11 DIALEXH

AUTOSUZUGHS DIAFORIKOS TELESTHS

'Estw
Lu = p0 (x)u00 (x) + p1 (x)u0 (x) + p2 (x)u(x),

tìte o telest c
L∗ v = p0 v 00 + (2p00 − p1 )v 0 + (p000 − p01 + p2 )v.

onomˆzetai suzug c tou L. EÐnai eÔkolo na deÐxei kaneÐc ìti L = L∗∗ . Dhlad , o telest c
suzug c tou telest , pou eÐnai sth seirˆ tou suzug c tou enìc ˆllou telest , sumpÐptei
me to teleutaÐo.
Ja apodeÐxoume t¸ra thn tautìthta tou Lagrange. 'Estw p0 ∈ C 2 , p1 , p2 ∈ C 1 , tìte

(11.1) vLu − uL∗ v = (p0 v)u00 − (p0 v)00 u + (p1 v)u0 + (p1 v)0 u.

Ja sumbolÐsoume me w = p0 v , z = p1 v . H (11.1) ja grafteÐ se morf 

(11.2) vLu − uL∗ v = wu00 − uw00 + zu0 + uz 0 = (wu0 − uw0 )0 + (zu)0 =

d d
= [(wu0 − uw0 ) + zu] = [p0 vu0 − p0 uv 0 − p00 uv + p1 vu] =
dx dx
d
= [p0 (vu0 − uv 0 ) + (p1 − p00 )uv].
dx
Blèpoume ìti to aristerì mèroc thc (11.2) eÐnai pˆnta tèleio diaforikì thc omogenoÔc
digrammik c morf c wc proc u, v kai u0 , v 0 . H sqèsh (11.2) onomˆzetai tautìthta tou
Lagrange. ParathroÔme ìti oloklhr¸nontac katˆ mèrh to aristerì mèroc thc (11.1) ja
pˆroume
x1
Z x1
Z
vLudx = uL∗ vdx + [p0 (vu0 − uv 0 ) + (p1 − p00 )uv]xx10 .
x0 x0

ORISMOS. O telest c L onomˆzetai autosuzug c, an L = L∗ .

Gia na eÐnai o L autosuzug c ja prèpei na isqÔei p00 = p1 . Opoiosd pote autosuzug c
telest c L mporeÐ na grafteÐ se morf 

(11.3) Lu = (p(x)u0 )0 + q(x)u.

Ja deÐxoume t¸ra ìti o telest c

(11.4) Lu = p0 u00 + p1 u0 + p2 u

mporeÐ na gÐnei autosuzug c, an ja ton pollaplasiˆsoume me

R p1
dx
e p0
(11.5) h(x) = .
p0

1
Pollaplasiˆzoume me h(x) thn (11.4)

(11.6) hLu = hp0 u00 + hp1 u0 + hp2 u.

Gia na eÐnai o telest c (11.6) autosuzug c, ja prèpei (hp0 )0 = hp1 , ˆra

0 p1 − p00
h p0 + hp00 = hp1 =⇒ h = , 0
p0
kai epomènwc R p1
dx
e p0
h(x) =.
p0
ParathroÔme ìti h (11.2) sthn perÐptwsh autosuzugoÔc telest  paÐrnei th morf 
d
(11.7) vLu − uLv = [p(u0 v − uv 0 )].
dx
PARADEIGMA. JewroÔme thn

(11.8) x2 u00 + xu0 + u = 0.

Elègxte an o telest c sthn (11.8) eÐnai autosuzug c   ìqi. An den eÐnai, metatrèyte ton
se autosuzug .
LUSH. Elègqoume thn sunj kh p00 = p1 . Sth dik  mac perÐptwsh p0 = x2 , p00 = 2x 6=
x = p1 . Epomènwc o telest c sthn (11.8) den eÐnai autosuzug c. Gia na ton metatrèyoume
se autosuzug , prèpei na ton pollaplasiˆsoume me
R p1 R
dx x
dx
e p0
e x2 1
h(x) = = = .
p0 x2 x
Metˆ ton pollaplasiasmì ja pˆroume
1
(11.9) xu00 + u0 + u = 0,
x
ìpou o telest c sthn (11.9) eÐnai  dh autosuzug c.
SUNARTHSH GREEN
JewroÔme thn mh omogen  exÐswsh

(11.10) Lu = u00 + p(x)u0 + q(x)u = f.

Mac endiafèrei an eÐnai dunatìn na antistrèyoume ton telest  L, dhlad  na broÔme ton
L−1 , kai poia morf  ja èqei autìc o telest c?
Parakˆtw ja deÐxoume ìti tètoioc telest c upˆrqei kai eÐnai epÐshc grammikìc. Sum-
bolÐzoume ton L−1 me G. Ja deÐxoume ìti an G èqei thn morf 
Zx
(11.11) G[f ] = G(x, ξ)f (ξ)dξ,
a

2
tìte h lÔsh thc (11.10) me omogeneÐc arqikèc sunj kec u(a) = 0, u0 (a) = 0 dÐnetai apì thn
u = Gf . 'Estw u = Gf dÐnei thn lÔsh thc (11.10), tìte h sunˆrthsh G(x, ξ), pou eÐnai o
pur nac tou oloklhrwtikoÔ telest  G, onomˆzetai sunˆrthsh tou Green tou telest  L.
ParathroÔme ìti an u ikanopoieÐ tic mh omogeneÐc arqikèc sunj kec thc morf c

(11.12) u(a) = c1 , u0 (a) = c2 ,

tìte h y = u − c1 − (x − a)c2 ikanopoieÐ thn

Ly = y 00 + py 0 + qy = f − c2 p − c1 q − c2 (x − a)q = f˜,

y(a) = y 0 (a) = 0.

Dhlad  pˆnta eÐnai dunatìn na perˆsoume sto prìblhma arqik¸n tim¸n me omogeneÐc suno-
riakèc sunj kec.
JEWRHMA. 'Estw h G(x, ξ) sthn (11.11) ikanopoieÐ tic akìloujec sunj kec
1. G(x, ξ) = 0 gia a ≤ x ≤ ξ .
2. Gia opoiod pote stajeropoihmèno ξ ≥ a kai gia ìla ta x > ξ h G(x, ξ) eÐnai mia merik 
lÔsh thc
(11.13) L(G) = Gxx + pGx + qG = 0
¯ ¯
¯ ¯
kai ikanopoieÐ tic G¯ = 0, Gx ¯ = 1. Tìte h G(x, ξ) eÐnai h sunˆrthsh tou Green thc
x=ξ x=ξ
(11.10) me arqikèc sunj kec u(a) = u0 (a) = 0.
APODEIXH. Jètoume
Zx
(11.14) u= G(x, ξ)f (ξ)dξ.
a

Ja deÐxoume ìti (11.14) mac dÐnei thn lÔsh thc (11.10) me arqikèc sunj kec u(a) = u0 (a) =
0. ParagwgÐzoume thn (11.14)
Zx Zx
0
(11.15) u (x) = G(x, x)f (x) + Gx (x, ξ)f (ξ)dξ = Gx (x, ξ)f (ξ)dξ,
a a

epeid  G(x, x) = 0. ParagwgÐzoume thn (11.14) deÔterh forˆ kai paÐrnoume

Zx Zx
00
(11.16) u (x) = Gx (x, x)f (x) + Gxx (x, ξ)f (ξ)dξ = f (x) + Gxx (x, ξ)f (ξ)dξ,
a a

epeid  Gx (x, x) = 1. AjroÐzontac ta apotelèsmata twn (11.14), (11.15), (11.16) kai

qrhsimopoi¸ntac thn (11.13) paÐrnoÔme
Zx
00 0
Lu = u + pu + qu = f + [Gxx + pGx + qG]f (ξ)dξ = f (x).
a

3
 Jètontac stic (11.14), (11.15) x = a sumperˆnoume ìti u(a) = u0 (a) = 0. EÐnai
eÔkolo na apodeiqjeÐ ìti h (11.14) mac dÐnei thn lÔsh thc (11.10) me arqikèc sunj kec
u(a) = u0 (a) = 0 kai gia x ≤ a.
H monadikìthta thc sunˆrthshc tou Green prokÔptei apì to gegonìc ìti upˆrqei mìno
tetrimmènh lÔsh tou probl matoc

(11.17) Lu = u00 + pu0 + qu = 0, u(a) = u0 (a) = 0.

Rx
'Estw upˆrqoun duo sunart seic tou Green G1 kai G2 , tìte v = a G1 (x, ξ)f (ξ)dξ , w =
Rx
a G2 (x, ξ)f (ξ)dξ kai gia thn u = v − w lambˆnoume
Zx Zx
u=v−w = G1 (x, ξ)f (ξ)dξ − G2 (x, ξ)f (ξ)dξ =
a a

Zx
= [G1 (x, ξ) − G2 (x, ξ)]f (ξ)dξ ≡ 0, =⇒ G1 ≡ G2 .
a
Ja kataskeuˆsoume thn sunˆrthsh tou Green sthn perÐptwsh ìtan eÐnai gnwstèc oi eidikèc
lÔseic thc antÐstoiqhc omogenoÔc exÐswshc. Ja parast soume thn G(x, ξ) se morf 

(11.18) G(x, ξ) = c1 (ξ)u1 (x) + c2 (ξ)u2 (x),

ìpou u1 (x), u2 (x) eÐnai eidikèc lÔseic thc Lu = 0 kai c1 (ξ), c2 (ξ) eÐnai, proc to parìn,
aujaÐretec sunart seic. Gia na ikanopoi soume tic arqikèc sunj kec gia thn G(x, ξ),
katal goume sto ex c sÔsthma exis¸sewn

(11.19) c1 (ξ)u1 (ξ) + c2 (ξ)u2 (ξ) = 0, c1 (ξ)u01 (ξ) + c2 (ξ)u02 (ξ) = 1.

Sthn deÔterh exÐswsh h parˆgwgoc twn c1 kai c2 den emfanÐzetai, epeid  thn parˆgwgo
thn paÐrnoume wc proc x. 'Ara
u2 u1
(11.20) c1 = − , c2 = ,
W (u1 , u2 , ξ) W (u1 , u2 , ξ)
ìpou W (u1 , u2 , ξ) eÐnai h Bronskian  twn u1 (ξ), u2 (ξ). 'Ara gia thn G(x, ξ) èqoume
u1 (ξ)u2 (x) − u1 (x)u2 (ξ)
G(x, ξ) = .
u1 (ξ)u02 (ξ) − u01 (ξ)u2 (ξ)
PORISMA. 'Estw u1 , u2 eÐnai eidikèc lÔseic thc

Lu = u00 + p(x)u0 + q(x)u = 0.

Tìte h lÔsh thc Lu = f me arqikèc sunj kec u(a) = u0 (a) = 0 dÐnetai apì thn
Zx
u1 (ξ)u2 (x) − u1 (x)u2 (ξ)
(11.21) u(x) = dξ.
a
W (u1 , u2 , ξ)

4
 PARADEIGMA. BreÐte thn lÔsh tou probl matoc

(11.22) y 00 + 3y 0 + 2y = 5x + 8, y(0) = 1, y 0 (0) = 2.

LUSH. BrÐskoume tic rÐzec tou qarakthristikoÔ poluwnÔmou

(11.23) λ2 + 3λ + 2 = 0, =⇒ λ1 = −2, λ2 = −1.

Apì thn (11.23) prokÔptei ìti oi eidikèc lÔseic thc omogenoÔc exÐswshc thc (11.22) èqoun
th morf 
(11.24) y1 = e−x , y2 = e−2x .

Epomènwc h Bronskian  eÐnai h

¯ ¯
¯ −x ¯
¯ e e−2x ¯
¯ = −e−3x .
W (x) = ¯¯ −2x ¯¯
¯ −e−x −2e

MhdenÐzoume tic arqikèc sunj kec qrhsimopoi¸ntac thn antikatˆstash y = u + 1 + 2x.

'Ara h u ikanopoieÐ thn

(11.25) u00 + 3u0 + 2u = x, u(0) = u0 (0) = 0.

Blèpoume ìti o diaforikìc telest c èqei thn Ðdia morf  me autìn thc (11.22), ˆra èqoume
tic Ðdiec eidikèc lÔseic kai thn Ðdia Bronskian . 'Ara h lÔsh thc (11.25) ja pˆrei th morf 
Zx
(11.26) u(x) = [e(ξ−x ) − e2(ξ−x) ]ξdξ.
0

Aplopoi¸ntac thn (11.26) katal goume sthn

u(x) = x/2 − 3/4 + e−x − e−2x /4,

epomènwc h lÔsh thc (11.22) ja pˆrei th morf 

y = 3x/2 + 1/4 + e−x − e−2x /4.

12 DIALEXH
PROBLHMATA SUNORIAKWN TIMWN.
Ja perˆsoume sta sunoriakˆ probl mata gia diaforikèc exis¸seic deÔterhc tˆxhc. To
sunoriakì prìblhma diafèrei apì to prìblhma arqik¸n tim¸n sto ìti oi sunj kec, pou
prosdiorÐzoun tic duo aujaÐretec stajerèc thc genik c lÔshc miac deuterotˆxiac exÐswshc,

5
dÐdontai se duo diaforetikˆ shmeÐa. Se kˆje shmeÐo apì mia sunj kh. 'Estw meletˆme mia
diaforik  exÐswsh se èna diˆsthma [x0 , x1 ]. Tìte to sunoriakì prìblhma èqei th morf 

(12.1) u00 + p(x)u0 + q(x)u = 0, (f (x))

α1 u(x0 ) + α2 u0 (x0 ) = d1 , β1 u(x1 ) + β1 u0 (x1 ) = d2 .

Blèpoume ìti oi sunj kec, pou prosdiorÐzoun tic stajerèc thc genik c lÔshc, dÐdontai
sta ˆkra tou diast matoc [x0 , x1 ], dhlad  sto sÔnoro. Apì ed¸ proèrqetai h onomasÐa
tètoiou eÐdouc problhmˆtwn.
Upˆrqoun pollˆ probl mata fusik c, pou anˆgontai sta sunoriakˆ probl mata tÔpou
(12.1). Ja anafèroume merikˆ apì autˆ.
√
'Estw F (x, y, y 0 ) = 1 + y 02 , tìte to olokl rwma

Zb
(12.2) I(f ) = F (x, y, y 0 )dx, y = f (x)
a

paristˆnei to m koc thc kampÔlhc f (x) gia x ∈ [a, b]. To prìblhma eÐnai na brejeÐ tè-
toia y = f (x), pou elaqistopoieÐ to I(f ), ìpou upotÐjetai ìti ta ˆkra thc kampÔlhc
eÐnai stajeropoihmèna, dhlad  f (a) = c, f (b) = d. To prìblhma elaqistopoÐhshc tou
oloklhr¸matoc (12.2) eÐnai èna genikì prìblhma, pou sunantˆtai sto Logismì Metabol¸n,
ìpou to rìlo thc F paÐzoun diˆfora antikeÐmena fusikoÔ   majhmatikoÔ qarakt ra. Apì
ta klasikˆ apotelèsmata tou Euler prokÔptei, ìti h y = f (x) dÐnei to akrìtato tou
oloklhr¸matoc (12.2) se klˆsh ìlwn twn sunart sewn apì to C 2 , pou paÐrnoun tic timèc
f (a) = c, f (b) = d, an kai mìno an h f (x) ikanopoieÐ thn exÐswsh tou Euler-Lagrange
à !
d ∂F ∂F
(12.3) = .
dx ∂y 0 ∂y

'Estw èna swmatÐdio kineÐtai upì thn epÐdrash miac dÔnamhc F (x, y, y 0 ), ìpou x eÐnai
qrìnoc, y eÐnai h jèsh tou swmatidÐou th qronik  stigm  x, kai h y 0 eÐnai h taqÔthta tou
swmatidÐou. EÐnai gnwstì ìti thn arqik  stigm  x = x0 h jèsh tou swmatidÐou  tan sto
y = y0 , kai th stigm  x = x1 to swmatÐdio  tan sto y = y1 . Jèloume na prosdiorÐsoume th
jèsh tou swmatidÐou se opoiad pote stigm  x ∈ [x0 , x1 ]. 'Etsi, katal goume sto sunoriakì
prìblhma
1
(12.4) y 00 = F (x, y, y 0 ), y(x0 ) = y0 , y(x1 ) = y1 ,
m
ìpou y 00 eÐnai h epitˆqunsh tou swmatidÐou. H exÐswsh (12.4) eÐnai o gnwstìc nìmoc tou
NeÔtwna.
Mia polÔ shmantik  er¸thsh, pou emfanÐzetai ed¸, eÐnai h ex c: pìte to prìblhma
(12.1) eÐnai kalˆ tejeimèno, dhlad  pìte èqoume Ôparxh kai monadikìthta.

6
 To prìblhma Ôparxhc kai monadikìthtac gia ta sunoriakˆ probl mata diafèrei apì to
antÐstoiqo gia ta probl mata arqik¸n tim¸n. Kai h diaforˆ eÐnai sto ìti to omogenèc
sunoriakì prìblhma, dhlad  to prìblhma

(12.5) u00 + p(x)u0 + q(x)u = 0,

α1 u(x0 ) + α2 u0 (x0 ) = β1 u(x1 ) + β2 u0 (x1 ) = 0,

mporeÐ na èqei ˆpeiro pl joc lÔsewn kai ìqi mìno mhdenik  lÔsh, ìpwc sthn perÐptwsh
omogenoÔc probl matoc arqik¸n tim¸n. An (12.5) èqei ˆpeiro pl joc lÔsewn, tìte lème
ìti briskìmaste pˆnw sthn idiotim  tou probl matoc (12.5). Gia na perigrˆyoume ìlec thc
dunatèc peript¸seic, ja jewr soume to akìloujo prìblhma

(12.6) y 00 + y = 0, y(0) = 0, y(x1 ) = y1 .

H genik  lÔsh thc exÐswshc y 00 + y = 0 dÐnetai apì thn

(12.7) y = c1 cosx + c2 sinx.

H pr¸th sunoriak  sunj kh ikanopoieÐtai, an ja jèsoume c1 = 0, epomènwc y = c2 sinx.

y1
'Estw x1 6= πn, tìte apì thn deÔterh sunj kh brÐskoume thn c2 = sinx1
. 'Ara h zhtoÔmenh
y1
lÔsh ja pˆrei th morf  y = sinx1
sinx. ParathroÔme ìti se aut  thn perÐptwsh to omogenèc
prìblhma èqei mìno tetrimmènh lÔsh.
'Estw x1 = πn, tìte y(x1 ) = y(πn) = c2 sin(πn) = 0. 'Ara, an y1 = 0, tìte briskì-
maste pˆnw sthn idiotim  tou probl matoc (12.6), kai, wc apotèlesma, paÐrnoume mia
monoparametrik  oikogèneia lÔsewn. Ed¸ h idiotim  eÐnai λ = 1, kai h antÐstoiqh idio-
sunˆrthsh eÐnai h y = sinx.
An y1 6= 0, tìte h (12.6) den èqei lÔseic, afoÔ c2 sin(πn) = 0 6= y1 .
ParathroÔme ìti opoiod pote prìblhma sunoriak¸n tim¸n mporeÐ na anaqjeÐ, me katˆllhlh
allag  exarthmènhc metablht c, se prìbl ma me omogeneÐc sunoriakèc sunj kec.
JEWRHMA. To prìblhma sunoriak¸n tim¸n

(12.8) Lu = p0 u00 + p1 (x)u0 + p2 (x)u = f (x),

α1 u(x0 ) + α2 u0 (x0 ) = β1 u(x1 ) + β2 u0 (x1 ) = 0

eÐnai kal¸c tejeimèno prìblhma, an kai mìno an to omogenèc prìbl ma (f = 0) èqei mìno
tetrimmènh lÔsh.
PARATHRHSH. An to omogenèc prìblhma (12.8) èqei lÔsh, tìte to prìbl ma
(12.8) me f 6≡ 0 mporeÐ na mhn èqei lÔsh. Sthn perÐptwsh ìtan aut  upˆrqei, den èqoume
monadikìthta. Gia na upˆrqei lÔsh thc (12.8) sthn perÐptwsh, ìtan to omogenèc prìblhma

7
èqei mh tetrimmènh lÔsh, ja prèpei h f kai oi idiosunart seic tou telest  L∗ , pou eÐnai
lÔseic tou omogenoÔc probl matoc gia ton telest  L∗ , na ikanopoioÔn thn sunj kh or-
jogwniìthtac ston q¸ro C . Lème ìti u kai v ikanopoioÔn thn sunj kh orjogwniìthtac
ston q¸ro C an
x1
Z
(12.9) (u, v) = uvdx = 0
x0

PARADEIGMA. Na brejoÔn oi lÔseic tou probl matoc

(12.10) y 00 + y = cosx, y(0) = y(π) = 0.

LUSH. ParathroÔme ìti to omogenèc prìblhma (12.10) èqei lÔseic, pou dÐdontai apì
thn sqèsh y = c2 sinx. 'Ara an h (12.10) èqei lÔsh, tìte den eÐnai monadik . Gia na
katalˆboume, an upˆrqei lÔsh thc (12.10), ja prèpei na elègxoume thn proanaferìmenh
sunj kh orjogwniìthtac. ParathroÔme ìti L = L∗ , dhlad  o telest c sthn (12.10) eÐnai
autosuzug c. 'Ara thn sunj kh orjogwniìthtac ja prèpei na elègxoume gia tic cosx kai
sinx. 'Eqoume,
Zπ Zπ
cos2 x ¯¯π
(12.11) cosxsinxdx = − cosxd(cosx) = − ¯ = 0.
2 0
0 0

'Ara upˆrqoun lÔseic thc (12.10). H genik  lÔsh èqei th morf 

(12.12) y = yµ + c1 cosx + c2 sinx.

Den eÐnai dÔskolo na brejeÐ h merik  lÔsh. Yˆqnontˆc thn se morf 

(12.13) y = (ĉ1 x + ĉ2 )cosx + (ĉ3 x + ĉ4 )sinx

kai antikajist¸ntac thn (12.13) sthn exÐswsh, ja pˆroume

xsinx xsinx
yµ = , y= + c1 cosx + c2 sinx.
2 2
'Ara antikajist¸ntac thn y stic sunoriakèc sunj kec , ja pˆroume

y(0) = c1 = 0, y(π) = −c1 = 0.

Epomènwc h lÔsh tou probl matoc (12.10) dÐdetai apì thn

xsinx
(12.14) y= + c2 sinx.
2
Apì thn (12.14) prokÔptei ìti h lÔsh tou probl matoc (12.10) eÐnai monoparametrik 
oikogèneia.

8
 SUNARTHSH GREEN
Ja asqolhjoÔme t¸ra me thn sunˆrthsh tou Green gia to prìblhma (12.1). Katarq n,
jewroÔme to prìblhma
(12.15) y 00 + p1 (x)y 0 + p2 (x)y = φ(x),

α1 y(x0 ) + α2 y 0 (x0 ) = y0 , β1 y(x1 ) + β2 y 0 (x1 ) = y1 .

EÐnai pˆnta dunatìn na kataskeuasteÐ mia sunˆrthsh z(x), tètoia ¸ste na ikanopoieÐ thc
sunoriakèc sunj kec. Epomènwc gia thn u = y − z , ja pˆroume èna prìblhma sunoriak¸n
tim¸n me omogeneÐc sunoriakèc sunj kec.
R
p1 (x)dx
Pollaplasiˆzontac thn exÐswsh (12.15) me e , anˆgoume aut n thn exÐswsh se

(12.16) (py 0 )0 + qy = φ1 (x),

R R R
p1 dx p1 dx p1 dx
ìpou p = e , q = p2 e , φ1 = φe . Kˆnontac ìlec autèc tic allagèc, katal -
goume sto ex c prìblhma sunoriak¸n tim¸n

(12.17) (py 0 )0 + qy = f (x),

Bx0 = α̃1 y(x0 ) + α̃2 y 0 (x0 ) = 0,

Bx1 = β̃1 y(x1 ) + β̃2 y 0 (x1 ) = 0.

'Estw G(x, s) ikanopoieÐ tic akìloujec sunj kec:

1. G(x, s) eÐnai suneq c wc proc x gia kˆje stajeropoihmèno s kai x0 ≤ x ≤ x1 , x0 ≤ s ≤
x1 .
2. G(x, s) eÐnai lÔsh thc exÐswshc

(12.18) (pG0 )0 + qG = 0

sto diˆsthma [x0 , x1 ], ektìc apì to shmeÐo x = s.

3. G(x, s) ikanopoieÐ tic sunoriakèc sunj kec

Bx0 G = Bx1 G = 0.

4. Sto shmeÐo x = s h Gx (x, s) èqei ˆlma mètrou p1 , dhlad 

1
(12.19) G0 (s + 0, s) − G0 (s − 0, s) = .
p(s)
 
1
(12.20) [Gx (x, x − 0) − Gx (x, x + 0)] = .
p(x)
ORISMOS. H sunˆrthsh G(x, s) pou ikanopoièi tic sunj kec 1. - 4. onomˆzetai
sunˆrthsh tou Green tou probl matoc (12.17).

9
 Ja kataskeuˆsoume thn sunˆrthsh tou Green, èqontac duo grammikˆ anexˆrthtec
eidikèc lÔseic thc omogenoÔc exÐswshc, me thn proôpìjesh ìti to omogenèc sunoriakì
prìblhma èqei mìno tetrimmènh lÔsh. JewroÔme thn

(12.21) (py 0 )0 + qy = 0.

'Estw y1 (x) eÐnai eidik  lÔsh thc (12.21), pou ikanopoieÐ thn sunj kh Bx0 y1 (x) = 0. Apì
thn prohgoÔmenh proôpìjesh pou kˆname, prokÔptei ìti Bx1 y1 (x) 6= 0. EÐnai profanèc ìti
c1 y1 pˆli ikanopoieÐ kai thn exÐswsh kai thn sunoriak  sunj kh sto aristerì ˆkro. OmoÐ-
wc, ja broÔme thn y2 , h opoÐa eÐnai lÔsh thc (12.21), ikanopoieÐ thn sunj kh Bx1 y2 (x) = 0,
ìpou Bx0 y2 (x) 6= 0. Opoiad pote c2 y2 ja ikanopoieÐ kai thn exÐswsh kai thn sunoriak 
sunj kh sto dexiì ˆkro. Anazhtˆme thn sunˆrthsh tou Green se morf 

 c (s)y (x), x0 ≤ x ≤ s,
1 1
G(x, s) = 
c (s)y (x),
2 2 s < x ≤ x1 .
Gia na ikanopoi soume thn 1., ja prèpei na dialèxoume tic c1 , c2 ètsi ¸ste

c1 (s)y1 (s) = c2 (s)y2 (s), s ∈ [x0 , x1 ].

Gia na ikanopoi soume thn 4., ja prèpei

1
c2 (s)y20 (s) − c1 (s)y10 (s) =
p(s)
'Ara to sÔsthma pou paÐrnoume wc proc c1 (s), c2 (s) ja èqei thn morf 
    
y1 (s) −y2 (s) c1 (s) 0
(12.22)   =
1
.
−y10 (s) y20 (s) c2 (s) p(s)

H orÐzousa autoÔ tou sust matoc eÐnai Ðsh me thn Bronskian  W (y1 , y2 , s), ˆra diafèrei
apì to mhdèn. LÔnontac thn (12.22) wc proc c1 (s), c2 (s) ja broÔme kai thn G(x, s) h opoÐa
ja èqei thn morf  
 y2 (s)y1 (x) , x0 ≤ x ≤ s
W (s)p(s)
(12.23) G(x, s) =
 y1 (s)y2 (x) , s < x ≤ x
W (s)p(s) 1

PARADEIGMA. BreÐte thn sunˆrthsh tou Green tou probl matoc sunoriak¸n tim¸n

y 00 (x) + y(x) = f (x), y(0) = 0, y(π/2) = 0.

Oi lÔseic thc antÐstoiqhc omogenoÔc exÐswshc oi opoÐec ikanopoioÔn tic sunj kec y(0) = 0
  y(π/2) = 0 èqoun thn morf  y1 (x) = sinx kai y2 (x) = cosx antÐstoiqa kai sÔmfwna me
thn (12.23) 
 −cos s sinx, 0≤x≤s
(12.24) G(x, s) = 
−sin s cosx, s < x ≤ π/2,
epeid  p ≡ 1, kai W (s) ≡ 1.

10
13 DIALEXH
PROBLHMATA ST U RM -LIOU V ILLE .
H exÐswsh Sturm-Liouville (sth sunèqeia S − L) èqei th morf 

(13.1) (p(x)u0 (x))0 + [λρ(x) − q(x)]u(x) = 0,

ìpou λ eÐnai parˆmetroc, p, q , ρ eÐnai pragmatikèc sunart seic tou x kai p > 0, ρ > 0. An
ja sumbolÐsoume me L ton diaforikì telest 

Lu = −(pu0 )0 + qu,

tìte h (13.1) ja grafeÐ se morf 

(13.2) Lu = λρu.

Gia kˆje pragmatikì λ h diaforik  èkfrash sthn (13.1) eÐnai autosuzug c. Gia na ex-
asfalÐsoume thn Ôparxh thc lÔshc, upojètoume ìti h q eÐnai suneqeÐc kai h p ∈ C 1 . H
exÐswsh (13.1) onomˆzetai omal , eˆn p kai ρ eÐnai jetikèc sto kleistì diˆsthma [x0 , x1 ],
kai oi sunoriakèc sunj kec èqoun th morf 

(13.3) α1 u(x0 ) + α2 u0 (x0 ) = 0, β1 u(x1 ) + β2 u0 (x1 ) = 0.

Dhlad  to diˆsthma, sto opoÐo jewroÔme to prìblhma, eÐnai kleistì, fragmèno kai oi
sunoriakèc sunj kec mac dÐnontai kai sta duo ˆkra tou [x0 , x1 ].
JewroÔme to prìblhma:
Lu = λρu,

(13.4) α1 u(x0 ) + α2 u0 (x0 ) = 0,

β1 u(x1 ) + β2 u0 (x1 ) = 0,

pou onomˆzetai prìblhma S − L. H mh tetrimmènh lÔsh tou probl matoc (13.4) onomˆzetai

idiosunˆrthsh kai to antÐstoiqo λ idiotim . To sÔnolo ìlwn twn idiotim¸n tou omaloÔ
probl matoc S − L onomˆzetai fˆsma.
PARATHRHSH. Gia na orÐsoume ton suzug  telest  L∗ tou L ja prèpei na qrhsi-
mopoi soume thn tautìthta tou Lagrange

(13.5) vLu − uL∗ v = [p0 (u0 v − uv 0 ] − (p00 − p1 )uv]0 .

Oloklhr¸nontac wc proc x thn (13.5), ja pˆroume

x1
Z ¯x1 ¯x1
¯ ¯
(13.6) [vLu − uL∗ v]dx = p0 (u0 v − uv 0 )¯ − (p00 − p1 )uv ¯ .
x0 x0
x0

11
O orismìc tou L∗ , prokÔptei apì thn
x1
Z
[vLu − uL∗ v]dx ≡ 0.
x0

'Ara
¯x1 ¯x 1
¯ ¯
(13.7) p0 (u0 v − uv 0 )¯ − (p00 − p1 )uv ¯ = 0.
x0 x0

Thn morf  thc diaforik c èkfrashc tou L∗ paÐrnoume, oloklhr¸nontac katˆ mèrh to
R x1
x0 vLudx. 'Ara autì pou apomènei eÐnai na orÐsoume tic sunoriakèc sunj kec, oi opoÐec
prokÔptoun apì thn (13.7). An èqoume mia diaforik  èkfrash thc morf c Lu = (pu0 )0 +qu,
tìte L∗ u = (pu0 )0 + qu. Dhlad  h èkfrash eÐnai autosuzug c. Ja doÔme ti gÐnetai me tic
sunoriakèc sunj kec. An p00 = p1 (autosuzug c perÐptwsh) h (13.7) paÐrnei th morf  (ed¸
p0 = p)

(13.8) p(x1 )(u0 (x1 )v(x1 ) − u(x1 )v 0 (x1 )) − p(x0 )(u0 (x0 )v(x0 ) − u(x0 )v 0 (x0 )) =
β1 α1
= p(x1 )(− u(x1 )v(x1 ) − u(x1 )v 0 (x1 )) − p(x0 )(− u(x0 )v(x0 ) − u(x0 )v 0 (x0 )),
β2 α2
ìpou h teleutaÐa isìthta prokÔptei apì tic sunoriakèc sunj kec (13.4). Anadiatˆzontac
touc ìrouc sthn (13.8), paÐrnoume

p(x1 )(u0 (x1 )v(x1 ) − u(x1 )v 0 (x1 )) − p(x0 )(u0 (x0 )v(x0 ) − u(x0 )v 0 (x0 )) =

β1 v(x1 ) + β2 v 0 (x1 ) α1 v(x0 ) + α2 v 0 (x0 )

−p(x1 )u(x1 )( ) + p(x0 )u(x0 )( ) = 0.
β2 α2
'Ara α1 v(x0 ) + α2 v 0 (x0 ) = 0, β1 v(x1 ) + β2 v 0 (x1 ) = 0 ja eÐnai oi sunoriakèc sunj kec, pou
mazÐ me thn (pu0 )0 + qu = 0, orÐzoun ton telest  L∗ . Blèpoume ìti L = L∗ , epomènwc
sumperˆnoume ìti sthn perÐptwsh diaqwrismènwn sunoriak¸n sunjhk¸n, an h diaforik 
èkfrash, pou orÐzei ton telest  L eÐnai autosuzug c, tìte, anexart twc apì tic sunoriakèc
sunj kec, ja pˆroume ènan autosuzug  telest . Ja prèpei na shmeiwjeÐ ed¸ ìti autì
den isqÔei, en gènei, gia diaforikoÔc telestèc me mh diaqwrismènec sunoriakèc sunj kec.
GnwrÐzoume ìti to eswterikì ginìmeno duo sunart sewn dÐnetai apì thn
x1
Z
(13.9) (u, v) = uvdx
x0

gia pragmatikèc sunart seic kai apì thn

x1
Z
(13.10) (u, v) = uv̄dx
x0

gia migadikèc sunart seic, ìpou v̄ h migadik¸c suzug c tou v .

12
 ORISMOS. Lème ìti duo oloklhr¸simec sunart seic u, v ikanopoioÔn
thn sunj kh orjogwniìthtac wc proc thn sunˆrthsh bˆrouc ρ(x), an
Z
(13.11) ρ(x)u(x)v(x)dx = 0,
l

ìpou to l eÐnai to diˆsthma opoiasd pote morf c.

JEWRHMA. 'Olec oi idiosunart seic tou probl matoc S − L eÐnai pragmatikèc.
APODEIXH. Qrhsimopoi¸ntac thn (13.10), mporoÔme na xanagrˆyoume thn tautìthta
tou Lagrange gia ton telest  sthn (13.4) wc ex c

(13.12) (Lu, u) = (u, Lu).

'Estw λ = µ + iν eÐnai migadik  idiotim , sthn opoÐa antistoiqeÐ h idiosunˆrthsh u(x).

AfoÔ Lu = λρu, h (13.12) metatrèpetai se

(13.13) (λρu, u) = (u, λρu).

Grˆfontac analutikˆ thn (13.13), ja pˆroume (gia aplìthta ja jèsoume x0 = 0, x1 = 1)

Z1 Z1
(13.14) λρuūdx = uλ̄ρ̄ūdx.
0 0

AfoÔ upojèsame ìti h ρ eÐnai pragmatik , ˆra ρ = ρ̄. Ja parast soume thn u se morf 

(13.15) u = u1 + iu2 ,

ìpou u1 , u2 eÐnai pragmatikèc sunart seic. Tìte apì thn (13.14) ja pˆroume

Z1
(13.16) (λ − λ̄) ρuūdx = 0.
0

AfoÔ λ − λ̄ = 2iν , uū = u21 + u22 , apì thn (13.16) pernˆme se

Z1
(13.17) 2iν ρ[u21 + u22 ]dx = 0.
0

To olokl rwma sthn (13.17) eÐnai jetikì, afoÔ ρ > 0, u21 + u22 ≥ 0, ˆra o parˆgontac 2iν
prèpei na eÐnai mhdèn. Epomènwc to λ eÐnai pragmatikì.
JEWRHMA. An u1 kai u2 eÐnai duo idiosunart seic tou probl matoc S − L, pou
antistoiqoÔn se idiotimèc λ1 , λ2 , ìpou λ1 6= λ2 , tìte

Z1
(13.18) ρu1 u2 dx = 0.
0

13
 PARADEIGMA. Na brejeÐ o telest c L∗ suzug c tou L, ìpou L orÐzetai apì tic

y 00 + xy 0 + y = 0,

(13.19) y(0) + y 0 (0) = 0,

y 0 (1) = 0.

LUSH. Oloklhr¸noume katˆ mèrh to ginìmeno zLy

Z1 Z1
(13.20) zLydx = (y 00 + xy 0 + y)zdx =
0 0

¯1 Z1 ¯1 Z1 Z1 Z1
0 ¯ 0 ¯ 0
= y z ¯ − z dy + xyz ¯ − yzdx − yz xdx + yzdx =
0 0
0 0 0 0

¯1 ¯ Z1 Z1
¯ 0 ¯1
= y z ¯ − yz ¯ + y(1)z(1) + z ydx − yz 0 xdx =
0 00
0 0
0 0
Z1
0 0 0 0
y (1)z(1) − y (0)z(0) − y(1)z (1) + y(0)z (0) + y(1)z(1) + (z 00 − xz 0 )ydx.
0
0 0
Apì thn (13.19) brÐskoume y (1) = 0, y (0) = −y(0), ˆra h (13.20) ja pˆrei th morf 
Z1
(13.21) (zLy − yL∗ z)dx = y(0)z 0 (0) + y(0)z(0) + y(1)z(1) − y(1)z 0 (1) = 0.
0

Gia na mhdenisteÐ to dexÐ mèloc thc (13.21), h z ja prèpei na ikanopoieÐ tic akìloujec
sunoriakèc sunj kec
(13.22) z(0) + z 0 (0) = 0, z(1) − z 0 (1) = 0.

'Ara o telest c L∗ ja èqei th morf 

z 00 − xz 0 = 0,

z(0) + z 0 (0) = 0,

z(1) − z 0 (1) = 0.

PARADEIGMA. DeÐxte ìti to prìblhma S − L

(13.23) y 00 + λxy = 0, y(0) = y(1) = 0

èqei toulˆqiston mia jetik  idiotim  kai den èqei arnhtikèc idiotimèc.
LUSH. 'Estw λ < 0. Tìte h exÐswsh sthn (13.23) mporeÐ na grafeÐ se morf 

(13.24) y 00 − |λ|xy = 0.

14
AfoÔ −|λ|x ≤ 0 sto [0, 1], h exÐswsh y 00 = 0, apì to je¸rhma tou Sturm, ja prèpei na èqei
toulˆqiston èna mhdenikì anˆmesa se duo diadoqikˆ shmeÐa mhdenismoÔ thc (13.24). AfoÔ
y(0) = y(1) = 0, sto [0, 1] ja prèpei na upˆrqei toulˆqiston èna mhdenikì opoiasd pote
lÔshc thc y 00 = 0, ìpou autì, bèbaia, den isqÔei. 'Ara to prìblhma (13.23) den èqei
arnhtikèc idiotimèc. 'Estw t¸ra λ > 0. Apì to je¸rhma Ôparxhc kai monadikìthtac
prokÔptei, ìti to prìblhma arqik¸n tim¸n

(13.25) y 00 + λxy = 0,

y(0) = 0, y 0 (0) = α 6= 0

èqei mia kai monadik  lÔsh gia stajerèc λ, α. Ja sumbolÐsoume me yα thn lÔsh tou
probl matoc (13.25). JewroÔme thn exÐswsh sthn (13.25) sto diˆsthma x ≥ ². 'Estw
µ = λ². SugkrÐnontac tic exis¸seic y 00 + λxy = 0 kai y 00 + µy = 0, kai qrhsimopoi¸ntac to
je¸rhma tou Sturm, katal goume sto sumpèrasma, ìti anˆmesa se duo diadoqikˆ shmeÐa
mhdenismoÔ thc lÔshc thc teleutaÐac exÐswshc, ja prèpei na brÐsketai toulˆqiston èna
√
mhdenikì thc pr¸thc. LÔnontac thn y 00 +µy = 0, ja pˆroume y = cos µx, ìpou h apìstash
metaxÔ twn duo mhdenik¸n thc y eÐnai Ðsh me |x2 − x1 | = √π . 'Ara, gia parˆdeigma, sto
µ
π
diˆsthma √ , 3π
√ ],
2 µ 2 µ
upì thn proôpìjesh ìti π
√
2 µ
> ε ja prèpei na mhdenÐzetai h lÔsh thc
(13.25). 'Estw yα (x∗ ) = 0, ˆra yα ja eÐnai lÔsh thc

(13.26) y 00 + λxy = 0, y(0) = y(x∗ ) = 0.

ParathroÔme ìti eˆn gia kˆpoio α èqoume yα (x∗ ) = 0, tìte gia opoiod pote β h lÔsh yβ
thc (13.25) ja ikanopoieÐ thn yβ (x∗ ) = 0. Prˆgmati eˆn yα eÐnai lÔsh thc (13.25), tìte
β
yβ (x) ≡ y (x) ja eÐnai lÔsh thc exÐswshc
α α
sthn (13.25) kai ja ikanopoieÐ tic sunj kec
β
yβ (0) ≡ y (0) = 0, yβ (x∗ ) ≡ αβ yα (x∗ ) = β
α α
x
Ja kataskeuˆsoume thn lÔsh tou probl matoc (13.23). 'Estw z = x∗
. Epomènwc
z(0) = 0, z(x∗ ) = 1. 'Estw yα (x) = u(z(x)). UpologÐzoume tic parag¸gouc thc yα (x)

1 0 1 00
yα0 = u (z), yα00 = u (z),
x∗ x∗2
ˆra h u ikanopoieÐ thn exÐswsh u00 + λx∗3 zu = 0. SumbolÐzontac me λx∗3 = ν , ja pˆroume
ìti h u ikanopoieÐ thn

u00 + νzu = 0, u(0) = u(1) = 0.

PARADEIGMA. Na brejoÔn oi idiotimèc kai oi idiosunart seic twn problhmˆtwn

(13.27) y 00 + λy = 0,

15
(13.28) y(0) = y(π) = 0,

(13.29) y 0 (0) = y(π) = 0.

√ √
LUSH. H genik  lÔsh thc (13.27) dÐnetai apì thn y = c1 cos λx + c2 sin λx. Antika-
jist¸ntac aut n thn lÔsh sthn (13.28), ja pˆroume
√
(13.30) y(0) = c1 = 0, y(π) = c2 sin λπ = 0.
√ √
'Ara, an c2 6= 0, tìte sin λπ = 0 kai epomènwc λπ = πk , k = 0, ±1, . . .. Sunep¸c,
λk = k 2 .
Antikajist¸ntac thn genik  lÔsh thc (13.27) sthn (13.29), katal goume stic isìthtec
√ √ √ √ ¯ √
y 0 (0) = c1 λsin λx + c2 λcos λx¯¯ = c2 λ = 0,
x=0
√
y(π) = c1 cos λπ = 0.
√ √
'Ara, an c1 6= 0, tìte cos λπ = 0, epomènwc λπ = π/2 + πk , k = 0, 1, . . .. Sunep¸c
λ = (k + 1/2)2 .
Oi idiotimèc kai oi idiosunart seic tou genikoÔ probl matoc S − L èqoun perÐpou tic
Ðdiec idiìthtec me tic idiotimèc kai idiosunart seic tou probl matoc S − L gia thn exÐswsh
y 00 + λy = 0.
JewroÔme to prìblhma S − L

(13.31) (pu0 )0 + [λρ − q]u = 0,

α1 u(x0 ) + α2 u0 (x0 ) = 0,

β1 u(x1 ) + β2 u0 (x1 ) = 0.

JEWRHMA. Opoiod pote omalì prìblhma S − L èqei ˆpeiro pl joc pragmatik¸n

idiotim¸n λ0 < λ1 < λ2 < . . ., ìpou lim λn = ∞. Oi idiosunart seic un , pou antistoiqoÔn
n→∞
se autèc tic idiotimèc èqoun akrib¸c n mhdenikˆ sto diˆsthma (x0 , x1 ) kai orÐzontai mèqri
mia aujaÐreth pollaplasiastik  (Ðswc migadik ) stajerˆ.

14 DIALEXH
JEWRIA EUSTAJEIAS.
JewroÔme to akìloujo sÔsthma diaforik¸n exis¸sewn

(14.1) x0 = Φ(t, x),

x(t0 ) = x0 ,

16
ìpou x = (x1 , . . . , xn ), Φ(t, x) = (Φ1 (t, x), . . . , Φn (t, x)), x(t0 ) = x0 = (x01 , . . . , x0n ). EÐnai
gnwstì ìti stic efarmogèc oi arqikèc sunj kec eÐnai to apotèlesma upologismoÔ sthn
arqik  stigm  t = t0 twn dedomènwn enìc fusikoÔ fainomènou kai den mporoÔn na upolo-
gistoÔn me apìluth akrÐbeia. Ta mikrˆ sfˆlmata ston upologismì twn arqik¸n dedomènwn
mporoÔn na mac odhg soun se mia lÔsh teleÐwc diaforetik  apì ekeÐnh pou yˆqnoume.
Gia tic efarmogèc eÐnai shmantikì na orÐsoume tic sunj kec, upì tic opoÐec oi mikrèc di-
ataraqèc twn arqik¸n dedomènwn prokaloÔn mikrèc diataraqèc thc lÔshc. An to t metabˆl-
letai se kˆpoio peperasmèno diˆsthma [t0 , T ], h apˆnthsh dÐnetai apì to je¸rhma suneqoÔc
exˆrthshc thc lÔshc apì ta arqikˆ dedomèna. An to t mporeÐ na paÐrnei osod pote megˆlec
timèc, tìte me autˆ ta probl mata asqoleÐtai h jewrÐa eustˆjeiac.
ORISMOS. H lÔsh φ(t) thc (14.1) onomˆzetai eustaj c katˆ Lyapunov , an gia kˆje
² > 0 upˆrqei δ(²), tètoio ¸ste gia opoiad pote lÔsh x(t) thc (14.1), h arqik  tim  thc
opoÐac ikanopoieÐ thn h anisìthta

(14.2) |x(t0 ) − φ(t0 )| < δ

(14.3) |x(t) − φ(t)| < ²

ikanopoieÐtai gia ìla ta t ≥ t0 .
An toulˆqiston gia mia lÔsh x(t), pou ikanopoieÐ thn (14.2), den isqÔei (14.3), lème ìti
h φ(t) eÐnai astaj c.
An h φ(t) eÐnai eustaj c kai epiplèon ikanopoieÐ thn

(14.4) lim |x(t) − φ(t)| = 0,

t→∞

tìte lème ìti φ(t) eÐnai asumptwtikˆ eustaj c.

Prèpei na shmeiwjeÐ ed¸ ìti h sunj kh (14.4), apì mình thc, den sunepˆgetai oÔte kan
th sun jh eustˆjeia. Dhlad  h lÔsh mporeÐ na mhn eÐnai eustaj c, allˆ ìlec h lÔseic
x(t) proseggÐzoun thn φ(t), kaj¸c t → ∞.
PARADEIGMA. Ja exetˆsoume an eÐnai eustaj c h lÔsh thc x0 = −a2 x, a 6= 0 me
arqik  sunj kh x(t0 ) = x0 . Apì ìti gnwrÐzoume h lÔsh autoÔ tou probl matoc dÐnetai
apì thn
2 (t−t
(14.5) x(t) = x(t0 )e−a 0)
.
'Estw x1 (t) eÐnai lÔsh thc Ðdiac exÐswshc me arqik  sunj kh x(t0 ) = x01 . JewroÔme thn
diaforˆ
2 (t−t 2 (t−t 2 (t−t )
|x(t) − x1 (t)| = |x0 e−a 0)
− x01 e−a 0)
| = e−a 0
|x0 − x01 | < ²
2t
gia t ≥ t0 , an |x0 − x01 | < ²e−a 0
= δ(²). 'Ara h lÔsh x(t) eÐnai eustaj c. Ja exetˆsoume,
an eÐnai asumptwtikˆ eustaj c
2 (t−t )
lim |x(t) − x1 (t)| = lim e−a 0
|x0 − x01 | = 0,
t→∞ t→∞

17
ˆra eÐnai asumptwtikˆ eustaj c.
PARADEIGMA. JewroÔme to prìblhma arqik¸n tim¸n

(14.6) x0 = a2 x, a 6= 0, x(t0 ) = x0 .

H lÔsh thc (14.6) dÐnetai apì thn

2 (t−t
(14.7) x(t) = x(t0 )ea 0)
.

JewroÔme thn diaforˆ |x(t) − x1 (t)|. Se aut  th perÐptwsh paÐrnoume

2 (t−t 2 (t−t 2 (t−t
(14.8) |x(t) − x1 (t)| = |x0 ea 0)
− x01 ea 0)
| = ea 0)
|x0 − x01 |,

kai blèpoume ìti eÐnai adÔnaton na brejeÐ tètoio δ gia na eÐnai h (14.8) mikrìterh tou ² gia
ìla ta t ≥ t0 .
Melèth thc eustˆjeiac miac lÔshc x̄(t) thc (14.1) mporeÐ na anaqjeÐ sthn melèth thc
eustˆjeiac thc tetrimmènhc lÔshc (lÔshc isorropÐac). Ja kˆnoume allag  metablht c

y(t) = x(t) − x̄(t),

ìpou ousiastikˆ y(t) eÐnai h apìklish thc x(t), pou an kei sto sÔnolo twn lÔsewn thc
(14.1), apì thn lÔsh x̄(t) upì melèth. Metˆ thn allag  h (14.1) ja pˆrei th morf 

dy dx̄
(14.9) = − + Φ(t, y + x̄).
dt dt
EÐnai profanèc ìti sthn x(t) = x̄(t), pou eÐnai lÔsh thc (14.1), antistoiqeÐ h lÔsh y ≡ 0
thc (14.9). Ja deÐxoume aut  th sqèsh qrhsimopoi¸ntac to prohgoÔmeno parˆdeigma.
SumbolÐzoume me y(t) = x(t) − x1 (t). 'Ara y(t) eÐnai lÔsh tou probl matoc y 0 = −a2 y ,
y(t0 ) = x0 − x01 . ApodeÐxame ìti eˆn |x0 − x01 | < δ , tìte |x(t) − x1 (t)| < ε,   alli¸c,
eˆn |y(t0 )| < δ , tìte |y(t)| < ε. Dhlad  gia na eÐnai h x(t) eustaj c ja prèpei apì thn
|y(t0 )| < δ na prokÔptei |y(t)| < ε. H sunˆrthsh z(t) ≡ 0 eÐnai lÔsh tou probl matoc
z 0 = −a2 z , z(t0 ) = 0. ParathroÔme ìti gia na eÐnai eustaj c h lÔsh z(t) ≡ 0 ja prèpei
gia opoiad pote y(t), pou eÐnai lÔsh thc Ðdiac exÐswshc, apì thn |y(t0 ) − 0| = |y(t0 )| < δ
na prokÔptei |y(t) − 0| = |y(t)| < ε. 'Ara apì thn eustˆjeia thc lÔshc x = x(t) prokÔptei
h eustˆjeia thc lÔshc z ≡ 0 kai antistrìfwc. Dhlad  mporoÔme na antikatast soume
thn melèth thc eustˆjeiac thc lÔshc x = x(t) me thn melèth thc eustˆjeiac thc lÔshc
isorropÐac z ≡ 0.
H lÔsh thc (14.1) x = φ(t) eÐnai mia dianusmatik  sunˆrthsh, pou mporeÐ na jewrhjeÐ
wc parametrik  anaparˆstash miac kampÔlhc sto epÐpedo x = (x1 , . . . , xn ). MporoÔme
na thn jewroÔme wc troqiˆ   diadrom , pou akoloujeÐtai apì èna kinoÔmeno swmatÐdio,

18
tou opoÐou h taqÔthta kajorÐzetai apì thn diaforik  exÐswsh. To epÐpedo (x1 , . . . , xn )
apokaleÐtai pedÐo fˆsewn, kai èna antiproswpeutikì sÔnolo apì troqièc anafèretai wc
eikìna fˆsewn.
EUSTAJEIA TWN LUSEWN ISORROPIAS TWN
GRAMMIKWN SUSTHMATWN
Ja asqolhjoÔme me thn eustˆjeia thc lÔshc isorropÐac enìc grammikoÔ kai omogenoÔc
sust matoc pr¸thc tˆxhc me stajeroÔc suntelestèc se didiˆstato pedÐo fˆsewn. Jew-
roÔme to sÔsthma 
 dx = a x + a y,
dt 11 12
(14.10)
 dy = a x + a y,
dt 21 22

H eustˆjeia thc lÔshc isorropÐac exartˆtai apì tic idiotimèc tou pÐnaka suntelest¸n
thc (14.10). Anazhtˆme thn lÔsh thc (14.10) se morf  x = b1 ekt , y = b2 ekt . Gia na
prosdiorÐsoume to k , prèpei na broÔme tic rÐzec tou qarakthristikoÔ poluwnÔmou
¯ ¯
¯ ¯
¯ a11 − k a12 ¯
¯ ¯ = 0, =⇒ k 2 − (a11 + a22 )k + (a11 a22 − a21 a12 ) = 0.
¯ ¯
¯ a21 a22 − k ¯

H stajerèc b1 , b2 prosdiorÐzontai apì tic


 (a − k)b + a b = 0,
11 1 12 2
(14.11)
 (a b + (a − k)b = 0.
21 1 22 2

Upˆrqoun diˆforec peript¸seic tic opoÐec ja melet soume xeqwristˆ.

PERIPTWSH 1. Omìshmec pragmatikèc ˆnisec idiotimèc.
Ed¸ h genik  lÔsh èqei th morf 

(14.12) x = c1 b1 ek1 t + c2 γ1 ek2 t , y = c1 b2 ek1 t + c2 γ2 ek2 t ,

ìpou b = (b1 , b2 ), γ = (γ1 , γ2 ) eÐnai idiodianÔsmata pou antistoiqoÔn stic k1 , k2 antÐstoiqa,

kai prosdiorÐzontai apì thn (14.11), c1 , c2 eÐnai aujaÐretec stajerèc.
'Estw k1 < k2 < 0. Tìte h lÔsh isorropÐac x ≡ 0, y ≡ 0 eÐnai asumptwtikˆ eusta-
j c. Autì ofeÐletai stouc ìrouc ek1 t , ek2 t . SumbolÐzontac me z = (x, y), mporoÔme na
xanagrˆyoume thn (14.12) se morf 

(14.13) z = ek2 t [c1 be(k1 −k2 )t + c2 γ].

An c2 6= 0, ìroc c1 be(k1 −k2 )t gÐnetai amelhtèoc se sÔgkrish me to c2 γ , kaj¸c to t → ∞.

Epomènwc, kaj¸c t → ∞, h troqiˆ ìqi mìno
proseggÐzei thn arq  twn axìnwn tou pedÐou
fˆsewn, allˆ epÐshc teÐnei proc thn eujeÐa, pou

19
dièrqetai apì to γ . Dhlad  ìlec oi lÔseic
proseggÐzoun thn lÔsh isorropÐac efaptomenikˆ
wc proc to γ , ektìc apì ekeÐnec, pou
xekinoÔn akrib¸c apì thn eujeÐa, pou dièrqetai
apì to b. Prˆgmati, eˆn h lÔsh xekinˆ apì
to b, tìte c2 = 0. 'Ara x = c1 b1 ek1 t , y = c1 b2 ek1 t
b2
kai y = b1
x. Epomènwc h troqiˆ se aut 
b2
th perÐptwsh eÐnai h eujeÐa y = b1
x sto pedÐo
fˆsewn. Kai, kaj¸c t → ∞, aut  h lÔsh
plhsiˆzei thn lÔsh isorropÐac katˆ m koc aut c
thc eujeÐac. H lÔsh isorropÐac se aut  th
perÐptwsh onomˆzetai kìmboc   kombik  katabìjra.
'Estw k1 > 0, k2 > 0. H troqièc se aut  th perÐptwsh èqoun to Ðdio sq ma me tic
troqièc thc prohgoÔmenhc perÐptwshc, allˆ h dieÔjunsh kÐnhshc eÐnai antÐjeth, dhlad  oi
troqièc apomakrÔnontai apì to shmeÐo isorropÐac. Kai to shmeÐo isorropÐac eÐnai astaj c
kai onomˆzetai kombik  phg .
PerÐptwsh 2. Eterìshmec pragmatikèc idiotimèc.
Ed¸ èqoume k1 > 0, k2 < 0. An h lÔsh xekinˆ
apì to arqikì shmeÐo pˆnw sthn eujeÐa,
pou dièrqetai apì to γ , tìte c1 = 0 kai sunep¸c
|z| → 0, kaj¸c t → ∞. H lÔsh paramènei
pˆnw se aut n thn eujeÐa. An h lÔsh xekinˆ apì
to arqikì shmeÐo pˆnw sthn eujeÐa, pou
dièrqetai apì to b, tìte h lÔsh, paramènontac se
aut n thn eujeÐa, teÐnei sto ˆpeiro, kaj¸c
t → ∞. Sth genik  perÐptwsh, afoÔ o ìroc me
jetikì k eÐnai kurÐarqoc gia megˆla t, ìlec
oi lÔseic plhsiˆzoun to ˆpeiro asumptwtikˆ wc
proc thn eujeÐa, pou prosdiorÐzetai apì to
idiodiˆnusma pou antistoiqeÐ sthn jetik  idiotim .
H arq  twn axìnwn, dhlad  to shmeÐo
isorropÐac, kaleÐtai se aut  th perÐptwsh
sagmatikì shmeÐo kai oi lÔseic
sumperifèrontai ìpwc sto sq ma.
PerÐptwsh 3. 'Isec idiotimèc.
Upojètoume ìti k1 = k2 = k . Ja exetˆsoume thn perÐptwsh, ìpou k < 0. Eˆn k > 0, oi

20
troqièc ja eÐnai Ðdiec, allˆ h dieÔjunsh kÐnhshc ja èqei thn antÐjeth forˆ. Se dipl  rÐza
k mporoÔn na antistoiqoÔn duo anexˆrthta idiodianÔsmata, tìte h genik  lÔsh ja pˆrei th
morf 
(14.14) x = [c1 b1 + c2 γ1 ]ekt , y = [c1 b2 + c2 γ2 ]ekt ,
ìpou b kai γ eÐnai ta anexˆrthta idiodianÔsmata pou antistoiqoÔn sto k . EpÐshc, mporeÐ
na sumbeÐ ìti se k antistoiqeÐ èna idiodiˆnusma, tìte h genik  lÔsh ja pˆrei th morf 

(14.15) x = [c1 b1 + c2 (b1 t + γ1 )]ekt , y = [c1 b2 + c2 (b2 t + γ2 )]ekt ,

ìpou b eÐnai to antÐstoiqo idiodiˆnusma, kai γ eÐnai to

genikeumèno idiodiˆnusma, pou antistoiqeÐ sthn
epanalambanìmenh idiotim . Qˆrh ston ìro
ekt , ìlec oi lÔseic teÐnoun sto shmeÐo
isorropÐac, dhlad  to shmeÐo isorropÐac eÐnai
asumptwtikˆ eustajèc. Sthn perÐptwsh (14.14)
o lìgoc y/x den exartˆtai apì to t kai kˆje
troqiˆ paristˆnei thn eujeÐa, ìpou h kÐnhsh,
kaj¸c to t auxˆnei, èqei thn dieÔjunsh proc
to shmeÐo isorropÐac. Se aut  th perÐptwsh
to shmeÐo isorropÐac onomˆzetai gn sioc kìmboc
  ˆstro. Sthn perÐptwsh (14.15), kaj¸c to
t → ∞, kˆje troqiˆ proseggÐzei thn arq 
twn axìnwn efaptomenikˆ wc proc thn eujeÐa,
pou perièqei to idiodiˆnusma b. H lÔsh
ja brejeÐ pˆnw sthn eujeÐa, h opoÐa
orÐzetai apì to diˆnusma b, an c2 = 0.
To shmeÐo isorropÐac ed¸ onomˆzetai nìjoc
  ekfulismènoc kìmboc. H lÔseic sumperifèrontai ìpwc sto sq ma.
PerÐptwsh 4. Migadikèc timèc.
H rÐzec thc qarakthristik c exÐswshc èqoun th morf  k1,2 = λ + iµ, µ 6= 0. Ta
sust mata, pou èqoun tic idiotimèc λ + iµ tupopoioÔntai wc

(14.16) x0 = λx + µy, y 0 = −µx + λy.

H genik  lÔsh tou sust matoc (14.16) mporeÐ na parastajeÐ se morf 

(14.17) x = eλt (c1 cosµt + c2 sinµt), y = eλt (c∗1 cosµt + c∗2 sinµt),

ìpou c1 , c2 eÐnai aujaÐretec stajerèc kai c∗1 , c∗1 eÐnai orismènoi

sunduasmoÐ twn c1 , c2 . EÐnai profanèc ìti, an λ < 0, tìte

21
èqoume lim |z| = 0, kai to shmeÐo isorropÐac eÐnai asumptwtikˆ
t→∞
eustajèc. An λ > 0, tìte lim |z| = ∞, kai to shmeÐo
t→∞
isorropÐac eÐnai astajèc. Gia na prosdiorÐsoume to sq ma, pou
èqoun oi troqièc se aut  th perÐptwsh, ja perˆsoume stic
polikèc suntetagmènec, pou dÐnontai apì tic

r 2 = x2 + y 2 , tan θ = y/x.

ParagwgÐzontac autèc tic exis¸seic, paÐrnoume

xy 0 − x0 y
(14.18) rr0 = xx0 + yy 0 , (sec2 θ)θ0 = .
x2
Antikajist¸ntac tic exis¸seic (14.16) sthn pr¸th exÐswsh
thc (14.18), lambˆnoume
(14.19) r0 = λr =⇒ r = c1 eλt ,
ìpou c mia stajerˆ. OmoÐwc, antikajist¸ntac tic exis¸seic
(14.16) sthn deÔterh exÐswsh thc (14.18), èqontac
upìyh ìti sec2 θ = r2 /x2 , ja pˆroume

(14.20) θ0 = −µ =⇒ θ = −µt + c2 .

An µ > 0, apì thn (14.20) prokÔptei ìti to θ mei¸netai,

kaj¸c t → ∞, kai ètsi h forˆ thc kÐnhshc se mia troqiˆ
eÐnai dexiìstrofh. An λ < 0, tìte lim r = 0.
t→∞
An λ > 0, tìte lim = ∞. Kai ètsi katal goume
t→∞
stic speiroeideÐc troqièc, pou kateujÔnontai proc to shmeÐo
isorropÐac   apomakrÔnontai apì autì, analìgwc tou prìshmou
tou λ. To shmeÐo isorropÐac se aut  th perÐptwsh
apokaleÐtai speiroeidèc shmeÐo.
PerÐptwsh 5. Fantastikèc idiotimèc.
Ed¸ λ = 0, epomènwc oi exis¸seic (14.19), (14.20) ja pˆroun th morf 

(14.21) r0 = 0 =⇒ r = c, θ0 = −µ =⇒ θ = −µt + θ0 .

Kai ètsi katal goume stic kuklikèc troqièc me kèntro to shmeÐo isorropÐac, to opoÐo
apokaleÐtai kèntro. Oi kuklikèc troqièc eÐnai dexiìstrofec, an µ > 0, kai aristerìstrofec,
an µ < 0. 'Olec h lÔseic ed¸ eÐnai periodikèc me perÐodo 2π/n. To kèntro eÐnai eustajèc,
allˆ ìqi asumptwtikˆ eustajèc. Ja apodeÐxoume ìti, genik¸c, oi troqièc, ìtan oi idiotimèc
tou pÐnaka suntelest¸n eÐnai fantastikèc, eÐnai elleÐyeic. Prˆgmati, ,èstw
dx
(14.22) = a11 x + a12 y,
dt
22
 dy
= a21 x + a22 y.
dt
EÐnai eÔkolo na apodeiqjeÐ ìti, afoÔ h qarakthristik  exÐswsh èqei th morf 

k 2 − (a11 + a22 )k + (a11 a22 − a12 a21 ) = 0,

gia na upˆrqoun fantastikèc idiotimèc, ja prèpei

(14.23) a11 + a22 = 0, a11 a22 − a12 a21 > 0,

epeid  q
−(a11 + a22 ) ± (a11 + a22 )2 − 4(a11 a22 − a12 a21
k1,2 = = ±iµ.
2
H (14.22) mporeÐ na grafteÐ se morf 

dy a21 x + a22 y
(14.24) = =⇒ (a21 x + a22 y)dx − (a11 x + a12 y)dy = 0.
dx a11 x + a12 y
'Estw P = a21 x + a22 y , Q = −a11 x − a12 y . 'Ara
Py = a22 = −a11 = Qx , epomènwc h (14.24)
eÐnai akrib c diaforik  exÐswsh kai mporeÐ
na parastajeÐ se morf  dφ = 0,

ìpou φx = a21 x + a22 y ,

φy = −a11 x − a12 y . Apì ed¸ eÐnai eÔkolo
na brejeÐ h φ(x), pou isoÔtai me

(14.25) φ(x) = a21 x2 /2 + a22 xy + a12 y 2 /2 ≡ c.

H (14.25) mac dÐnei thn lÔsh thc (14.22).

H diakrÐnousa thc tetragwnik c morf c sthn
(14.25) isoÔtai me (a11 a22 − a12 a21 )/4 > 0, epomènwc oi troqièc (14.25) eÐnai elleÐyeic.
PerÐptwsh 6. H orÐzousa tou pÐnaka suntelest¸n eÐnai Ðsh me mhdèn.
'Estw k1 = 0, k2 6= 0. H genik  lÔsh thc (14.10) ja pˆrei th morf 

(14.26) x = c1 b1 + c2 γ1 ek2 t , y = c1 b2 + c2 γ2 ek2 t .

ApaleÐfontac to t apì thn (14.26), paÐrnoume mia oikogèneia parˆllhlwn eujei¸n γ1 (y −

c1 b2 ) = γ2 (x − c1 b1 ). 'Otan c2 = 0, paÐrnoume mia monoparametrik  oikogèneia shmeÐwn
isorropÐac (kanonikˆ shmeÐo isorropÐac antistoiqeÐ sthn lÔsh, pou eÐnai stajerˆ), pou
eÐnai topojethmènoi sthn eujeÐa b1 y = b2 x. An k2 < 0, tìte ìlec oi troqièc proseggÐzoun
to shmeÐo isorropÐac x = c1 b1 , y = c1 b2 , pou brÐsketai se aut n thn troqiˆ. To shmeÐo

23
isorropÐac x ≡ 0, y ≡ 0 eÐnai eustajèc, allˆ ìqi asumptwtikˆ eustajèc. An k2 > 0, tìte
to shmeÐo isorropÐac x ≡ 0, y ≡ 0 eÐnai astajèc shmeÐo isorropÐac.
'Estw k1 = k2 = 0. Ed¸ èqoume duo pijanèc peript¸seic:
1. h genik  lÔsh èqei th morf  x = c1 , y = c2 , kai ìla ta shmeÐa eÐnai shmeÐa isorropÐac,
kai ìlec h lÔseic eÐnai eustajeÐc,
2. h genik  lÔsh èqei th morf 

x = c1 + c2 t, y = c∗1 + c∗2 t,

ìpou c∗1 , c∗2 eÐnai aujaÐretoi grammik  sunduasmoÐ twn c1 , c2 . Tìte to shmeÐo isorropÐac
x ≡ 0, y ≡ 0 eÐnai astajèc.
PARADEIGMA. TaxinomeÐste to shmeÐo isorropÐac tou sust matoc
dx dy
(14.27) = x − y, = 2x + 3y.
dt dt
LUSH. H qarakthristik  exÐswsh thc (14.27) èqei th morf 
¯ ¯
¯ ¯
¯ 1−k −1 ¯
(14.28) ¯ ¯ = 0 =⇒ k 2 − 4k + 5 = 0.
¯ ¯
¯ 2 3−k ¯
H rÐzec eÐnai oi k1,2 = 2 ± i. Epomènwc h genik  lÔsh ja eÐnai h

(14.29) x = c1 e2t cost + c2 e2t sint, y = c∗1 e2t cost + c∗2 e2t sint.

Lìgw thc parousÐac tou ìrou e2t , ja èqoume

(14.30) lim x(t) = ∞, lim y(t) = ∞.

t→∞ t→∞

Apì thn (14.30) prokÔptei ìti to shmeÐo isorropÐac eÐnai astajèc speiroeidèc shmeÐo.
PARADEIGMA. JewroÔme thn exÐswsh x00 = −a2 x − 2bx0 , ìpou aut  h exÐswsh
perigrˆfei tic elastikèc talant¸seic me apìsbesh. Ed¸ 2b eÐnai o legìmenoc suntelest c
apìsbeshc. Anˆgontac thn exÐswsh aut  se èna sÔsthma exis¸sewn, jètontac x0 = y ,
katal goume sto sÔsthma
(14.31) x0 = y, y 0 = −a2 x − 2by.

H qarakthristik  exÐswsh pou antistoiqeÐ sthn (14.31) eÐnai h

¯ ¯
¯ ¯ √
¯ −k 1 ¯
¯ ¯ = 0 =⇒ k 2 + 2bk + a2 = 0 =⇒ k1,2 = −b ± b2 − a2 .
¯ ¯
¯ −a2 −2b − k ¯

'Eqoume diˆforec peript¸seic, analìgwc twn b kai a

√
1. b = 0, talant¸seic qwrÐc apìsbesh, k1,2 = −a2 = ±ia. 'Olec oi troqièc eÐnai peri-
odikèc. To shmeÐo isorropÐac eÐnai kèntro.

24
 √
2. b2 − a2 ≥ 0, b > 0. 'Ara −b ± b2 − a2 < 0, epomènwc to shmeÐo isorropÐac eÐnai
asumptwtikˆ eustajèc kìmboc (kombik  katabìjra).

3. b < 0, b2 − a2 < 0. To shmeÐo isorropÐac eÐnai astajèc speiroeidèc shmeÐo.

4. b < 0, b2 − a2 ≥ 0. To shmeÐo isorropÐac eÐnai astajèc kìmboc (kombik  phg ).
5. b2 − a2 < 0, b > 0. To shmeÐo isorropÐac eÐnai eustajèc speiroeidèc shmeÐo.
EUSTAJEIA TWN LUSEWN ISORROPIAS TWN
MH GRAMMIKWN SUSTHMATWN
Ja exetˆsoume t¸ra ta mh grammikˆ sust mata

(14.32) x0 = Φ(t, x),

ìpou h Φ(t, x) eÐnai thc klˆsewc C 1 sthn ²-perioq  thc arq c twn axìnwn. 'Opwc kai pro-
hgoumènwc, ja diereun soume thn sumperiforˆ twn troqi¸n tou sust matoc (14.32) kontˆ
sto shmeÐo isorropÐac x ≡ 0. Ja melet soume to sÔsthma (14.32), proseggÐzontˆc to me
èna katˆllhlo grammikì sÔsthma. Katarq n ja doÔme th shmaÐnei gia èna mh grammikì
sÔsthma tÔpou (14.32) na eÐnai kontˆ se èna grammikì. Upojètoume ìti h Φ(t, x) sthn
²-perioq  thc arq c twn axìnwn èqei th morf 

(14.33) Φ(t, x) = Ax + g(t, x),

ìpou A eÐnai pÐnakac me stajeroÔc suntelestèc, kai ìti x ≡ 0 eÐnai memonwmèno shmeÐo isor-
ropÐac. Epiplèon, upojètoume ìti detA 6= 0, ètsi ¸ste to x ≡ 0 eÐnai epÐshc memonwmèno
shmeÐo isorropÐac tou grammikoÔ sust matoc

(14.34) x0 = Ax.

Gia na eÐnai to mh grammikì sÔsthma

(14.35) x0 = Ax + g(t, x)

kontˆ sto sÔsthma (14.34), prèpei na upojèsoume ìti h g eÐnai mikr , dhlad  èqei suneqeÐc
merikèc parag¸gouc kai ikanopoieÐ thn sunj kh

(14.36) ||g||/||x|| → 0, x → 0.

'Ena tètoio sÔsthma (14.35) onomˆzetai sqedìn grammikì.

To sÔsthma (14.34) onomˆzetai sÔsthma pr¸thc prosèggishc gia to sÔsthma (14.35).
AfoÔ upojètoume ìti o mh grammikìc ìroc eÐnai mikrìc se sÔgkrish me to grammikì ìro,
ìtan to x → 0, eÐnai logikì na elpÐzoume ìti oi troqièc tou grammikoÔ sust matoc mac

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dÐnoun kal  prosèggish twn lÔsewn tou mh grammikoÔ sthn ²-perioq  thc arq c twn axìn-
wn.
JEWRHMA. Upojètoume ìti to sÔsthma (14.32) anˆgetai sto (14.35), ìpou g ikanopoieÐ
thn (14.36).
An ìlec oi rÐzec thc qarakthristik c exÐswshc

det(A − λI) = 0,

ìpou I eÐnai o monadiaÐoc pÐnakac, èqoun arnhtikˆ pragmatikˆ mèrh, tìte to shmeÐo isor-
ropÐac x ≡ 0 eÐnai asumptwtikˆ eustajèc kai gia ta duo sust mata (14.34) kai (14.32).
An toulˆqiston mia rÐza thc qarakthristik c exÐswshc èqei jetikì pragmatikì mèroc,
tìte to shmeÐo isorropÐac eÐnai astajèc.
PARATHRHSH. To je¸rhma den mporeÐ na efarmosteÐ sthn perÐptwsh, an toulˆqis-
ton mia rÐza thc qarakthristik c exÐswshc èqei pragmatikì mèroc
Ðso me mhdèn.
PARADEIGMA. Exetˆste thn eustˆjeia tou shmeÐou isorropÐac x ≡ 0, y ≡ 0 tou
sust matoc
(14.37) x0 = x − y + x2 + y 2 sint, y0 = x + y − y2.

LUSH. O mh grammikìc ìroc tou sust matoc (14.37) eÐnai h g = (x2 + y 2 sin t, −y 2 ).

Exetˆzoume thn sunj kh (14.36).
EÐnai profanèc ìti h (14.36) ikanopoieÐtai, an kai mìno an
g1 g2
(14.38) √ → 0, √ , (x, y) → 0.
x2+ y2 x2+ y2
Sthn perÐptws  mac ja pˆroume

x2 + y 2 sin t −y 2
(14.39) lim √ 2 = lim √ = 0.
(x,y)→0 x + y2 (x,y)→0 x2 + y 2

Apì thn (14.39) prokÔptei ìti to antÐstoiqo grammikì sÔsthma ja pˆrei th morf 

(14.40) x0 = x − y, y 0 = x + y.

H qarakthristik  exÐswsh eÐnai h

¯ ¯
¯ ¯
¯ 1−k −1 ¯
¯ ¯ = 0 =⇒ k 2 − 2k + 2 = 0, k1,2 = 1 ± i.
¯ ¯
¯ 1 1−k ¯

Epomènwc to shmeÐo isorropÐac eÐnai astajèc.

PARADEIGMA. Exetˆste thn eustˆjeia tou shmeÐou isorropÐac x ≡ 0, y ≡ 0 tou
sust matoc
(14.41) x0 = 2x + 8sin y, y 0 = 2 − ex − 3y − cos y.

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LUSH. O mh grammikìc ìroc g = (8sin y, −ex −cos y) den ikanopoieÐ thn (14.36). Prˆgmati,

sin y
lim = ∞.
y→0 y 2

Autì pou prèpei na kˆnoume ed¸ eÐnai na qrhsimopoi soume ta anaptÔgmata tou T aylor
me kèntro to shmeÐo (0, 0)

ex = 1 + x + x2 /2 + x3 /3! + · · · , sin y = y − y 3 /3! + · · · , cos y = 1 − y 2 /2 + · · · .

'Ara ta deÔtera mèrh twn exis¸sewn (14.41) mporoÔn na parastajoÔn se morf 

2x + 8sin y = 2x + 8(y − y 3 /3! + · · ·) = 2x + 8y + O(x2 + y 2 ),

2 − ex − 3y − cos y = 2 − (1 + x + x2 /2 + · · ·) − 3y − (1 − x2 /2 + · · ·) = −x − 3y + O(x2 + y 2 ).

Kai ètsi katal goume sto sÔsthma pr¸thc prosèggishc thc morf c

(14.42) x0 = 2x + 8y, y 0 = −x − 3y.

H qarakthristik  exÐswsh eÐnai h

¯ ¯
¯ ¯ √
¯ 2−k 8 ¯
¯ ¯ = 0 =⇒ k 2 + k + 2 = 0, k1,2 = −1/2 ± i 7/2.
¯ ¯
¯ −1 −3 − k ¯

'Ara èqoume asumptwtik  eustˆjeia.

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