Non-linear nite element analysis of exible pavements

Muhammad N.S. Hadi

*
, B.C. Bodhinayake
Faculty of Engineering, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia
Abstract
A research study is being undertaken to incorporate the realistic material properties of the pavement layers and the moving trafc load, in
the analysis of exible pavements, using the nite element theory. As a preliminary step taken herein in this direction, a pavement structure
where eld measurements have been carried out when subjected to a cyclic loading, is selected and modelled as a nite element model.
The analysis is being carried out using the nite element computer package ABAQUS/STANDARD, when this pavement model is subjected
to static and cyclic loading while considering the linear and non-linear material properties of the pavement layers. The results indicate that
displacements under cyclic loading when non-linear materials are present, are the closest to eld measured deections.
q 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Pavement analysis; Flexible pavement; Finite element; Cyclic loading; Non-linear; ABAQUS
1. Introduction
In mechanistic methods used in the analysis of layered
pavement systems under trafc load, the pavement layers
are considered as homogenous, linear elastic and isotropic
and the loading is considered as static [1]. These mechan-
istic methods work reasonably well, if the pavement
subgrade system behaves as a linear elastic system [2].
The use of multi-layer elastic theory together with static
loading is a rational approach compared with older
empirical pavement design methods. However, in the real
situation, these heterogeneous pavement layers behave far
from these ideal conditions and are subjected to dynamic
and cyclic loading. Researchers diverted their research to
the nite element method, which provides a better solution
in the dynamic analysis of pavements while considering the
heterogeneity, non-linearity and orthotropy condition of
the pavement structure at the same time [3,4]. With the
availability of high-speed computers, nite element
methods are gaining acceptance as the nite element
analysis programs can handle complex geometry, boundary
conditions and material properties with ease [5]. But still
these research efforts are in their early stages.
Research is being undertaken to model the exible
pavement as a nite element model, with dened boundary
conditions and to investigate the effects of static and cyclic
loading when combined with linear and non-linear
characteristics of pavement materials, in the analysis of
exible pavements. A pavement section where Accelerated
Loading Facility (ALF) trial has been carried out at
Callington, South Australia (Site No. 5 of ALF trial at
Callington), is selected for this study [6]. The reason for
selecting Australian Road Research Board (ARRBs)
accelerated loading facility is its capability of applying a
cyclic loading on pavement structure. At this site the
existing cracked asphalt surface course and granular base
course have been removed and replaced with two new
asphalt layers before the ALF trial, so that the behaviour of
the new asphalt layers can be considered as linear and the
granular layers below the new asphalt layers can be
considered as non-linear.
2. Background
Design methods for exible pavements have evolved
since the turn of the last century. Empirical methods with or
without a strength test were the early methods employed in
the design of exible pavements. The method without
strength test refers to the soil classication system provided
by Hogentogler and Terzaghi [7]. In the method with
strength test the thickness of pavement was related to CBR
[8]. By 1950, two methods based on limited deections and
limited shear failure were presented. The method based on
limited deection was presented by Kansas State Highway
Commission [9]. The method based on limited shear failure
was rst presented by Barber [10] and later by McLeod [11].
0965-9978/$ - see front matter q 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0965-9978(03)00109-1
Advances in Engineering Software 34 (2003) 657662
www.elsevier.com/locate/advengsoft
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 61-2-4221-4762; fax: 61-2-4221-3238.
E-mail address: mhadi@uow.edu.au (M.N.S. Hadi).
Design curves based on road tests became available in
1960s. Road Note 29 was published in 1960 to provide a
guide to the structural design of roads under British
condition of climate, materials, and trafc loading [12].
Similarly, design curves were developed from AASHO road
test during that period [13].
In 1943, Burmister [14] presented a method for
determining stresses and displacements in a two-layer
elastic system. Since then a large number of computer
programs have been developed for calculating stresses,
strains and deections of layered elastic system. Details of
few such programs can be found in Refs. [1519].
The stresses and strains calculated in these programs are
checked against the dened failure criteria. In all these
programs pavement layers are considered as homogeneous,
linear elastic.
In real situations, the assumption of homogeneous, linear
elastic pavement materials becomes invalid. Almost all
pavement materials are not homogeneous. Especially
granular materials are particulate in nature. Even though,
bituminous materials are mixed in hot mix plants, they are not
homogeneous. Pavement materials are not linear elastic.
When exposed to stress, pavement materials will exhibit
elastic deformation as well as a number of different
deformations, such as viscous, plastic and visco-elastic
deformations. Since all these deformations are stress
dependent, the materials behave in a non-linear manner [20].
The nite element method for the analysis of
exible pavements was rst applied by Duncan [21].
Many computer programs based on this nite element
method were later developed. Details of two well-known
programs developed in 1980s can be found in Refs. [22,23].
The use of nite element method in determining the stresses,
strains and deections is becoming popular, with the
availability of high-speed computers. Furthermore, this
method can handle structures with non-linear materials.
In all these programs, the trafc loading is considered as
static loading. The incorporation of trafc loading as a
dynamic loading is still in its early stages of research.
3. Flexible pavement analysis
3.1. Static analysis of multi-layered pavement subgrade
systems
In these methods each layer of the multi-layered linear
elastic pavement structure is characterised by its Youngs
Modulus and its Poissons ratio [24]. In some programs
resilient modulus based on the recoverable strain under
repeated loading is used instead of Youngs Modulus.
The stresses, strains and deections at specied distances
from the load are then theoretically calculated, assuming a
semi-innite subgrade and innite lateral boundaries.
These calculated responses are matched with dened failure
criteria. Layer thicknesses and material properties are
adjusted until the computed responses are lower than the
failure criterion.
3.2. Finite element analysis of pavement subgrade systems
In the nite element method the pavement layers are
considered as a solid continuum. The solid continuum
domain of the problem is then divided into sub domains.
These sub domains are then discretised into a number of
nite size elements. Assembly of all these elements will
then represent the problem in the analysis. Finite elements
are interconnected by nodes at their common edges.
This analysis provides an approximate solution for an
engineering structure with various types of boundary
conditions and under various types of loading using a
stiffness or energy formulation [25]. In the derivation of the
stiffness matrix for elements, three factors such as the
geometry of elements, the degrees of freedom allowed for
the nodes to displace and the material properties of elements
are considered. This solution yields displacements at the
nodal periods and stresses and strains at integration points.
4. Pavement subgrade model considered for the analysis
The pavement structure selected for this study (site No. 5
of ALF trial at Callington, South Australia) consists of a
45 mm thick asphalt layer (AC14) and a 55 mm thick
asphalt layer (AC20) as the surfacing course, a 85 mm thick
granular (limestone crushed rock) layer as the base course, a
230 mm thick granular (limestone quarry rubble) layer,
a 175 mm thick soil (calcareous clay sand) layer and a
370 mm thick soil (clayey sand) layer as the subbase course,
and a subgrade (siltstone rubble) at the bottom.
The pavement conguration is shown in Fig. 1. The material
properties of pavement layers are given in Table 1.
This pavement is subjected to a cyclic loading equal to
80 kN, applied through a dual wheel assembly, which
simulates the loading pattern of the ALF machine.
The interval at which the cyclic loading is applied, is
considered as 5 s, to simulate the unidirectional trafcking
speed of 20 km/h of the ALF machine.
A pavement structure having the layer conguration as
shown in Fig. 1 and having layer thicknesses and Elastic
Material properties as given in Table 1, is modelled as a
nite element model, using the nite element computer
package ABAQUS/STANDARD [26].
The results of laboratory and eld tests carried out during
the ALF trial at Callington, South Australia, are given in
Ref. [27]. In estimating the linear properties of pavement
materials those test results are used together with
the AASHO Road Guide [28]. In estimating the non-linear
properties of granular materials, results published in the
research report Stabilisation of Pavement Soils from South
Australia, are used [29]. This report presents the results of
repeated load triaxial tests carried out on soils collected
M.N.S. Hadi, B.C. Bodhinayake / Advances in Engineering Software 34 (2003) 657662 658
from two South Australian borrow pits. Nataatmadja [30],
has suggested a method of modelling non-linear
characteristics of granular materials to suit Australian
conditions. However, due to unavailability of exact
parameters required for such modelling, the ktheta
model, is used in this study with assumed k-values (k
1
and k
2
) as given in Table 2 [31]. In estimating k
1
; k
2
and u
values, Refs [28,29] are used.
The 40 kN wheel load is assumed to be uniformly
distributed over the contact area between tyre and
pavement. The size of contact area depends on the contact
pressure. The contact pressure is assumed as equal to the
tyre pressure. Tyre pressure is equal to 700 kPa, as given in
ARR198 [6].
The contact area can be represented by two semicircles
and a rectangle as shown in Fig. 2.
Further, this shape of two semicircles and a rectangle is
converted to a rectangle as suggested by Huang, having
an area of 0.5227 L
2
and a width of 0.6 L; as shown in Fig. 3(a)
[32]. Since L 0:330 m; L

{40=700=0:5227}
p
the
contact area has the dimensions of 0.288 m 0.198 m as
shown in Fig. 3(b).
Due to symmetry, the pavement under a half wheel load
is considered in the analysis. A pavement block under half
wheel load, having a length of 1.3 m, a width of 1.5 m and a
depth of 3.16 m, is considered for the analysis.
This pavement structure is loaded in an area of
0.144 m 0.198 m which represents the half wheel load
as shown in Fig. 4.
In ABAQUS [26] this pavement block is modelled with
C3D27R (Continuum 3-Dimensional 27 node elements with
reduced integration) brick elements. C3D27R element type
is quadratic. Quadratic elements yield better solution than
linear interpolation elements [33].
Since the cracked asphalt surface has been removed and
replaced with a new asphalt layer of 100 mm thick (45 mm
thick layer and 55 mm thick layer) at the ALF site,
the stressstrain relationships of the two asphalt layers are
assumed to be in the elastic region. The stressstrain
relationships of granular layers are assumed to be in the
plastic region. Therefore two asphalt layers in the pavement
structure are considered as homogeneous, linear elastic and
isotropic, while granular layers and the subgrade are
considered as linear initially and later as non-linear.
In this study the top surface is considered as free
from any discontinuities (no cracks) or unevenness.
Fig. 2. Contact area between tyre and pavement surface.
Fig. 1. Pavement conguration.
Table 2
k-Values used for non-linear modelling M k
1
u
k
2

Layer k
1
k
2
Base 6000 0.62
Sub-base 5800 0.56
Fill 5000 0.53
Rockll 4600 0.52
Subgrade 4500 0.5
Table 1
Layer thickness and elastic material properties
Layer Thickness
(mm)
Modulus of elasticity
(kPa)
Poissons ratio
Asphalt (AC14) 45 1,800,000 0.3
Asphalt (AC20) 55 1,725,000 0.3
Base 85 138,000 0.35
Sub-base 230 96,600 0.35
Fill 175 72,450 0.35
Rock ll 370 62,100 0.35
Subgrade Innite 55,200 0.35
Fig. 3. Equivalent contact area.
M.N.S. Hadi, B.C. Bodhinayake / Advances in Engineering Software 34 (2003) 657662 659
The interfaces between layers are considered as fully
bonded (no gaps) and rough, at this stage.
The three-dimensional view of the nite element model
considered for the analysis, using computer package
ABAQUS/STANDARD is shown in Fig. 5.
5. Boundary conditions
Since brick elements are considered in the nite element
modelling, rotation is not allowed for at all nodes.
Therefore, only three degrees of freedom have to be
considered in dening the boundary conditions.
The following conditions are applied with reference to
Fig. 4, when dening the boundary conditions.
The vertical displacements of the nodes on the bottom
plane (plane ABCD) of the model are xed.
The plane ADHE is considered as plane of symmetry
between the two wheels, thus the orthogonal
displacements to the plane are prevented.
The plane ABFE is considered as vertical plane passing
through midway of one wheel, thus the orthogonal
displacements to the plane are prevented.
6. Results
Displacements computed in the vertical direction of some
selected nodes, by the nite element package ABAQUS/
STANDARD and the deections measured by the Multi-
Depth Deection Gauge (MDDG) at similar locations during
ALF trial are presented graphically in Fig. 6.
The MDDG has measured deections at depths of 100,
200, 600 and 2030 mm and at distances of 0, 200, 250, 300,
500, 600, 900, 1200 and 1500 mm from the point of load
application, after 28, 52.6, 77.3, 103.1, 135.6, 160.6, 185.9,
211.0, 232.2 and 257.4 kcycles of load application.
Since, asphalt layers are considered as linear elastic in
this study, the deections measured at a depth of 100 mm
are not considered for comparison. The deections
measured at a depth of 600 mm are considered for
comparison, as they are the closest to the top of subgrade,
which is at a depth of 960 mm. The computer analysis is
being limited to ve cycles, in this study.
Fig. 6 shows that, if all pavement layers are considered as
linear elastic, the deections are similar for both static and
cyclic loading. The deections increase when non-linear
materials are present. The deections computed when
non-linear materials subjected to a cyclic loading are the
closest to the eld measured values.
Fig. 6 shows further that, the deections measured at the
point of load application increase slightly with the increase
in the number of cycles of load application, while
deections measured beyond 200 mm from the point of
load application, do not show any signicant increase.
If the analysis is carried out with exact material properties
and extended loading cycles, an agreement between
displacements computed by ABAQUS/STANDARD and
deections measured in the eld could be achieved.
7. Summary and conclusion
A pavement structure consisting of two asphalt layers, a
granular base layer and a subbase layer on top of subgrade,
is modelled as a 3D nite element model using the nite
element computer package ABAQUS/STANDARD.
The analysis is carried out considering linear and
non-linear behaviour of pavement materials when they are
subjected to static and cyclic loading. Quadratic brick
Fig. 4. Pavement considered in the analysis.
Fig. 5. Three-dimensional view of the nite element model.
M.N.S. Hadi, B.C. Bodhinayake / Advances in Engineering Software 34 (2003) 657662 660
elements are used in nite element modelling as they yield
results with greater accuracy.
The computer analysis is limited to ve cycles, while
deections measurements during the ALF trial are being
carried out after 28, 52.6, 77.3, 103.1, 135.6, 160.6,
185.9, 211.0, 232.2 and 257.4 kcycles of load application.
Although it is not possible to compare the results at this
stage, all deection bowls show a similar trend.
Even though, the cyclic loading in this study is
limited to ve cycles, it can be seen that, cyclic loading
which could be simulated to wheel loading together with
non-linear pavement materials produces a higher
deection at the top of the subgrade, than the
static loading together with either linear or non-linear
pavement materials.
Based on the work in this preliminary study, it can be
predicted that, if pavement designs are carried out assuming
static loading and linear pavement materials, the deections
at top of subgrade are higher than the expected values,
when pavement sections with non-linear materials are
subjected to the moving load. These higher deections on
top of subgrade can cause the pavement sections to fail
before the end of design life.
References
[1] Liang RY, Zhu JX. Dynamic analysis of innite beam or modied
Vlasov subgrade. J Transport Engng 1995;September/October:
43443.
[2] Uddin W, Zhang D, Fernandes F. Finite element simulation of
pavement discontinuities and dynamic load response. Transportation
Research Record 1448; 1994. p. 1006.
[3] Uddin W, Hackett RM, Joseph A, Pan Z, Crawley AB. Three-
dimensional nite element analysis of jointed concrete pavement
with discontinuous. Transportation Research Record 1482; 1995.
p. 2632.
[4] Khanal PP, Mamkouk MS. Program BIMODPAV for analysis of
exible pavement. J Transport Engng 1997;January/February:
4350.
[5] Vepa TS, George KP. Deections response models for cracked
rigid pavements. J Transport Engng 1997;September/October:
37784.
[6] Kadar P. The performance of overlay treatments and modied binders
under accelerated full-scale loadingThe Callington ALF Trial.
Research Report ARR No. 198, Victoria, Australia: Australian Road
Research Board; 1991.
[7] Hogentogler CA, Terzaghi C. Interrelationship of load, road and
subgrade. Public Road 1929;May:3764.
[8] Porter OJ. Development of the original method for highway design.
Symposium on Development of CBR Flexible Pavement Design
Methods for Airelds, Transachan, ASCE; 1950. p. 46167.
Fig. 6. Deections at a depth of 600 mm from the surface.
M.N.S. Hadi, B.C. Bodhinayake / Advances in Engineering Software 34 (2003) 657662 661
[9] Design of exible pavement using the triaxial compression test.
Kansas State Highway Commission, Highway Research Board
Bulletin 8; 1947.
[10] Barber ES. Application of triaxial test results to the calculations of
exible pavement thickness. Proceedings, Highway Research Board;
1946.
[11] McLeod NW. Flexible pavement thickness requirements. Proceed-
ings, the Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists, vol. 25.; 1956.
[12] A guide to the structural design of pavements for new roads. Road
Note 29, 3rd ed. London: Road Research Laboratory, Department of
the Environment; 1978.
[13] The AASHO Road Test. Report 5, AASHO. Pavement Research.
Washington DC: National Academy of Science, National Research
Council; 1962.
[14] Burmister DM. The theory of stresses and displacements in layered
system and applications to the design of airport runaways. Proceed-
ings, Highway Research Board, vol. 23.; 1943.
[15] Warren H, Diechmann WL. Numerical computation of stresses and
strains in a multi-layer asphalt pavement system. Internal Report,
Richmond, CA: Cherveron Research Corporation; 1963.
[16] De Jong DL, Peatz MGF, Korswagen AR. Computer program Bisar
layered systems under normal and tangential loads. External Report,
Amsterdam: AMSR, Konin Klijke Shell-Laboratorium; 1973.
[17] Kopperian S, Tiller G, Tsong M. ELSYM 5, interactive micro
computer version, Users Manual. Report No FHWA-TS-87-206, US:
Federal Highway Administration; 1986.
[18] Finn F, Saraf CL, Kulkami R, Nair K, Smith W, Abdullah A.
Development of pavement structural subsystems. NCHRP Report
291, USA: Transportation Research Board; 1986.
[19] Wardle LJ. Program CIRCLYa computer program for the analysis
of multiple complex circular loads in layered anisotropic media,
Users Manual. Australia: Commonwealth Science Industrial
Research Organisation; 1977.
[20] Ullidtz P. Pavment analysis. Elsevier Science Publishers; 1987.
[21] Duncan JM, Monismith CL, Wilson EC. Finite element analysis of
pavements. Highway Research Board, Highway Research Record
228; 1968. p. 1833.
[22] Road L, Figueroa JL. Load response of transportation support
systems. Transport Engng J, ASCE 1980;106(TE1):11128.
[23] Harichandran RS, Yeh MS, Baladi GY. MICH-PAYE a non-linear
nite element program for the analysis of exible pavements.
Transportation Research Record 1286, Washington, DC: Transpor-
tation Research Board; 1990. p. 12331.
[24] Uddin W, Pan Z. Finite element analysis of exible pavements with
discontinuities. Transportation Congress, Proceedings, VI, New York,
NY, USA: ASCE; 1995.
[25] Cho Y, McCuthough BF, Weissmann J. Considerations on nite
element method application in pavement structural analysis. Trans-
portation Research Record 1539, Washington, DC: Transportation
Research Board, National Research Council; 1996. p. 96101.
[26] ABAQUS Version 5.7, Users Manual. Pawtuckel, USA: Hibbitt,
Karlson, Sorenson, Inc.; 1997.
[27] Statton JE, Evans GW. Callington ALF Trial Program Report 4.
Report No. MS41-4, South Australia: Highways Department; 1989.
[28] AASHTO Guide to Design of Pavement Structures. Washington, DC:
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Ofcials;
1993.
[29] Symons MG, Poli DC. Stabilisation of pavement soils from South
Australia. A research report, Structural Materials and Assemblies
Group, University of South Australia; 1996.
[30] Nataatmadja A. On the response of granular unbound pavement
materials under repeated loading. Proceedings Part 2, 17th ARRB
Conference, Queensland: Australian Road Research Board; 1994.
p. 99114.
[31] Hicks RG, Monismith CL. Factors inuencing the relient properties of
granular materials. Highway Research Record 345, Washington, DC:
Highway Research Board; 1971. p. 1531.
[32] Huang YH. Pavement analysis and design. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall; 1993.
[33] Kuo C, Hall KT, Darter MI. Three-dimensional nite element method
for analysis of concrete pavement support. Transportation Research
Record 1505, Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board,
National Research Council; 1995. p. 11927.
M.N.S. Hadi, B.C. Bodhinayake / Advances in Engineering Software 34 (2003) 657662 662