Mangifera Indica (Mango) : Species Profiles For Pacific Island Agroforestry

IN BRIEF
Distribution All tropical and subtropical rcgions.

Size Rcachcs hcights ol .c m (c.cc lt), cultivatcd trccs
arc usually .c m (.c lt) high whcn maturc.
Habitat Grows lrom sca lcvcl to .acc m (c lt) in tropical
latitudcs, howcvcr, most commcrcial varictics arc grown bc
low 6cc m (.c lt), rainlall cc6cc mm (.6.c in), lruits
bcst with a wcll dcncd wintcr dry pcriod.
Vegetation Grows with a widc rangc ol cultivatcd spccics.
Soils Tolcratcs a rangc ol soils, optimal pH .,..
Growth rate Fast, ~.. m/yr ( lt/yr) in idcal conditions.
Main agroforestry uses Homcgardcns, silvopasturc.
Main uses Fruit, avoring, mcdicinal, timbcr.
Yields Typically, yiclds arc oltcn lcss that mt/ha (a.a t/ac)
but can rcach acc mt/ha (.. t/ac), singlc trccs can pro
ducc acccc kg (c66c lb) ol lruit in hcavy cropping
ycars and as low as kg (.. lb) in bad ycars.
Intercropping Compatiblc with othcr similarly vigorous
spccics, as wcll as animal grazing.
Invasive potential Not an aggrcssivcly invasivc spccics.
Mangifera indica (mango)
Anacardiaceae (cashew family)
kangit (Chuuk, Pohnpei), idele (Palau), mago (Niue, Samoa, Tuvalu), manako (Hawaii), manggo, am (Fiji), mangko
(Kiribati), mango (English), mango (Tonga), mangot, mangue, manguier (French), mangueira (Yap)
Ian S. E. Bally
Mango tree with heavy crop.
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Species Proles for Pacic Island Agroforestry
www.traditionaltree.org
April acc6
vcr. ..
2 Mangifera indica (mango)
INTRODUCTION
Mangos bclong to thc gcnus Mangifera ol thc lamily Ana
cardiaccac. Tc gcnus Mangifera contains scvcral spccics
that bcar cdiblc lruit. Most ol thc lruit trccs that arc com
monly known as mangos bclong to thc spccics Mangifera
indica. Tc othcr cdiblc Mangifera spccics gcncrally havc
lowcr quality lruit and arc commonly rclcrrcd to as wild
mangos.
Mango has bccomc naturalizcd and adaptcd throughout
thc tropics and subtropics. Much ol thc sprcad and natu
ralization has occurrcd in conjunction with thc sprcad ol
human populations, and as such, thc mango plays an im
portant part in thc dict and cuisinc ol many divcrsc culturcs.
Tcrc arc ovcr .ccc namcd mango varictics throughout thc
world, which is a tcstamcnt to thcir valuc to humankind.
Mango is a common gardcn trcc throughout thc tropics.
Vhcn ripc, this dclicious dcsscrt lruit is particularly high
in vitamin A. Tc lruit is also catcn grccn, proccsscd into
picklcs, pulps, jams, and chutncys, and is lrozcn or dricd.
Tc lruit is also an important sourcc ol sustcnancc lor birds,
bats, insccts, and mammals.
Although grown widcly, mangos prclcr a warm, lrostlrcc
climatc with a wcll dcncd wintcr dry scason. Rain and
high humidity during owcring and lruit dcvclopmcnt
rcduccs lruit yiclds. Tc trcc gcncrally owcrs in mid to
latc wintcr, with lruit maturing in thc carly to midsum
mcr months. Mango trccs arc usually bctwccn and .c m
(.c lt) tall but can rcach up to c m (.cc lt) in somc
lorcst situations. Tc canopy is cvcrgrccn with a gcncrally
sprcading habit. Tc hcavy canopy ol thc mango is a sourcc
ol shcltcr and shadc lor both animals and humans.
Mangos arc wcll adaptcd to cultivation and havc bccn
grown commcrcially lor ccnturics. Today, mangos arc rcc
ognizcd and catcn throughout thc world and arc rcgardcd
as onc ol thc most popular and cstccmcd tropical lruits.
DISTRIBUTION
Native range
Tc gcnus Mangifera originatcs in tropical Asia, with thc
grcatcst numbcr ol spccics lound in 8ornco, Java, Sumatra,
and thc Malay Pcninsula. Tc mostcultivatcd Mangifera
spccics, M. indica (mango), has its origins in !ndia and
Myanmar.
Current distribution
Mango is now cultivatcd throughout thc tropical and sub
tropical world lor commcrcial lruit production, as a gardcn
trcc, and as a shadc trcc lor stock. !n thc Pacic rcgion,
all mangos wcrc introduccd lrom othcr parts ol thc world.
Tc carlicst rccordcd introductions into Hawaii wcrc prior
to .a, howcvcr, most introductions to thc Pacic islands
havc occurrcd ovcr thc past .cc ycars. Fcw othcr Mangifera
spccics arc lound in thc Pacic. Mangifera gedebe, M. minor,
and M. mucronulata arc lound in thc Solomon !slands and
M. minor in Microncsia, but thcsc cithcr do not lruit or thc
lruit is incdiblc.
Mango fruits of the world. vno:o: i. s. v. n~iiv
Species Proles for Pacic Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org) 3
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Preferred scientic name and author
Mangifera indica L.
Family
Anacardiaccac (cashcw lamily)
Non-preferred scientic names
Mangifera amba Forssk.
M. anisodora 8lanco
M. arbor 8ontii
M. austroindica Kostcrm.
M. balba Gcn.
M. domestica Gacrtn.
M. equina Gcn.
M. fragrans Maingay
M. gladiata 8oj.
M. kukula 8lumc
M. integrifolia Gcn.
M. linnaei Korth.
M. maritima Lcchaumc.
M. mekongensis anon.
M. montana Hcybc
M. oryza Gcn.
M. racemosa 8oj.
M. rostrata 8lanco
M. rubra 8oj.
M. sativa Rocm. & Schult.
M. siamensis Varb.
M. sugenda Gcn.
M. sylvatica Roxb.
M. viridis 8oj.
Common names
Mangos havc bccn grown throughout thc tropical and sub
tropical world lor thousands ol ycars and havc bccomc an
intcgral part ol many culturcs. Tc many dicrcnt namcs
lor mango around thc world today rccct thc culturcs and
languagcs spokcn by pcoplc who grow thcm. Many ol thc
namcs havc common dcrivations, rcccting thc origins and
sprcad ol thc mango trcc along with thc sprcad ol human
communitics. Tc morc popular namcs lor mango lruit in
thc Pacic and Asia arc listcd bclow with thc countrics or
languagcs lrom which thcy comc.
Pacic island names:
idele (Palau)
kangit (Chuuk, Pohnpci)
mago (Niuc, Samoa, Tuvalu)
manako (Hawaii)
manggo, am (Fiji)
mangko (Kiribati)
mango (nglish)
mango (Tonga)
mangot, mangue, manguier (Frcnch)
mangueira (Yap)
Common names from other regions include:
aam, am, amb (Hindi)
ampleam (Tamil)
bobbie manja, kanjanna manja, maggo, manggaboom, manja
(utch)
ma muang (!ndochina)
mamung (Tailand)
manga, mango (Spanish)
manga, (Portugucsc)
manga, mempelam, ampelam (Malaysia)
mangga (Tagalog)
mangga, mempelam (!ndoncsia)
mango (!lokano)
mango (Ncw Guinca, Pidgin)
Mangobaum (Gcrman)
mwngx (Laos)
paho (8isaya) (Philippincs)
svaay (Cambodia)
tharyetthi (Myanmar)
xoi (\ictnam)
Size
Mangos arc longlivcd cvcrgrccn trccs that can rcach
hcights ol .c m (c.cc lt). Most cultivatcd mango
trccs arc bctwccn and .c m (.c lt) tall whcn lully ma
turc, dcpcnding on thc varicty and thc amount ol pruning.
Vild, noncultivatcd sccdling trccs oltcn rcach . m (c lt)
whcn lound in lavorablc climatcs, and thcy can rcach c m
(.cc lt) in lorcst situations. Tc trccs can livc lor ovcr .cc
ycars and dcvclop trunk girths ol ovcr m (. lt).
Canopy
Mango trccs typically branch c.6a m (a6. lt) abovc thc
ground and dcvclop an cvcrgrccn, domcshapcd canopy.
\ariability in canopy shapc and opcnncss occurs among
varictics and with compctition lrom othcr trccs. Mangos
grown in hcavily lorcstcd arcas branch much highcr than
solitary trccs and havc an umbrcllalikc lorm.
Roots
Tc mango has a long taproot that oltcn branchcs just
bclow ground lcvcl, lorming bctwccn two and lour major
anchoring taproots that can rcach 6 m (ac lt) down to thc
watcr tablc. Tc morc brous ncr roots (lccdcr roots) arc
lound lrom thc surlacc down to approximatcly . m (.
lt) and usually cxtcnd just bcyond thc canopy diamctcr.
istribution ol thc ncr roots changcs scasonally with thc
moisturc distribution in thc soil.
Flowers
Mango owcrs arc born on tcrminal inorcsccnccs (pani
clcs) that arc broadly conical and can bc up to 6c cm (a in)
long on somc varictics. !norcsccnccs usually havc primary,
sccondary, and tcrtiary pubcsccnt, cymosc branchcs that
arc palc grccn to pink or rcd and bcar hundrcds ol owcrs.
Tc mango has two owcr lorms, hcrmaphroditc and malc,
with both lorms occurring on thc samc inorcsccncc.
Tc ratio ol hcrmaphroditc to malc owcrs on an inorcs
ccncc varics with varicty and scason and is inucnccd by
thc tcmpcraturc during inorcsccncc dcvclopmcnt.
Hcrmaphroditc owcrs arc small (.c mm, c.ac. in)
with lour to vc ovatc, pubcsccnt scpals and lour to vc
oblong, lanccolatc, thinly pubcsccnt pctals. nly onc or
two ol thc lour to vc stamcns that arisc lrom thc in
ncr margin ol thc disc arc lcrtilc. Tc singlc ovary is born
ccntrally on thc disc with thc stylc arising lrom onc sidc.
Tc disc is dividcd into a rcccptaclc ol lour or vc cshy
lobcs that lorms thc ncctarics. Tc malc owcrs arc simi
lar to thc hcrmaphroditc owcrs but arc without thc pistil,
which has bccn abortcd.
Leaves
Tc lcavcs arc simplc, without stipulcs, and altcrnatc, with
pctiolcs ..a cm (c. in) long. Tc lcavcs arc variablc
in shapc and sizc but usually arc oblong with tips vary
ing lrom roundcd to acuminatc. Lcal lorm dicrs among
varictics but is morc consistcnt within a varicty. Howcvcr,
a rangc ol lcal sizcs can bc sccn on a singlc trcc. Maturc
lcavcs arc dark grccn with a shiny uppcr surlacc and gla
brous lightcr grccn lowcr surlacc. Ncw lcavcs cmcrgc in
ushcs (cpisodic growth spurts) ol .cac lcavcs. Lcavcs
cmcrgc grccn, turning tanbrown to purplc during lcal cx
pansion and thcn gradually changing to dark grccn as thc
lcavcs maturc. Tc color ol thc young, cxpanding lcal varics
with varicty and can bc lrom light tan to dccp purplc, this
can bc uscd as a distinguishing charactcr among varictics.
Fruit
Mango lruit is classcd as a drupc (cshy with a singlc
sccd cncloscd in a lcathcry cndocarp). Fruits lrom dicr
cnt varictics can bc highly variablc in shapc, color, tastc,
and csh tcxturc. Fruit shapcs vary lrom round to ovatc to
oblong and long with variablc latcral comprcssion. Fruits
can wcigh lrom lcss than c g (c. lb) to ovcr a kg (.
lb). Tc lruit has a dark grccn background color whcn dc
vcloping on thc trcc that turns lightcr grccn to ycllow as
it ripcns. Somc varictics dcvclop a rcd background color at
lruit sct that rcmains until thc lruits ripcn. !n addition to
thc background color, many varictics also havc an orangc,
rcd, or burgundy blush that dcvclops latcr in thc lruit dc
vclopmcnt, whcn thc rind is cxposcd to dircct sunlight. Tc
mcsocarp is thc cshy, cdiblc part ol thc lruit that usually
has a swcct and slightly turpcntinc avor. Vhcn ripc, its
color varics lrom ycllow to orangc and its tcxturc lrom
smooth to brous.
Seed
Mango varictics can bc classicd as having cithcr
monocmbryonic or polycmbryonic sccd cmbryos. !n
monocmbryonic varictics, thc sccd contains only onc cm
bryo that is a truc scxual (zygotic) cmbryo. Monocmbryonic
sccds arc a cross bctwccn thc matcrnal and patcrnal (pol
lcn) parcnts. Fruit lrom monocmbryonic sccdlings will ol
tcn vary lrom thc parcnt trccs, so propagation by gralting is
uscd to producc tructotypc monocmbryonic trccs. Poly
cmbryonic sccds contain many cmbryos, most ol which
arc ascxual (nuccllar) in origin and gcnctically idcntical to
thc matcrnal parcnt. Polycmbryonic sccds also contain a
zygotic cmbryo that is thc rcsult ol crosspollination. Tc
monocmbryonic sccdling usually has lcss vigor than a nu
New leaf ush. vno:o: c. vivvi:cn
ccllar sccdling lor usc as a rootstock. !n somc varictics this
is rcvcrscd and thc zygotic sccdling is thc most vigorous.
Tc occurrcncc ol otypcs in orchards is oltcn attributcd
to usc ol zygotic sccdlings.
GENETICS
Varieties
Tcrc arc ovcr a thousand mango varictics around thc
world, with !ndia having thc grcatcst numbcr (ovcr cc
namcd). Tc commcrcial industrics ol thc world rcly on
a handlul ol improvcd varictics supplcmcntcd with local
varictics that arc lcss suitcd to thc cxport tradc.
Varieties in the Pacic
Tc mango varictics lound in thc Pacic islands havc bccn
introduccd mainly lrom !ndia, Florida, and Southcast
Asian countrics during thc past .cc ycars. Most ol thc car
ly !ndian varictics wcrc monocmbryonic, which produccd
sccdlings that did not rcproducc truc to typc. Planting
and sclcction ol thcsc sccdlings has changcd thcsc vari
ctics, with many bccoming known as a common varicty.
Common varictics arc gcncrally ol inlcrior lruit quality to
namcd, introduccd varictics and arc usually lound growing
wild or on roadsidcs and abandoncd homc sitcs.
!n Hawaii, !ndian, Floridian, Mcxican, and Vcst !ndian
mango varictics havc bccn introduccd and grown sincc
thc bcginning ol thc ac
th
ccntury. Sincc that timc, many
improvcd sccdling sclcctions havc bccn madc and grown.
Popular monocmbryonic varictics in Hawaii includc
Hadcn, Ah Ping, Gouvica, Momi K, Fairchild, Popc,
Rapoza, and Hardcrs. !n thc Solomon !slands and Fiji,
thc Australian varicty Kcnsington Pridc has bccn intro
duccd and grown succcsslully. !n Samoa, thc mango vari
ctics Momi K, Fiji, Mapulchu, Vhitc Piric, Rapoza,
Jara, and Kcnsington Pridc arc common. !n Tahiti, Kopu
Rcva is a popular varicty.
Selection of mango varieties
Tc charactcristics by which mangos arc typically sclcctcd
arc a mix ol cating quality, kccping, and growing charac
tcristics. Fruit quality charactcristics such as avor, aroma,
csh tcxturc, and bcr arc gcncrally ol high importancc, as
arc lruit sizc, cxtcrnal appcarancc, and yicld pcrlormancc.
Prclcrcnccs lor mango varictics oltcn dicr among coun
trics, rcgions, cthnicitics, and cuisincs ol markcts in which
thcy arc consumcd. Locally grown and consumcd varictics
oltcn dicr lrom commcrcially cxportcd varictics that arc
sclcctcd lor thcir ability to maintain lruit quality altcr long
pcriods ol postharvcst storagc and transport.
Tc adaptations ol a varicty to cnvironmcntal prcssurcs ol
drought, wct wcathcr during owcring, tcmpcraturc, pcsts,
and discascs arc also important sclcction critcria, bccausc
thcy dctcrminc thc cropping consistcncy and lruit quality.
Related species
!n addition to thc many varictics ol Mangifera indica, thcrc
arc scvcral othcr Mangifera spccics that also havc cdiblc
lruit. Tc most promincnt ol thcsc arc M. pentandra (Ma
lay Pcninsula), M. foetida Lour. (throughout S Asia), M.
odorata Gri. (Philippincs, Malay pcninsula, Java), and
Mango ower types: male (left) and hermaphrodite (right).
vno:o: i. s. v. n~iiv
A monoembryonic seed is a true sexual cross and has one
embryo. A polyembryonic seed has several embryos, many of
which are identical to the parent tree. vno:o: i. s. v. n~iiv
Ah-Ping
Trcc: mcdium to vigorous trcc
Fruit wt: ccc g (.a lb)
Fruit color: ycllow with a crimson blush
Fruit cating: good avor, low bcr
Sccd cmbryo: monocmbryonic
Harvcst timc: midscason
Commcnts: originatcd at Mapulchu, Molokai, and mainly
grown in thc Hawaiian !slands
Fairchild
Trcc: small trcc with dcnsc, sprcading canopy
Fruit wt: .cc g (c.c., lb)
Fruit color: grccn/ycllow with an orangc ycllow blush
Sccd cmbryo: polycmbryonic
Fruit cating: mild, slightly acidic avor, mcdium bcr
Harvcst timc: carly scason
Commcnts: originating in Panama, this varicty bcars
rcasonably wcll in wcttcr climatcs. Suitablc as a
homcgardcn varicty
Gouviea
Trcc: largc, vigorous trcc with sprcading canopy
Fruit wt: cccc g (c.66c. lb)
Fruit color: light grccn with mottlcd rcd and ycllow
shouldcrs
Fruit cating: rich, acidic avor, low bcr
Harvcst timc: carly to midscason
Commcnts: sclcctcd in Hawaii .6, light yiclding.
Haden
Trcc: vigorous, trcc with sprcading canopy
Fruit wt: cc,cc g (..... lb)
Fruit color: ycllow with bright rcd blush ovcr hall ol skin
Fruit cating: good avor, mcdium bcr
Harvcst timc: midscason
Commcnts: unrcliablc irrcgular bcaring, susccptiblc to
intcrnal brcakdown, not a commcrcial varicty
Kensington Pride
Trcc: vigorous trcc with sprcading canopy
Fruit wt: cc6cc g (c.66.. lb)
Fruit color: ycllowgrccn background with light blush
Fruit cating: cxccllcnt avor, mcdium bcr
Harvcst timc: carly scason
Commcnts: thc mainstay ol thc Australian mango
industry, widcly grown in Samoa and Fiji
Kopu Reva
Trcc: mcdiumvigor trcc with a dcnsc, upright canopy
Fruit wt: .cac g (c.c. lb)
Fruit color: light pink with a rcd blush
Fruit cating: turpcntinc avor, high bcr
Harvcst timc: mid to latc scason
Commcnts: origin Tahiti
Mapulehu
Trcc: largc trcc with an upright canopy
Fruit wt: cccc g (c.66c. lb)
Fruit color: ycllow/grccn with pink blush
Fruit cating: swcctacid turpcntinc avor, low bcr
Commcnts: originally lrom !ndia, popular in Samoa, is
synonymous with Joc Vclch lrom Florida
Momi-K
Trcc: mcdium to largc trcc, slightly sprcading canopy
Fruit wt: accc g (c.6ac. lb)
Fruit color: light ycllow with a light rcd/orangc blush ovcr
thc top hall ol thc lruit
Fruit cating: mild avor, low bcr
Harvcst timc: carly to midscason
Commcnts: originating in Hawaii, irrcgularly bcaring
Pope
Trcc: mcdium largc trcc with a dcnsc, sprcading canopy
Fruit wt: acc g (c...c lb)
Fruit color: grccnycllow ground color with a rcd/pink
blush
Fruit cating: spicy avor, strongcr around thc lruit
shouldcrs
Harvcst timc: latc scason
Commcnts: originatcd as a sccdling ol thc Florida varicty
!rwin, rcgularbcaring and highyiclding
Rapoza
Trcc: small trcc with an opcn canopy
Fruit wt: ,cc.ccc g (..a.a lb)
Fruit color: ycllow orangc with a rcd orangc blush
Fruit cating: cxccllcnt avor, low bcr
Commcnts: yiclds hcavily and rcgularly
SOME POPULAR PACIFIC VARIETIES
M. caesia Jack. (Malay pcninsula, Papua Ncw
Guinca, Java, and thc Philippincs). Although
thcsc spccics arc lound growing in thc Pacic
rim rcgion, nonc arc lound naturally in thc Pa
cic islands.
ENVIRONMENTAL
PREFERENCES AND
TOLERANCES
Climate
Mango grows ovcr a widc rangc ol lrostlrcc
climatcs. Tc trccs producc bcst in climatcs that
havc a wcll dcncd, rclativcly cool dry scason
with high hcat accumulation during thc ow
cring and lruit dcvclopmcnt pcriod. Rain or
lrcc moisturc (high humidity, hcavy dcw, and
log) during thc owcring and lruiting pcriod
is conducivc to thc dcvclopmcnt ol lungal dis
cascs that causc owcr and lruit drop. Mangos
arc oltcn lound growing in thc wcttcr rcgions,
but thcy rarcly bcar lruit thcrc.
Elevation
Mango grows and produccs lruit ovcr a widc
rangc ol clcvations lrom sca lcvcl up to .acc m
(c lt) in tropical latitudcs. Most commcrcial varictics do
not producc consistcntly abovc 6cc m (.c lt) clcvation.
Rainfall pattern
Mango trccs grow ovcr a widc rangc ol rainlall volumcs
and pattcrns. Tc trccs producc bcst whcn thc most rain
lalls during summcr months and thcrc is a wcll dcncd
wintcr dry pcriod. !n hot, wct, tropical climatcs, whcrc soil
moisturc docs not limit growth, thc trccs rcmain vcgctativc
with littlc or no lruit production. Rainlall, loggy wcathcr,
and pcrsistcnt dcws during thc owcring and lruiting sca
sons prcdisposc thc owcrs and lruit to thc lungal discasc
anthracnosc. 8caring is bcst whcn thc dry pcriod lasts lrom
. to a months bclorc owcring to altcr harvcst.
Mean annual rainfall
cc6cc mm (.6.a in)
Dry season duration (consecutive months with <40
mm [1.6 in] rainfall)
Can tolcratc drought lor up to months in ccrtain situa
tions.
Temperature
Mangos optimum growing tcmpcraturc is aa,C (,
.F). Tcy will grow outsidc this rangc, howcvcr, but lrost
will kill small mango trccs and scvcrcly dcloliatc maturc
trccs. Tcmpcraturc has a dircct ccct on trcc and lruit
growth ratcs. A lcal ushing cyclc takcs approximatcly
ac wccks whcn growing undcr acC (6F) days and .C
(F) nights, this is rcduccd to 6 wccks undcr cC/aC
(6F/,,F) tcmpcraturcs. Tc timc takcn lor lruit to rcach
maturity is also inucnccd by tcmpcraturc. Undcr high
tcmpcraturc and lowhumidity conditions, mangos pho
tosynthctic ccicncy is rcduccd and rcspiration is high,
rcsulting in low carbon accumulation, which lowcrs thc
trccs ability to hold hcavy crop loads. Low tcmpcraturc
strcss is ncccssary lor oral induction (scc Flowcring scc
tion bclow).
Mean annual temperature
aa,C (,.F)
Minimum temperature tolerated
Frost (cC |aF|)
Soils
Mangos arc tolcrant ol a rangc ol soils lrom alkalinc, cal
carcous soils to hcavy clay soils. Tc optimal pH rangc is
.,., but thc trcc will grow outsidc this rangc, with low
Popular varieties: Haden (top left), Kensington (top right), Mapulehu
(bottom left), Rapoza (bottom right). vno:os: i. s. v. n~iiv
pH (acid) bcing thc most dclctcrious to growth. Produc
tion is bcst on wcll draincd sandy or gravclly soils that dry
out rapidly altcr thc wct scason, lorcing thc trccs into a
dormant pcriod, csscntial lor hcavy owcring. Mangos will
grow on coral atolls but usually producc poorly duc to thc
lack ol lrcsh watcr. n somc ol thc largcr, wcttcr atolls
such as 8utaritari and othcr islands in Kiribati, mangos arc
known to producc wcll. Mangos do not grow or producc
wcll in salinc soils, but thc rootstock varicty .. lrom !s
racl has somc salt tolcrancc.
Soil texture
Mangos tolcratc light to hcavy soil tcxturcs (sands, sandy
loams, loams, sandy clay loams, clays, clay loams, and sandy
clays).
Soil drainage
Vcll draincd, lightcr soils arc prclcrrcd.
Soil acidity
Tc optimum rangc is pH .,..
Tolerances
Drought
Mango is considcrcd a drought tolcrant spccics, bcing ablc
to withstand scasonal dry pcriods lor up to months. Tc
mango has many adaptivc lcaturcs that givc it drought
tolcrancc, such as dccp tap/sinkcr roots, longlivcd, tough
lcavcs with thick cuticlcs lor nutricnt rctcntion and rccy
cling, rcsin ducts to rcducc wilting, and irrcgular lruiting
pattcrns, dcpcnding on rcsourcc availability. ry condi
tions during lruit dcvclopmcnt will causc cxccssivc lruit
drop and vcry low yiclds.
Full sun
Mango grows bcst in lull sun bccausc its owcrs and lruit
arc produccd at thc cdgc ol thc canopy (thc outsidc ol
thc trcc) in lull sun. Tc bcst lruits arc lrom suncxposcd
branchcs.
Shade
\cgctativc growth, owcrs, and lruits lrom shadcd arcas
arc pronc to incrcascd pcst and discascs.
Fire
Young mangos arc casily burncd bcyond rcgcncration by
grass or lorcst rcs. Largcr maturc trccs arc morc ablc to
rcgcncratc altcr rc, although thcir canopics arc no morc
tolcrant ol rc than youngcr trccs.
Frost
Young trccs will bc killcd outright by thc mildcst lrosts,
but largcr maturc trccs can rcgcncratc, although dclolia
tion and dcath ol somc branchcs will occur. Hcavy lrosts
will kill largc mango trccs.
Waterlogging
Mango trccs vary in thcir tolcrancc ol ooding, with somc
trccs ablc to tolcratc mcdiumtcrm ooding (.cc days)
by dcvcloping hypcrtrophic (swollcn) lcnticcls on thc
trunk just abovc thc watcrlinc to aid in thc rcmoval ol
toxic byproducts ol anacrobic mctabolism. Trccs that do
not dcvclop hypcrtrophic lcnticcls will dic altcr days ol
inundation. Hypotrophic lcnticcls sccn in sccdlings in pots
arc a sign ol ovcrwatcring or unsuitablc potting mcdia.
Hypotrophic lenticels on stem of seedling. vno:o: i. s. v. n~iiv
Salt spray
Mangos will not tolcratc continuous salt spray, but il thc
trccs arc growing with highquality lrcsh watcr, mild, in
lrcqucnt salt spray will not advcrscly acct maturc lcavcs il
it docs not accumulatc on thcm.
Wind
Mangos arc rclativcly wind rcsistant and arc somctimcs
uscd in windbrcaks. Vindbrcaks ol othcr spccics arc oltcn
uscd to protcct commcrcial mango orchards to rcducc dis
casc, improvc pollination, and rcducc windrub blcmishcs
on thc lruit.
Young sccdlings trccs may bcnct lrom staking il ovcr
c. m (a. lt) high or plantcd in abrasivc, calcarcous soils in
windcxposcd situations.
Storm winds can bc cspccially damaging to mangos, caus
ing brcakagc ol major limbs or uprooting thc wholc trcc.
Although prcvcnting damagc lrom cyclonic winds is dil
cult, good poststorm managcmcnt can hastcn rccovcry
and minimizc sccondary cccts. Fallcn trccs should bc
straightcncd immcdiatcly lollowing thc storm, whilc thc
soil is solt, to prcvcnt rcdamaging roots. amagcd limbs
should bc rcmovcd to prcvcnt discasc inlcctions and to
promotc ncw growth.
ABILITIES
Regenerate rapidly
Mangos arc tolcrant ol scvcrc pruning and will rcgain
cropping within onc to two scasons.
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Mango trccs start producing lruit a ycars altcr cld
planting and can continuc to producc lruit lor morc than
.cc ycars. Undcr idcal conditions, trccs can grow to a m
(6.6 lt) in thc rst ycar. ncc trccs start cropping, thcir
growth ratc will slow.
Phenology
Phcnology is thc annual cyclc ol growth cvcnts. !n maturc
mangos, thc phcnological cyclc is similar lor most varict
ics and cnvironmcnts, varying only in timing and duration.
Tc cxccption is sccn in trccs grown closc to thc cquator,
whcrc thc scasonal uctuations arc minimal and owcr
ing and cropping can occur scvcral timcs a ycar. Tc major
phcnological growth cvcnts arc discusscd bclow.
Dormancy
!n a typical trcc thcrc arc two pcriods ol dormancy. Tc
rst is immcdiatcly altcr harvcst or ripc lruit drop, whcn
thc trcc bccomcs dormant lor a wccks, dcpcnding on
thc soil moisturc conditions and prcvious crop load. Tc
sccond dormant pcriod is altcr thc summcr ush pcriod,
whcn drycr conditions sct in. Tc sccond dormancy pcriod
is critical lor oral bud dcvclopmcnt.
Simultaneous leaf ushing and owering on dierent branches. vno:o: c. vivvi:cn
Leaf ushing
Tc postharvcst dormancy is brokcn by thc rst summcr
vcgctativc ush, which usually coincidcs with thc wct sca
son. \cgctativc ushing usually continucs throughout thc
wct scason, slowing as thc climatc and soil dry out. Tc
lcalushing pcriod can havc onc to vc ushing cvcnts,
with thc wholc canopy ushing in synchrony or in patchcs.
!n ycars ol poor owcring and cropping, scvcral lcal ushcs
can occur during thc owcring and lruiting pcriod. Al
though mango is an cvcrgrccn trcc, largc quantitics ol old
lcavcs arc shcd during vcgctativc ushing. Tc lallcn lcavcs
bccomc mulch undcr thc trcc, whcrc nutricnts arc rccyclcd
lrom old lcavcs to thc ncw lcavcs.
Flowering
Mango owcring occurs during thc coolcst months ol thc
ycar. Flowcring rcquircs 6 wccks ol shoot dormancy
and cool night tcmpcraturcs to triggcr oral induction ol
thc tcrminal buds. Tc absolutc tcmpcraturc nccdcd lor
oral induction varics among varictics and climatcs, but
night tcmpcraturcs bctwccn C and .C (6F) with
day tcmpcraturcs around acC (6F) arc typically nccdcd.
8cttcr owcring is sccn in trccs growing in thc subtropics
whcrc thc scasonal tcmpcraturc dicrcnccs arc strongcr
and morc rcliablc than in thc hot tropics. !n Hawaii, thc
main owcring is bctwccn cccmbcr and April.
Pollination
Vind and insccts such as wasps, ants, ics, and bccs arc
thc main pollinators in mango. Tcmpcraturcs bclow .cC
(cF) during owcring arc not conducivc to production ol
viablc pollcn, and tcmpcraturcs bclow .C (F) during
pollination can prcvcnt ccctivc pollcn tubc growth and
lcrtilization ol thc ovary. Pollcn is gcncrally compatiblc
within and bctwccn varictics.
Fruiting
Young sccdling or graltcd mango trccs will producc lruit
bctwccn a and ycars altcr cld planting. !nitially, hun
drcds ol lruits can bc sct on cach owcring inorcsccncc.
Tc trcc naturally thins thc crop by shcdding lruit through
out thc lruitdcvclopmcnt pcriod. At lull lruit maturity on
hcavy bcaring trccs, most mango varictics will hold onc
lruit lor cvcry two or thrcc inorcsccnccs.
Root growth
Tc volumc ol lccdcr roots ol thc mango varics during thc
annual cyclc, with most root dcvclopmcnt occurring dur
ing thc wct pcriods ol thc ycar and dcclining during thc
dry pcriods. Root growth is pcriodical, slowing or stopping
during major canopy growth cvcnts.
Fruit development
Mango lruit can takc 6 months to maturc, with tcm
pcraturc bcing thc primary inucncc on maturity timing.
Fruits grow lastcr and maturc carlicr in warmcr climatcs.
Tc varicty ol mango also has an inucncc on maturity
timing, with varictics bcing classicd as carly, mid or latc
scason. Tc mango harvcst scason is gcncrally in thc hot
tcr summcr months but can bc outsidc this pcriod in cli
matcs closc to thc cquator, whcrc outolscason owcring
is common. !n Hawaii, thc harvcst scason is bctwccn Junc
and Scptcmbcr, and in Fiji, bctwccn January and Fcbruary.
Crop yield
Mango lruit yiclds arc gcncrally low comparcd to othcr
tropical and subtropical lruit spccics. Tc yiclds oltcn rc
cct irrcgular annual bcaring pattcrns, and thcy vary grcat
ly lrom scason to scason. Tc yiclding capacity ol a trcc is
dcpcndant on varicty, trcc agc, trcc sizc, scasonal condi
tions, and prcvious cropping history. Typically, yiclds arc
oltcn lcss that mt/ha (a.a t/ac) but can rcach acc mt/
ha (.. t/ac) in wcll managcd orchards. Singlc trccs can
producc bctwccn acc and cc kg (c66c lb) ol lruit in
Mango inorescence (ower stalk). vno:o: i. s. v. n~iiv
hcavy cropping ycars and as low as kg (.. lb) in bad ycars.
Good irrigation and discasc managcmcnt can grcatly im
provc crop yiclds.
PROPAGATION
Mango is propagatcd by sccd and various vcgctativc mcth
ods. Tc gcnctic quality ol a mango sccdling dcpcnds on
thc cmbryo typc ol thc sccd. Polycmbryonic sccds will usu
ally producc thrcc to tcn sccdlings lrom cach sccd, most
ol which will comc truc to typc with thc trcc thcy camc
lrom. Polycmbryonic sccds also contain onc cmbryo that is
gcnctically dicrcnt lrom thc parcnts, i.c., this cmbryo will
producc an otypc sccdling. !n contrast to polycmbryonic
sccds, monocmbryonic sccds producc only onc sccdling lor
cach sccd that is always gcnctically dicrcnt lrom thc par
cnts. For this rcason, most monocmbryonic varictics arc
propagatcd by gralting onto polycmbryonic rootstocks.
Propagating seedlings
Seed collection
Sccds arc bcst collcctcd lrom lully maturc or ripc lruits
bclorc thc lruits havc bcgun to dccay with postharvcst dis
cascs. Sccds lrom thc largcr lruits gcncrally producc thc
most vigorous sccdlings. !l possiblc, sclcct sccds lrom trccs
that arc lrcc ol sccd wccvils (Sternochetus mangiferae |F.|
Colcoptcra: Curculionidac). nly polycmbryonic sccds
will producc sccdlings that arc truc to typc (scc polycm
bryonic/monocmbryonic discussion abovc).
Seed processing
Tc bcst gcrmination rcsults arc achicvcd whcn thc sccd is
rcmovcd lrom thc lcathcry cndocarp ol ripc or ncarly ripc
lruit that has not bccn chillcd. Altcr rcmoving thc csh,
cut thc cndocarp opcn using hand pruncrs and rcmovc thc
kcrncl. uring this opcration, it is important not to cut
and damagc thc sccd.
Seed storage
Mango sccd docs not storc wcll, and sccd viability is grcatly
rcduccd lrom inlcction by lungi il it is not rcmovcd lrom
thc lruit whcn thc lruit bcgins to ripcn. ncc thc sccds
arc rcmovcd lrom thc lcathcry cndocarp, thcy loosc viabil
ity vcry rapidly duc to dcsiccation and should bc plantcd
immcdiatcly or soakcd in watcr lor up to a hours bclorc
planting. Gcrmination pcrccntagcs will drop o rapidly il
sccds arc storcd lor morc than a lcw days altcr opcning.
Planting techniques
Sccds should bc plantcd to a dcpth ol a cm (c. in) and
oricntcd on thcir sidc to lacilitatc a straight stcm and roots.
Monocmbryonic sccds can bc plantcd .a cm (c.c. in)
dccp into ac litcr (. gal) pots containing a loosc, wcll
draincd potting mcdium. Polycmbryonic sccds, which
producc morc than onc sccdling pcr sccd, arc commonly
plantcd into sccdling bcds ol sand with an impcnctrablc
root barricr at . to ac cm (6 in) dcpth. Tc root barricr
makcs it casicr to lilt thc sccdlings whcn potting up. Tis
is usually donc whcn thc sccdlings arc approximatcly c
cm (.a in) high. Vith hcalthy polycmbryonic sccdlings it
is common to havc gcrmination ratcs ol ovcr 6cc and
potting up ratcs ol cccc. Vhcn potting up, only usc
thc thrcc or lour most vigorous sccdlings lrom cach sccd,
discarding thc rcst. Choosing only thc most vigorous sccd
lings will avoid sclccting thc zygotic cmbryo that is oltcn
thc sourcc ol otypc trccs.
Growing area
Nurscry sccdlings arc bcst raiscd in a shadc housc undcr
cc shadc and hardcncd up in lull sunlight prior to
cld planting. Avoid raising sccdlings undcr thc canopics
ol largcr mango trccs, as this practicc promotcs inlcction
ol thc sccdlings with lungal discascs.
Time to outplanting
Young mango trccs can bc cldplantcd whcn approxi
matcly .a months old and largc cnough to compctc with
minor wccds. At thc timc ol planting, sccdlings should
bc at lcast . m (. lt) tall and havc a stcm diamctcr ol
at lcast . mm (c.6 in). !l irrigation is availablc, thc bcst
timc to cldplant is in carly spring whcn thc wcathcr is
mild, othcrwisc, trccs should bc plantcd at thc onsct ol thc
wct scason. To avoid transplant shock whcn cld planting,
trccs should bc hardcncd by holding in lull sunlight lor at
lcast a wcck prior to cld planting. !l trccs arc cxccssivcly
vigorous at thc timc ol cld planting, thcy can bc pruncd
to rcducc lcal arca and watcr dcmand on thc cstablishing
root systcm.
Grafting and budding
Many ol thc bcttcr mango varictics havc monocmbryonic
sccds which, whcn plantcd, will not rcproducc truc to typc.
Gralting is thc prclcrrcd mcthod ol propagating mango
varictics. Gralting is uscd to join thc uppcr part (thc scion)
ol a sclcctcd varicty to thc lowcr part ol anothcr (thc root
stock)thc uppcr part is an idcntical clonc ol thc dcsircd
trcc. Gralting is normally donc whcn thc young sccdlings
arc in nurscry pots.
Almost all mcthods ol gralting can bc adaptcd lor mango.
Two popular mcthods lor mangos arc thc clclt gralt and
thc whipandtonguc gralt.
To achicvc a succcsslul gralt it is important to havc hcalthy,
activcly growing rootstocks and sclcct scion wood with
swollcn buds that arc rcady to burst. !t is also important
to match thc cambium laycrs in both thc stock and scion,
as thc cambium is whcrc thc cclls arc activcly dividing and
thc joining ol thc gralt takcs placc. Tis is most casily donc
whcn thc stock and scion wood arc thc samc diamctcr. !n
mango thc cambium laycr is thc whitc woody laycr just
bclow thc bark.
!n thc wcdgc mcthod, thc scion is prcparcd by making two
sloping cuts that lorm a \ shapc. A straight cut is madc
on thc stock to thc samc dcpth as thc \ shapc on thc scion.
Tc \shapcd scion is thcn inscrtcd in to thc stock, making
surc thc cambium laycrs ol both match up. Tc wholc joint
is thcn wrappcd with gralting tapc to hold it in placc, and
a plastic bag is uscd to covcr thc scion and union to prcvcnt
cxccssivc moisturc loss during thc hcaling proccss.
Tc whipandtonguc mcthod is similar to thc wcdgc but
uscs intcrlocking cuts that givc a strongcr gralt and grcatcr
surlacc arca lor hcaling ol thc gralt.
Scion selection
Scion wood should bc only collcctcd lrom activcly growing
trccs that show no signs ol discasc inlcction. Scion wood
is bcst takcn lrom tcrminal shoots with swollcn tcrminal
buds about to burst. Tc scion thickncss should match
thc stock thickncss to which it is to bc graltcd (6. mm
|c.ac.6 in| diamctcr) and bc bctwccn .cc and acc mm
(a. in) long.
Scion collection and storage
Altcr sclccting and rcmoving an appropriatc piccc ol scion
wood lrom thc trcc, all lcavcs should bc immcdiatcly rc
movcd to rcducc moisturc loss through transpiration. Tc
scion should bc placcd in a plastic bag and hcld in a coolcd
box at .cC (.cF). !l thc scion wood is not bc uscd
within .a hours ol collcction, it should bc wrappcd in moist
papcr towcling insidc a plastic bag and storcd in thc vcg
ctablc crisping scction ol a domcstic rclrigcrator. Scion
wood can bc kcpt in this way lor up to a wccks.
Pre-grafting
Scion budwood should bc dippcd in a lungicidc and in
sccticidc solution to prcvcnt thc sprcad ol inscct pcsts and
discasc.
Prepared stock showing cambium. vno:o: i. s. v. n~iiv
Whip and tongue graft Wedge graft
Growing area
Gralting is usually donc in thc warmcr months ol thc ycar
whcn trccs arc activcly ushing and night tcmpcraturcs arc
bctwccn . and a.C (6,cF). Gralting ol young sccd
lings is bcst carricd out in a shadchousc with grcatcr than
c shadc. Vhcn topworking cstablishcd trccs in thc cld
(scc bclow), complctcd gralts should bc shadcd with largc
papcr bags.
Post-graft care
Rcmovc any suckcr growth bclow thc gralt. Tc scion
should start to shoot bctwccn .c and . days altcr gralting.
Vhcn this happcns, thc plastic bag should bc rcmovcd but
not thc gralting tapc. Tc tapc must bc lclt on thc gralt un
til thc trcc has ushcd twicc lrom thc scion and thc gralt
union is lully hcalcd.
Materials used
To achicvc consistcnt succcsslul gralting, a good gralting
knilc is nccdcd. Tcsc knivcs dicr lrom ordinary knivcs
bccausc thcy arc bcvclcd only on onc sidc, thc othcr sidc
is at to cnsurc a straight cut. You will also nccd somc
gralting tapc and plastic bags. Gralting knivcs and tapc arc
availablc lrom most gardcning shops.
Field planting
Graltcd trccs arc bcst plantcd out in thc cld altcr thc scc
ond growth ush, whcn thc gralt has lully hardcncd. Tis is
usually .a ycars altcr gcrmination. At this stagc thc trccs
arc usually 6c.ac cm (a in) tall. !l cldplantcd whcn
smallcr, compctition lrom wccds can slow cstablishmcnt.
!l thc trccs arc lclt in pots lor longcr than a ycars, thcy bc
comc rootbound and will not dcvclop hcalthy, sprcading
root systcms whcn cldplantcd. Transplanting shock at
thc timc ol cld planting can also hindcr a trccs cstablish
mcnt. To avoid transplant shock, it is bcst to hardcn thc
trccs by placing thcm in lull sunlight lor a wcck or morc
bclorc transplanting.
xccssivcly vigorous trccs should bc pruncd prior to trans
planting to rcducc thc watcr dcmand on thc cstablishing
root systcm. Animals will grazc on young mango lcavcs, so
thc trccs should bc protcctcd lrom grazing animals.
Left: Healed graft union months after grafting. Right: Mango graft days after bag removal. Te wedge graft is still wrapped
in white tape at bottom. vno:os: i. s. v. n~iiv
Other comments on propagation
Gralting is also uscd to changc thc varicty ol a trcc alrcady
growing in thc ground without sacricing thc cstablishcd
rootstock. Tis tcchniquc is oltcn rclcrrcd to as topworking.
Topworkcd trccs will comc into production within a couplc
ol scasons, much lastcr than planting ncw sccdlings.
DISADVANTAGES
Mangos grow and producc in many tropical and subtropi
cal climatcs, although lruit production is limitcd by wct
wcathcr during thc owcring and lruiting pcriod. !n
consistcnt yiclds and lruit quality lrom scason to scason
arc also limiting charactcristics ol many mango varictics.
Tcsc variations arc partly duc to thc vigorous naturc ol
many mango typcs that tcnd to grow lcavcs and vcgctation
at thc cxpcnsc ol owcrs and lruit.
Fruit production, and (rarcly) trcc growth, can bc scvcrcly
acctcd by a rangc ol inscct pcsts and discascs. Tcsc, how
cvcr, can usually bc adcquatcly managcd in commcrcial or
chards.
Pests
Many insccts livc in and lccd on mango trccs, but only a
lcw ol thcsc arc considcrcd major pcsts.
Scale insects
Scvcral spccics ol scalc insccts arc known to bc pcsts ol
mango, including Phenacaspis dilatata, P. cockerelli, Cero-
plastrs rubens, and Aulacaspis tubercularis. Tc inlcstcd arcas
turn palc grccn or ycllow and cvcntually dic. Tc insccts
attack all parts ol thc trcc and arc oltcn a scrious pcst in
thc nurscry.
Tip borers
Tcrc arc two main spccics ol tip borcrs, Penicillaria jocosa-
trix and Chlumetia euthysticha. Tc larvac ol thcsc spccics
borc into and kill thc young dcvcloping ushcs. Tc pcst
activity is worst during hot, wct, summcr scasons.
Fruit ies (Dacus sp., Strumenta sp., Bactrocera dorsaila,
and Pardalaspis sp.).
Fruit y spccics dicr among rcgions. Adult ics lay cggs
in ncarripc or ripc lruit, and thc larvac tunncl and lccd
throughout thc csh, dcstroying and dccaying it.
Seed weevil
Tc mango sccd wccvil (Sternochetus mangiferae, S. gra-
vis) borcs into thc sccd carly in thc dcvclopmcnt ol thc
lruit, with littlc or no damagc to thc cdiblc lruit. !n thc
sccd, thc larvac dcstroy thc cotylcdons, thus rcducing sccd
gcrmination. Tc prcscncc ol sccd wccvils is a major quar
antinc barricr lor thc cxport ol mango to many countrics.
Other pests
thcr inscct and mitc pcsts ol mango includc lruit spot
ting bugs (Amblypelta lutescens, A. nitida), sccd catcrpillars,
planthoppcrs, owcrlccding catcrpillars (Gcomctridac,
Lymantriidac, Noctuidac, Pyralidac, and Torticidac lami
lics), thrips (Selenothrips rubocinctus), lcal mincrs (Acrocer-
cops sp.), lruit picrcing moths (Othreis sp.), tcrmitcs (Iso-
petra sp.), mitcs (Eriophyes mangifera, Oligonychus coeae),
and coccids (Coccus sp.).
Diseases and disorders
A rangc ol lcal, lruit, and soil discascs can acct mango,
many ol which can bc adcquatcly controllcd with good
managcmcnt and judicious usc ol lungicidcs and bactc
ricidcs. ctailcd discussions ol individual discascs can bc
Tree grafted in the eld (topworked). Te upper part of the
trunk is painted white, and the new scion wood is grafted to
the three slender shoots. vno:o: i. s. v. n~iiv
lound in thc books listcd in thc rccommcndcd rcading scc
tion. A bricl dcscription ol thc major discascs ol conccrn
arc listcd bclow.
Anthracnose
Anthracnosc (Colletotrichum gloeosporiodies) is a scrious
lungal discasc ol owcrs, lruit, and lcavcs. At owcring
and carly lruit dcvclopmcnt, anthracnosc causcs thc ow
crs and young lruit to dcvclop black lcsions and bc abortcd
lrom thc inorcsccncc. Vct conditions during owcring
promotc anthracnosc dcvclopmcnt. Altcr thc lruit rcachcs
approximatcly cm (..6 in) in diamctcr, thc lruits natu
ral dclcnsc mcchanisms protcct it lrom anthracnosc by
inducing thc lungus into a quicsccnt pcriod. Vhcn thc
lruit soltcns during thc ripcning proccss, thc natural dc
lcnsc mcchanisms brcak down, and latcnt inlcctions ol
anthracnosc dcvclop into black lcsions that rot thc wholc
lruit in days. Postharvcst anthracnosc is thc major rcason
lor losscs ol mangos during storagc and transport.
Mango scab
Mango scab (Elsinoe mangiferae) is a lungal discasc that
accts lcavcs, stcms, and young lruit. n thc stcms and
lcavcs, scab lcsions lorm numcrous, slightly raiscd, gray,
oval to clliptical lcsions. !n young lruit, black, scabby lc
sions dcvclop that in scvcrc inlcctions can causc thc lruit
to drop o. As thc lruits grow, scar tissuc dcvclops around
thc black lcsions, making thcm unmarkctablc duc to blcm
ishcs. Tc lcsions do not cxpand altcr harvcst. Mango scab
is morc promincnt in wcttcr rcgions.
Bacterial black spot
8actcrial black spot (Xanthomonas campestris pv. Mangifer-
aeindicae) is a bactcrial discasc ol thc lcavcs and lruit. Tc
discasc is worsc in windy arcas and in trccs with low vigor.
Tc discasc is idcnticd on thc lcavcs by raiscd black lc
sions with grcasy margins dclincatcd by lcal vcins. Fruit
lcsions initially appcar as small, irrcgular, watcrsoakcd
spots around lcnticcls. Latcr, lcsions bccomc raiscd with a
grcasy appcarancc, cracking, and oozing bactcrialadcn sap.
Tc discasc is sprcad in winddrivcn watcr lrom lcsions to
natural opcnings and wounds on thc trcc.
Internal physiological disorders
Scvcral intcrnal physiological disordcrs can acct thc csh
and cating quality ol mangos. Somc common lorms ol
thcsc disordcrs arc
jclly sccdprcmaturc ripcning lrom around thc
sccd
solt noscprcmaturc soltcning ol thc nosc ol thc
lruit
spongy stcm cndbrcakdown ol thc csh and vascu

lar tissuc at thc stcm cnd
intcrnal brcakdownprcmaturc ripcning and ccllu
lar brcakdown ol thc csh.
Symptoms vary among varictics ol mango, but all ol thc
abovc disordcrs arc thought to bc associatcd with low lruit
calcium lcvcls.
Other fruit diseases
Altcrnaria rot (Alternaria alternata)
Powdcry mildcw (Oidium mangiferae 8crthct)
Stcm cnd rot (Lasiodiplodia theobromae, Dothiorella
dominicana or Phomopsis mangiferae)
Mango mallormation (Fusarium sp.)
Other disadvantages
Tc sap that spurts and oozcs lrom thc lruit and pcdunclc
whcn harvcsting is highly caustic and toxic. Contact with
human skin can causc scvcrc dcrmatitis, rash, and blistcr
ing that rcquircs mcdical attcntion. Tcsc arc common ail
mcnts ol mango pickcrs. Somc pcoplc arc hypcrscnsitivc
,and contact through picking, pccling, or cating a mango
can causc swclling ol thc lips, throat, lacc, and othcr skin.
uring harvcsting, any sap that contacts thc lruit will
burn thc skin, lcaving dark, unattractivc, sunkcn blcmishcs
known as sap burn. Commcrcial mango larmcrs go to a
lot ol cort to prcvcnt thc sap lrom contacting thc lruit
or contaminating thc wash watcr during thc harvcst and
packing opcrations.
Potential for invasiveness
Mango is not an aggrcssivcly invasivc spccics, but somc
wild trccs can bc lound in nativc lorcst arcas suitcd to thcir
growth. Tc sccds can bc carricd by birds, bats, and othcr
animals.
AGROFORESTRY/ENVIRONMENTAL
PRACTICES
Crop shade/overstory
Mangos do not makc a good ovcrstory trcc lor cropping
shadctolcrant spccics bccausc thcir dcnsc canopy produc
cs .cc shadc.
Livestock shelter
Tc dcnsc canopy and tolcrancc ol soil compaction makc
thc mango an idcal trcc lor shcltcring livcstock lrom sun
and rain. Trccs must bc protcctcd lrom animals until thc
canopy is highcr than grazing hcight.

Homegardens
Mangos arc uscd as shcltcr and shadc trccs in villagcs and
homcgardcns. Two or thrcc trccs makc an cxccllcnt ad
dition to tropical homcgardcns in arcas lavorablc to lruit
production.
Fence posts
Mango wood is solt and rots rapidly whcn cxposcd to thc
clcmcnts, so it is not suitablc lor lcncc posts. Howcvcr,
mangos havc bccn uscd as living lcncc posts.
Windbreaks
Mangos arc somctimcs uscd in mixcdspccics windbrcaks,
but thcir dcnsc canopics causc wind turbulcncc, rcducing
windbrcak ccctivcncss. Fruit production and quality is
poor on windcxposcd trccs.
Silvopasture
Mangos grow wcll in pasturcs, although cattlc will grazc
o lowcr lcavcs. !t is ncccssary to lcncc o young trccs lor
thc rst ycars to protcct thcm lrom livcstock.
Native animal/bird food
Mango lruits arc a lood sourcc lor many birds, lruit bats,
wild pigs, and rodcnts.
USES AND PRODUCTS
Mangos havc long bccn rccognizcd as morc than just cd
iblc ripc lruit. Tc cdiblc uscs ol thc lruit includc nonripc
lruit, sccd, and proccsscd products such as achars, chutncys,
prcscrvcs, ctc. Tc lruit is catcn lor its nutritional valuc, its
mcdicinal valuc, and lor its plcasant avor. Tc lruit and
its byproducts arc uscd lor animal loddcr, and thc tim
bcr is uscd lor canoc building and making charcoal. Today
mango and its avor arc addcd to many products, such as
lruit juiccs, icc crcams, wincs, tcas, brcaklast ccrcals, mucsli
bars, and biscuits.
Fruit
Mangos arc prcdominantly grown lor thcir lruit, which is
mostly catcn ripc as a dcsscrt lruit. Maturc grccn mangos
arc also catcn lrcsh or as picklcs. Grccn cating varictics arc
distinguishcd lrom othcrs by thcir swcct, nonstarchy, non
astringcnt avor at thc grccnmaturc stagc ol lruit dcvcl
opmcnt. Maturc grccn cating mangos arc catcn in scvcral
ways throughout thc world. !n Tailand thcy arc sliccd or
gratcd in lrcsh salad, picklcd (ma mung dong), soakcd in
watcr and sugar (ma mung chaicn), saltcd and dricd (ma
mung khcm), sliccd in vincgar or sh saucc (ma mung pla
wa arn), or catcn as a crunchy lruit. !n many placcs, c.g.,
Samoa, thc lruits arc catcn grccn bccausc somconc clsc will
cat thcm il onc waits lor ripcning or bccausc lruit y lar
vac arc not yct dcvclopcd. Frcsh mangos arc proccsscd and
prcscrvcd into a widc rangc ol products including pulps,
juiccs, lrozcn sliccs, dricd sliccs, pulp (lruit lcathcr), chut
ncys, jams, picklcs, canncd in syrup, and sliccd in brinc.
Mangos arc a highly nutritious lruit containing carbohy
dratcs, protcins, lats, mincrals, and vitamins, in particular
vitamin A (bcta carotcnc), 8
.
, 8
a
, and vitamin C (ascor
bic acid). As thc lruit ripcns, conccntrations ol vitamin C
dccrcasc and glucosc, lructosc, and sucrosc conccntrations
incrcasc. Mangos makc a signicant scasonal contribu
tion to dict ol many Pacic islandcrs that primarily havc a
starchbascd dict.
Flavoring/spice
Mango purccs and csscnccs arc uscd to avor many lood
products such as drinks, icc crcams, wincs, tcas, brcaklast
ccrcals, mucsli bars, and biscuits.
Nut/seed
!n parts ol !ndia thc sccd is catcn as a boilcd or bakcd vcg
ctablc or ground into a starchy our.
Leaf vegetable
Young lcavcs, still rosc or bronzc colorcd, can bc boilcd to
rcndcr thcm cdiblc. Although thc cookcd lcavcs hold thcir
shapc and arc attractivc, thcir rcsinous avor is an acquircd
tastc. Somc varictics arc morc suitablc lor cating in this
manncr (Martin ct al. .). Young lcavcs ol thc rclatcd
Sap oozing from mango stem attachment is highly caustic.
vno:o: i. s. v. n~iiv
spccics Mangifera pajang arc catcn as vcgcta
blcs in Sarawak.
Beverage/drink/tea
Alcoholic bcvcragcs madc lrom mangos in
cludc wincs and liquors madc in Australia and
!ndia. Spccialty tcas arc occasionally avorcd
with lragrant mango owcrs.
Medicinal
!n addition to mangos lood valuc, it has also
bccn uscd lor its mcdicinal valuc. !n Samoa, a
bark inlusion has bccn a traditional rcmcdy lor
mouth inlcctions in childrcn (pala gutu), and in
Tonga, inlusions ol lcavcs ol mango, thc orangc
(Citrus sinensis), and othcr spccics arc uscd to
makc a potion to trcat rclapsc sickncss (kita).
!n !ndia, a drink madc lrom unripc mango
lruit is uscd as a rcmcdy lor cxhaustion and
hcat strokc. Hallripc lruit catcn with salt and
honcy is uscd lor a trcatmcnt ol gastrointcsti
nal disordcrs, bilious disordcrs, blood disordcrs, and scurvy.
Ripc mangos arc a rich sourcc ol vitamin A, and arc uscd
to trcat vitamin A dccicncics such as night blindncss.
iabctcs has bccn trcatcd with a drink madc lrom thc in
lusion ol lrcsh mango lcavcs. ricd mango sccd ground
into our is uscd to trcat diarrhca. iarrhca and throat
disordcrs arc trcatcd by gargling bark cxtracts mixcd with
watcr. !n !ndia, lruit sap has bccn uscd to trcat thc pain ol
bcc and scorpion stings. Many ol thc traditional !ndian
mcdicinal uscs ol mango involvc cating unripc lruit. !t
should bc notcd that unripc lruit contains a lot ol thc toxic
sap that whcn catcn in cxccss can causc throat irritation,
indigcstion, dyscntcry, and colic.
Animal fodder
Livcstock will grazc on mango lcavcs and cat lallcn lruit.
Tc lcavcs can bc toxic il consumcd in largc quantitics.
Sccds and byproducts ol proccssing lruit havc bccn uscd
to lccd cattlc, poultry, and pigs.
Honey
Mango owcrs arc a rich sourcc ol ncctar collcctcd by
honcy bccs.
Timber
Mango timbcr whcn propcrly scasoncd has bccn uscd in
lurniturc, lor carving, as wall and oor pancling, and utcn
sil manulacturc. Tc timbcr is graybrown, oltcn with a
pink tingc. !t is coarsctcxturcd hardwood that is casy to
work and nishcs wcll. Tc timbcr brcaks down rapidly il
cxposcd to thc clcmcnts without prcscrvation trcatmcnt.
Fuelwood
Mango wood makcs cxccllcnt charcoal.
Canoe/boat/raft making
!n Frcnch ccania and thc Cook !slands, mango wood is
uscd lor canoc construction.
Tannin/dye
A ycllowishbrown dyc uscd lor silk is cxtractcd lrom thc
bark.
URBAN AND COMMUNITY
FORESTRY
Mangos havc traditionally bccn grown as gardcn and
community trccs in many countrics. Tc trccs arc prizcd
primarily lor thcir dclicious lruit, but also valucd lor thcir
dark grccn loliagc with its pcriodic splashcs ol ncw rcd
brown lcavcs. thcr aspccts such as ood and drought tol
crancc and a dcnsc sprcading canopy that providcs shadc
and shcltcr lor humans and animals, makc mangos valucd
gardcn trccs. Traditionally, mangos havc also bccn grown
as shadc trccs in strccts and parks, but thcir high maintc
nancc and public nuisancc havc brought thcm into dislavor
in many public situations in rcccnt timcs.
Size
Mango can rcach hcights ol .c m (c.cc lt). !n urban
cnvironmcnts cultivatcd trccs arc usually maintaincd to a
hcight ol bctwccn and .c m (.c lt) whcn maturc.
Mangos make a wonderful addition to homegardens, such as here in Apia,
Samoa where other popular homegarden trees include breadfruit, coconut,
citrus, and vi (Spondias dulcis). vno:o: c. vivvi:cn
Rate of growth
Mangos arc lastgrowing trccs, oltcn growing in cxccss ol
.. m ( lt) pcr ycar whcn wcll tcndcd in urban conditions.
Roots
Mango roots arc cxtcnsivc and build up around watcr
sourccs such as lcaking pipcs and watcr spigots. !n maturc
trccs, major roots will comc to thc surlacc and may disrupt
lawns or pavcd surlaccs lor a distancc lrom thc trunk cqual
to thc sprcad ol thc canopy. Asidc lrom thc arca undcr thc
canopy, thcrc is littlc dangcr mango roots will raisc pavc
mcnt or loundations.
Household uses
Tc lruit lrom thc mango can bc catcn as a ripc lruit or
proccsscd into a rangc ol products such as achars, chutncys,
jams, pulps, juiccs, and canncd or lrozcn. Tc unripc grccn
lruit is commonly catcn throughout thc Pacic, pickcd
lrcsh as a snack or dippcd in salt or soy saucc. Tc grccn
lruit is also commonly picklcd, pcclcd, and sliccd.
Light requirements
Mangos prclcr lull sun. Vhcrc grown in shadcd situations,
thc canopy bccomcs thin and wcak. Fruiting is grcatly rc
duccd and thc lruit losc thcir attractivc blush.
Water/soil requirements
Mangos grow in most soil typcs lrom hcavy clays to light
sands but prclcr wcll draincd lightcr soils. Mangos arc gcn
crally tolcrant ol many harsh soil conditions. vcr hard,
compactcd subsoil or smooth lava (such as pahochoc) that
is impcnctrablc by thc roots, trccs may bccomc unstablc in
high winds, bc morc subjcct to drought, and growth may
bccomc stuntcd.
Expected life span in a homegarden
Mango trccs arc longlivcd and can bc cxpcctcd to survivc
as maturc trccs lor ovcr .cc ycars.
Varieties favored for use in a homegardens
Tcrc arc many namcd and unnamcd mango varictics
grown throughout thc Pacic islands. Tc most suitablc
varictics to grow in thc homcgardcn is a mattcr ol pcrsonal
tastc and how thc trcc is to bc uscd. Small or dwarl mango
varictics arc suitablc lor smallcr gardcns whcrc spacc is
limitcd. Somc ol thcsc varictics includc Kcitt, Fairchild,
Rapoza, Villard, and !rwin. Largcr morc vigorous vari
ctics arc suitablc whcrc thc trccs arc to providc shadc and
shcltcr. Somc ol thcsc varictics includc: Hadcn, Kcnsing
ton Pridc, Gouvica, Mapulchu, and Ah Ping. !l thcrc is
Nutritional value of g fresh mango pulp. (Source:
USDA Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Re-
lease July )
Constitucnt
Amount in .cc g
lrcsh pulp
Vatcr .., g
ncrgy 6 kcal (a,a kj)
Protcin c.. g
Fats c.a, g
Carbohydratcs .,.cc g
Total dictary bcr .. g
Ash c.c g
Minerals
calcium .c mg
iron c.. mg
magncsium .c mg
phosphorus .. mg
potassium .6 mg
sodium a mg
zinc c.c mg
coppcr c... mg
mangancsc c.ca, mg
sclcnium c.6 mcg
Vitamins
vitamin C (total ascorbic acid) a,.a mg
thiaminc c.c6 mg
riboavin c., mg
niacin c. mg
pantothcnic acid c..6 mg
vitamin 8
6
c..6c mg
total lolatc . mcg
vitamin A, !U !U
vitamin A, R mcg_R
vitamin ...ac mg_AT
tocophcrols, alpha ...a mg
Lipids
total saturatcd latty acids c.c66 g
total monounsaturatcd latty acids c..c. g
total poly unsaturatcd latty acids c.c. g
cholcstcrol c.cc mg
Amino acids
Tryptophan c.cc g
Trconinc c.c. g
!solcucinc c.c. g
Lcucinc c.c. g
Lysinc c.c. g
Mcthioninc c.cc g
Phcnylalaninc c.c., g
Tyrosinc c.c. g
\alinc c.ca6 g
Argininc c.c. g
Histidinc c.c.a g
Alaninc c.c. g
Aspartic acid c.ca g
Glutamic acid c.c6 g
Glycinc c.ca. g
Prolinc c.c. g
Scrinc c.caa g
room lor morc than onc mango trcc, two or morc varictics
with dicrcnt bcaring scasons can bc sclcctcd to cxtcnd
thc timc ripc lruit is availablc.
Seasonality of leaf ush, owering, fruiting
Mangos gcncrally owcr in thc coolcst and dricst part ol
thc ycar and thc lruits dcvclop through thc spring and carly
summcr to ripcn in thc hottcst part ol thc ycar. Lcal ush
ing (pcriodic growth ol ncw lcavcs) can occur throughout
thc ycar, but is usually conccntratcd in thc summcr months
altcr thc lruits ripcn and oltcn coincidcs with summcr rains.
Mangos shcd lcavcs continuously throughout thc ycar, but
most ol thc annual lcal shcdding occurs immcdiatcly altcr
cach ncw growth ush.
Ornamental values
Mango owcr colors dicr among varictics and rangc lrom
grccn through ycllow and pink to dark rcd. !norcsccnccs
(owcr stalks) vary in lcngth lrom .a to c cm (ac in).
Tc inorcsccnccs arc usually abundant and providc an at
tractivc contrast to thc darkgrccn loliagc. !n many mango
varictics thc young cxpanding lcavcs arc a dark chocolatc
brown or purplc color that turns gradually to dark grccn as
thc lcavcs rcach lull sizc and hardcn.
Bird/bee/wildlife
Mango trccs attract a rangc ol wildlilc (birds, bats, and
othcr lruitcating crcaturcs). uring thc lruiting scason,
lruit bats and lruitcating birds arc attractcd to thc trcc.
8ccs visit thc owcrs, but most pollination is donc by ics.
Maintenance requirements
Fertilizer Mangos grown in thc homcgardcn gcncrally do
not nccd rcgular lcrtilizcr, howcvcr, il thc loliagc appcars
light grccn or ycllowish, it can bc grccncd up by thc appli
cation ol c.a kg (.... lb) ol a wcll balanccd lcrtilizcr
oncc or twicc a ycar.
Watering Although mangos arc ablc to withstand pcri
odic drought, it is bcst to watcr thc trccs during thc drycr
months. Vatcring mango trccs whcn thc owcrs and lruit
arc on thc trcc will improvc thc lruit sct and sizc ol thc
lruit at harvcst.
A quick-bearing crop such as papaya can be grown between mango seedlings for the rst few years, after which the mangos start
lling the open space and begin bearing a fruit crop. vno:o: c. vivvi:cn
WHEN TO PICK MANGOS
Te maximum eating quality of fresh mangos is obtained when the
fruits are harvested when fully mature. Early or immature picking
can reduce eating quality.
Not all maturity indicators are useful on all varieties. Some useful
maturity indicators are
the shoulders and beak of the fruit are well lled out, and the
skin in these areas takes on a smooth appearance
the background green coloring of the fruit begins to lighten
the fruit pedicle (stem) begins to shrivel and is more easily
separated from the fruit
esh color changes from white to a uniform pale yellow.
Picking the fruit
Once mature, fruit are usually picked as mature, hard, green fruit
and then ripened in crates or baskets. If the fruit is left to ripen on
the tree, birds and bats usually eat the fruit rst.
Care should be taken to avoid sap contact on the fruit or human
skin during the picking operation, as it is highly caustic and will
cause fruit blemishes and burn human skin. Picking the fruit with
long stems (> cm, in) and de-stemming the fruit after dipping
in detergent will help overcome sap-related problems.
Pruning !l lclt unpruncd, mangos can bccomc vcry largc

trccs (.c m |c.cc lt|). Pruning to limit trcc sizc or
providc clcarancc lrom buildings and roads is common
practicc and usually nccds to bc donc cvcry .a ycars. Prun
ing may also bc ncccssary to thin thc canopy and rcmovc
any dcad branchcs insidc thc canopy. Mangos arc vcry tol
crant ol pruning and limbs ol any sizc can bc rcmovcd.
Altcr hcavy pruning it is common lor trccs to owcr and
crop poorly thc ncxt scason, with incrcasing harvcsts in
lollowing scasons.
Drawbacks
Mangos arc considcrcd a mcssy trcc bccausc thcy tcnd to
continuously drop lcavcs and othcr matcrial. At latc ow
cring/carly lruit sct, thc trcc drops thc abortcd owcrs and
inorcsccncc branchlcts, which can stain concrctc or cars
parkcd bcncath. Mangos naturally thin thcir lruit crop,
shcdding abortcd lruit lrom owcring until lruit arc al
most lull sizc. Tcsc lruits havc a high sap contcnt that can
stain concrctc, kill grass, and strip paint lrom cars.
Mango branchcs arc brittlc and can brcak during hcavy
wind storms or with hcavy crop loads. !t is also common
lor branchcs to snap undcr thc wcight ol a pcr
son climbing thc trcc to pick thc lruit.
Nuisance issues
Fruit that is allowcd to ripcn and lall to thc
ground quickly bcgins to rot. 8ccausc thcy arc
smclly as thcy rot, ripc lruits attract vcrmin
such as rodcnts and lcral pigs. ccaying lruit
kills grass in patchcs and clogs up mowing
cquipmcnt.
Hazards
Mango trccs in urban spaccs such as car parks,
sports clds, and public walkways can bc a
problcm during thc lruiting scason. Ripc lruit
lalling lrom trccs is not only a hazard whcn
lalling, but rotting lruits on thc ground prcscnt
a hazard as thcy arc slippcry il stcppcd on (just
likc banana pccls). Tc sap that cxudcs lrom
thc stcms ol lruit is highly caustic and toxic,
and contact with unprotcctcd skin can causc
scvcrc blistcring and rashcs that can rcquirc
mcdical attcntion. Skin and cyc protcction
should bc uscd whcn picking thc lruit. !n hy
pcrscnsitivc pcoplc, consumption ol thc lruit
can causc swclling ol thc lips, throat, and lacc.
Common pest problems
Mangos arc susccptiblc to a rangc ol pcsts and
discascs that acct thc trcc and lruit. !n gcncral, thc pcsts
in gardcn trccs cxist at low lcvcls in balancc with thcir
prcdators and do not rcquirc any spccic control mcasurcs.
For scvcrc pcst inlcstations, scc thc Pcsts scction abovc.
Other
Along with coconut and brcadlruit, mango is onc ol thc
most common homcgardcn lruits in thc Pacic. Tc pop
ularity ol thc mango comcs lrom thc almost univcrsally
lovcd lruit, which can bc too costly lor most houscholds
to purchasc. A maturc trcc ol a sclcctcd varicty can rcliably
producc cnough lruit lor a lamily, with cxtra to prcscrvc
in various ways or sharc with lricnds and ncighbors. Tc
shadc and shcltcr providcd by thc dcnsc, sprcading canopy
ol thc mango has traditionally bccn a local point lor work
and social gathcrings in thc Pacic.
COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS
Commcrcial mango production is carricd out in scvcral
Pacic nations including Hawaii, Fiji, and thc Solomon
!slands.
Tree spacing
Trcc spacing is govcrncd by thc varicty and climatc. Tra
ditional spacings wcrc widc (up to .a x .a m, ,c trccs/ha,
c x c lt, a trccs/ac) as trccs wcrc allowcd to grow to lull
sizc. !n morc rcccnt timcs, trcc spacing has bccn rcduccd
and trccs arc maintaincd at smallcr sizcs. Tis lacilitatcs
pcst and discasc control and harvcsting opcrations. Smallcr
compact varictics can bc plantcd as closc as , x m or ,
trccs/ha (a x . lt, .a trccs/ac).
Pruning
Managcd orchard trccs rcquirc rcgular annual pruning to
maintain an opcn canopy ol managcablc sizc. Tis allows
air and sunlight to pcnctratc, which rcduccs pcsts and dis
cascs and cnhanccs intcrnal lruit color. Mangos can bc
hcavily pruncd with littlc ccct on trcc hcalth, although
hcavy pruning may stimulatc cxccssivc vcgctativc growth
at thc cxpcnsc ol owcring and lruiting.
Irrigation
!rrigation during thc owcring and cropping pcriod can
grcatly incrcasc thc numbcr ol owcrs and thc numbcr and
sizc ol lruits at harvcst.
Fertilizer
As a rulc, mangos do not rcquirc largc amounts ol lcrtilizcr.
vcrlcrtilization can bc dctrimcntal to yicld, promoting
cxccssivc vcgctativc vigor at thc cxpcnsc ol owcring and
lruiting. Mangos arc cspccially scnsitivc to nitrogcn, which
not only promotcs vigor but also rcduccs lruit color at har
vcst and rcduccs thc lruits tolcrancc ol postharvcst discasc.
\arious lcrtilizcr schcdulcs can bc lound in thc publica
tions listcd in thc bibliography bclow.
Crop manipulation
Manipulation ol owcring to incrcasc lruit sct is a com
mon commcrcial practicc. Two popular trcatmcnts arc thc
application ol potassium nitratc (KN
) or paclobutrazol
to promotc owcring. Potassium nitratc works only on
somc varictics in somc climatcs. Soil drcnchcs with pa
Regular annual pruning to maintain an open canopy and control the size of the tree is necessary for commercial production.
Pruning by climbing into the canopy is a common method for small growers. vno:o: c. vivvi:cn
clobutrazol gcncrally incrcasc owcring, cncouragc carly
owcring, and rcducc vcgctativc vigor (usc ol paclobutra
zol is subjcct to rcgistration rcquircmcnts ol thc chcmi
cal, which may vary with countrics). thcr tcchniqucs that
havc bccn uscd with variablc rcsults includc cincturing,
which involvcs making a shallow saw cut around thc trunk
or limb to tcmporarily ring bark it and rcstrict thc ow
ol carbohydratcs down thc limb. Smudging (lighting rcs
undcr thc trccs to smokc thc canopy lor scvcral wccks) was
popular in thc Philippincs bclorc potassium nitratc bc
camc widcly uscd. !n somc parts ol !ndia, root pruning or
disruption through cultivation or cxposurc to thc air was
uscd as a owcrinducing trcatmcnt.
Harvesting
Fruits arc usually harvcstcd by hand or with thc hclp ol
picking dcviccs. Tc lruits arc handlcd gcntly as thcy arc
casily damagcd by abrasion and sap contamination. Carc
should bc takcn to avoid sap contacting thc lruit during
thc harvcsting and packing opcrations, as it is caustic and
causcs dark, unsightly blcmishcs on thc lruit. Sap can also
burn human skin. Mango branchcs arc brittlc and can snap
without warning. Tis is a common causc ol injury to pco
plc climbing trccs during harvcst.
Postharvest care
To maximizc thc storagc lilc ol mangos, lruits arc gcncral
ly dippcd in hot watcr and lungicidcs to slow thc dcvclop
mcnt ol postharvcst lungal rots. Controllcd cool tcmpcra
turcs arc also csscntial il lruit quality is to bc maintaincd
during storagc. Tcmpcraturcs will vary dcpcnding on thc
stagc ol lruit ripcncss and varicty. thylcnc gassing is uscd
to triggcr cvcn ripcning in storcd lruit.
Spccic dctailcd inlormation on thc various aspccts ol
commcrcial mango production can bc lound in thc publi
cations listcd in thc bibliography bclow.
INTERPLANTING/FARM
APPLICATIONS
Mango is oltcn uscd in a mixcd cropping or intcrpolating
situation. Vhcn mango trccs arc young, thcy can bc mixcd
with smallcr crops such as papaya, cocc, and vcgctablcs.
As thc trccs bccomc largcr, thcy cast hcavy shadc, and thcir
roots outcompctc smallcr spccics. Maturc mangos can bc
succcsslully mixcd with othcr similarly vigorous spccics
such as jacklruit, avocado, brcadlruit, coconut, guava, or
rambutan.
PUBLIC ASSISTANCE AND
AGROFORESTRY EXTENSION
xtcnsion occs lor agrolorcstry and lorcstry in thc Pa
cic: http://www.traditionaltrcc.org/cxtcnsion.html~.
GERMPLASM RESOURCES
Collcctions ol mango varictics and rclatcd spccics arc
maintaincd in many tropical and subtropical countrics
on most contincnts. 8ccausc ol thc short storagc viability
ol thc sccd, collcctions arc hcld as maturc growing trccs,
usually maintaincd by rcscarch organizations involvcd in
mango improvcmcnt in thc rcgion. !n thc Pacic, thc ma
jor collcctions arc hcld in Hawaii, Australia, and Fiji as
listcd bclow. Collcctions ol Mangifera lrom othcr parts ol
thc world arc listcd in thc !ntcrnational Plant Gcnctic Rc
sourccs !nstitutc (!PGR!) wcb sitc http://wcb.ipgri.cgiar.
org/gcrmplasm~.
Locations of major mango collections for the Pa-
cic region
Australia
Quccnsland cpartmcnt ol Primary !ndustrics
P 8ox .c, Marccba QL c, Australia
mail: ian.ballyCdpi.qld.gov.au
Fiji
8otany Scction, Koronivia Rcscarch Station
P 8ox ,,, Nausori, Fiji
Philippines
!nstitutc ol Plant 8rccding, Collcgc ol Agriculturc, UPL8
Collcgc, Laguna, Philippincs
mail: opdCipb.uplb.cdu.ph
United States including Hawaii
Subtropical Horticultural Rcscarch Unit, National
Gcrmplasm RcpositoryMiami
CONTEMPLATING GROWING
MANGO COMMERCIALLY?
Many issucs havc to bc considcrcd whcn cmbarking
on commcrcial mango production. !n addition to thc
obvious productionrclatcd issucs such as how, whcrc,
and what to grow, thcrc arc markcting, nancc, liccnsc,
and rcgulatory issucs that nccd to bc considcrcd. A
good placc to start is by rcading a good growing and
production handbook and gctting advicc lrom an ad
visory scrvicc. Somc ol thcsc arc listcd at thc cnd ol
this publication.
.6c. ld Cutlcr Road
Miami, FL . USA
mail: miaCarsgrin.gov
INTERNET
Quccnsland cpartmcnt ol Primary industrics mango inlor
mation: http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/thcmaticlists/.c.
html~.
Gcncral crop inlormation: http://www.cxtcnto.hawaii.
cdu/kbasc/crop/crops/!_mango.htm and http://www.
crlg.org/pubs//mango.html~.
Tc Mango: Asias King ol Fruits. (outhctt, .G. accc.
Southcrn !llinois Univcrsity Carbondalc): http://www.
siu.cdu/~cbl/lcacts/mango.html~.
Mango varictics suitcd lor unripc cating: http://www.dpi.
qld.gov.au/horticulturc/a.html~.
Gralting mangos: http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/horticul
turc/a.html~.
Mango crop production qucstions and answcrs: http://
www.dpi.qld.gov.au/horticulturc/ac.html~.
Postharvcst proccssing: http://www.ba.ars.usda.gov/
hb66/contcnts.html~.
Anthracnosc: http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/busincss/,..
html~.
Fruits in thc homcgardcn: http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/busi
ncss/..html~.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
( indicates recommended reading)
8rown, F.8.H. .. Flora ol southcastcrn Polyncsia. !!!. i
cotylcdons. 8ishop Muscum 8ullctin .c: ..6.
Anonymous. .,. Mango Prolc: A Program lor thc c
vclopmcnt ol thc Commcrcial Mango !ndustry in Suva.
Agricultural Commodity Committcc, Suva.
Anonymous. .6. Gcnctic Rcsourccs ol Tropical and Sub
Tropical Fruits and Nuts xcluding Musa. !ntcrnational
8oard lor Plant Gcnctic Rcsourccs, Romc.
Alcornc, J.L., K.R.. Gricc, and R.A. Pctcrson. .. Mango
scab in Australia causcd by Denticularia mangiferae (8i
tanc. & Jcnkins) comb. nov. Australasian Plant Pathology
a: .....
Alcxandcr, .M., and V.J. Lcwis. .. Gralting and
8udding ol Fruit Trccs, a Practical Guidc. CS!R, Collin
gwood, Australia.
8ally, !.S.. .. Mango \arictics, Grccn ating. Quccns
land cpartmcnt ol Primary !ndustrics, 8risbanc, Aus
tralia.
8agshaw J., 8.!. 8rown, A. Cookc, !.C. Cunningham,
G. Johnson, P. Maycrs, and !.R. Muirhcad. .. Mango
Pcsts and isordcrs. Quccnsland cpartmcnt ol Primary
!ndustrics. 8risbanc. Australia.
8ompard, J.M. .. Tc gcnus Mangifera rcdiscovcrcd: thc
potcntial contribution ol wild spccics to mango cultiva
tion. Acta Horticulturac .: 6,,.
Campbcll, R.J. .a. A Guidc to Mangos in Florida. Fairchild
Tropical Gardcn, Miami, Florida.
Campbcll, R.J., C.V. Campbcll, and N. Lcdcsma. acca.
Tropical Mangos: Growing thc Vorlds Most clicious
Fruit. Fairchild Tropical Gardcn, Coral Gablcs, Florida.
Chia, C.L., R.A. Hamilton, and .. vans. .,. Mango.
Collcgc ol Tropical Agriculturc and Human Rcsourccs,
Univcrsity ol Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu.
Coatcs L., T. Cookc, . Pcrslcy, 8. 8cattic, N. Vadc, and R.
Ridgway. .. Postharvcst iscascs ol Horticultural Pro
ducc: Tropical Fruit. Quccnsland cpartmcnt ol Primary
!ndustrics, 8risbanc, Australia.
Condc, 8.., R.N. Pithcthlcy, .S.C. Smith, \.J. Kulkar
ni, K. Tiagalingam, L.!. Ulyatt, M.!. Conclly, and .A.
Hamilton. .,. !dcntication ol mango scab causcd by
Elsinoe mangiferae in Australia. Australian Plant Pathol
ogy a6: ...
avcnport, T.L., and R. Nunczlisca. .,. Rcproductivc
physiology ol mango. !n: Litz, op. cit.
Hamilton, R.A., C.L. Chia, and .. vans. .a.
Mango Cultivars in Hawaii. Collcgc ol Tropical Agri
culturc and Human Rcsourccs, Univcrsity ol Hawaii,
Honolulu.
Hartmann, H.T., and .. Kcstcr. .. Plant Propagation
Principals and Practiccs. PrcnticcHall, Ncw Jcrscy.
!qbal, M. .a. Rcvicw ol mango rcscarch and production in
Fiji. Fiji Agricultural Journal : a.a6.
Kcrnot, !., N. Mcurant, R. Holmcs, N. MacLcod, G. Ful
lclovc, and !.S.. 8ally. accc. AgrilinkMango !nlorma
tion Kit. Quccnsland cpartmcnt ol Primary !ndustrics,
8risbanc, Australia.
Kostcrmans, 8. .. Tc Mangos, Tcir 8otany, Nomcncla
turc, Horticulturc and Utilisation. Acadcmic Prcss, Lon
don.
Kusummo, S., T. Lyc, \. \angani, S.K. Yong, and L..
Namuco. .. Commcrcial Mango Cultivars in ASAN.
!n: Mcndoza, J.R., and R.H.8. Vills (cds.). Mango Fruit
cvclopmcnt, Postharvcst Physiology and Markcting in
ASAN. ASAN Food Handling 8urcau, Kuala Lum
pur.
Lim, T.K., and .M. Flcming. .. Food and othcr crops
in Fiji: an annotatcd bibliography. Australian Ccntrc lor
!ntcrnational Agricultural Rcscarch (AC!AR), Canbcrra,
Australia.
Lim, T.K., and K.C. Khoo. .. iscascs and isordcrs ol
Mango in Malaysia. Tropical Prcss, Kuala Lumpur.
Littlc, .L. Jr., and R.G. Skolmcn. .. Common Forcst
Trccs ol Hawaii (Nativc and !ntroduccd). Agriculturc
Handbook no. 6,. USA Forcst Scrvicc, Vashington,
C.
Litz, R.. (cd.). .,. Tc Mango, 8otany, Production and
Uscs, .
st
cdition. CA8 !ntcrnational, Vallinglord, UK.
Martin F.V., R.M. Rubcrt, and L.S. Mcitzncr. .. diblc
Lcavcs ol thc Tropics, Tird dition. CH, North Fort
Mycrs, Florida.
Morton, J. .,. Fruits ol Varm Climatcs. Julia Morton,
Miami, Florida.
Rcddy, 8. .,. !nsccts, thcr Pcst and iscascs Rccord
cd in thc Southcast Asia and Pacic Rcgion: Mango
Mangifera indica. Food and Agriculturc rganization ol
thc Unitcd Nations, 8angkok.
Rchm, S., and G. spig. ... Tc Cultivatcd Plants ol thc
Tropics and Subtropics. \crlag Joscl Margral Scicntic
8ooks, Vcikcrshcim, Gcrmany.
Salim, A.S., A.J. Simons, C. rwas, J. Chcgc, 8. wuor,
and A. Mutua. acca. Agrolorcstrcc databasc. Vorld
Agrolorcstry Ccntrc, Nairobi, Kcnya. http://www.
worldagrolorcstryccntrc.org~.
Smith, A.C. .. Flora \iticnsis Nova: A Ncw Flora ol Fiji,
\ol.. Lwai, Kauai, Hawaii.
Singh, L.8. .6c. Tc Mango: 8otany, Cultivation and Util
isation. Lcnord Hill, London.
Taman, R.R., and V.A. Vhistlcr. .6. A Rcvicw ol Uscs
and Status ol Trccs and Forcsts in LandUsc Systcms in
Samoa, Tonga, Kiribati and Tuvalu with Rccommcnda
tions lor Futurc Action. South Pacic Forcstry cvclop
mcnt Programmc, Suva, Fiji.
\crhcij, .V.M. ... Mangifera indica L. !n: \crhcij,
.V.M., and R.. Coroncl (cds.). Plant Rcsourccs ol
Southast Asia a, diblc Fruits and Nuts. PRSA,
Pudoc, Vagcningcn.
Vagncr, V.L., .R. Hcrbst, and S.H. Sohmcr. .. Manual
ol thc Flowcring Plants ol Hawaii, rcv. cd. Univcrsity ol
Hawaii Prcss, Honolulu.
Vhilcy, A.V. .. Mango. !n: P.. Pagc (cd.). Tropical Trcc
Fruits lor Australia. Quccnsland cpartmcnt ol Primary
!ndustrics (QP!), 8risbanc, Australia.
Vhistlcr, V.A. .a. Tongan Hcrbal Mcdicinc. !slc 8otanica,
Honolulu.
Vhistlcr, V.A. .6. Samoan Hcrbal Mcdicinc. !slc
8otanica, Honolulu.
Vhistlcr, V.A. accc. Plants in Samoan Culturc: Tc
thnobotany ol Samoa. !slc 8otanica, Honolulu.

Species Proles for Pacic Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org)
Mangifera indica (mango)
Author: !an S. . 8ally, Horticulturc and Forcstry Scicnccs, Quccnsland cpartmcnt ol Primary !ndustrics and Fishcrics, a Pctcrs St
(P 8ox .c), Marccba, QL, c, Australia, Tcl: 6. (c), c 6, Fax: 6. (c), c a , mail: ian.ballyCdpi.qld.gov.au
Acknowledgments: Tc author and publishcr thank Richard Campbcll, alc vans, Hcidi Johanscn, ianc Ragonc, and Art Vhis
tlcr lor thcir input.
Recommended citation: 8ally, !.S.. acc6. Mangifera indica (mango), vcr. ... !n: lcvitch, C.R. (cd.). Spccics Prolcs lor Pacic
!sland Agrolorcstry. Pcrmancnt Agriculturc Rcsourccs (PAR), Hlualoa, Hawaii. http://www.traditionaltrcc.org~.
Sponsors: Publication was madc possiblc by gcncrous support ol thc Unitcd Statcs cpartmcnt ol Agriculturc Vcstcrn Rcgion Sus
tainablc Agriculturc Rcscarch and ducation (USAVSAR) Program, SPC/GTZ PacicGcrman Rcgional Forcstry Projcct,
Unitcd Statcs cpartmcnt ol Agriculturc (USA) Natural Rcsourccs Conscrvation Scrvicc (NRCS), USA Forcst Scrvicc For
cst Lands nhanccmcnt Program, Statc ol Hawaii cpartmcnt ol Land & Natural Rcsourccs ivision ol Forcstry & Vildlilc,
Kaulunani, an Urban Forcstry Program ol thc LNR ivision ol Forcstry and Vildlilc and thc USA Forcst Scrvicc, and Muricl
and Kcnt Lightcr. Tis matcrial is bascd upon work supportcd by thc Coopcrativc Statc Rcscarch, ducation, and xtcnsion Scr
vicc, U.S. cpartmcnt ol Agriculturc, and Agricultural xpcrimcnt Station, Utah Statc Univcrsity, undcr Coopcrativc Agrccmcnt
acca,cc.c.a,.
Series editor: Craig R. lcvitch
Publisher: Pcrmancnt Agriculturc Rcsourccs (PAR), P 8ox a, Hlualoa, Hawaii 6,a, USA, Tcl: caa,, Fax: ca
.a, mail: parCagrolorcstry.nct, Vcb: http://www.agrolorcstry.nct~. Tis institution is an cqual opportunity providcr.
Reproduction: Copics ol this publication can bc downloadcd lrom http://www.traditionaltrcc.org~. Tis publication may bc rcpro
duccd lor noncommcrcial cducational purposcs only, with crcdit givcn to thc sourcc. acc6 Pcrmancnt Agriculturc Rcsourccs. All
rights rcscrvcd.

Mangifera Indica (Mango) : Species Profiles For Pacific Island Agroforestry

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IN BRIEF

Distribution All tropical and subtropical rcgions.

spongy stcm cndbrcakdown ol thc csh and vascu

16 Mangifera indica (mango)

Pruning !l lclt unpruncd, mangos can bccomc vcry largc

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