,

, 2006

 Copyright by E Kappos, 2006

.
LaTEX
kerkis.
, , 10/2006.



.

.

.
( .)
, ,
, . ,
, , : .
,
: ()
(

) () ,
, ,
,
,
! : , .

: . ,
. 1

1

,
.. ..!

iv
. .
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, ,
.
,
.
( ) .
, ( )
. , ,
. ,
,
.
, (
.)
,

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, Gauss
2 . ( Gauss),
, LU
(
.).

,

: ,
.


2

v
.

,
, .
, , , ,

. ,
, . , ,
( ,
; .)
(

.)

,
.
, . ,

v, u, w, . . . , ai , bi , . . .
, , . . . , , c, . . . .

( + )v,

ca + b,

(u + v)

.
.
, ,
.

v,

~v ,

v.
.
,
. , ~v
.

vi

vii

1
2
2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 . . . . .
2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4 . . . . . . .
2.4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.2 . . . . . . . . .
2.4.3 R3 . . . . .
2.5 .
2.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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3
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3
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7
. 11
. 16
. 17
. 20
. 25
. 30
. 31

3
33
3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.2 R2 : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.3 R3 : . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4
4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 ;
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5 ,
4.6 : . . .
4.6.1 .
4.6.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6.3 Gauss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

37
37
40
43
44
49
52
54
56
56
59

viii

4.7 . . . . . . . . . .
4.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
5.1
5.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5 . . .
5.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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62
63
65
65
66
67
71
74
75

77

:
79
.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

85

, ,

.
( ) , .
(.. )
.
:
:
.
:
s1 , s2 , . . . , s30 m1 , m2 , . . . , m45 .
si cij
mj . Si
, ;
Xj , j = 1, . . . , 45 ,
:

c11 X1 + c12 X2 + + c1,45 X45 =

c21 X1 + c22 X2 + + c2,45 X45 =

c30,1 X1 + c30,2 X2 + + c30,45 X45 =

S1
S2

S30

1.

,
.
: , ,
(inventory allocation and control.) ,

.
(Linear Programming.)
:
(
Descartes), .
,
Rn .
:

.
,
,
.
: ( )
. :
, Googlec ,
!

 2

2.1
v
, . ( ,
.)
,
. 0. , ,
. , . , . ,
v1 + (v2 + v3 ) = (v1 + v2 ) + v3 . ,
:

v + w = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) + (x2 , y2 , z2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 , z1 + z2 ).

v
v ( .) ,

v = (x, y, z) = (x, y, z).

: n- ( n = 2 , n = 4
...),

a = (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ),

2.

a b n-,
, ,

a + b = (a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , . . . , an + bn ).

a = (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ).
2.1. : R3 (
.) ,
( .) , ,
, . ,
.
,
. 2.3.
2.1. F = R C. V F- ( .. F = R .. F = C)
v, w V v + w V v V , F,
v V
:
1. v, w V , v + w = w + v,
2. v, w, u V , (v + w) + u = v + (w + u),
3. V 0, 0 + v = v
v V ,
4. , F, v, w V ,

(v + w) = v + w,

( + )v = v + v,

(v) = ()v,

5. 1 F , v V : 1v = v,
6. 0 F , v V : 0v = 0.
2.2. 0
0.

2.1

. , :

0 = 0v = (1 + (1))v = 1v + (1)v = v + (1)v,

(1)v, v, v
v V .
1

Rn : , n-
n- . 0 = (0, 0, . . . , 0) (n .)
n. R2 () R3 (
), n 3 .
Cn : n-
n- v = (z1 , z2 , . . . , zn ) (zi C i),
, C
v = (z1 , z2 , . . . , zn ).
n = 1 C.
C ,
!

z 6= 0 w

w = z = w/z.
, ( )
( ): -
z C z :

C = {z, C}.
2.1. C ,
R C, .
1

,
.

2.

n = 2 ,
Cn , , 2n (.. n = 2, C2 4.)
,
Fourier
.
2.3.
!

: n (n > 0 ).

p(x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + . . . + an xn
(n + 1)- v = (a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) Rn+1 .
, , p(x) + q(x)
p(x) v.

Rn+1 .
:

: ,
: f , g ,
x f (x)+g(x)
f (x). .
: f x,
f (x), .

, .

: ( )
( v = {a0 , a1 , . . . , an , . . .}) , ( .)

2.2

2.2
0 R3 : v - , v
L(v) = {v; R}.
- R3 , v1 , v2 .
:

< v1 , v2 >:= {1 v1 + 2 v2 ; 1 , 2 R}.

.

( ), v2 = v1 R, 6= 0.
.
R3 :
1. 0 < v1 , v2 > ( 1 , 2 = 0.)
2. w < v1 , v2 >, w < v1 , v2 > (
1 , 2 .)
3. w1 , w2 < v1 , v2 >, w1 +w2 < v1 , v2 > ( v = 1 v1 +2 v2 ,
w = 1 v1 + 2 v2 1 + 1 , 2 + 2 .)
4. v < v1 , v2 > , R, v < v1 , v2 > ( :
1 , 2 .)
< v1 , v2 >
.
2.2. W V V
V
V .
, v, w W , R,
v + w v W .

. R3
R3 ,
.
2.1. v1 , v2 , . . . , vk V . , < v1 , v2 , . . . , vk >,
V .

2.

.
v1
-. v2 ,
v1 , v2
v1 . : v1 , v2 ,
v3 , v1 , v2 , ( ) v3
< v1 , v2 >. :
2.3.
. v1 , v2 , . . . , vk , vk+1 , v1 , v2 , . . . , vk , vk+1
vk+1
/ < v1 , v2 , . . . , vk >.
v1 , v2 , . . . , vk , k
< v1 , v2 , . . . , vk >.

, -.
:
2.4. v1 , v2 , . . . , vk
1 , 2 , . . . , k F, ,

1 v1 + 2 v2 + . . . + k vk = 0.
v1 , v2 , . . . , vk
. ,
v1 , v2 , . . . , vk
, i .
! , -,
. , -,
: (1 , 2 ) 6= (0, 0)

1 v1 + 2 v2 = 0.
( , 2 .
v2 6= v1 , = 1 /2 .)
,
,
:

2.2

2.1.
(0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1) (0, 1, 1) R3 ;
,

(1) (0, 1, 0) + (1) (0, 0, 1) + (1) (0, 1, 1) = (0, 0, 0),

.
2.2.
(1, 1, 0), (0, 1, 1) (2, 1, 1)?
x, y, z i :

x(1, 1, 0) + y(0, 1, 1) + z(2, 1, 1) = (0, 0, 0)

- :

x + 0 + 2z = 0
xyz = 0
0+y+z = 0
2.2. .
; ;
2.5. V (..).
V , dim V ,
.

V .
0 - (
.. .) ..
..
,
, .
:
2.2. . ,
.. V .
{b1 , b2 , . . . , bn } .. V n.
v V x1 , x2 , . . . , xn

v = x1 b1 + x 2 b2 + . . . + xn bn .

10

2.

x1 , . . . , xn v
{b1 , . . . , bn }.
:
! .
2.6. Rn , n

e1 = (1, 0, . . . , 0), e2 = (0, 1, 0, . . . , 0), , en = (0, . . . , 0, 1).

(
!) ( . Rn ) ,
.
2.3. R3

b1 = (0, 1, 1), b2 = (1, 0, 1), b3 = (0, 0, 2).

. R3
v = (3, 1, 1) .
, ,
b1 , b2 , b3 , (1 , 2 , 3 ) 6=
(0, 0, 0)

1 b1 + 2 b2 + 3 b3 = 0.
,

(2 , 1 , 1 2 + 23 ) = (0, 0, 0),
2 = 0, 1 = 0 3 = 0,
-. b1 , b2 , b3
.
x1 , x2 , x3

v = x1 b1 + x2 b2 + x3 b3 .

(3, 1, 1) = (x2 , x1 , x1 x2 + 2x3 ),

x2 = 3, x1 = 1 x3 = 11+3
= 0, 5. 2
v {b1 , b2 , b3 } (1, 3, 0, 5)
(3, 1, 1).
.

2.3

11

2.1. v = (c1 , c2 , . . . , cn ) Rn
{e1 , e2 , . . . , en ) c1 , c2 , . . . , cn .
2.4.
. , ( 2.2)
( ;)

2.3
,
,
.
: ,


. ;
, S ,
(s1 , s2 ), , s1 s2
,
,
, (s1 s2 )
s3 , , s1 s2 S ; ,

. , ,

V .2 , , ,
R2 R3 . R
. R3 , v1 v2 (
.)
R2 ! v1 = (c1 , c2 )
2

, ,
, :

(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) ? (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) = (x1 y1 , x2 y2 , . . . , xn yn ).

12

2.

z1 = c1 + ic2 ,
. , v2 = (d1 , d2 ), :

v1 v2 = (c1 c2 d1 d2 , c1 d2 + c2 d1 ),

z1 z2 = (c1 + ic2 )(d1 + id2 ) = (c1 c2 d1 d2 ) + i(c1 d2 + c2 d1 ).

.
, , , (z1 z2 )z3 =
z1 (z2 z3 ) , .. (z1 + z2 )z3 = z1 z3 + z2 z3 .
4, (
- R4 !)
, ,
,
.
, (v1 , v2 )
v1 v2 . , v1 v2 v3
( ;)
,
. :
2.7. V ,
v1 , v2
, v1 v2 R V
:
1. v1 v2 = v2 v1 ( ),
2. v v 0 v v = 0 v = 0 ( ),
3. (v1 ) v2 = (v1 v2 ),
4. (v1 + v2 ) w = v1 w + v2 w ().
.
Rn :
v1 , v2 Rn , v1 = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ), v2 = (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn )

v1 v2 = x1 y1 + x2 y2 + . . . + xn yn .
. Rn , n .

13

2.3

v v = x21 + x22 + . . . + x2n = ||v||2 .

( n: , v =
(x1 , x2 ) p
, ||v|| = x21 + x22 , ,
.)

Rn . , R3
,

v1 v2 = 2x1 y1 + 3x2 y2 + x3 y3 ,
. ( !) ,

v1 v2 = 2x1 y1 + 3x2 y2 + x3 y3 x1 y2 x2 y1 .
. : ,
, ,
! , , ,
. , , .
2.8. v1 , v2 V
( ) v1 v2 = 0.

R , e1 = (1, 0, . . . , 0), e2 = (0, 1, 0, . . . , 0), ... en = (0, . . . , 0, 1)
: ei ej = 0 i 6= j .
n

2.4. (1, 1, 3), (3, 0, 1) R3 :

(1, 1, 3) (3, 0, 1) = (1)(3) + 0 + (3)(1) = 0.

;
(x, y, z)
:

(1, 1, 3) (x, y, z) = x y + 3z = 0,

(3, 0, 1) (x, y, z) = 3x + 0 z = 0.

14

2.

, z = 3x, y = x + 3z = 10x.
, ,
:

L = {(1, 10, 3); R}.

(
.)
:
. ,
( )
. , ,
{e1 , e2 , . . . , en } Rn :
v = (x1 x2 , . . . , xn ) x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ! ( 2.1)
2.9. {b1 , b2 , . . . , bn } V ,
i 6= j , b1 bj = 0,

, . ||bi || = 1 i (. ||v|| = v v).

2.3. {b1 , b2 , . . . , bn } V .
v V
n v
:

x1 = v b1 , x 2 = v b2 , . . . , x n = v bn .
. {bi }ni+1 , v , v = x1 b1 + x2 b2 + . . . + xn bn .
bi :

bi v = bi (x1 b1 + x2 b2 + . . . + xn bn ) =

n
X

xj bi bj = xi ,

j=1

{bi }.

, . ,
,
. , Gram-Schmidt. 10.

15

2.3

: v1 v2 = x1 y1 + . . . xn yn
. ,
v2 = v1 , ,

v1 v2 = v1 v1 = ||v1 ||2 .
, . , v1 v2 ,
.
:
( , .)
( ) v1
b1 , ,
v2 < b1 , b2 >
( .)
2.3. .
v1 (x1 , 0, . . . , 0),
!
v2 = (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ).
, y1
v2 b1 ( .) ,

v1 v2 = (x1 , 0, . . . , 0) (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) = x1 y1 ,
.
, ,
:
2.2. v1 , v2 Rn

v1 v2 = ||v1 || ||v2 || cos ,

(0 180 ).
2.5. (3, 1, 1)
(1, 2, 0) .
:

||(3, 1, 1)|| =

32 + 12 + (1)2 =

11,

16

2.

2.1: . () 0 , ()
()

||(1, 2, 0)|| =

(1)2 + (2)2 =

5.

(3, 1, 1) (1, 2, 0)
5

=
11 5
11 5
q
5
= 132, 4
= cos1 11
cos =

2.4

R2 () R3 ( ).
,
.
, ,
! (x, y x, y, z ) : ,
:
(x, y, z),
; ,
,
R3 , x, y z (
, ;)
( R2
R3 ) ()
( 0). ,
.
. n-, Rn e1 = (1, 0, . . . , 0), e2 = (0, 1, 0, . . . , 0) ...

17

2.4

R3 ,
e1 , e2 , e3 i, j, k . v R3 ,

v = xi + yj + zk,
x, y, z v. ,
, i, j, k .
, (i, j, k).
. (j, k, i) (k, i, j).
, (j, i, k) .

2.4.1
.
e1 = (1, 0), e2 = (0, 1). v = xe1 + ye2
v = (x, y) R2 (. 2.1).3
.
v1 = (x1 , y1 ) v2 = (x2 , y2 )

v1 v2 = x1 x2 + y1 y2

||v|| =

x2 + y 2 .

e1 e2
( e1
e2 .) (e1 , e2 ) . (b1 , b2 ) b2
b1 90
( .)
2.3. v = (x, y) - ,
v = (y, x) v (v, v )
R2 .
.
||v|| = 1 ( ,
||v||.).
3

(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) Rn , (x, y) .

18

2.

.
4(ABC) A = v1 , B = v2 C = v3 .
AB , ,

|AB| = ||v2 v1 || =

p
(x2 x1 )2 + (y2 y1 )2 .

, :
2.4. v1 , v2 - ,
v1 = (x1 , y1 ), v2 = (x2 , y2 ), ,
x1 y2 x2 y1 .

a b: E = ab sin ,
( 90 ) .
. , : v1 , ,
(x1 , 0) , v2 = (x2 , y2 ),
y2 x1 y2 ( x2 y1 = 0.)

y1

C
B/

y2

C/
0

x1

x2

x1 + x2

2.2:
, .
v1 , v2 , , A, B, C
v1 , v1 + v2 , v2 , 0ABC .

2.4

19

x1 CB(x1 + x2 ) x1 C 0 B 0 (x1 + x2 ) ( 0CC 0
ABB 0 .) :

E(x1 CB(x1 + x2 )) =

1
1
(y1 + (y1 + y2 )) x2 = y1 x2 + x2 y2
2
2

1
E(x1 C B (x1 + x2 ) =
2
0

x1
x1
1
y2 + y2 + y2 x2 = x1 y2 + x2 y2 .
x2
x2
2

( C 0 x1 .)
. ,
, .
:
,
e1
.
.
v = (x, y) = xe1 + ye2 .
,

x = v e1 = ||v|| ||e1 || cos = ||v|| cos ,

e1 . r = ||v||, x = r cos .
r 2 = x2 + y 2 y 2 = r 2 x2 = r2 (1 cos2 ) = r 2 sin2 . , y = r sin .
v -.

0 < 2 ( 0 .)

x = r cos ,

y = r sin (0 < 2)

v (r, )
( .) , r > 0, - .
2.4. v 6= 0
(r, ), - (r, ), (0, )[0, 2).

20

2.

2.5. ,
: (r, )
.
.
, , 0
r .

2.4.2
R3 . e1 =
(1, 0, 0), e2 = (0, 1, 0) e3 = (0, 0, 1)
i, j k e1 = i, e2 = j, e3 = k. v =
(x, y, z) ( )
v = xi + yj + zk. x, y, z v
. {i, j, k} .

(
: ,

.)
xi, yj zk v / ( .)
v
p

||v|| =

x2 + y 2 + z 2 ,

v1 v2 = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) (x2 , y2 , z2 ) = x1 x2 + y1 y2 + z1 z2 R

: ||v|| = v v.
:

v1 v2 = ||v1 || ||v2 || cos ,

( [0, ]) .
v :

v i = xi i + yj i + zk i = xi i = x,
i j = 0, i k = 0. , ,

x = v i = ||v||||i|| cos 1 = ||v|| cos 1 ,

21

2.4

1 v i. ,

y = v j = ||v|| cos 2 z = v k = ||v|| cos 3 ,

2 , 3 v j, k. v
, :

||v||2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2 = ||v||2 (cos2 1 + cos2 2 + cos2 3 ),

:

cos2 1 + cos2 2 + cos2 3 = 1

2.6.
: (1 , 2 , 3 , r = ||v||).
,
. ,
(1 , 2 , r) (-)
R3 . : 2
1 !

2.4. |2 | cos1 1 cos2 1 .

1 =.
2 = ;
.
, .
R3 : ,
: ,
, . ,
,
. ,
i
Greenwich .
r = ||v|| .
. :
2.10. R3 {i, j, k}, v, :

22

2.

1. k v ( v k = ||v|| cos ),
2. i v < i, j >,
vzk,
[0, 2).
3. r = ||v||, v.
(, , r) v
(x, y, z)
v = xi + yj + zk :

x = r sin cos
y = r sin sin
z = r cos

.
2.5. R3 < k > ( < k >
k, )
(0, ) [0, 2) (0, ),
(, , r).
k ( 0), -
.
(x, y, z)

= cos1 (

vk
),
||v||

y
= tan1 ,
x

r=

x2 + y 2 + z 2 .

. ,
x2 + y 2 6= 0 (- < i, j >.)

tan1 xy
+ tan1 xy
=
tan1 xy +

2 + tan1 xy

x 0, y
x < 0, y
x 0, y
x > 0, y

0
>0
0
<0

23

2.4

,
, . ,

.

R3
r ( )
, ,
.

, , r ,
. ,
,
, r = 0
x = y = 0 .
R3 : < i, j >,
z ,

p
x2 + y 2 ,

y
= tan1 ,
x

z.

, (, , z)

x = cos
y = sin
z = z
6= 0, ,
, -
< i, j >.
2.6. R3 < k >
(0, )[0, 2)R,
(, , z).
=
z =
= .

24

2.

R3 : .
, : (, ) 7 (, + 0 ).
.
,
.
, . , .

,
.
2.11. T V
W , v1 , v2
V 1 , 2 R,

T (1 v1 + 2 v2 ) = 1 T (v1 ) + 2 T (v2 ).
R3
R3 .
.
2.12. R3 , (rotation) , ( , ) , .
Rot : R3 R3 . R3 SO(3).

. ,
:
2.13. T : R3 R3
,

T (v1 ) T (v2 ) = v1 v2 .
: , , .

. O(R3 ).
.

2.4

25

:
, ,
(, , r) r, ( + 0 , + 0 , r), 0 , 0 , ,
r . , ,
0 0 , 0 , .
, . ,
(, , r) 7 (, +0 , r) (, , r) 7 (+0 , , r) . , ,
r 0 , ,
,
! , , Roti , Rotj , Rotk .
.

: i
( ).
!
,
/ SO(3) .

2.4.3 R3

.

. .
,

.
.
2.14. v1 = (x1 , y1 , z1 ), v2 = (x2 , y2 , z2 )

26

2.

, v1 v2

v1 v2 = (y1 z2 z1 y2 )i + (z1 x2 x1 z2 )j + (x1 y2 y1 x2 )k

(2.1)

2.6. (2, 1, 4) (1, 1, 0)

(2, 1, 4) (1, 1, 0) = (4)i + (4)j + (2 1)k

:
1. :

v (v1 + v2 ) = v v1 + v v2

v1 (v2 ) = (v1 ) v2 = (v1 v2 )

, 0 v = 0.
2.

vv =0
3. ,

v1 v2 = v2 v1
( (v1 + v2 ) (v1 + v2 ) = 0,
.)
(1) (2)
( ;)

.
2.5. v1 = (x1 , y1 , z1 ), v2 = (x2 , y2 , z2 )
, n
v1 , v2 (v1 , v2 , n)
R3 . ,

v1 v2 = (||v1 || ||v2 || sin ) n,

(0 ).

2.4

27

||v1 || ||v2 || | sin |

v1 v2 .
, , v1 v2 ,
,
v1 , v2 .
, ,
( .)
, F r, F r.
. (u, v, w) v1 = (x1 , y1 , z1 ),
v2 = (x2 , y2 , z2 )

x1 u + y 1 v + z 1 w = 0
x2 u + y 2 v + z 2 w = 0
w ,4

y1 z2 z1 y2
x1 y2 y1 x2
z1 x2 x1 z2
v = w
x1 y2 y1 x2

u = w

, w = x1 y2 y1 x2 , u = y1 z2 z1 y2
v = z1 x2 x1 z2 .

(y1 z2 z1 y2 )i + (z1 x2 x1 z2 )j + (x1 y2 y1 x2 )k

v1 v2 .
v1 v2 .
||v1 || ||v2 || | sin |
. ,
, ( ,
.)
:
4

x1 y2 y1 x2 -. ,
,
.

28

2.

i j k

v1 v2 = x1 y1 z1
x2 y2 z2

( .)
2.7.

i j k

(3, 1, 0) (2, 1, 1) = 3 1 0
2 1 1

= (1)i + (3)j + (3 + 2)k

:
,

(v1 v2 ) v3 6= v1 (v2 v3 )

.
2.5.
(v1 v2 ) v3 = 0, v1 (v2 v3 ) 6= 0;
2.6.
1.

(v1 v2 ) v3 + (v2 v3 ) v1 + (v3 v1 ) v2 = 0

2.

(v1 v2 ) v3 = (v1 v3 )v2 (v2 v3 )v1

,
:

v1 v2 v3 = v1 (v2 v3 )
: (v1 v2 ) v3
! ;
:
2.7. v1 , v2 , v3 ,

.
2.6. .

2.4

29

:
:

x1 y1 z1

v1 v2 v3 = x2 y2 z2
x3 y3 z3
. ,
,
F Stokes.

30

2.

2.5

: ( R C.)
.
.
: n n.
. . ,
.
:
.

, .
R2 R3
((i, j) (i, j, k) )
R3 :

(x1 , x2 , x3 ) (y1 , y2 , y3 ) = x1 y1 + x2 y2 + x3 y3 R.
: ,

. :
R3 .
: ,
, .
:

i j k

v1 v2 = x1 y1 z1
x2 y2 z2
.

31

2.6

2.6
1. .
2. R4

v = (1, 3, 0, 4),

w = (2, 0, 3, 1).

2v w v 3w.
3. C2

v = (1 + i, 1 + 2i),

w = (2i, 1 i)

v + (2i)w (1 + 2i)v.
4.

{(1, 0), (0, 1)},

{(i, 0), (0, i)},

{(0, 1), (i, 0)}

C2 .
5.

(1, 2, 1),

(2, 1, 0) (1, 0, 0)

R3 .
6. v V
{b1 , b2 , . . . , bn } .
7. (2, 2, 4)
b1 = (1, 2, 0), b2 = (1, 1, 1) b3 = (0, 2, 3).
8. ;
() v1 , v2 , . . . , vk ,
(.. v1 , v2 , . . . , vk1 ) .
() v1 , v2 , . . . , vk ,
(.. v1 , v2 , . . . , vk1 ) .
() {b1 , b2 , . . . , bn } {c1 , c2 , . . . , cn } V . bi {c1 , c2 , . . . , cn }.

32

2.

9. n
Rn+1 . p(x), q(x), p(x) q(x),

.
Rn+1 ( n)
; n = 1
;
10. Gram-Schmidt: {b1 , b2 , . . . , bn }
V . e1 = b1 /||b1 ||.
e2 , e3 , . . . en ,
e1 , V .
E2 = b2 (b2 e1 )e1 e1 . e2 = E2 /||E2 ||. : E3 = b3 (b3 e1 )e1 (b3 e2 )e2 .
E2 e1 e2 . e3 = E3 /||E3 ||
, e4 , . . . , en
V . Ei
.
11. v (1, 2, 1) (0, 1, 1). ,
R3 .
12. e1 = (1, 0, 0), e2 = (0, 1, 0), e3 = (0, 0, 1)
R3 .

b1 = (cos , sin , 0) b2 = ( sin , cos , 0)

.
b1 b2
b1 , b2 .

 3

3.1
( 16 ) ,
.
(Rene Descartes, 15961650) .
,
, .
,

,
.
.

3.2 R2 :
:

L = {(x, y) R2 ; ax + by = c}, a, b, c R.
b 6= 0,

y = x + ,

( = a/b, = c/a.)

b = 0
. , (

34

3.

)
n0 .
n0 = (a, b)
ax + by (x, y) n0 :

n0 (x, y) = ax + by = c.
, : (x, y) (x1 , y1 )
, n0 :

(x x1 , y y1 ) (a, b) = 0.
c = 0 R2 . c 6= 0,
(affine).

(x, y) !
,
! , ,
. , (x, y)
:

ax + by =
cx + dy =
3.1. ax + by = cx + dy = (
), ,
(c, d, ) = (a, b, ).
, (c, d) = (a, b).
, ,
.
.
:
v0 = (x0 , y0 ) R > 0 ()
R v0 :

C(v0 , R) = {v R2 ; |v v0 | = R}.
, :

C(v0 , R) = {(x, y) R2 ; (x x0 )2 + (y y0 )2 = R2 }.
, :

x2 + y 2 + dx + ey = f,

d = 2x0 , e = 2y0 , f = R2 x20 y02 .

3.3 R3 :

35

3.1.
, x0 , y0 , R;
: (x, y)
:

ax2 + by 2 + cxy + dx + ey = f.
,
. ( ), , ,
...

3.3 R3 :
: n0 = (a, b, c) 6= 0, (x, y, z) n0 .

ax + by + cz = 0,
.
,
:

ax + by + cz = .
R2 ,

, n0 .
:
3.1. (1, 1, 2)
(0, 3, 5).
(x, y, z)

(x 0, y (3), z 5) (1, 1, 2) = 0.

x + y + 2z = 3 + 10 = 7.

.
.

36

3.

, , .
. R3
. , : , ,
,
.

.
(

4. ,
, !
4.
:
R3

f (x, y, z) = ax2 + by 2 + cz 2 + 2dxy + 2eyz + 2f xz + gx + hy + iz

. ,
. ,
Q b.
:

a d f

d b e ,
Q=
f e c

h .
b=
i

, x = xi + yj + zk :

f (x) = xT Qx + bT x = x Qx + b x,
,
. Q , QT = Q.
(level sets)
, R,

f 1 () = {x R3 ; f (x) = }.
[ ]

4.1
.

:
, !
: ,
, Heisenberg,

,

Lie .
4.1. m n
m n m n .

a11
a21

a12
a22

A=

am1,1 am1,2
am1
am2

a1n

a2n

am1,n
amn

(4.1)

M (m, n).
4.1. ,
, -

38

4.

.1 , aij R C. M (m, n; R)
M (m, n; C) .
, . ,
, :
n , , n
, n ! , , ,
n n n
, A M (n, n; R)!
m,n
A = (aij )i=1,j=1 = (aij ),
. :
am1,n2 am1n2 .

(column vector) a, A, A M (m, 1) .
,
. , , (row
vector). ,
. ,
A M (m, n) n ,
m . a1 , a2 , . . . , an A (
, m), :

A = (a1 a2 . . . an ) .
4.1.

2
3 1
A = 8 1 11
2
3 3

2
a1 = 8 ,
2

3
a2 = 1 ,
3

1
a3 = 11 .
3

: ,
, , ,
.

39

4.1

4.2. AT A M (m, n) M (n, m) A

A . ,

a11 a12
a21 a22
A=

am1 am2

a11

a12
AT =

a1n

a21
a22

a2n

a1n
a2n

amn

am1
am2

anm

, :

(c1 , c2 , . . . , cn ) = cT ,

c1
c2

c =

cn

, A M (m, n) m n:

aT1
aT2

A=
... ,
aTm

aT1 = (a11 , a12 , . . . a1n ),

aT2 = (a21 , a22 , . . . a2n ) ...

4.2. ,

2
3 1
A = 8 1 11
2
3 3
, :

2
a1 = 3 ,
1

8
a2 = 1 ,
11

2
a3 = 3 .
3

40

4.

4.2

,
, .
.
4.3. A B M (m, n) (
), , A + B
:

a11
a21

a12
a22

A+B =

am1,1 am1,2
am1
am2

a1n

a2n

am1,n
amn
b11
b21

b12
a22

bm1,1 bm1,2
bm1
bm2

a11 + b11
a12 + b12
a21 + b21
a22 + b22

am1,1 + bm1,1 am1,2 + bm1,2

am1 + bm1
am2 + bm2

b1n

b2n

bm1,n
bmn

= (4.2)

a1n + b1n

a2n + b2n

am1,n + bm1,n

amn + bmn

, A + B = (aij + bij ).
A B , .
4.4. A A

A =

a11
a12
a21
a22

am1,1 am1,2
am1
am2

a1n

a2n

am1,n
amn

(4.3)

A B
M (m, n) A + (1)B
1 A1 + 2 A2 + + k Ak , Ai M (m, n) i = 1, 2, . . . , k .

41

4.2

: ,
:
, A B
aij bij . , ,
,
(. 4.3 .)
:
.
m n x1 , x2 , . . . , xn

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + + xn a1n = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + + xn a2n = b2

am1 x1 + am2 x2 + + xn amn = bn

(4.4)

, (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )
, bi . ,
A = (aij )

x1
x2

x=
,
xn

b1
b2

b=

bn

Ax = b
Ax , :
A x m
b.
A B .
, A
B ,
A B .
4.5. A B , A M (m, n) B M (n, k).
A m

42

4.

( ):

a11
a21

a12
a22

A=

am1,1 am1,2
am1
am2

ai =

a1n

a2n

am1,n
amn

ai1 ai2 ain

T
a1

aT2
=

aTm

i = 1, . . . , m

B k :

b11
b21

b12
a22

bn1,1 bn1,2
bn1
bn2

b1k
b2k

bn1,k
bmk

b1j
b2j

bj =
,
bnj

= b1 b2 bk ,

j = 1, . . . , k.

, AB , (m, k),

a 1 b1 a 1 b2
a 2 b1 a 2 b2
AB =

am b1 am b2

a 1 bk
a 2 bk

a m bk

(4.5)

, i j AB

(AB)ij = ai bj =

n
X

ail blj .

l=1

4.3.

2 3 1
3
0 2

1
1 2
1
1
0 2 2
2 3 0
1

2 4

2+3+2 2+03 46+0 2+6+1

3+0+4 3+06 6+0+0 3+0+2

7 1 2 9
7 3
6 5

43

4.2

: BA , B 4 , A
2 .

4.2.1
, , . , , 12 ,

A = (A1 A2 A3 ),
, A1
, A2 A3
.
, (partition) A M (m, n):

A=

A12
A11
A21
A22

Al1,1 Al1,2
Al1
Al2

A1k
A2k

Al1,k
Alk

Aij , (mi , nj ).
m:

m = m1 + m2 + . . . + ml
n:

n = n1 + n2 + . . . + nk .

A=

B C
D E

B, D C, E
B, C D, E .

44

4.

: , . .
4.4.

2 2
1
3

0 0
0 0

1
1

0
0

1
2
0
0

4 2
2
7

0 0
0 0

1 4
5
3

2 2
1 1

2 1
2
0

3 1
2 1

11
3
29 9

10 4
1
0

. .
4.1. .

4.3

: ,
() ,

a11 , . . . , a1n , a21 , . . . a2n , . . . , am1 , . . . , amn .

;

.

; ,
.

4.3 ;

45

2. V n , n b1 , . . . , bn
, < b1 , . . . , bn > V . : B = {b1 , . . . , bn }.
v V

v = x1 b1 + . . . + xn bn

(4.6)

x1 , . . . , xn v B.
v :

x1
x2

.. .
.
xn

(4.7)

! , .
:

x1
x2

.. .
.
xn B

(4.8)

4.6 4.8 .
, ,
,
( ,
2.3.)
V . E = {e1 , . . . , en }
, :
1. , bi , i = 1, . . . , n,
E = {e1 , e2 , . . . , en },

bi = a1i e1 + a2i e2 + . . . + ani en

( e1 , . . . , en .)

46

4.

2. E, ei , i = 1, . . . , n,
B,

ei = 1i b1 + 2i b2 + . . . + ni bn
( b1 , . . . , bn .)
v E = {e1 , . . . , en }:

v = x1 (a11 e1 + a21 e2 + . . . + an1 en ) + . . . + xn (a1n e1 + a2n e2 + . . . + ann en )

v = (a11 x1 + a12 x2 + . . . + a1n xn )e1 + (a21 x1 + . . . + an2 xn )e2 +

+ (an1 x1 + . . . ann xn )en = y1 e1 + y2 e2 + + yn en (4.9)
, : A aij ( , m = n.)
v B 4.8. v E

y1

y2

=
A

..

.
yn E

x1
x2

.. ,
.
xn B

(4.10)

, ,

vE = AvB

(4.11)

, E B,
A:

vB = A1 vE

(4.12)

.
4.2. A,
B
E. , .
,
.
.

4.3 ;

47

4.5. R2 :

1
0

0
,
,
1

1
,
1

1
1

,
E = {e1 , e2 } B = {b1 , b2 } . :

E B

b1 =
e1 + e2
b2 = e1 + e2

1 1
1
1

A=

4.12,
B A1 ,
1

1
=
2

1 1
1 1

2e1 + 0e2 , ,

b1

b2

e1

e2

4.1: .

2
0

1
1

.
B

: , ,

.

48

4.

: T V W 1 v1 + 2 v2

1 T (v1 ) + 2 T (v2 ).
, v1 , . . . , vn V

v = x1 v1 + x2 v2 + + xn vn ,
, v T

T (v) = x1 T (v1 ) + x2 T (v2 ) + + xn T (vn ).

, T (vi ) vi
V W , w1 , . . . , wm :

T (vi ) = a1i w1 + a2i w2 + + ami wm .

,

T (v) = x1 (a11 w1 +a21 w2 + +am1 wm )+x2 (a12 w1 +a22 w2 + +am2 wm )+

+ xn (a1n w1 + a2n w2 + + amn wm ). (4.13)
W ,

T (v) = (x1 a11 +x2 a12 + +xn a1n )w1 +(x1 a21 +x2 a22 + +xn a2n )w2 +
(x1 am1 + x2 am2 + + xn amn )wm . (4.14)
A

a11
a21

a12
a22

A=

am1,1 am1,2
am1
am2

a1n

a2n

am1,n
amn

T
v1 , . . . , vn V w1 , . . . , wm W .
4.1.
1. x v v1 , . . . , vn ,
T (v)
w1 , . . . , wm

y = Ax

49

4.4

2. A
V ,

A=

a1 a2 an

ai = T (vi ).
,

ai = a1i w1 + a2i w2 + + ami wm .

4.4
, ,
,
.
4.6.
1.
, m = n.
2. -
, aij = 0 i 6= j .
A = (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ), ai = aii , i =
1, . . . , n .
3. n 1, ,
In , ,
, In A = A, BIn = B .
4.
, aij = 0 j > i.
.
5. A i, j ,
aij = aji ,

a11
a12
A=

a1n

a12
a22

a2n

a1n
a2n

ann

50

4.

6. A
i, j , aij = aji ,

0
a12
a12
0
A=

a1n a2n

a1n
a2n

7. A Toeplitz (
),

A=

a0
a1
a2
a1
a0
a1
a2
a1 a0

an+2

an+1 an+2

an1
an2

a1

a1 a0
a1
a2 a1 a0

Toeplitz
, .
8. A Vandermonde,

1
1
1
1

2
3

2
2
2

A=
1
2
3

1n1 2n1 3n1

1
n
n2

nn1

: 1 , 2 , . . . , n ,
Vandermonde .

(j i ).

1i<jn

- , , , n-, .
4.3.
( Aii
): , ,
( -blocks) , Aij , i > j , .

51

4.4

4.4.
, A = AT .

: A m n B n k ,
AB . , n 1,
M (n, n)
M (n), .
4.1. M (n) ,
.
(AB)C = A(BC) (
). M (n) In . ,

( n = 2, ):

1 1
0 0
0 1
0 1

0 1
0 1
1 1
0 0

0 2
0 0
0 0
0 0

4.7. A M (n)
B M (n) AB = BA = In .
B A B = A1 .
M (n, n) Gl(n).
4.2. Gl(n) .
: , AB , A, B Gl(n) B 1 A1 .
4.8. ,

AAT = AT A = I.
, ,
(
(4.5).
M (n)
n 2,
:

52

4.

4.6.

A=

1 2
0 0

: B , AB
.
M (n) ,
, : A(B+C) =
AB + AC (A + B)C = AC + BC . M (n)
(-).
4.7.

A=

1 0
0 2

1 0
0 1/2

4.2. A , A = (a1 , . . . , an )
ai 6= 0, A1
A1 = (1/a1 , . . . , 1/an ).
4.2.
: A -
,
, .
,
!

.
,
.

4.5

A
V W , . , A

4.5 ,

53

V :

A=

a1 a2 an

ai = T (vi ) W .
4.9. < a1 , a2 , . . . , an > W
A W (image)
A Im(A).
(rank) A rank(A).

A,
.
4.10. (kernel) A, ker(A),
V ,

ker(A) = {v V ; Av = 0}.
ker(A) V : ker(A) V .
A
A,
A.

rank(A) max{m, n}.

4.3. A M (n)
:
1. n: rank(A) = n
2. - : det A 6= 0.
3. W : Im(A) = W
4. : ker(A) = {0}.
( .)

.
A
.

54

4.

4.11. A M (n).
(adjoint matrix) A
A:

T
11 12 1n
11 21 n1
21 22 2n
12 22 n2

AdjA =
=
n1 n2 nn
1n 2n nn

(4.15)

4.3. A M (n) ,
A, A1

A1 =

1
AdjA
det A

.2.
4.8.

1 1 2
2
0 1
0 2 1
|A| = 8 + 2 + 2 = 4 6= 0, A .
:

11 = 2 12 = 2 13 = 4
21 = 3 22 = 1
23 = 2
31 = 1 32 = 3
33 = 2
( !) ,

A1

4.6

2 3 1
1
2
1
3
=
4
4
2
2

.
!

4.6 :

55

m n

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + + xn a1n = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + + xn a2n = b2

am1 x1 + am2 x2 + + xn amn = bn

(4.16)

, , ,

Ax = b.
4.4 ( ). A

A=

a1 a2 an

(4.17) b
ai :

b=

n
X

xi ai

i=1

,
. b
a1 , . . . , an m- Rm .

n
b. : Rm , Rn !
:
4.4. A Im(A) =< a1 , . . . , an > = Rm ,
Rm , .
m = n, Im(A) = Rn a1 , . . . , an
. , ,
.
:
Rm , W Rm ;
:
4.5. Im(A) =< a1 , . . . , an >=
W 6= Rm , Rm ,
(4.17) b W .

56

4.

4.6.1
- m = n,
:
4.6.

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + + xn a1n = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + + xn a2n = b2

an1 x1 + an2 x2 + + xn ann = bn

(4.17)

:
1. det A 6= 0.

x = A1 b
2. det A = 0, b
A, :

b <
/ a1 , . . . , an > .
3. det A = 0 b
A:

b < a1 , . . . , an > .

.

4.6.2

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + + xn a1n = 0

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + + xn a2n = 0

am1 x1 + am2 x2 + + xn amn = 0

Ax = 0

(4.18)

: , 0. :
; .

4.6 :

57

4.9.

2x + y = 0
6x + 3y = 0

0=x

2
6

+y

(4.19)

1
3

2
6

=2

1
3

, (x, y) = (0, 0), (x, y) = (1, 2), R .

:
y = 2x. !

( , ),
, :
4.5. Rn ,
A. m = n, A .

dim ker A = n rank(A) .

.
.
,
, R3 .
4.10.

2x y + z = 0
0 + 2y z = 0
4x + 2y + 0 = 0
:

2 1
1
2 1 = 4 8 + 4 = 0
det 0
4
2
0

(4.20)

58

4.

: . .
( ) :

z = 2y, x = y/2.
y = , z = 2, x = /2.
A,
(1/2, 1, 2):

1/2
1/2
ker A =< 1 > = { 1 ; R}.
2
2
4.7 ( ). A
k (k min{m, n}), k
xi1 , xi2 , . . . , xik k ,
xi1 , . . . , xik ( ),

xi1
xi2

A
= b ({xj }j6=i1 ,i2 ,...,ik ),
xik
b
A
.
k ,
.
(. 4.6.1)

xi1
xi2
1

= A b ({xj }j6=i1 ,i2 ,...,ik )

xik

, n k ,
Rn , A.
, , ,
, n k .

59

4.6 :

4.11 (). ,

0 z = 2y
,
4x + 0 = 2y

0 1
4
0

=
A

z = 2y , x = y/2 ,
y , .

4.6.3 Gauss
Gauss
. ,
.

.
,
Gauss
.
Gauss (Gauss Tableau).

Ax = b.
:
1. .
2. ( .)
3. A.
4. b.
5. .
, , / Gauss m :

N
1
2
..
.

A
a11 a12 a1n
a21 a22 a2n
..
.

b
b1
b2
..
.

am1 am2 amn bm

Pn
a1i + b1
Pi=1
n
i=1 a2i + b2
Pn
i=1

..
.

ami + bm

60

4.

m1 () :

,
A. .
.

N
1
2
..
.

m
m+1
..
.

2m 1

2
..
.

A
a11 a12 a1n
a21 a22 a2n
..
.

am1 am2 amn

0 a(m+1)2 a(m+1)n
..
.

b
b1
b2

Pn
a1i + b1
Pi=1
n
i=1 a2i + b2

..
.

bm
bm+1
..
.

0 a(2m1)2 a(2m1)n b2m1

Pn

..
.

ami + bm
a
i=1 (m+1)i + bm+1

Pn
Pn

i=1

i=1

..
.

a(2m1)i + b2m1

: ...
.
, , , : -,
. (pivots).
. !
(
A, b) (
.
4.12. 3 3:

N
1
2 2
2
1 3
3
1 1

A
b
1
1
4
2
1
1
2 2 4

1
2 1/2
3
1/2
4
5

A
b
2 2 1
1
4
1 3 2
1
1
1 1 2
2 4
0 4 2, 5
1, 5
3
0 2 1, 5 2, 5 6

4.6 :

61

, :

1
2 1/2
3
1/2
4
5 1/2
6

A
2 2 1
1 3 2
1 1 2
0 4 2, 5
0 2 1, 5
0 0 2, 75

1
4
1
1
2
4
1, 5
3
2, 5
6
1, 75 4, 5

1,4 6:

(6) = z = 2, 25/ 2, 75 = 0, 637,

(6) = x =

(4) = y =

0, 5 + 2, 5z
= 0, 772,
4

1 2y + z
= 0, 047.
2

LU A (LU decomposition). , ,
.

62

4.

4.7

: ( : cA + dB ).
AB A
B . A AT
.
.
:
. A

.
M (n, n; R):
. , A :
A = AT A = AT , AAT = I ,
Toeplitz Vendermonde
n 1 i .
: A M (n, R) det A 6= 0,

A1 =

1
AdjT (A).
det A

det A = 0, A
: Av = 0. A
,
- .
: Ax = b
A
b,

b < a1 , a2 , . . . , an > .
ker A A,

A.
Gauss , .
Gauss.

63

4.8

4.8
1.

3 0, 3 1, 4
0 2, 7 ,
A = 0, 4
1, 3 2, 5
4

0 1, 2
8, 3
5, 1 .
B = 0, 7 3, 3
0
7 6, 2

A 2B , A2 , 3A + B 2 , (A B)(B + A).
2.

A=

1 3 4
4
0 7

3 5
2 .
B = 1
0
4

, , .

AB,

BA,

B T 2A,

AAT 3B T B,

BB T A,

BB T + AT A.

3.
, ,
1
A1 = |A|
AdjT (A).

1
2 2
0
3 ,
A = 2
1 2
4

0 2
3
3
5 .
B= 7
3
1 6

4. ,
Gauss.
5. .
()

2x y + 3z =
0
3x 2y + z =
1
2x + y 2z = 2
()

0 + 4y z = 10
3x + y + 3z = 3
x + 0 4z =
0

64

4.

()

2x y + 3z =
0
3x 2y + z =
1
2x + y 2z = 2
6. .
()

2x 3y + z = 2
x 2y + 3z = 1
()

2x + y 2z =
1
x + y z = 1

 5

5.1
.
A Rn
Rn . A , , . v ,
P
x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , Av = ni=1 xi ai
v.
v
v,

Av = v

(5.1)

; , ,
Rn !

, , (
) .
(
,
.) , , (5.1). n
v , (n+1) .
n! ,
. .

66

5.

(5.1) :
,
v (5.1).

5.2

(5.1) :

(A In )v = 0

(5.2)

In In v = v. ,
,
( 4.6.2).
- A I
n.

det(A I) = 0

(5.3)

.
5.1. (5.3) , n.
n , C.
A n
A.
5.1.

1
1
det(A I2 ) =
2
5

= 2 7.

1 1
2 5

= ( + 1)( 5) + 2 = 2 4 3.

3 7
1 2 7
1
1
=
2
52 7
2
3 7
2
( 7 32 ) + 2 = 0.

67

5.3

5.2.

3 1
3
0 1 2
0 0
4

3
1
3

0
1 2
det(A I3 ) =

0
0
4

= ( + 3)( 1)( 4)

= 3, 1, 4,
.
:
5.2.
: 1 = a11 , 2 =
a22 , . . . , n = ann .
, n n .
n.
k , k .

5.3
, (A In )
n .
- .
5.1. - v Rn

(A I)v = 0
.
.
5.1. : v
, c R, cv (
Rn ). , ,
.
.

68

5.

5.3.

3
0
2
0 3
0
0
0 2
= 3, 3, 2. = 3,

0 0 2

0 0 0
A I3 =
0 0 1

, ker(A+3I), ,
!

ker(A + 3I) =< e1 , e2 >

( e1 , e2 R3 .)
= 3 .
, .
5.1. A, 1 , 2 , . . . , n
(i 6= j i 6= j ), i Vi
()
. 1 Rn :

< V 1 , V2 , . . . , V n > = Rn .
:
5.4.

10 1
0 2

1 = 10 2 = 2 ( .)
1 = 10, (A 1 I)v = 0:

(A 1 I)v =
1

0 1
0 8

u
v

0
0

. :

.

69

5.3

: v = 0 u !
i, 1 = 10
. :

1
0

v1 = c

, 2 = 2 :

(A 2 I)v =

8 1
0
0

u
v

0
0

: 8u + v = 0
:

1
8

v2 = c

5.5.

3 1
2 2

det(A I) = ( 3)( 2) + 2 = 2 5 + 8 = 0

5 1
7
5
=
25 32 = i
C.
2 2
2
2
, :

(A 1 I)v =

1
2

i
2

7
2

1
1
2 27

v=

!
1
7
i
u.
2
2

, :

v=c

1
2

1
i 27

u
v

0
0

70

5.

c C! !

2u =

!
!
!

7
7
7
1 7
1
1
1
+
v=
+
i
u=
+
u = 2u!
2
2
2
2
2
2
4 4

, A I
( .)
M (n; R) M (n; C),
!
( n n):
5.3. C A M (n; R) =() 6= 0,
, , .

Av = v:

Av = v,
A .
, :

5.1. v2 =

7
5
i 2 .
2
. ,
. , ,
Jordan.
5.2. k > 1,
k , : v1 , . . . , vm (m k ) w1 , . . . , wkm . vi
/ Avi = vi .
w -

Aw = w + v

(A I)w = v,

(5.4)

v .

71

5.4

:
1. .
k , (. .)
2. , vi : (5.4) v = vi
.
v . ...
.
3. , , .
k , .

5.4

: A M (n),
, , ,
, !

. ,
, 1 , 2 , . . . , n , i 6= j i 6= j ,
v1 , . . . , vn Rn (

.)
, , A . A
( 4.3.)
U = {v1 , . . . , vn }.
( 4.3
):

U = (v1 , . . . , vn )
v, U:

v = y1 v1 + y2 v2 + . . . + yn vn .

72

5.

A
:

Av = A(y1 v1 + y2 v2 + . . . + yn vn ) =
= y1 Av1 + y2 Av2 + . . . + yn Avn = y1 1 v1 + y2 2 v2 + . . . + yn n vn . (5.5)
, U, A
,

1 0 0
0 2 0

=
.
0 0 n

, A ,
! ( .) , ,
A,
M (n; C)!
A . U :

vU =

y1
y2

..
.
yn U

x1
x2

vE = .. ,
.
xn E

, , , :

vE = U vU .

v = x1 e1 + x2 e2 + . . . + xn en = y1 v1 + y2 v2 + . . . + yn vn .
x = vE y = vU , x = U y. :

Ax = A(U y),

73

5.4

5.5. Ax
v
. , U,
y. , :

Ax = U (y)
( y .) x =
U y,

A(U y) = U (y).
, ,

AU = U = U 1 AU =

A = U U 1 .
:
5.3. A M (n) ,
vi

U = (v1 , v2 , . . . , vn )

A = U U 1 U 1 AU =

(5.6)

.
:
i vi , :

Avi = i vi .
n , :

A(v1 v2 . . . vn ) = (1 v1 2 v2 . . . n vn ).

AU = U ,
! ,
.
5.2. .
,
, , -
.
. Jordan.

74

5.

5.5

: , , A I .
det(AI) n, A. A M (n; R) n
, .
: i , Ai I i .
k (k 1 ), , ,
k .

(A i I)v = 0.
, . k = 1 ( ),
cvi , vi .
: A M (n) , ,
U = (v1 vn ) (vi ) A .

A = U U 1

U 1 AU =

75

5.6

5.6
1. :

A=

1 3
2 0

B=

3 2
1
2

5 5
0 2

C=

2. :

A=

1 4
2 4

B=

3 3
1 1

3. :

2
3 1
2
0 , B = 1
A = 0 1
0
0 2
2

2
1 1
2
0 2 , D = 0
C= 2
2
1
1
3
: C = 2.

1 2
2
0 ,
0
0

0 2
2
0 .
0
2

76

5.


:

, .
M (n) , A, det A
.
.

.1. A =

a b
c d

det A = ad bc.
det A = |A|. , A ( ) ,
.
.1. v1 , v2 R2

A=

v1 v2

.
. ,
, .
, v1 , v2 (1 , 2 ) 6= (0, 0)

1 v1 + 2 v2 = ~0.

(
, )

80

. :

2 , .
v2 = v1 , = 1 /2 . :
(c, d) = (a, b) = det A = (ab ba) = 0.
, , ad = bc,
a/b = c/d,
( b, d 6= 0;)
M (3): , :
A

a11 a12 a13

a21 a22 a23

A=
a31 a32 a33

2 2

a
a
det A = a11 22 23
a32 a33

a12 a21 a33

a23 a31

+ a13 a21 a32

a22 a31

(.1)

:
: ,
a13 ( )
A
. .

det A = a11 a22 a33 + a12 a23 a31 + a21 a32 a13 a31 a22 a13 a21 a12 a33 a32 a23 a11 ,
(.2)
450
45o .
.1. .
, (.1),
M (n), n 4.
.2. A M (n) n .
(i, j), Aij (n 1)
(n 1) A i
j . (i, j)
A (principal minor). (i, j) ij A
(cofactor)

ij = (1)i+j |Aij |.

81
.1. (1)i+j
, .
.3. A M (n)

det A = |A| = a11 11 + a12 12 + . . . + a1n 1n .

,
(
.1.)
.1. a1 , a2 , . . . , an
Rn (

)
A = a1 a2 . . . an .

( .)
.2.
1. A M (n)

det A = ai1 i1 + ai2 i2 + . . . + ain in

i = 1, 2, . . . , n. i . j
:

det A = a1j 1j + a2j 2j + . . . + anj nj

2. i 6= k ,

ai1 k1 + ai2 k2 + . . . + ain kn = 0,

i
k , .
.
, .2:
.2 ( ).
AT , :

1. A,

det AT = det A.
2. A, .
.

82

. :

3. ( ) A ,
. ,
A n ,

det(A) = n det A.
4. ( ) A (
), ( ,
( .)
5. det A
ai ak ,
ai ai + ak .
.
6. ( )
.
( ,
) :
.3. A, B M (n),

det AB = det A det B.

- : m 6= n, A M (m, n). ,
- A,
min(m, n)! -
.
.4. k min(m, n) k , 1 i1 < i2 <
. . . < ik m, k 1 j1 < j2 < . . . < jk n.
A M (m, n)
B .
B -
:
1. aTi1 , . . . , aTik .
2. aj1 , . . . , ajk .

83

.1

.1
1. :

2 0 5
1 2
1 ,
2 1
3

4 2 1
1 3 0
0 2 2

: 35 22.
2.
- .

2
0
5 +
1 2 +
,
1
2+
1
3

4 2 + 1
1 3

0 2 + 2

3. 3 3 Vandermonde

1 1 1
1 2 3
12 22 32
(3 1 )(3 2 )(2 1 ).
4.

2 0 4 4
1 2 0 2
2 1 5 6

84

. :

,
. ,
, ,
, .
: Gilbert Strang Noble Daniel. Strang

. Schaum
. .
Gilbert Strang, ,
, 1993.
Ben Noble, C. Daniel: Applied Linear Algebra, Prentice-Hall.
S. Lipschutz, M.Lipson: , Schaum
/ : , . , : "Linear
Algebra" Jim Hefferon.
:
(Matlab, Maple, Mathematica.) , online ,
Online Matrix Calculator ( bluebit.gr.)

86

, Google
.
, , .
, .
,
. ,
,
, . ,
.
, , .
,
, ,
.
, ,
, , .. Schaum . ,
, (
) : Notes for a Second Course on Linear Systems, C.Desoer,
, . , ,
,
, .