Hospital Management System Report

CONTENTS
S.no Content Name Page No

1. Introduction 4
1.1 A brief overview of the HCMS
1.1.1 Advantages to the End Users
1.2 Organiation !rofi"e
1.# $oa" and %eed

1.4 $enera" Methodo"og& in 'eve"o(ing Software !ro)ect
1.4.1 *e+uire,ent Ana"&sis !hase

1.4.2 'esign !hase
1.4.# 'eve"o(,ent !hase

1.4.4 Coding !hase
1.4.- .esting !hase
2. *e+uire,ent Ana"&sis 12
2.1 Introduction

2.2 'ata Co""ection
2.2.1 Observation

Health Center Management system

1

2.# Software *e+uire,ent S(ecification 'ocu,ent
2.#.1 Introduction

2.#.2 !rob"e, 'efinition
2.#.# Hardware re+uire,ents

2.#.4 Software re+uire,ents
2.#.- 'esign Constraints

#. S&ste, Ana"&sis 1/
#.1 Modu"e descri(tion
#.2 0easibi"it& ana"&sis
#.# Stud&ing the e1isting s&ste,
#.4 !ro(osed s&ste,
4. 'esign !hase 22
4.1 Introduction.
4.2 0"ow charts
4.# 'ata f"ow diagra,s
-. 'eve"o(,ent !hase #4
-.1 0eatures of 3ava "anguage
-.2 Ms4Access
5. .esting !hase -2
2. Screens 52
/. Conc"usion 5/
6. 7ib"iogra(h& 28

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ABSTRACT
.he ,ain intention of introducing this s&ste, is to reduce the ,anua"
wor9 at Hea"th center counters. Ever& sort of tas9 is (erfor,ed b& the s&ste,:
such as registering different t&(es of (ersons ;i.e e,("o&ees : students and
others< :en+uiries: and co,("aints etc. reducing ,uch (a(er wor9 and burden of
fi"e storage. A"so the "atest infor,ation is right avai"ab"e for the officia"s and
e1ecutives wherever the& re+uire. .he s&ste, a"so faci"itates the (har,acist to
en+uire about the drugs and about the stoc9 to be ordered and about the e1(ir&
date .
=here the s&ste, ,ust be ("aced>
.here are a "ot of benefits to the Hea"th center b& ("acing the s&ste, at
their registration and at drug store office . At the sa,e ti,e the (atients are a"so
benefited using this s&ste,. .he& can get the wor9 done within no ti,e.
How to use the s&ste,>
Using the s&ste, is as si,("e as using the (ersona" co,(uter. Since end
user co,(uting is deve"o(ing in our countr&: It is beneficia" to both Hea"th center
and the (atients. Ever& ste( is c"ear"& defined and he"( is (rovided through out
the a(("ication to the user. Even the e1ce(tions are hand"ed we"" to avoid
confusion.
How is it beneficia" to the Hea"th Center>
.he heath center can get ,uch out of the s&ste,. .he s&ste, is used to enter
the (atient detai"s and to enter the detai"s about the hea"th center and the
detai"s about the in4(atient and out4(atient in detai" and about the re(orts of the
(atients . .his s&ste, re(resents the (atient b& the OP nu,ber and this is ,ain
criteria how the (atient is (rovided b& the free services . .he drug infor,ation
and the s(ecifications is a"so (rovided in this Hea"th Center Manage,ent
S&ste,.

#


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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW OF HEALTH CENTER MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
.o deve"o( a Hea"th Center Manage,ent s&ste,: we ta9e care of (atient
registration: drug infor,ation and concerns such as drug en+uiries and
co,("aints.
.he current ,anua" s&ste, is s"ow "aborious and error (rone to co,(uterie the
sa,e for +uic9er efficient resu"ts and custo,er satisfaction
1.1.1 ADVANTAGES TO BOTH END USERS DEVELOPERS
.he s&ste, is usefu" in various wa&s as the infor,ation about the (atients
who are ta9ing the free services fro, the hea"th center a"" the detai"s are a"read&
stored in the database : so the service is done in no ti,e . A"" the infor,ation
about the drugs are a"so ,aintained in the database

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1.2

1.! GOAL AND NEED"
GOAL" =ith ever& going da& the need to be where the inf"ow of out (atient
re+uest e1ceeds that which can be hand"ed ,anua""&. Hence co,(uteriation of
O! recei(t re+uest and ,aintenance of the drugs through the co,(uteriation
brings better satisfaction and service oriented ness.
?uic9er (rocessing of O!%O recei(t wou"d ,ean better service to the (atients .
It wou"d a"so he"( in the co,("e1it& of ,aintaining the records ,anua""& and
thus "ess ti,e is wasted on rewor9. !ro(er ,aintenance of the drug infor,ation
ti,e"& dis(atching of the drugs fro, the ,ain stores to the (har,ac& and a"so
,aintenance of dai"& dis(atching of the drugs to the out (atients fro, the
(har,ac& to the out (atients . .owards this achieve,ent the co,(uteriation of
the Hea"th Center wi"" he"( great"& in ,aintaining (f (ro(er infor,ation about the
out (atients who are e"igib"e for the free services and the (atients who are not
e"igib"e for the free services : drug infor,ation : (atients records :and dai"&
dis(atching of the drugs to various (atients .
NEED" .o deve"o( a Heath Center Manage,ent s&ste, as fro, ,anua" s&ste,
to co,(uteried s&ste,: and to ta9e care of *ecords of the various de(art,ents

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in the hea"th center..he current ,anua" s&ste, is s"ow "aborious and error (rone
to co,(uterie the sa,e for +uic9er efficient resu"ts .
1.# GENERAL METHODOLOGY IN DEVELOPING S$W PRO%ECT
.he genera" ,ethodo"og& in deve"o(ing a s&ste, is invo"ved in different (hases:
which describe the s&ste,@s "ife c&c"e ,ode" for deve"o(ing software (ro)ect. .he
conce(t inc"udes not on"& forward ,otion but a"so have the (ossibi"it& to return
that is c&c"e bac9 to an activit& (revious"& co,("eted. .his c&c"e bac9 or
feedbac9 ,a& occur as a resu"t of the fai"ure with the s&ste, to ,eet a
(erfor,ance ob)ective or as a resu"t of changes in redefinition of s&ste,
activities. Ai9e ,ost s&ste,s: the "ife c&c"e of the co,(uter based s&ste, a"so
e1hibits distinct (hases.
.hose are:
1. *E?UI*EME%. A%AABSIS !HASE
2. 'ESI$% !HASE
#. 'ECEAO!ME%. !HASE
4. CO'I%$ !HASE
-. .ES.I%$ !HASE
1.#.1. RE&UIREMENT ANALYSIS PHASE "
.his (hase inc"udes the identification of the (rob"e,: in order to identif&
the (rob"e,: we have to 9now infor,ation about the (rob"e,: the (ur(ose of the
eva"uation for (rob"e, to be 9nown. =e have to c"ear"& 9now about the c"ient@s
re+uire,ents and the ob)ectives of the (ro)ect.
SYSTEM ANALYSIS PHASE "
0easibi"it& ana"&sis invo"ves the benefits of various a((roaches and the
deter,ination of the a"ternative a((roaches aDthrough ,ethods "i9e

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+uestionnaires and interviews etc.: different data about the (ro)ect is co""ected
and the data through out the (ro)ect is re(resented in the for, of UMA 'iagra,s.
1.#.' DESIGN PHASE "
SE= design is a (rocess through which the re+uire,ents are trans"ated
into a re(resentation of a sEw. One of the software re+uire,ents have been
ana"&ed and s(ecified: the sEw design invo"ves three technica" activities F design:
coding generation and testing. .he design of the s&ste, is in ,odu"ar for, i.e.:
the sEw is "ogica""& (artitioned into co,(onents that (erfor, s(ecific functions
and sub functions. .he design (hase "eads to ,odu"es that e1hibit inde(endent
functiona" characteristics. It even "eads to interfaces that reduce the co,("e1it& of
the connections between ,odu"es and with the e1terna" environ,ent. .he design
(hase is of ,ain i,(ortance because in this activit&: decisions u"ti,ate"& affect
the success of sEw i,("e,entation and ,aintenance.
1.#.! DEVELOPMENT PHASE"
.he deve"o(,ent (hase inc"udes choosing of a suitab"e sEw to so"ve the
(articu"ar (rob"e, given. .he various faci"ities and the so(histication in the
se"ected sEw give a better deve"o(,ent of the (rob"e,.
1.#.# CODING PHASE "
.he coding (hase is for trans"ating the design of the s&ste, (roduced
during the design (hase into code in a given (rogra,,ing "anguage: which can
be e1ecuted b& a co,(uter and which (erfor,s the co,(utation s(ecified b& the
design.
1.#.( TESTING PHASE "

/

.esting is done in various wa&s such as testing the a"gorith,:
(rogra,,ing code: sa,("e data debugging is a"so one of fo""owing the above
testing.

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'. RE&UIREMENT ANALYSIS
'.1 DATA COLLECTION"
Observation of the E1isting S&ste,F
In the t&(ica" Hea"th Center Manage,ent S&ste, is deve"o(ed to ,a9e a"" the
sections co,(uteried . .he entire (rocess is ver& ti,e consu,ing and invo"ves
tones of (a(er wor94 ,ost"& ,anua""&: which is both error (rone and ti,e
consu,ing.
.he new s&ste, wou"d have the (atients are re+uesting for the recei(ts at
the *egistration office b& showing the I' given to the (atients that are given at
there res(ected de(art,ents at the universit& "eve" : 3ust b& sub,itting the o(no
to the database the (erson is confir,ed that the (erson is e"igib"e or not . If the
(erson is e"igib"e the service is (rovided to the (erson. In the 'rug Store the
,aintenance of the drug infor,ation that how ,an& drugs are there in the store
and how ,uch is dis(atched to the !har,ac& house and how ,an& are in the
,ain stores and what content of the drugs are to be ordered> A"" this infor,ation
is in the drug store. .he infor,ation that how ,an& out4 (atients that have visited
the hea"th center and how ,an& (atients are In4(atients this infor,ation is stored
in the Case *ecords: and the dai"& dis(atching of the drugs fro, the (har,ac&
to the (atients are ,aintained in the 'ai"& *ecords.

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'.' SYSTEM RE&UIREMENT SPECIFICATION DOCUMENT
W)at *+ SRS,
Software *e+uire,ent S(ecification ;S*S< is the starting (oint of the software
deve"o(ing activit&. As s&ste, grew ,ore co,("e1 it beca,e evident that the
goa" of the entire s&ste, cannot be easi"& co,(rehended. Hence the need for
the re+uire,ent (hase arose. .he software (ro)ect is initiated b& the c"ient
needs. .he S*S is the ,eans of trans"ating the ideas of the ,inds of c"ients ;the
in(ut< into a for,a" docu,ent ;the out(ut of the re+uire,ent (hase.<
T)e SRS -)a+e .on+*+t+ o/ t0o 1a+*. a.t*2*t*e+"
13 P4o15em$Re67*4ement Ana58+*+"
.he (rocess is order and ,ore nebu"ous of the two: dea"s with
understand the (rob"e,: the goa" and constraints.
'3 Re67*4ement S-e.*/*.at*on"
Here: the focus is on s(ecif&ing what has been found giving
ana"&sis such as re(resentation: s(ecification "anguages and too"s: and
chec9ing the s(ecifications are addressed during this activit&.
.he *e+uire,ent (hase ter,inates with the (roduction of the
va"idate S*S docu,ent. !roducing the S*S docu,ent is the basic goa"
of this (hase.
ROLE OF SRS"
.he (ur(ose of the Software *e+uire,ent S(ecification is to
reduce the co,,unication ga( between the c"ients and the deve"o(ers.
Software *e+uire,ent S(ecification is the ,ediu, though which the c"ient
and user needs are accurate"& s(ecified. It for,s the basis of software

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deve"o(,ent. A good S*S shou"d satisf& a"" the (arties invo"ved in the
s&ste,.
'.! INTRODUCTION "
2.#.1 !U*!OSE F
.he (ur(ose of this docu,ent is to describe a"" e1terna"
re+uire,ents for .he Hea"th Center. It a"so describes the interfaces for the
s&ste,.
2.#.2 SCO!E F
.his docu,ent is the on"& one that describes the re+uire,ents
of the s&ste,. It is ,eant for the use b& the deve"o(ers : and wi"" a"so b&
the basis for va"idating the fina" de"ivered s&ste,. An& changes ,ade to
the re+uire,ents in the future wi"" have to go through a for,a" change
a((rova" (rocess. .he deve"o(er is res(onsib"e for as9ing for
c"arifications: where necessar&: and wi"" not ,a9e an& a"terations without
the (er,ission of the c"ient.
'.!.1 PRO%ECT DEFINITION
.he Hea"th Center Manage,ent S&ste, (ro)ect has been divided into four
,odu"es. .he& are
1. *egistration
2. 'rug Store

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#. Case *ecords
4. 'ai"& Entries
Mo975e:One Reg*+t4at*on
.his ,odu"e consists of the fo""owing sub ,odu"es vi.:
Inserting the *ecords of the (ersons sent fro, the different
de(art,ents
Ciewing the *ecords
Mo975e:T0o D47g Sto4e
.his ,odu"e is divided into three sub ,odu"es. .he& are
Inserting 'rugs
U(dating 'rugs
About 'rugs
Mo975e:T)4ee Ca+e Re.o49+
.his ,odu"e has been divided into three sub ,odu"es. .he& are
In4(atient *ecord ;Student<
In4(atient *ecord ;E,("o&ee<
Out4(atient *ecord ;Student G E,("o&ees<
Mo975e:Fo74 Da*58 Ent4*e+
.his ,odu"e again is divided into two sub ,odu"es. .he& are
!har,ac& dai"& Entries
%urse dai"& Entries

1#

Software Requirements:
!"atfor, 4 =indows ;2888EH!< EUni1ESo"aris
Software 4 3S'I -.8: Ms4Access.
Hardware Requirements:
!rocessor 4 Inte" ce"eron c"ass !rocessor with 2.8 $H
*AM 4 2-5 M7
Hard 'is9 4 48 $7
Ie&board 4 181 9e&s
Mouse 4 An& (ointing device
De+*gn Con+t4a*nt+"


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.his Hea"th Center Manage,ent S&ste, re+uire huge resources as Hundreds of
the (atients wi"" re+uire the services instant"&: +uic9 res(onse ti,e are needed.
.he database shou"d a"so be ver& "arge and robust to ,aintain ver& huge
(atients and drugs data.

1-

SYSTEM ANALYSIS
Ana"&sis is the detai"ed stud& of the various o(erations (erfor,ed b& a
s&ste, and their re"ationshi(s within and outside of the s&ste,. A 9e& +uestion
isF =hat ,ust be done to so"ve the (rob"e,> One as(ect of ana"&sis is defining
the boundaries of the s&ste, and deter,ining whether or not candidate s&ste,
shou"d consider other re"ated s&ste,s. 'uring ana"&sis: data are co""ected on
the avai"ab"e fi"es: decision (oints: and transactions hand"ed b& the (resent
s&ste,.
!.1.MODULE DESCRIPTION
.his section atte,(ts to describe each ,odu"e of the (ro)ect in brief: and the
detai"ed descri(tion of each of these ,odu"es is s(read throughout this
docu,ent.
.he Hea"th Center Manage,ent S&ste, (ro)ect has been divided into four
,odu"es. .he& are
1 *egistration

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2 'rug stores
# Case *ecords
4 'ai"& Entries
1. Reg*+t4at*on
.his ,odu"e has been divided into two sub ,odu"es. .he& are
Inserting the new records
*etrieving the record

1.1. Inserting the new records
.he infor,ation of the students and e,("o&ees are send
fro, the different de(art,ents to (rovide the free service. A"" the records
which are send fro, the de(art,ents are entered into the database and
each ,e,ber is re(resented through the uni+ue nu,ber 9nown as the
o(no. Inserting of the new records inc"ude the o(no i.e which is a""otted
uni+ue"& for (roviding the free services: %a,e: Age: Se1: Address : 0a,i"&
,e,bers of the e,("o&ee and other 7eneficiaries under the S.C. Hea"th
Center.

1.2 *etrieving the detai"s
.he records which are entered into the database are
retrieved to chec9 whether that (erson who has co,e to ta9e the service at
the hea"th center is e"igib"e to ta9e the service are not. .his is done b&
entering the o(no that has a""otted to the (atient: if the data is retrieved fro,

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the database the (erson is e"igib"e to ta9e the service and b& this :if (erson
is the e,("o&ee then in so,e cases heEshe is charged "i9e wise the 14ra&
charges and the bed charges for the e,("o&ee. .he students are not
charged in an& cases a"" the services are (rovided for the free of the cost.
' D47g Sto4e+
.his ,odu"e is divided into three ,odu"es. .he& are
2.1 'rug Entr&
2.2 U(dating 'rug Entr&
2.# Stoc9 'etai"s
2.1 'rug Entr&
.his is an entr& done b& entr& o(erator after getting the stoc9 fro,
the ,edica" transcri(ters and the infor,ation is stored in the
database. .he infor,ation is in the for, starting with the 'rug
na,e: in4stoc9: E1(ir& date1 and E1(ir& date2. .he 'rug na,e is
uni+ue"& identified such that the database is ,aintained without an&
co,("e1it&. Here the e1(ir& date is re(resented in the for, of
,onth4&ear: but not in the for, ,, E dd E &&. .he stoc9 is first
stored in the ,ain drug stores and ever& wee9 it is shifted to the
(har,ac& store b& watching the stoc9 at the (har,ac& house.
2.2 U(dating 'rug Entr&
.his is an entr& done b& sa,e entr& o(erator after the drugs a""
entered in the database. .he drugs shou"d be shifted to the
(har,ac& house b& chec9ing the stoc9 at the (har,ac& house.

1/

0irst the Main drug store ,aintains the stoc9 and the drugs are
shifted to the (har,ac& house (eriodica""&. .his (eriodica" shifting
of the drugs are u(dated such that the drug house 9nows how
,uch of the stoc9 is (resent in the drug store: Here the drug stores
,ain"& considers the e1(ir& date as the ,ain criteria the drugs
which have the nearer e1(ir& date are shifted to the (har,ac&
house.
2.# Stoc9 'etai"s
.he stoc9 detai"s are so i,(ortant such that we 9now how ,an&
drugs are in the ,ain store: what are the e1(ir& dates of the drugs.
=hen the stoc9 is ta9en it wi"" ,ini,u, of two and ,a1i,u, of five
e1(ir& dates. So it is better to watch the e1(ir& dates so that the
drugs are shifted to the (har,ac& house according to the drugs
which are having the ear"& e1(ir& date.
! Ca+e Re.o49+
.his ,odu"e has been divided into three sub ,odu"es. .he& are
#.1 Students In4!atients *ecords
#.2 E,("o&ees G 7eneficiaries In4!atients *ecords.
#.# Out J !atients *ecords ; Students G 7eneficiaries <
#.1 Students In4!atients *ecords
.he infor,ation about the in4(atients shou"d be notified such
that the treat,ent for the (atient is done in the (ro(er wa&. .he
students who are in4(atients are ,aintained se(arate"& because
ever&thing to the student is served free"& i.e there is no bed
charges: no charge for the scanning: no charge for the H4*a&s and
ever& thing is su(("ied free"&. .here ,a& be s(ecia" cases that are

16

used for case studies how that disease has occurred and what are
the (recautions are to be ta9en to overco,e that disease. .he
diseases that affect the other (atients are shifted to the Iso"ation
ward such that disease is not affected to the other (atients.
#.2 E,("o&ees G 7eneficiaries In4(atient *ecords
.he e,("o&ees and other beneficiaries are ,aintained
se(arate"& such that there are a(("icab"e for so,e charges ..hese
e,("o&ees have the bed charges: H4*a& and Scanning charges.
.hese are ca"cu"ated according to the da&s (resent in the hos(ita".
.he ,edicines are free"& served to the (atient on"& in so,e s(ecia"
cases the (atient is charged.

#.# Out4!atients *ecord
.he (atients are served for the co,,on (rob"e,s which are not
serious: the treat,ent to a"" the beneficiaries and students are
(rovided free"&. .here are se(arate wards for the "adies and gents
and in so,e s(ecia" cases (atients are sent to the chief doctor.
# Da*58 Re.o49+
'ai"& records are then divided into two sub ,odu"es. .he& are
4.1 !har,ac& 'ai"& Entries
!har,ac& dai"& entries are the entries which are given to the out4
(atients and these are noted at the end of the da&. 'ai"& entries wi"" give the
infor,ation about how ,an& drugs are needed ever& da&. .his wi"" then ta9e the
sufficient nu,ber of drugs fro, the ,ain stores to the !har,ac& house.

4.2 %urse 'ai"& Entries

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%urse dai"& entries that are entered with the o(erator when the drug
has been ad,inistered to the (atient: .he date: ti,e what t&(e of the
drugs a(("ied to the (atient are to be noted in certain (eriod of ti,e.
!.' FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
0easibi"it& stud& is an i,(ortant (hase in the software deve"o(,ent (rocess. It
enab"es the deve"o(er to have an assess,ent of the (roduct being deve"o(ed. It
refers to the feasibi"it& stud& of the (roduct in ter,s of outco,es of the (roduct:
o(erationa" use and technica" su((ort re+uired for i,("e,enting it.
0easibi"it& stud& shou"d be (erfor,ed on the basis of various criteria and
(ara,eters. .he various feasibi"it& studies areF
Econo,ic 0easibi"it&
O(erationa" 0easibi"it&
.echnica" 0easibi"it&
1. E.onom*. Fea+*1*5*t8" It refers to the benefits or outco,es we are deriving
fro, the (roduct as co,(ared to the tota" cost we are s(ending for deve"o(ing
the (roduct. If the benefits are ,ore or "ess the sa,e as the o"der s&ste,: then it
is not feasib"e to deve"o( the (roduct.

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2. O-e4at*ona5 Fea+*1*5*t8" It refers to the feasibi"it& of the (roduct to be
o(erationa". So,e (roducts ,a& wor9 ver& we"" at design and i,("e,entation
but ,a& fai" in the rea" ti,e environ,ent. It inc"udes the stud& of additiona"
hu,an resource re+uired and their technica" e1(ertise.
#. Te.)n*.a5 Fea+*1*5*t8" It refers to whether the software that
is avai"ab"e in the ,ar9et fu""& su((orts the (resent a(("ication. It studies the (ros
and cons of using a (articu"ar software for the deve"o(,ent and its feasibi"it&. It
a"so studies the additiona" training needed to be given to the (eo("e to ,a9e the
a(("ication wor9.
Im-5ementat*on P5an"
.he ,ain ("an for the s&ste, deve"o(ed is to ,i,ic the e1isting s&ste, as it is in
the (ro(osed s&ste,.
St798 o/ t)e E;*+t*ng S8+tem
.he e1isting s&ste, is ver& co,("e1 as ever& wor9 is done ,anua""&.
7& using the (resent s&ste,: wor9 is done ,anua""&. So: each and ever& wor9
ta9es ,uch ti,e to co,("ete. =henever the doctor needs the infor,ation it is
ver& difficu"t for the e,("o&ee to search for that (articu"ar o(no detai"s and the
drug infor,ation to be ordered. Ever& ti,e we shou"d search the records at the
she"ves.
Disadvantages
1. .he wor9 is done ,anua""& so that it ta9es ,uch ti,e to recognie the
(atient at the registration office.
2. More nu,ber of "abors is needed.
#. =e can@t asses the ca"cu"ations accurate"&.

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4. A,ount of ti,e is ,ore needed when the ,ore (atients co,e to
registration counter. It counts ti,e factor.
-. As there are thousands of (atients recordsK Searching (rocess is a
difficu"t tas9.
THE PROPOSED SYSTEM"
.he (resent s&ste, has obvious (rob"e,s: inhibiting growth and
,ore usage of ,an (ower. .he (resent s&ste, which has been (ro(osed is
ver& eas& to wor9 ..he co,(uteriation of the ever& de(art,ent in the hea"th
center wi"" reduce the wor9 that is done ,anua""&. .he ,an (ower is reduced
to the ,a1i,u, e1tent. .he (atients at the registration office are registered
within no ti,e: because ever& ti,e there is no need search for the (articu"ar
o(no in the she"f@s ..he drugs infor,ation are ,aintained without an&
co,("e1it& and a"" the ca"cu"ations are ,ade auto,atica""& b& this s&ste,
there is no need for the ca"cu"ations
Advantages
1. A fast and ,ore efficient service to a"" (atients . As there are thousands
of (atients recordsK Searching (rocess is an eas& tas9.
2. Saving in staff ti,e in entering and ,ani(u"ating data.
#. Eas& in(ut: de"etion and ,ani(u"ation of "ot: (atients detai"s.
4. Si,("e correction of in(ut errors and we can asses the ca"cu"ations
accurate"&.
Disadvantage
1. Aoss of data when e"ectronic f"uctuations occur.

2#

Goa5+ an9 O1<e.t*2e+
1. Service shou"d be (rovided to (atients in an efficient ,anner.
2. O!%O nu,ber recei(t is issued instant"& when (atient a(("& for O!
recei(t.
#. En+uir& detai"s about the drugs are to be ,aintained in the (ro(er wa&
etc.
4. 'ai"& records are ,aintained such that the drugs are ta9en fro, the
MAI% S.O*ES are dis(atched in the (ro(er wa&.
-. Each and ever& (atient record shou"d be ,aintained in s&ste,atic
,anner so that the searching (rocess wi"" be eas&.

24

#.1 INTRODUCTION
'esign is the first ste( in the deve"o(,ent (hase for an& techni+ues and
(rinci("es for the (ur(ose of defining a device: a (rocess or s&ste, in sufficient
detai" to (er,it its (h&sica" rea"iation.
Once the software re+uire,ents have been ana"&ed and s(ecified the software
design invo"ves three technica" activities design: coding: generation and testing
that are re+uired to bui"d and verif& the software.
.he design activities are of ,ain i,(ortance in this (hase: because in this
activit&: decisions u"ti,ate"& affecting the success of the software i,("e,entation
and its ease of ,aintenance are ,ade. .hese decisions have the fina" bearing
u(on re"iabi"it& and ,aintainabi"it& of the s&ste,. 'esign is the on"& wa& to
accurate"& trans"ate the custo,er@s re+uire,ents into finished software or a
s&ste,.

2-

'esign is the ("ace where +ua"it& is fostered in deve"o(,ent. Software design is
a (rocess through which re+uire,ents are trans"ated into a re(resentation of
software. Software design is conducted in two ste(s. !re"i,inar& design is
concerned with the transfor,ation of re+uire,ents into data.
4. !LO" CHARTS
7efore so"ving a (rob"e, with the he"( of a co,(uter: it is essentia" to ("an the
so"ution in a ste(4b&4ste( ,anner. Such a ("anning is re(resented s&,bo"ica""&
with the he"( of f"ow chart. It is an i,(ortant too" of s&ste, ana"&sts and
!rogra,,ers for tracing the infor,ation f"ow and the "ogica" se+uence in data
(rocessing Aogic is the essence of a f"ow chart.
A f"ow chart is the s&,bo"ic re(resentation of ste(4b&4ste( so"ution of a given
(rob"e,: and it indicates f"ow of entire (rocess: the se+uence of the data in(ut:
o(erations: co,(utations: decisions: resu"ts and other re"evant infor,ation.
!ertaining to a (articu"ar (rob"e,: a f"ow chart he"(s us in the co,("ete
understanding of the "ogica" structure of a co,("icated (rob"e, and in
docu,enting the ,ethod used. It wou"d be seen that the f"ow chart is a ver&
convenient ,ethod of organiing the "ogica" ste(s and deciding what: when and
how to (roceed with various (rocesses. .he "ogic shou"d be de(icted in the f"ow
charts. Co,(uteriation of the data without a f"ow chart is "i9e constructing the
bui"ding without a (ro(er design and detai"ed drawings.
=*n9+ o/ t)e F5o0 C)a4t+
1. S8+tem F5o0 C)a4t

.he s&ste, ana"&st to describe data f"ow and o(erations for the data (rocessing
c&c"e uses these. A s&ste, f"ow chart defines the broad (rocessing in the

25

organiations: showing the origin of the data: fi""ing structure: (rocessing to be
(erfor,ed: out(ut that is to generate and necessit& of the off"ine o(eration.
'. P4og4am F5o0 C)a4t >o43 Com-7te4 P4o.e974e /5o0 .)a4t

.he (rogra,,ers to describe the se+uence of o(erations and the decision of a
(articu"ar (rob"e, nor,a""& use these. A (rogra, f"ow chart ("ans the !rogra,
structure and a"so serves the (ur(ose of docu,entation for a (rogra,: which is
to be retained and used at a "ater date either b& the origina" (rogra,,er or
others.
A92antage+"
A(art fro,: the '0'S the f"ow charts has been he"(ing the (rogra,,er to
deve"o( the (rogra,,ing "ogic and to serve as the docu,entation for a
Co,("eted (rogra,: it has the fo""owing advantages

1. .he& he"( for the eas& understanding of the "ogic of a
!rocess or a (rocedure
2. It is a better co,,unicating too" than writing in words.
#. It is eas& to find the conditions: which are res(onsib"e
0or the actions.
4. It is an i,(ortant too" for ("anning and designing the
%ew s&ste,.

22

-. It c"ear"& indicates the ro"e4("a&ed at each "eve".
5. It (rovides an overview of the s&ste, and a"so
de,onstrates the re"ationshi( between the various ste(s.
2. It faci"itates troub"eshooting.

/. It (ro,otes "ogica" accurac&.
'isadvantagesF
1. Co,,unication "ines are not a"wa&s eas& to show.
2. .he charts are so,eti,es co,("icated.
#. *e(roduction is difficu"t.
4. .he& are hard to ,odif&.
UML DIAGRAMS

2/

TABLES
'rugs .ab"eF4
'rug%a,e Istoc9 Ostoc9 E1'ate1 E1'ate2 .ota"
In4!atient *ecord F4
O(no %a,e Age Se1 'o7 'oA 'o'
Out4!atient *ecordF4

26

O(no %a,e Age Se1 'iagnosis
*egistered F4
O(no %a,e Age Se1 Occu(ation 'iagnosis
*egistration F4
O-no Name Age Se; O..7-at*on A994e++ Fam*58
mem1e4+
P)a4ma.8 Ent4*e+":
O(no 'rug
%a,e1
%o. of
.ab"ets
issued
'%1
'rug
%a,e2
%o. of
.ab"ets
issued
'%2

#8


#1

DEVELOPMENT PHASE
FEATURES OF LANGUAGE
%AVA
=hen the chronic"e of co,(uter "anguages is written: the fo""owing wi"" be saidF 7
"ed to C: C evo"ved into CLL: and CLL set the stage for 3ava. .o understand the
reasons that drove the creation: the forces that sha(ed it: and the "egac& that it
inherits. Ai9e the successfu" co,(ute "anguages that ca,e before: 3ava is a
b"end of the best e"e,ents of its rich heritage co,bined with the innovative
conce(ts re+uired b& its uni+ue environ,ent.
%AVA?S FEATURE SET"

#2

A"though the funda,enta" forces that necessitated the invention of 3ava are
(ortabi"it& and securit&: other factors a"so ("a&ed an i,(ortant ro"e in ,o"ding the
fina" for, of the "anguage and are given b&
Si,("e
Ob)ect Oriented
!ortab"e
*obust
Securit&
Mu"tithreaded
Inter(reted and High (erfor,ance
'istributed
'&na,ic
$arbage Co""ection
%o !ointers
Si,("icit&
S*m-5e
3ava was designed to be eas& for the (rofessiona" (rogra,,er
to "earn and use effective"&. 3ava wi"" be even eas& if we a"read& through in the
conce(t of ob)ect oriented. So,e of confusing conce(ts are "eft out of 3ava or
i,("e,ented in a c"eaner: ,ore a((roachab"e ,anner.

O1<e.t O4*ente9
.he 3ava (rogra,,ing "anguage is ob)ect oriented: which ,a9es
(rogra, design focus on what &ou are dea"ing with rather than on how &ou are
going to do so,ething. .his ,a9es it ,ore usefu" for (rogra,,ing in
so(histicated (ro)ects because one can brea9 the things down into

##

understandab"e co,(onents. A big benefit is that these co,(onents can then be
reused.
Ob)ect oriented "anguages use the (aradig, of c"asses. In si,("e ter,: a
c"ass inc"udes both the data and functions to o(erate on the data. Bou can create
an instance of a c"ass: a"so ca""ed an ob)ect: which wi"" have a"" the data
,e,bers and functiona"it& of its c"ass. 7ecause of this: &ou can thin9 of a c"ass
as being "i9e te,("ate: with each ob)ect being a s(ecific instance of a (articu"ar
t&(e of c"ass.
.he c"ass (aradig, a""ows one to enca(su"ate data so that those using
the data cannot see s(ecific data va"ues and function i,("e,entation.
Enca(su"ation ,a9es it (ossib"e to ,a9e the changes in code without brea9ing
other (rogra,s that use that code. It for e1a,("e the i,("e,entation of a
function is changed: the change is invisib"e to another (rogra,,er who invo9es
that function: and it does not affect hisEher (rogra,: e1ce(t ho(efu""& to i,(rove
it.

3ava inc"udes inheritance: or the abi"it& to derive new c"asses fro,
e1isting c"asses. .he derived c"ass: a"so ca""ed a subc"ass: inherits a"" the data
and functions of the e1isting c"ass: referred to as (arent c"ass. A subc"ass can
add new data ,e,bers to those inherited fro, the (arent c"ass. As far as
,ethods are concerned: the subc"ass can reuse the inherited ,ethods: as it is:
change the,: andEor add its own new ,ethods.

Po4ta15e
One of the biggest advantages 3ava offers is that it is (ortab"e. An
a(("ication written in 3ava wi"" run on a"" the ,a)or ("atfor,s. An& co,(uter with a

#4

3ava based browser can run the a(("ications or a(("ets written in the 3ava
(rogra,,ing "anguage. A (rogra,,er no "onger has to write one (rogra, to run
on a Macintosh: another (rogra, to run on a =indows ,achine: sti"" another to
run on U%IH ,achine: and so on. In other words: with 3ava: deve"o(ers write
their (rogra,s on"& once. .he virtua" ,achine is what gives 3ava is cross
("atfor, ca(abi"ities. *ather than being co,(i"ed into ,achine "anguage: which
is different for each o(erating s&ste,s and co,(uter architecture: 3ava code is
co,(i"ed into b&te codes.
=ith other "anguages: the (rogra, code is co,(i"ed into a "anguage the
co,(uter can understand. .he (rob"e, is that other co,(uters with different
,achine instruction set cannot understand that "anguage. 3ava code on the other
hand is co,(i"ed into b&te code rather than a ,achine "anguage. .hese b&te
codes go to the 3ava virtua" ,achine: which e1ecutes the, direct"& or trans"ates
the, into the "anguage that is understood b& the ,achine running it.
In su,,ar&: these ,eans that with the 3'7C A!I e1tending 3ava: a
(rogra,,er writing 3ava code can access a"" the ,a)or re"ationa" databases
on an& ("atfor, that su((orts the 3ava virtua" ,achine.
Ro17+t

.he ,u"ti ("atfor, environ,ent of the web ("aces e1traordinar& de,ands
on a (rogra,: because the (rogra, ,ust e1ecute re"iab"& in a variet& of
s&ste,s. .hus: the abi"it& to create robust (rogra,s was given a high (riorit& in
the design of 3ava. However: it a"so chec9s our code at run ti,e. In fact: ,an&
s(ace hard4to4down bugs that often turn u( in hard4to re(roduce run ti,e
situations are si,("& i,(ossib"e to create in 3ava.
.o better understand how )ava is robust: two of the reasons are ,ain"&
considered for (rogra, fai"ure ,e,or& ,anage,ent ,ista9es and ,ishand"ing
e1ce(tiona" conditions. Me,or& ,anage,ent can be a difficu"t: tedious tas9 in

#-

traditiona" (rogra,,ing environ,ents. 3ava virtua""& e"i,inates these (rob"e,s
b& ,anaging ,e,or& a""ocation and dea" "ocation.
E1ce(tiona" conditions in traditiona" environ,ent often arise in situations
such as division b& ero of Mfi"e not foundN and the& ,ust be ,anaged with
c"u,s& and hard4to4read constructs. 3ava he"(s in this area b& (roviding ob)ect4
oriented e1ce(tion hand"ing.

Se.74*t8

Ever& ti,e that we down"oaded a Mnor,a"N (rogra,: we are ris9ing a
vira" infection. !rior to 3ava ,ost users did not down"oad e1ecutab"e (rogra,s
fre+uent"&: and those who did scan the, for viruses (rior to e1ecution. Even so:
,ost users sti"" worried about the (ossibi"ities of infecting their s&ste,s with a
virus.
In addition to viruses: another t&(e of ,a"icious (rogra, e1ists that ,ust
be guarded against. .his t&(e of (rogra, can gather (rivate infor,ation: such as
credit card nu,bers: ban9 account ba"ances and (asswords: b& searching the
contents of our co,(uter@s "oca" fi"e s&ste,. 3ava answers both of this concern
b& (roviding a Mfirewa""N between a networ9ed a(("ication and our co,(uter.
M75t*t)4ea9e9
3ava was designed to ,eet the rea"4wor"d re+uire,ent of creating
interactive: networ9ed (rogra,s. .o acco,("ish this: )ava su((orts ,u"tithreaded
(rogra,,ing: which a""ows us to write (rogra,s that do ,an& things
si,u"taneous"&. .he 3ava run4ti,e s&ste, co,es with an e"egant &et
so(histicated su(("icated so"ution for ,u"ti (rocess s&nchroniation that enab"es
us to construct s,ooth"& running interactive s&ste,s.

#5

Inte4-4ete9 an9 )*g) -e4/o4man.e
3ava enab"es the creation of cross4("atfor, (rogra,s b& co,(i"ing into
an inter,ediate re(resentation ca""ed 3ava b&te code. .his code can be
inter(reted on an& s&ste, that (rovides a 3ava virtua" ,achine. Most (revious
atte,(ts at cross4("atfor, so"utions have done so at the e1(ense of
(erfor,ance. Other inter(reted s&ste,: such as 7ASIC: .c" and !EAA: suffer
fro, a",ost insur,ountab"e (erfor,ance deficits. 3ava: however: was designed
to (erfor, we"" on ver& "ow (ower C!Us.
D*+t4*17te9
3ava is bui"t with networ9 co,,unications in ,ind. It has a
co,(rehensive "ibrar& of routines for dea"ing with networ9 (rotoco"s such as
.C!EI!: H..! and 0.!. As a resu"t: 3ava a(("ication can o(en and access
ob)ects across the Internets with the sa,e ease that (rogra,,ers nor,a""&
e1ce(ts whi"e accessing a "oca" fi"e s&ste,. Bou don@t have to worr& about
i,("e,enting the detai"s of networ9 &ourse"f. 3ava co,es with ever&thing needed
for tru"& distributed co,(uting.
D8nam*.
0unda,enta""&: distributed co,(uting environ,ent ,ust be d&na,ic
3ava was designed to ada(t in a constant"& evo"ving environ,ent. It is ca(ab"e of
incor(orating new functiona"it& regard "ess of where that functiona"it& co,es fro,
the "oca" co,(uter s&ste,: the "oca" and wide area networ9s: and the internet are
a"" (otentia" contributors.
Ga41age Co55e.t*on
Auto,atica""& ta9es care of a""ocating and de4a""ocating
,e,or&: a huge (otentia" source of errors. If an ob)ect is no "onger being used
;has no references to it<: then it is auto,atica""& re,oved fro, ,e,or&: or

#2

M$arbage Co""ectedN. !rogra,,ers don@t have to 9ee( trac9 of what has been
a""ocated and de4a""ocated the,: which ,a9es their )ob a "ot easier: but ,ore
i,(ortant"& it sto(s ,e,or& "ea9s.
No Po*nte4+
E"i,inates big source errors. 7& using ob)ect references instead of
,e,or& (ointers: (rob"e,s with (ointer arith,etic are e"i,inated: and (rob"e,s
with inadvertent"& accessing the wrong ,e,or& address are great"& reduced.
S*m-5*.*t8
Ma9es 3ava easier to "earn and use correct"&. 3ava 9ee(s it si,("e b&
having )ust one wa& to do so,ething instead of having severa" a"ternatives: as in
so,e "anguages. 3ava a"so sta&s "ean b& not inc"uding ,u"ti("e inheritances:
which e"i,inates the errors and a,biguit& that arise when &ou create a subc"ass
that inherits fro, two or ,ore c"asses.
.o re("ace ca(abi"ities: ,u"ti("e inheritances (rovide: 3ava "ets &ou add
functiona"it& to a c"ass through the use of interfaces.
(.' Int4o97.t*on to %DBC"
3'7C
.M
is a 3ava
.M
A!I for e1ecuting S?A state,ents. ;As a (oint of
interest: 3'7C is a trade,ar9ed na,e and is not an acron&,K neverthe"ess:
3'7C is often thought of as standing for O3ava 'atabase Connectivit&O.< It
consists of a set of c"asses and interfaces written in the 3ava (rogra,,ing
"anguage. 3'7C (rovides a standard A!I for too"Edatabase deve"o(ers and
,a9es it (ossib"e to write database a(("ications using a (ure 3ava A!I.
Using 3'7C: it is eas& to send S?A state,ents to virtua""& an& re"ationa"
database. In other words: with the 3'7C A!I: it isnPt necessar& to write one
(rogra, to access a S&base database: another (rogra, to access an Orac"e
database: another (rogra, to access an Infor,i1 database: and so on. One can
write a sing"e (rogra, using the 3'7C A!I: and the (rogra, wi"" be ab"e to send

#/

S?A state,ents to the a((ro(riate database. And: with an a(("ication written in
the 3ava (rogra,,ing "anguage: one a"so doesnPt have to worr& about writing
different a(("ications to run on different ("atfor,s. .he co,bination of 3ava and
3'7C "ets a (rogra,,er write it once and run it an&where.
3ava being robust: secure: eas& to use: eas& to understand: and
auto,atica""& down"oadab"e on a networ9: is an e1ce""ent "anguage basis for
database a(("ications. =hat is needed is a wa& for 3ava a(("ications to ta"9 to a
variet& of different databases. 3'7C is the ,echanis, for doing this.
3'7C e1tends what can be done in 3ava. 0or e1a,("e: with 3ava and the
3'7C A!I: it is (ossib"e to (ub"ish a web (age containing an a(("et that uses
infor,ation obtained fro, a re,ote database. Or an enter(rise can use 3'7C to
connect a"" its e,("o&ees ;even if the& are using a cong"o,eration of =indows:
Macintosh: and U%IH ,achines< to one or ,ore interna" databases via an
intranet. =ith ,ore and ,ore (rogra,,ers using the 3ava (rogra,,ing
"anguage: the need for eas& database access fro, 3ava is continuing to grow.
MIS ,anagers "i9e the co,bination of 3ava and 3'7C because it ,a9es
disse,inating infor,ation eas& and econo,ica". 7usinesses can continue to use
their insta""ed databases and access infor,ation easi"& even if it is stored on
different database ,anage,ent s&ste,s. 'eve"o(,ent ti,e for new a(("ications
is short. Insta""ation and version contro" are great"& si,("ified. A (rogra,,er can
write an a(("ication or an u(date once: (ut it on the server: and ever&bod& has
access to the "atest version. And for businesses se""ing infor,ation services:
3ava and 3'7C offer a better wa& of
getting out infor,ation u(dates to e1terna" custo,ers.
-.2.1 3'7C does the fo""owing thingsF
Estab"ish a connection with a database
Send S?A state,ents
!rocess the resu"ts.
.he fo""owing code frag,ent gives a basic e1a,("e of these three ste(sF

#6

C"ass.for%a,e ;Morac"e.)dbc.driver.Orac"e'riverN<K
ConnectionconQ'riverManager.getcConnection;M)dbcForac"eFthinFR162.15/.8.
2F1-21FtitN<K
State,ent st,tQcon.createState,ent ;<K
-.2.2 CO%%EC.IO%
A connection ob)ect re(resents a connection with a database. A
connection session inc"udes the S?A state,ents that are e1ecuted and the
resu"ts that are returned over the connection. A sing"e a(("ication can have
one or ,ore connections with a sing"e database: or it can have connections
with ,an& different databases.
5.2.2.1 OPENING A CONNECTION
.he standard wa& to estab"ish a connection with a database is to ca""
the ,ethod 'riverManager.getConnection. .his ,ethod ta9es a string
containing a U*A. .he 'river Manager c"ass: referred to a the 3'7C
,anage,ent "a&er: atte,(ts to "ocate a driver than can connect to the
database re(resented 'river c"asses: and when the ,ethod get Connection is
ca""ed: it chec9s with each driver in the "ist unti" it finds one that can connect
uses this U*A to actua""& estab"ish the connection.
.he standard s&nta1 for 3'7C U*As isF
3dbcF S sub (rotoco"TF S sub na,eT
A 3'7C U*A has three (arts: which are se(arated b& co"onsF
)dbc4the (rotoco". .he (rotoco" in a 3'7C U*A is a"wa&s )dbc.

48

SSub (rotoco"T4usua""& the driver or the database connectivit&
,echanis,: which ,a& be su((orted b& one or ,ore drivers. A
(ro,inent e1a,("e of a sub (rotoco" na,e is Morac"eN: which has been
reserved for U*As that s(ecif& MthinN4st&"e data source na,es.
SSub na,eT4 a wa& to identif& the database. .he sub na,es can var&:
de(ending on the sub (rotoco": and it can have a sub na,e with an&
interna" s&nta1 the driver writer chooses. .he (oint of a sub na,e is to
give enough infor,ation to "ocate the database.
-.2.2.2 SE%'I%$ S.A.EME%.
Once a connection is estab"ished: it is used to (ass S?A state,ents to
its under"&ing database. 3'7C does not (ut an& restrictions on the 9inds of
S?A state,ents that can be sentK this (rovides a great dea" of f"e1ibi"it&:
a""owing the use of database4s(ecific state,ents or even non4S?A
state,ents. It re+uires: however: that the user be res(onsib"e for ,a9ing sure
that the under"&ing database can (rocess the S?A state,ents being sent and
suffer the conse+uences if it cannot.
-.2.# '*ICE* MA%A$E*
.he 'river Manager c"ass is the ,anage,ent "a&er of 3'7C: wor9ing
between the user and the drivers. It 9ee(s trac9 of the drivers that are
avai"ab"e and hand"es estab"ishing a connection between a database and the
a((ro(riate driver. It addition: the driver ,anager c"ass attends to things "i9e
driver "ogin ti,e "i,its and the (rinting of "og and tracing ,essages. .he on"&
,ethod in this c"ass that a genera" (rogra,,er needs to use direct"& is
'riverManager.getConnection. As its na,e i,("ies: this ,ethod estab"ishes a
connection to a database.

41

(.! %DBC IS A LOW:LEVEL API A BASE FOR HIGHER:LEVEL APIS
3'7C is a O"ow4"eve"O interface: which ,eans that it is used to invo9e ;or
Oca""O< S?A co,,ands direct"&. It wor9s ver& we"" in this ca(acit& and is easier to
use than other database connectivit& A!Is: but it was designed a"so to be a base
u(on which to bui"d higher4"eve" interfaces and too"s. A higher4"eve" interface is
Ouser4friend"&:O using a ,ore understandab"e or ,ore convenient A!I that is
trans"ated behind the scenes into a "ow4"eve" interface such as 3'7C. At the ti,e
of this writing: two 9inds of higher4"eve" A!Is are under deve"o(,ent on to( of
3'7CF
1. An e,bedded S?A for 3ava. At "east one vendor ("ans to bui"d this.
'7MSs i,("e,ent S?A: a "anguage designed s(ecifica""& for use with
databases. 3'7C re+uires that the S?A state,ents be (assed as Strings
to 3ava ,ethods. An e,bedded S?A (re(rocessor a""ows a (rogra,,er
to instead ,i1 S?A state,ents direct"& with 3avaF for e1a,("e: a 3ava
variab"e can be used in a S?A state,ent to receive or (rovide S?A
va"ues..
2. A direct ,a((ing of re"ationa" database tab"es to 3ava c"asses. 3ava Soft
and others have announced ("ans to i,("e,ent this. In this
Oob)ectEre"ationa"O ,a((ing: each row of the tab"e beco,es an instance of
that c"ass: and each co"u,n va"ue corres(onds to an attribute of that
instance. As interest in 3'7C has grown: ,ore deve"o(ers have been
wor9ing on 3'7C4based too"s to ,a9e bui"ding (rogra,s easier: as we"".
!rogra,,ers have a"so been writing a(("ications that ,a9e accessing a
database easier for the end user. 0or e1a,("e: an a(("ication ,ight
(resent a ,enu of database tas9s fro, which to choose. =ith the
re+uested in(ut t&(ed in: the a(("ication then auto,atica""& invo9es the
necessar& S?A co,,ands. =ith the he"( of such an a(("ication: users
can (erfor, database tas9s even when the& have "itt"e or no 9now"edge of
S?A s&nta1.

42

-.#.1 3'7C CE*SUS O'7C A%' O.HE* A!IS
At this (oint: MicrosoftPs O'7C ;O(en 'atabase Connectivit&< A!I is
(robab"& the ,ost wide"& used (rogra,,ing interface for accessing re"ationa"
databases. It offers the abi"it& to connect to a",ost a"" databases on a",ost a""
("atfor,s. So wh& not )ust use O'7C fro, 3ava>
.he answer is that &ou can use O'7C fro, 3ava: but this is best done
with the he"( of 3'7C in the for, of the 3'7C4O'7C 7ridge: which we wi"" cover
short"&. .he +uestion now beco,es: O=h& do &ou need 3'7C>O .here are
severa" answers to this +uestionF
1. O'7C is not a((ro(riate for direct use fro, 3ava because it uses a C
interface. Ca""s fro, 3ava to native C code have a nu,ber of drawbac9s in
the securit&: i,("e,entation: robustness: and auto,atic (ortabi"it& of
a(("ications.
2. A "itera" trans"ation of the O'7C C A!I into a 3ava A!I wou"d not be
desirab"e. 0or e1a,("e: 3ava has no (ointers: and O'7C ,a9es co(ious
use of the,: inc"uding the notorious"& error4(rone generic (ointer Ovoid UO.
Bou can thin9 of 3'7C as O'7C trans"ated into an ob)ect4oriented
interface that is natura" for 3ava (rogra,,ers.
#. O'7C is hard to "earn. It ,i1es si,("e and advanced features together:
and it has co,("e1 o(tions even for si,("e +ueries. 3'7C: on the other
hand: was designed to 9ee( si,("e things si,("e whi"e a""owing ,ore
advanced ca(abi"ities where re+uired.
4. A 3ava A!I "i9e 3'7C is needed in order to enab"e a O(ure 3avaO so"ution.
=hen O'7C is used: the O'7C driver ,anager and drivers ,ust be
,anua""& insta""ed on ever& c"ient ,achine. =hen the 3'7C driver is
written co,("ete"& in 3ava: however: 3'7C code is auto,atica""&
insta""ab"e: (ortab"e: and secure on a"" 3ava ("atfor,s fro, networ9
co,(uters to ,ainfra,es.

4#

In su,,ar&: the 3'7C A!I is a natura" 3ava interface to the basic S?A
abstractions and conce(ts. It bui"ds on O'7C rather than starting fro, scratch:
so (rogra,,ers fa,i"iar with O'7C wi"" find it ver& eas& to "earn 3'7C. 3'7C
retains the basic design features of O'7CK in fact: both interfaces are based on
the HEO(en S?A CAI ;Ca"" Aeve" Interface<. .he big difference is that 3'7C bui"ds
on and reinforces the st&"e and virtues of 3ava: and: of course: it is eas& to use.
More recent"&: Microsoft has introduced new A!Is be&ond O'7CF *'O: A'O:
and OAE '7. .hese designs ,ove in the sa,e direction as 3'7C in ,an& wa&s:
that is: in being an ob)ect4oriented database interface based on c"asses that can
be i,("e,ented on O'7C. However: we did not see co,(e""ing functiona"it& in
an& of these interfaces to ,a9e the, an a"ternative basis to O'7C: es(ecia""&
with the O'7C driver ,ar9et we"" estab"ished. Most"& the& re(resent a thin
veneer on O'7C. .his is not to sa& that 3'7C does not need to evo"ve fro, the
initia" re"easeK however: we fee" that ,ost new functiona"it& be"ongs in higher4
"eve" A!Is such as the ob)ectEre"ationa" ,a((ings and e,bedded S?A ,entioned
in the (revious section.
-.#.2 .=O4.IE* A%' .H*EE4.IE* MO'EAS
.he 3'7C A!I su((orts both two4tier and three4tier ,ode"s for database
access. In the two4tier ,ode": a 3ava a(("et or a(("ication ta"9s direct"& to the
database. .his re+uires a 3'7C driver that can co,,unicate with the (articu"ar
database ,anage,ent s&ste, being accessed. A userPs S?A state,ents are
de"ivered to the database: and the resu"ts of those state,ents are sent bac9 to
the user. .he database ,a& be "ocated on another ,achine to which the user is
connected via a networ9. .his is referred to as a c"ientEserver configuration: with
the userPs ,achine as the c"ient: and the ,achine housing the database as the
server. .he networ9 can be an intranet: which: for e1a,("e: connects e,("o&ees
within a cor(oration: or it can be the Internet.
In the three4tier ,ode": co,,ands are sent to a O,idd"e tierO of services:
which then send S?A state,ents to the database. .he database (rocesses the

44

S?A state,ents and sends the resu"ts bac9 to the ,idd"e tier: which then sends
the, to the user. MIS directors find the three4tier ,ode" ver& attractive because
the ,idd"e tier ,a9es it (ossib"e to ,aintain contro" over access and the 9inds of
u(dates that can be ,ade to cor(orate data. Another advantage is that when
there is a ,idd"e tier: the user can e,("o& an eas&4to4use higher4"eve" A!I which
is trans"ated b& the ,idd"e tier into the a((ro(riate "ow4"eve" ca""s. 0ina""&: in
,an& cases the three4tier architecture can (rovide (erfor,ance advantages.
Unti" now the ,idd"e tier has t&(ica""& been written in "anguages such as C
or CLL: which offer fast (erfor,ance. However: with the introduction of
o(ti,iing co,(i"ers that trans"ate 3ava b&te code into efficient ,achine4s(ecific
code: it is beco,ing (ractica" to i,("e,ent the ,idd"e tier in 3ava.
-.#.# 3'7C '*ICE* .B!ES
.he 3'7C drivers that we are aware of at this ti,e fit into one of four categoriesF
1. 3'7C4O'7C 7ridge ("us O'7C driverF .he 3ava Soft bridge (roduct
(rovides 3'7C access via O'7C drivers. %ote that O'7C binar& code:
and in ,an& cases database c"ient code: ,ust be "oaded on each c"ient
,achine that uses this driver. As a resu"t: this 9ind of driver is ,ost
a((ro(riate on a cor(orate networ9 where c"ient insta""ations are not a
,a)or (rob"e,: or for a(("ication server code written in 3ava in three4tier
architecture.
2. %ative4A!I (art"&43ava driverF .his 9ind of driver converts 3'7C ca""s into
ca""s on the c"ient A!I for Orac"e: S&base: Infor,i1: '72: or other '7MS.
%ote that: "i9e the bridge driver: this st&"e of driver re+uires that so,e
binar& code be "oaded on each c"ient ,achine.
#. 3'7C4%et (ure 3ava driverF .his driver trans"ates 3'7C ca""s into a
'7MS4 inde(endent net (rotoco": which is then trans"ated to a '7MS
(rotoco" b& a server. .his net server ,idd"eware is ab"e to connect its (ure
3ava c"ients to ,an& different databases. .he s(ecific (rotoco" used

4-

de(ends on the vendor. In genera": this is the ,ost f"e1ib"e 3'7C
a"ternative. In order for these (roducts to a"so su((ort Internet access:
the& ,ust hand"e the additiona" re+uire,ents for securit&: access through
firewa""s: and so on: that the =eb i,(oses.
4. %ative4(rotoco" (ure 3ava driverF .his 9ind of driver converts 3'7C ca""s
into the networ9 (rotoco" used b& '7MSs direct"&. .his a""ows a direct ca""
fro, the c"ient ,achine to the '7MS server and is a (ractica" so"ution for
Intranet access.
Eventua""&: we e1(ect that driver categories # and 4 wi"" be the (referred wa& to
access databases fro, 3'7C. 'river categories 1 and 2 are interi, so"utions
where direct (ure 3ava drivers are not &et avai"ab"e. .here are (ossib"e
variations on categories 1 and 2 ;not shown in the tab"e be"ow< that re+uire a
connector: but these are genera""& "ess desirab"e so"utions. Categories # and 4
offer a"" the advantages of 3ava: inc"uding auto,atic insta""ation ;for e1a,("e:
down"oading the 3'7C driver with an a(("et that uses it<.
.he fo""owing chart shows the four categories and their (ro(ertiesF
'*ICE* CA.E$O*B AAA 3ACA> %E. !*O.OCOA
1 J 3'7C4OC7C 7ridge %o 'irect
2 J %ative A!I as basis %o 'irect
# J 3'7C4%et Bes *e+uires Connector
4 J %ative (rotoco" as basis Bes 'irect
-.#.4 O7.AI%I%$ 3'7C '*ICE*S

45

At the ti,e of this writing: there are doens of drivers in Categor& 1F
O'7C drivers that can be used with 3avaSoftPs bridge. .here are current"& about
a doen Categor& 2 drivers bui"t on to( of native A!Is for '7MSs. .here are a
few Categor& # drivers. Current"& there are at "east two Categor& 4 drivers: but b&
the end of 1662: we e1(ect that there wi"" be Categor& 4 drivers for a"" of the
,a)or '7MSs.
.o get the "atest infor,ation on drivers: chec9 the 3'7C web (age at
http:// java.sun.com/products/jdbc. .he first vendors with Categor& #
drivers avai"ab"e were SCO: O(en Horion: Cisigenic: and =eb Aogic. 3ava Soft
and Interso"v: a "eading database connectivit& vendor: wor9ed together to
(roduce the 3'7C4O'7C 7ridge and the 3'7C 'river .est Suite.
(.# Int4o97.t*on to MS A..e++F
-.4.1 About 'ata Access !agesF
A data access (age is a web (age that &ou can use to add: edit: view or
,ani(u"ate current data in a Microsoft Access database or an S?A server
database .Bou can create (ages that are used to enter and edit data: si,i"ar to
Access for,s. Bou can a"so create (age that dis("a& records grou(ed
hierarchica""&: si,i"ar to Access re(orts.


42

Co""ect and distribute data in severa" wa&s. Bou can use (ages to add:
edit and view data within a Microsoft Access database or Microsoft Access
(ro)ects. Bou can use the, on the, on the internet or on an intranet: and &ou
can send the, in e4,ai".
-.4.2 Ciew grou(ed records interactive"&F

On grou(ed (ages: &ou can view )ust the detai"s &ou want b&
e1(anding and co""a(sing grou( headers. Bou can a"so sort and fi"ter records.
-.4.# Ana"&e data and ,a9e (ro)ectionsF
Bou can organie data in different wa&s using a !ivot tab"e "ist: ,a9e
(ro)ections and do co,("e1 ca"cu"ations using a s(readsheet contro" and view
data gra(hica""& in a chart.
-.4.4 'is("a& H.MA te1tF
Bou can store H.MA code in fie"ds in &our database and dis("a&s it as
for,atted H.MA te1t on the (age. 0or e1a,("e: if a va"ue in fie"d inc"udes the
H.MA tag that for,ats te1t as ita"ic:SIT .e1tSET:&ou can use a bound H.MA
contro" on the (age to dis("a& the va"ue in ita"ic te1t.
-.4.- Use fa,i"iar design too"sF
In design view: create (ages using too"bars: the too" bo1: the,es and other
features that are si,i"ar to the too"s &ou use to create for,s and re(orts.

4/

-.4.5 Microsoft Access (ro)ectF
Easi"& create a c"ientEserver a(("icationF A Microsoft Access (ro)ect ;.ad(< is
new t&(e of Access fi"e that (rovides efficient: native4,ode access to a Microsoft
S?A server data base through the OAE '7 co,(onent architecture. Using an
Access (ro)ect: &ou can easi"& create a c"ient E server a(("ication
=or9 with an Access (ro)ect wor9ing with a Microsoft Access (ro)ect is ver&
si,("& to wor9ing with an Access database ..he (rocess of creating for,s:
re(orts data access (ages: ,acros and ,odu"es is the sa,e. Once &ou connect
to an S?A Server database: &ou can view: create ,odif& and de"ete tab"4es:
views: stored (rocedures and database diagra,s using the Microsoft S?A sever
design too"s.
Use Microsoft data engine ;MS'E<F MS'E is a new techno"og& that
(rovides "oca" data storage co,(atib"e with S?A Server 2.8..hin9 of MS'E as a
c"ient Eserver data engine a"ternative to the fi"e server Microsoft 3et database
engine. It is designed and o(ti,ied for use on s,a""er co,(uter s&ste,s: such
as a sing"e user co,(uter or s,a"" wor9ing sever.

U(sie data and ob)ects b& using the u(siing =iardF .he u(siing
wiard u(sie a Microsoft Access database ;.,db< to anew or e1isting Microsoft
S?A Server 5.- and 2.8 data base or new Microsoft Access (ro)ect;.ad(< but
u(siing the data and data definitions and ,igrating database ob)ects.
=or9ing with data and database designK Microsoft Access (rovides ,an& new
features that ,a9e wor9ing data and designing a database even easier.
Use record4"eve" "oc9ing a Microsoft Access database now su((orts
record4"eve" "oc9ing: in addition to (age4"eve" "oc9ing ;with "oc9s a""
records on a49 (age<.Bou enab"e the "oc9ing "eve" with the new
database o(tion :O(en databases using record "eve" "oc9ing ;.oo"s

46

,enu :O(tions co,,and :Advanced .ab<..he actua" "eve" that is used
de(ends on how the Access database is (rogra,,ed.
0ind and re("ace &ou can now ,ove free"& between the find and
re("ace dia"og bo1es and the data in the views or window.
Ciew re"ated data in sub4datasheet to view and edit re"ated or )oined
data in a tab"e: +uer& o r for, datasheet or in a sub for, a"" fro, the
sa,e view. for e1a,("e : in a %orthwind sa,("e database the
su(("iers tab"e has a one4to4,an& re"ationshi( with the (roducts
tab"e@s far each row of the su(("iers tab"e in datasheet view :&ou can
view edit the re"ated rows of the (roducts tab"e in a sub4datasheet.
Auto,atica""& fi1 errors caused b& rena,ing fie"ds na,e autocorrect
auto,atica""& corrects co,,on side effects that occur when &ou
rena,e for,s: re(orts: tab"es: +ueries: fie"ds: te1t bo1es or other
contro"s.
.a9e advan-age of Unicode su((ort use the characters of an&
"anguage that Unicode su((orts in &our data .use Unicode
co,(ression to offset the effects of Unicode@s increased storage s(ace
re+uire,ents.
=or9 with the euroF .o easi"& dis("a& euro a,ounts with other
currencies: &ou can use the euro setting;V:VV:VV V< of the for,ant
(ro(ert& t indicate a euro a,ount .A"ternative"& :&ou can enter the euro
s&,bo" b& (ressing AA.L812/ on the nu,eric 9e&(ad with %UM AOCI
on. =hen &ou (aste or i,(ort data with that contains the euro s&,bo"
fro, Microsoft E1ce" into Microsoft access: Access stores the euro
s&,bo" regard"ess of the currenc& s&,bo" defined in *egiona" Settings
in =indows Contro" !ane". 0ina""&: &ou can use the Euro Convert

-8

function to convert one currenc& to another b& using the euro as an
inter,ediar&. More about wor9ing with the euro.
!rint re"ationshi(sF !rint a re(ort of the re"ationshi( in &our access
database as the& a((ear in the *e"ationshi( =indow
Use the 9e&board to ,anage re"ationshi(sF use the 9e&board to
create: edit and de"ete re"ationshi( and )oins.
Use Microsoft activeH data ob)ects ;A'O<F use Microsoft activeH data
ob)ects ;A'O< to access and ,ani(u"ate data in a database server
through an& OAE '7 (rovider.
-.4.2 'atabase =indowF
.he database window in Microsoft access (rovides a variet& of o(tions for
viewing and ,ani(u"ating database ob)ects.
Use the 'atabase window too"barF +uic9"& find co,,ands for creating
o(ening: or ,anaging database ob)ects.
Use the ob)ects bar view database ob)ect in the ob)ects bar Jits vertica"
orientating ,a9es it easier to use
Organie database ob)ects into grou(s@ c"ic9 the $rou(s bar to view &our
grou(s: which can contain shortcuts to database ob)ects of different t&(es.
Use new ob)ect shortcuts in the 'atabase window: +uic9"& create a new
database ob)ect b& using a wiard: or o(en a new database ob)ect in design
view.
Custo,ie how &ou se"ect and o(en ob)ects in the databases window if &ou
choose: change the defau"t behavior so that &ou se"ect a database ob)ect b&
resting the (ointer over it: and o(en an ob)ect b& sing"e4c"ic9ing it.

-1

Se"ect an ob)ect b& t&(ing its na,e. 0or e1a,("e: se"ect the Shi((er@s tab"e
whi"e viewing the "ist of tab"e ob)ects b& t&(ing it.
Securing: Marinating: and Converting a databaseF
Secure &our access database with the User4"eve" securit& =iard. .he
User4"eve" securit& wiard is now ,uch easier to use and is the (referred
,ethod for defining user4"eve" on a Microsoft access database for ,ost
co,,on securit& sche,es:
!rotect &our code with visua" 7asic for a(("ication (assword a Cisua"
7asic a(("ications (assword that &ou create in the Cisua" 7asic EditorK
the& are no "onger (rotected b& user4"eve" securit&.
Use the i,(roved Co,(act uti"it& Co,(act Microsoft Access databases
and Microsoft access (ro)ects with an i,(roved uti"it& that co,bines
co,(acting and re(airing into a sing"e (rocess: and is safer and ,ore
effective.
Co,(act auto,atica""& se"ect Co,(act on C"ose to auto,atica""& co,(act
a Microsoft Access databases or Microsoft access (ro)ect when &ou c"ose
it.
-.4./ 0or,s and *e(ortsF
Microsoft access (rovides new features to ,a9e it faster an easier to create
great4"oo9ing for,s and re(orts.
$rou(s@ te1t bo1es and other contro"s use the $rou( co,,and on the
0or,at Menu to grou( re"ated te1t bo1es and other contro"s on for, or
re(ort.
'efine conditiona" for,atting ru"es for te1t bo1es and other contro"s Use
the conditiona" 0or,atting co,,and on 0or,at ,enu to define the font

-2

co"or: font sie: contro" bac9ground co"or: and other visua" infor,ation that
gives feedbac9 to users as the& enter data on a for,.
Create for,s and re(ort for S?A server database in a Microsoft access
(ro)ect: create for,s and re(orts for a S?A server 'atabase with the
sa,e too"s that &ou use to create the, in a Microsoft access 'atabase.
'istribute re(orts to users who do not have Microsoft Access E1(ort
Microsoft access re(orts to re(ort sna(shot ;.sn(< fi"e for,at. Bou can use
sna(shot viewer to view: (rint: and ,ai" re(ort sna(shots.
-.4.6 *e("icationF
*e("ication co,,ands on the Microsoft Access .oo"s ,enu in Microsoft
Access database ;.,db< and in a Microsoft access (ro)ect ;.ad(< a""ow &ou to
create re("icas and s&nchronie the, on de,and as &ou wor9 in Microsoft
Access.
*e("ication in an access (ro)ectF re("ication data in an access (ro)ect b&
creating (ub"ications and subscri(tions.
3et and re("ications Ob)ects ;3*O<F 3*O inc"udes ,ethods and (ro(erties
deve"o(ers can use the (rogra,,atica""& re("icate and s&nchronie
database and Access (ro)ec5ts.
=eb Server re("icationF wor9 on fi"es even when &ou are no "onger
connected to a web server.
*e("ica !riorit&F a re("ica in a re("ica set is assigned a (riorit& when it is
created. .he highest (riorit& re("ica wins in the case of s&nchroniation
conf"ict.
!revent de"etes o(tionF !revent users fro, de"eting records in a re("ica.
Aoca" and anon&,ous re("icasF create "oca" re("icas and anon&,ous
re("icas: Aoca" and anon&,ous re("icas can s&nchronie on"& with their
(arent: g"oba" re("ica. Anon&,ous re("icas are reco,,ended for
Inter,ent a(("ications if &ou need a "arge nu,ber of re("icas.

-#

Conf"ict viewerF the conf"ict Ciewer is the defau"t too" in Access to
reconci"e and reso"ve s&nchroniation conf"ict
*ow Aeve" .rac9ing !ro(ert&F when this tab"e (ro(ert& is set to true: it
indicates that conf"icts are trac9ed based at the row4"eve" of a tab"e.
Conf"icts are trac9ed at the co"u,n4"eve" b& defau"t.
Conf"ict 0unction !ro(ert&F this (ro(ert& is used to re("ace the Microsoft
access Conf"ict viewer with a custo,ied (rocedure that assists users in
reso"ving s&nchroniation conf"icts.
*etention (eriodF contro"s the nu,ber of da&@s non s&nchronied records
are retained in the s&ste, tab"es.
S&nchroniation conf"ictsF A sing"e ,echanis, is now used to record and
reso"ve conf"icts and errors: ,a9ing it easier to reso"ve conf"icts.
=henever a conf"ict occurs: a winning change is se"ected and a(("ied in
a"" re("icas and the "osing change is recorded as a conf"ict at a"" re("icas.
Co"u,n4"eve" conf"ict reso"utionF Conf"icts are deter,ined at the co"u,n
"eve". Changes to the sa,e record in two different re("icas cause a
s&nchroniation conf"ict on"& if the sa,e co"u,n or fie"d is changed.

-4


--

LIFE CYCLE MODELS
.he stage of ("anning the deve"o(,ent (rocess invo"ves defining a define:
deve"o(: test: de"iver: o(erate: and ,aintain a software (roduct. 'ifferent
"ifec&c"e ,ode"s e,(hasie different as(ects of the "ifec&c"e and no sing"e
"ifec&c"e ,ode" is suitab"e for a"" software (roducts. A "ifec&c"e ,ode" that is
understood and acce(ted b& a"" concerned (arties i,(roves (ro)ect
co,,unication and enhances (ro)ect ,anageabi"it&: resource a""ocation: cost
contro": and (roduct +ua"it&.
T)e P)a+e9 L*/e C8.5e Mo9e5
.he (hased "ifec&c"e ,ode" re(resents software "ifec&c"e as a series
of successive activities. Each (hase re+uires we""4defined in(ut infor,ation:
uti"ies we""4defined (rocesses and resu"ts in we""4defined (roducts. .he (hased
,ode" consists of fo""owing (hases.
Ana58+*+@ De+*gn@ Im-5ementat*on@ S8+tem Te+t*ng an9 Ma*ntenan.e

-5

.his ,ode" is so,eti,es ca""ed the =aterfa"" Chart: the i,("ication being
that the (roducts cascade fro, one "eve" to another in s,ooth (rogression.
Ana"&sis 'esign I,("e,entatio
n
S&ste,
.esting
Maintenance
!"anning:
User needs
'efinition
'esign
'etai"s
Code: debug
and .est
Integration
G
Acce(tance Enhance:
0i1 Ada(t
.he Ana58+*+ Stage consists of !"anning and *e+uire,ents
definition Ma)or inc"ude understanding the custo,er@s (rob"e,: (erfor,ing
A feasibi"it& stud&: deve"o(ing a reco,,ended so"ution strateg&:
deter,ining the acce(tance criteria and ("anning deve"o(,ent (rocess.
.he (roducts of ("anning are a S&ste, definition and a (ro)ect ("an.
.he So/t0a4e De+*gn fo""ows ana"&sis. 'esign is concerned with its
software co,(onents: s(ecif&ing re"ationshi(s a,ong co,(onents
s(ecif&ing so,e structure: ,aintaining a record of design decisions and
(roviding b"ue(rint i,("e,entation (hase. 'esign consists of detai"ed
design and Architectura" design.
.he *m-5ementat*on (hase of software deve"o(,ent invo"ves
trans"ation design s(ecification into source code: and debugging:
docu,entation and unit testing the source code. .o enhance the +ua"it& of
the software the ,ethods are structured contro" constructs: bui"t in and
user defined data t&(es: secure t&(e chec9ing: f"e1ib"e sco(e ru"es
e1ce(tion hand"ing ,echanis,: concurrenc& constructs and se(arates
co,(i"ation ,odu"es.
S8+tem Te+t*ng invo"ves two 9inds of testing integration testing and
acce(tance testing. 'eve"o(ing a strateg& for integrating the co,(onents
of a software s&ste, into a functioning who"e re+uires carefu" ("anning so
that ,odu"es are avai"ab"e for integration when needed. Acce(tance
testing invo"ves ("anning and e1ecution of various tests in order to

-2

de,onstrate that the i,("e,ented s&ste, satisfies the re+uire,ents
docu,ent.
.he Ma*ntenan.e (hase co,es after the acce(tance b& the
custo,er and re"ease of the s&ste, for (roduction wor9. Maintenance
activities inc"ude enhance,ents of ca(abi"ities: ada(tation of software to
new (rocessing environ,ents: and correction of software bugs.
T)*+ -4o<e.t fo""ows the !hased Aife C&c"e Mode" or the =ater 0a""
,ode" to a "arge e1tent.
.he ana"&sis stage consisted of "istening to the needs and re+uire,ents of
a"" de(art,ents obtaining the re+uired for,at of the s&ste, as desired b& the,:
ta9ing the re+uired data to be stored for future use etc.: In the design stage the
structure of the s&ste, was designed and a"" the re+uired screens were
for,atted. .his was then shown to the ,edica" officer@s a((rova" and the s&ste,
was bui"t. I,("e,entation (hase was a"so done at as the& (rovided a co,(uter
with a"" the re+uired software and with re+uired configuration. .he coding and
debugging was done even after this stage certain changes were ,ade as ,ade
as re+uested b& the guide. .he testing was done to chec9 for an& errors or bugs
or unwanted behavior in the s&ste,. Individua" ,odu"es as we"" as the who"e
s&ste, were tested se(arate"&.
SOFTWARE TESTING
Software .esting is a critica" e"e,ent of software +ua"it& assurance
and re(resents the u"ti,ate review of s(ecification: design and coding: .esting
(resents an interesting ano,a"& for the software engineer.
Te+t*ng O1<e.t*2e+ *n.579e"
1. .esting is a (rocess of e1ecuting a (rogra, with the intent of finding an
error

-/

2. A good test case is one that has a (robabi"it& of finding an as &et
undiscovered error
#. A successfu" test is one that uncovers an undiscovered error
Te+t*ng P4*n.*-5e+"
A"" tests shou"d be traceab"e to end user re+uire,ents
.ests shou"d be ("anned "ong before testing begins
.esting shou"d begin on a s,a"" sca"e and (rogress towards
testing in "arge
E1haustive testing is not (ossib"e
.o be ,ost effective testing shou"d be conducted b& a
inde(endent third (art&
TESTING STRATERGIES
A Strateg& for software testing integrates software test cases into a
series of we"" ("anned ste(s that resu"t in the successfu" construction of software.
Software testing is a broader to(ic for what is referred to as Cerification and
Ca"idation. Cerification refers to the set of activities that ensure that the software
correct"& i,("e,ents a s(ecific function Ca"idation refers he set of activities that
ensure that the software that has been bui"t is traceab"e to custo,er@s
re+uire,ents
Un*t Te+t*ng"
Unit testing focuses verification effort on the s,a""est unit of
software design that is the ,odu"e. Using (rocedura" design descri(tion as a
guide: i,(ortant contro" (aths are tested to uncover errors within the boundaries

-6

of the ,odu"e. .he unit test is nor,a""& white bo1 testing oriented and the ste(
can be conducted in (ara""e" for ,u"ti("e ,odu"es.
Integ4at*on Te+t*ng"
Integration testing is a s&ste,atic techni+ue for constructing the
(rogra, structure whi"e conducting test to uncover errors associated with the
interfacing. .he ob)ective is to ta9e unit tested ,ethods and bui"d a (rogra,
structure that has been dictated b& design.
To-:9o0n Integ4at*on"
.o( down integrations an incre,enta" a((roach to construction of
(rogra, structure. Modu"es are integrated b& ,oving downward through the
contro" hierarch&: beginning with the ,ain contro" (rogra,. Modu"es subordinate
to the ,ain (rogra, are incor(orated in the structure either in the breath4first or
de(th4first ,anner.
Bottom:7- Integ4at*on"
.his ,ethod as the na,e suggests: begins construction and testing
with ato,ic ,odu"es i.e.: ,odu"es at the "owest "eve"ing the (rogra, structure.
7ecause the ,odu"es are integrated in the botto, u( ,anner the (rocessing
re+uired for the ,odu"es subordinate to a given "eve" is a"wa&s avai"ab"e and the
need for stubs is e"i,inated.
Va5*9at*on Te+t*ng"
At the end of integration testing software ids co,("ete"& asse,b"ed
as a (ac9age. Ca"idation testing is the ne1t stage which can be defined as

58

successfu" when the software functions in the ,anner reasonab"& e1(ected b&
the custo,er. *easonab"e e1(ectations are those defined in the software
re+uire,ents s(ecifications. Infor,ation contained in those sections for, a
basis for va"idation testing a((roach.
S8+tem Te+t*ng"
S&ste, testing is actua""& a series of different tests whose (ri,ar&
(ur(ose is to fu""& e1ercise the co,(uter4based s&ste,. A"though each test has
a different (ur(ose: a"" wor9 to verif& that a"" s&ste, e"e,ents have been (ro(er"&
integrated to (erfor, a""ocated functions.
Re.o2e48 Te+t*ng"
It is a s&ste, test that forces the s&ste, to fai" in a variet& of wa&s
and verities that the recover& is (ro(er"& (erfor,ed.
Se.74*t8 Te+t*ng"
Atte,(ts to verif& the (rotection ,echanis,s bui"t into the s&ste,.
Pe4/o4man.e Te+t*ng"
.his ,ethod is designed to test runti,e (erfor,ance of software
within the conte1t of an integrated s&ste,..Software testing is a critica" e"e,ent
of software +ua"it& assurance and re(resents the u"ti,ate review of s(ecification:
design and coding. .esting is the e1(osure of the s&ste, to tria" in(ut to see
whether it (roduces correct out(ut.
Te+t*ng P)a+e+"

51

Software testing (hases inc"ude the fo""owingF
.est activities are deter,ined and test data se"ected.
.he test is conducted and test resu"ts are co,(ared with the e1(ected resu"ts.
.here are various t&(es of .estingF
Un*t Te+t*ng"
Unit testing is essentia""& for the verification of the code (roduced during the
coding (hase and the goa" is test the interna" "ogic of the ,odu"eE(rogra,.
.his (ro)ect is thorough"& tested b& e1(osing it to the various test cases
regarding correct event generation: as this (ro)ect (assed a"" the tests its
+ua"it& is co,("ete"& assured.
Integ4at*on Te+t*ng"
A"" the tested ,odu"es are co,bined into sub s&ste,s: which are then
tested. .he goa" is to see if the ,odu"es are (ro(er"& integrated: and the
e,(hasis being on the testing interfaces between the ,odu"es. On this
(ro)ect integration testing is done ,ain"& whi"e i,("e,enting ,enus in a
sa,("e a(("ication such as 7rowser for Mobi"es.
S8+tem Te+t*ng"
It is ,ain"& used if the software ,eets its re+uire,ents. .he reference docu,ent
for this (rocess is the re+uire,ent docu,ent.
A..e-tan.e Te+t*ng"

52

It is (erfor,ed with rea"istic data of the c"ient to de,onstrate that the
software is wor9ing satisfactori"&.

Te+t*ng Met)o9+"
.esting is a (rocess of e1ecuting a (rogra, to find out errors. If testing is
conducted successfu""&: it wi"" uncover a"" the errors in the software. An&
testing can be done basing on two wa&sF
W)*te Bo; Te+t*ng"
It is a test case design ,ethod that uses the contro" structures of the
(rocedura" design to derive test cases. using this testing a software
Engineer can derive the fo""owing test casesF
E1ercise a"" the "ogica" decisions on either true or fa"se sides. E1ecute a"" "oo(s at their
boundaries and within their o(erationa" boundaries. E1ercise the interna" data structures
to assure their va"idit&.
B5a.A Bo; Te+t*ng"
It is a test case design ,ethod used on the functiona" re+uire,ents of the
software. It wi"" he"( a software engineer to derive sets of in(ut conditions
that wi"" e1ercise a"" the functiona" re+uire,ents of the (rogra,. 7"ac9 7o1
testing atte,(ts to find errors in the fo""owing categoriesF
Incorrect or ,issing functions
Interface errors
Errors in data structures
!erfor,ance errors
Initia"iation and ter,ination errors
B8 B5a.A Bo; Te+t*ng 0e 9e4*2e a +et o/ te+t .a+e+ t)at +at*+/8 t)e /o55o0*ng
.4*te4*a"

5#

.est cases that reduce b& a count that is greater than one: the nu,ber of
additiona" test cases that ,ust be designed to achieve reasonab"e testing.
.est cases that te"" us so,ething about the (resence or absence of c"asses of
errors rather than errors associated on"& with a s(ecific test at hand.
Te+t A--4oa.) "
.esting can be done in two wa&sF
7otto, u( a((roach
.o( down a((roach
Bottom 7- A--4oa.)"
.esting can be (erfor,ed starting fro, s,a""est and "owest "eve" ,odu"es and
(roceeding one at a ti,e. 0or each ,odu"e in botto, u( testing a short (rogra,
e1ecutes the ,odu"e and (rovides the needed data so that the ,odu"e is as9ed
to (erfor, the wa& it wi"" when e,bedded with in the "arger s&ste,. =hen botto,
"eve" ,odu"es are tested attention turns to those on the ne1t "eve" that use the
"ower "eve" ones the& are tested individua""& and then "in9ed with the (revious"&
e1a,ined "ower "eve" ,odu"es.
To- 9o0n a--4oa.)"
.his t&(e of testing starts fro, u((er "eve" ,odu"es. Since the detai"ed activities
usua""& (erfor,ed in the "ower "eve" routines are not (rovided stubs are written. A
stub is a ,odu"e she"" ca""ed b& u((er "eve" ,odu"e and that when reached
(ro(er"& wi"" return a ,essage to the ca""ing ,odu"e indicating that (ro(er
interaction occurred. %o atte,(t is ,ade to verif& the correctness of the "ower
"eve" ,odu"e.

54

SCREENS

5-


55

CONCL#SION
.he need for the Hea"th Center to co,(uterie the a(("ication (rocessing and
servicing the !atients re+uest through auto,ated ,odu"es is ,ost necessar&
and now inevitab"e.
As we have a"read& seen that the need cannot be e,(hasied for the further
deve"o(,ent of this s&ste, is on"& ti,e"& and he"(fu" to Hea"th Center: the
s&ste, defined in the above scri(t is u( to date and caters to a"" 9inds of re+uest
faced b& the Hea"th Center e,("o&ees re+uire,ents to (rovide the better service
to the (atients: being deve"o(ed in )ava it is a"so f"e1ib"e ,odu"aried high"&
(ara,eteried and hence can be easi"& de("o&ed b& an& other a(("ication
because of its co,(onentied a((roach.
7ased on the various (ara,eters and (ro(erties fi"es ever&thing fro, the "oo9
and fee" to the functiona"ities can be custo,ied..hus this (ro)ect is deve"o(ed
fro, the beginning with reuse in ,ind and i,("icit"& uses severa" design (atterns.
.he architecture of this (ro)ect is such that it suits the diverse and distributed
nature of the Hea"th Center A(("ications.
.he features (rovided b& the ;Hea"th Center Manage,ent S&ste,< are in no
,eans co,(rehensive but b& a"" ,eans fu"" fi""ing a"" i,(ortant functiona"ities of
Hea"th Center services. Inc"usion of further functiona"ities as da&s go b& can be
easi"& done because the (ro)ect has been deve"o(ed in a "a&ered architecture.
!"ug4in ,odu"es wou"d easi"& add new features which change with the ti,es and
being (erfor,ance oriented the (ro)ect wi"" not face an& issues. It is a"so
e1tensib"e and sca"ab"e as a"" a(("ications shou"d be thus it can be said that it wi""
,eet surges of huge e,("o&ee and (atient re+uests that ,a& co,e u( in the
near future.

52


5/

BIBLIOGRAPHY
.he fo""owing are the detai"s of boo9s and the sites which have detai"s regarding
the Swings techno"og& which is used in this (ro)ect.
3ava 2 Core b& sun (ub"ications
.he Co,("ete *eference: ;Herbert Schi"dt<
=eb SitesF
www.)ava.sun.co,
www.3ava$a"a1&s.co,
www.orei""&.co,


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