need to look up
Ultimate BOD given no need to calculate Ultimate BOD given no need to calculate
from BOD
5
132
2. Determine Reaeration Rate
k
r
= 0.76 day
-1
given
no need to calculate from stream
geometry
assume given value is at the stream assume given value is at the stream
temperature (since not otherwise
specified), so no need to correct
133
3. Determine the Deoxygenation Rate
k
d
= 0.61 day
-1
given
no need to calculate corrections from
stream geometry
assume given value is at the stream assume given value is at the stream
temperature (since not otherwise
specified), so no need to correct
134
5. Calculate Critical time and DO
(

|
|

\
|

=
a d
d r
a
d
r
d r
c
L k
k k
D
k
k
k k
t 1 ln
1
(
(

|
|

|
=
61 . 0 76 . 0
6 . 1 1
76 . 0
ln
1
t
( )( )
(

|
|

\
|

=
75 . 6 61 . 0
61 . 0 76 . 0
6 . 1 1
61 . 0
76 . 0
ln
61 . 0 76 . 0
1
c
t
day 07 . 1 =
c
t
135
5. Calculate Critical time and DO
Problem asked for critical distance
( )
|

\
|
|

\
|
|

\
|
|

\
|
=
ft
mi
d
hr
hr
s
s
ft
d
5280
1
24 3600 2 . 1 07 . 1
c
x
mi 9 . 20 =
c
x
136
5. Calculate Critical time and DO
Minimum DO
( )
c r c r c d
t k
a
t k t k
a r
a d
c
e D e e
k k
L k
D

+

=
( )( )
( )
75 . 6 61 . 0 ( )( )
( )( ) ( )( )
( )
( )( ) 07 . 1 76 . 0
07 . 1 76 . 0 07 . 1 61 . 0
6 . 1
61 . 0 76 . 0
75 . 6 61 . 0

=
e
e e D
c

L
mg
58 . 2 =
c
D
137
5. Calculate Critical time and DO
c s c
D DO DO =
L
mg
7 . 5 58 . 2 5 . 8 = =
c
DO
L
138
4. DO as function of time (at 10 miles)
( )
d
d
hr
hr
s
s
ft
mi
ft
mi
miles 10
51 . 0
24 3600 2 . 1
5280 10
=
|

\
|
|

\
|
|

\
|
|

\
|
= t
d hr s
24 3600 2 . 1
|

\
|

\
|

\
( )( )
( )( ) ( )( )
( )
( )( ) 07 . 1 76 . 0
07 . 1 76 . 0 07 . 1 61 . 0
6 . 1
61 . 0 76 . 0
75 . 6 61 . 0

=
e
e e D
c

139
4. DO as function of time (at 10 miles)
L
mg

miles 10
58 . 2 = D
mg
9 . 5 58 . 2 5 . 8 = = DO
L
mg
miles 10
9 . 5 58 . 2 5 . 8 = = DO
140
141
END
142
END