FRACTURE TOUGHNESS I N RELATI ON TO

STEEL CASTINGS DESIGN AND APPLICATION

by
W. J . Jackson
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
FACTORS OF SAFETY AND BRITTLE FRACTURE
FRACTURE MECHANICS
Calculation of Critical Flaw Size
Subcritical Flaw Growth by Fatigue and Stress Corrosion
APPLICATION OF FRACTURE MECHANICS
Design
Material Selection
Significance of Discontinuities
Monitoring, Control and Failure Analysis
Accuracy of Flaw Size Measurement
METALLURGICAL FACTORS AFFECTING FRACTURE TOUGHNESS
ALTERNATIVE DATA
ACCEPTABLE FLAW SIZE
DETERMINATION OF FLAW SIZE
FLAWS IN RELATION TO QUALITY
WELDING OF STEEL CASTINGS
SPECIFICATIONS
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
APPENDIX 1 - SAMPLE CALCULATION
WRITTEN DISCUSSION
AUTHOR'S REPLY
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Dr . W. J. Jackson was bor n i n Engl and and at t ended Queen Mar y' s school ,
Wal sal l , i n St af f or dshi r e, whi ch had i t s or i gi ns over 400 year s ago. Af t er
war t i me ser vi ce i n t he Royal Ai r For ce, he went t o Bi r mi ngham Uni ver si t y,
wher e he gr aduat ed i n I ndust r i al Met al l ur gy i n 1950. He was awar ded t he
degr ee of M. Sc ( Eng) i n Physi cal Met al l ur gy at London Uni ver si t y i n 1953.
For t wo year s he wor ked on T. I . G. and M. I . G. wel di ng i n t he R & D Depar t ment
of t he Br i t i sh Oxygen Company Lt d. , London. He l at er j oi ned t he I nt er nat i onal
Ni ckel Co. Lt d. , i n Bi r mi ngham as t echni cal assi st ant i n t he hot r ol l i ng mi l l .
I n 1954, he j oi ned B. S. C. R. A. i n Shef f i el d, was appoi nt ed Head of t he Physi cal
Met al l ur gy Sect i on i n 1956, Head of Met al l ur gy and st eel maki ng Sect i on i n 1963,
and t o hi s pr esent posi t i on, Resear ch Manager ( Pr oduct Technol ogy) i n 1974.
I n 1971, he was awar ded t he degr ee of Ph. D. f or r esear ch on hi gh st r engt h
st eel cast i ngs. He i s a Fel l ow of t he I nst i t ut i on of Met al l ur gi st s and a
Fel l ow of t he Royal I nst i t ut e of Chemi st r y i n London. Dr . Jackson' s cur r ent
r esear ch act i vi t i es ar e i n t he f i el d of cast i ng pr oper t i es, par t i cul ar l y
f at i gue and f r act ur e t oughness, heat t r eat ment and t r ansf or mat i ons, r esi dual
el ement s, wel di ng, el evat ed t emper at ur e pr oper t i es, sur f ace coat i ng, si zi ng
of def ect s, ul t r asoni c t echni ques and st eel cast i ngs speci f i cat i ons.
Fract ure Toughness i n Rel at i on t o
St eel Cast i ngs Desi gn and Appl i cat i on
by
W. J. Jackson
ABSTRACT
The pur pose of t hi s paper i s t o demonst r at e t he val ue of f r act ur e
mechani cs i n st eel cast i ng desi gn and mat er i al sel ect i on, and t o poi nt out
t he si gni f i cance of def ect s, especi al l y wi t h r egar d t o br i t t l e f r act ur e and
f at i gue cr ack gr owt h. Whi l e i t has been necessar y t o i ncl ude some backgr ound
t heor y and mat hemat i cal concept s, t hese have been kept t o a mi ni mum; em-
phasi s i s pl aced on t he pr act i cal use of f r act ur e t oughness cr i t er i a f or
est abl i shi ng saf et y l evel s f or par t i cul ar ser vi ce appl i cat i ons and on t he
i mpl i cat i ons of t he f r act ur e mechani cs appr oach f or t he st eel f ounder .
I NTRODUCTI ON
Cast i ngs ar e i ndi vi dual pr oduct s; t hey ar e i nspect ed i ndi vi dual l y f or
di scont i nui t i es whi ch must be r epai r ed or t he cast i ng r ej ect ed. I n many
engi neer i ng appl i cat i ons cast i ngs t end t o be "over desi gned", i . e. t he saf et y
f act or s ar e unnecessar i l y gener ous wher e i t can be shown t hat any def ect s
pr esent ar e not cr i t i cal . Desi gn r ul es, t o avoi d t he possi bi l i t y of f ast
f r act ur e, ar e not t he onl y const r ai nt s on t ot al cast i ngs desi gn, but t hey
ar e of t en t he gr eat est const r ai nt and t he l east quant i t at i ve. A successf ul
f r act ur e mechani cs appr oach t o desi gn woul d encour age pr oduct i on of cast i ngs
of bet t er f i t ness f or pur pose, and gener al l y l i ght er sect i on, i f t hi s wer e
desi r abl e f or ot her t han saf et y r easons.
FACTORS OF SAFETY AND BRI TTLE FRACTURE
Tr adi t i onal l y, desi gn cal cul at i ons ar e based on t he t heor y of el as-
t i ci t y, and t her ef or e ut i l i ze st andar d f or mul ae, whi ch assume t hat t he
mat er i al i s el ast i c, homogeneous and i sot r opi c. For non- cr i t i cal component s,
i t i s usual l y suf f i ci ent t o base t he desi gn on aver age st r esses, but wi t h
cr i t i cal component s i t may be necessar y t o t ake account of sever e st r ess
ser vi ce condi t i ons, and obt ai n t he l ocal st r ess di st r i but i ons by t heor et -
i cal or exper i ment al st r ess anal ysi s t echni ques. The desi gn st r ess i s
r el at ed t o ei t her t he yi el d st r ess, or t he U. T. S. , by means of a f act or of
saf et y. Thi s si ngl e f act or whi ch i s usual l y a pr oduct of sever al cont r i b-
ut or y f act or s, account s f or l ocal st r ess f l uct uat i ons, var i at i ons of ser vi ce
l oadi ng condi t i ons, scat t er i n mat er i al pr oper t i es and envi r onment al ef f ect s.
The choi ce of t he f act or of saf et y depends on t he exper i ence and j udgement
of t he desi gner unl ess i t i s i mpl i ci t l y st at ed i n a r el evant speci f i cat i on
or desi gn code.
For duct i l e mat er i al s and st at i c l oadi ng condi t i ons, t he f act or i s
r el at ed t o t he yi el d of 0. 2% pr oof st r ess.
may usual l y be i gnor ed, because t hey ar e r el i eved by pl ast i c def or mat i on.
The mi ni mum saf et y f act or f or st eel cast i ngs based on t he U. T. S. i s usual l y
t aken as 4, but desi gn engi neer s, uncer t ai n of t he qual i t y of t he st eel
and unf ami l i ar wi t h t he r el i abi l i t y of st eel cast i ngs, have i n t he past
used addi t i onal saf et y f act or s of 2 t o 5 or mor e.
saf et y f act or s ar e r ender ed l ar gel y unnecessar y by t he wi de r ange of non-
dest r uct i ve t est s whi ch can be appl i ed t o st eel cast i ngs and by t he dat a
Local st r ess concent r at i ons
These exagger at ed
- 1-
now avai l abl e, even i gnor i ng r ecent f r act ur e t oughness dat a. Thi s i s r e-
f l ect ed i n t he magni t ude of t he qual i t y f act or s appl i ed t o st eel cast i ngs
t o modi f y t he saf et y f act or s f or boi l er s and pr essur e vessel s.
The essence of t he f r act ur e t oughness appr oach i s t o quant i f y an ac-
cept abl e degr ee of unsoundness i n a st eel cast i ng f or a gi ven appl i cat i on
and not t o at t empt t o agr ee on what const i t ut es compl et e soundness. A
f r act ur e t oughness appr oach of f er s t he possi bi l i t y of di st i ngui shi ng t he
abi l i t y t o r esi st f ast f r act ur e f r om ot her const r ai nt s such as pl ast i c
col l apse and, somet i mes, buckl i ng.
Not al l duct i l e f ai l ur es i nvol ve f r act ur e. The duct i l e f ai l ur e i s
pr edi ct abl e because t he necessar y l oad r equi r ed f or a duct i l e f r act ur e
can be cal cul at ed or est i mat ed. Fr om a macr oscopi c vi ewpoi nt , a duct i l e
f r act ur e exhi bi t s t he f ol l owi ng char act er i st i cs:
a) a l ar ge amount of pl ast i c def or mat i on pr ecedes t he f r act ur e
b) shear l i ps may be pr esent ;
c) t he f r act ur e may appear t o be f i br ous, or have a mat t e or si l ky t ext ur e;
e) t he cr oss sect i on at t he f r act ur e may be r educed by necki ng; and
cr ack gr owt h wi l l be sl ow.
Br i t t l e f ai l ur es cannot be pr edi ct ed by si mpl e engi neer i ng cal cul at i ons.
Because of t hei r cat ast r ophi c and unexpect ed nat ur e, much r esear ch has
been done i n t r yi ng t o cont r ol t hi s pr obl em. Fr om a macr oscopi c st andpoi nt ,
br i t t l e f r act ur es ar e char act er i zed by t he f ol l owi ng:
a) l i t t l e or no pl ast i c def or mat i on pr ecedes t he f r act ur e;
b) t he f r act ur e i s gener al l y f l at and per pendi cul ar t o t he sur f ace
of t he component ;
c) t he f r act ur e may appear gr anul ar or cr yst al l i ne and i s of t en hi ghl y
r ef l ect i ve t o l i ght . Facet s may al so be obser ved, especi al l y i n
coar se- gr ai ned st eel s; and
pr opagat e r api dl y.
d) her r i ngbone, or chevr on, pat t er ns may be pr esent and cr acks
When not ched, mi l d st eel can be made t o f r act ur e i n ei t her a br i t t l e
or a duct i l e manner mer el y by al t er i ng t he t emper at ur e. Even i f a not ch i s
not made del i ber at el y, a smal l cr ack can be i ni t i at ed wi t hi n a met al , as
i n t he case of a pol i shed f at i gue speci men, by a pr ocess of gr ai n boundar y
movement or sl i p. Cr acks ar e al so i ni t i at ed at el evat ed t emper at ur es
when a st eel i s under cr eep condi t i ons. Such cr acks may be ver y smal l but
wi l l have ext r emel y shar p ext r emi t i es. Wi t h st eel s gener al l y, i ni t i at i on
of br i t t l e f r act ur e i s mor e di f f i cul t t han pr opagat i on, gi ven t he same
oper at i ng condi t i ons. Most st r uct ur es, such as br i dges, shi ps, st or age
t anks, pr essur e vessel s, ar e desi gned on t he basi s of def ect - f r ee mat er i al s,
wi t h appr opr i at e f act or s of saf et y based mai nl y on past exper i ence. By
appl yi ng f r act ur e mechani cs a mor e r eal i st i c appr oach can be made, accept i ng
t hat no met al i s def ect - f r ee and cal cul at i ng t he si ze of def ect t hat can
be t ol er at ed wi t hout i t pr opagat i ng i n a br i t t l e manner . The t oughness
of t he st eel obvi ousl y i nf l uences t he pr opagat i on or ar r est of a cr ack and
i n pr act i ce t he pr obl em i s one of def i ni ng t oughness, deci di ng by whi ch
t est s i t shoul d be assessed and what l evel shoul d be speci f i ed.
- 2-
The Char py V- not ch i mpact t est has had consi der abl e success i n pr ovi di ng
t he desi gner wi t h some i dea of t he r el at i ve not ch- t oughness of var i ous
mat er i al s. The mai n advant age of t hi s t est i s t hat t he speci men used i s
r el at i vel y smal l , but i t has t he di sadvant age t hat a measur e of t r ansi t i on
t emper at ur e i s obt ai ned onl y f or t he pr evai l i ng condi t i ons. The Char py
V- not ch t r ansi t i on t emper at ur e can al so be shi f t ed by a change i n speci men
si ze, a change i n not ch conf i gur at i on and a change i n t he r at e of l oadi ng.
I t f ol l ows t hat t he Char py V- not ch t est has t he f ol l owi ng di sadvant ages
when t he r esul t s ar e appl i ed t o pr act i cal desi gn:
a) The Char py V- not ch i mpact t est does not r epr oduce t he t r i axi al i t y
t hat occur s i n t hi cknesses gr eat er t han 10 mm ( . 39 i n. ) ;
b) t he not ch i s bl unt by compar i son wi t h nat ur al cr acks;
c) i t i s an i mpact t est , and t he maj or i t y of br i t t l e f ai l ur es i n
ser vi ce occur under st at i c condi t i ons; and
d) t he mat er i al t est ed i s usual l y t aken f r om a t est sampl e t hat i s
not al ways ent i r el y r epr esent at i ve of t he mat er i al as a whol e.
Consequent l y, Char py t est r esul t s cannot be used t o det er mi ne a saf e
wor ki ng t emper at ur e f or ser vi ce appl i cat i on, or saf e desi gn agai nst br i t t l e
f r act ur e. Mor e sophi st i cat ed t ypes of t est ar e r equi r ed and l i near el ast i c
f r act ur e mechani cs ( LEFM) has been f ound usef ul f or pr edi ct i ng, i n t er ms
of a si ngl e par amet er , t he f r act ur e st r ess of component s cont ai ni ng shar p
f l aws.
FRACTURE MECHANI CS
Fr act ur e mechani cs i s a usef ul met hod of char act er i zi ng f r act ur e
t oughness, f at i gue cr ack gr owt h, or st r ess- cor r osi on cr ack gr owt h behavi or
i n t er ms of st r uct ur al desi gn par amet er s f ami l i ar t o t he engi neer , namel y
st r ess and f l aw si ze. Fr act ur e mechani cs i s based on a st r ess anal ysi s
and does not depend on t he use of ser vi ce exper i ence t o t r ansl at e l abor at or y
r esul t s i nt o pr act i cal desi gn i nf or mat i on ( as does t he Char py V- not ch
t est , f or exampl e) .
The t heor y of l i near el ast i c f r act ur e mechani cs ( LEFM) has been devel -
oped i n t er ms of a st r ess i nt ensi t y f act or ( K) det er mi ned by st r ess anal ysi s,
and expr essed as a f unct i on of st r ess and cr ack si ze, namel y ( st r ess) x
( l engt h)
1/ 2
.
t he st r ai n ener gy r el ease r at e, or t he st r ess i nt ensi t y at t he cr ack t i p
( K
c
) , r eaches a cr i t i cal val ue. Ther e ar e t hr ee modes of f r act ur e, mode
I bei ng i dent i f i ed as t he openi ng mode, i n whi ch t he cr ack sur f aces move
opposi t e and per pendi cul ar t o each ot her ( as when openi ng by dr i vi ng i n a
wedge) .
poi nt of vi ew and has been st udi ed mor e ext ensi vel y t han modes I I and I I I ,
whi ch i nvol ve sl i di ng and l at er al t ear i ng r espect i vel y.
The basi c assumpt i on i s t hat cr ack pr opagat i on wi l l occur when
Thi s mode i s t he most i mpor t ant f r om t he l ow st r ess f r act ur e
Pl ane st r ai n i s def i ned as a st at e of t wo di mensi onal st r ai n, t her e
bei ng no st r ai n i n t he t hr ough- t hi ckness di r ect i on, t hat i s, i t i s a
st at e of t r i axi al st r ess. The i deal condi t i ons of st r ess ar e not usual l y
r eal i zed i n pr act i ce and a mi xed mode st at e of st r ess exi st s. Even i n
ver y br i t t l e f r act ur es, some pl ast i c f l ow may occur at t he t i p of a shar p
def ect . I n or der t o est abl i sh t he cr i t i cal st r ess i nt ensi t y by l i near
el ast i c f r act ur e mechani cs, t he pl ast i c zone must be kept smal l i n com-
par i son t o t he ot her di mensi ons of t he speci men. For essent i al l y pl ane
st r ai n condi t i ons, t he i nher ent f r act ur e t oughness of a mat er i al can be
expr essed i n t er ms of t he cr i t i cal val ue of t he st r ess i nt ensi t y f act or
- 3-
K
I C
at whi ch cr ack i nst abi l i t y occur s. The val ue of K
I C
has t o be det er -
mi ned exper i ment al l y but , once pr oper l y det er mi ned under one set of con-
di t i ons, i t i s equal l y appl i cabl e t o ot her condi t i ons. The val ue of K
I C

does, of cour se, var y mar kedl y wi t h met al l ur gi cal var i abl es, such as
st eel maki ng pr act i ce and i ncl usi ons, heat t r eat ment and mi cr ost r uct ur e,
but i t can be used t o compar e st eel s of di f f er ent st r engt h l evel s by use
of t he par amet er
whi ch i s not possi bl e i n t he case of appr oaches based on t r ansi t i on t em-
per at ur e.
To summar i ze:
K = Cr i t i cal st r ess i nt ensi t y f act or f or st at i c l oadi ng
and pl ane st r ess condi t i ons of var i abl e const r ai nt .
Thus, t hi s val ue depends on speci men t hi ckness or shape.
c
K
I C
= Cr i t i cal st r ess i nt ensi t y f act or f or st at i c l oadi ng and
pl ane st r ai n condi t i ons of maxi mum const r ai n. Thus t hi s
val ue i s at a mi ni mum f or t hi ck sect i ons.
K
Q
= A pr ovi si onal val ue of K
I C
bef or e al l compl i ance t est s
have been appl i ed.
I t i s emphasi zed t hat t he pr ecedi ng di scussi on has been conf i ned t o
l i near el ast i c f r act ur e mechani cs ( LEFM) , i n whi ch t he f r act ur e r esi st ance
of a mat er i al i s def i ned i n t er ms of t he el ast i c st r ess f i el d i nt ensi t y
near t he t i p of a cr ack. I n f act , t he f r act ur e t oughness par amet er K
I C

i s v al i d onl y when determi ned under condi t i ons which pr event s i gni f i c ant
yi el di ng at t he cr ack t i p. Such condi t i ons ar e di f f i cul t t o achi eve i n
pr act i ce f or t he l ower st r engt h st eel s commonl y used f or st r uct ur al pur -
poses. I t i s usual , t her ef or e, i n t hese st eel s whi ch exhi bi t yi el di ng
at a cr ack t i p bef or e f r act ur e occur s, t o speak i n t er ms of yi el di ng
f r act ur e mechani cs ( YFM) ; t he concept of cr ack openi ng di spl acement has
been i nt r oduced as a measur e of t oughness i n t hese ci r cumst ances. The
cr ack openi ng di spl acement ( COD or ) i s t he act ual di st ance t hat t he
t wo opposi t e f aces of t he cr ack t i p move apar t bef or e f ai l ur e occur s
and t he cr i t i cal val ue i s r ef er r ed t o as c. The r el at i onshi p t o cr i t i cal
f l aw si ze ( a
c r i t
) i s gi ven by t he equat i on:
wher e e
y
i s t he st r ai n at yi el d and c i s a mat er i al const ant .

Anot her met hod of t r eat i ng YFM i s cal l ed t he J- i nt egr al , whi ch i s
t he aver age measur e of t he el ast i c- pl ast i c st r ess/ st r ai n f i el d ahead of
a cr ack. For el ast i c behavi or ( i . e. pl ane st r ai n) , t he J- i nt egr al i s
r epr esent ed as t he ener gy r el ease r at e ( J
I C
) per uni t cr ack ext ensi on, t hus
- 4-
wher e E i s Young' s Modul us and v i s Poi sson' s r at i o. The r el at i onshi p
bet ween J- i nt egr al , and may be expr essed as f ol l ows:
For st eel s whi ch ar e on t he bor der l i ne f or t r eat ment by ei t her LEFM
or YFM, a uni f i ed t est t echni que can be used t o det er mi ne K
I C
or
c
f r om
a si ngl e t est pi ece.
has been devel oped:
For el ast i c behavi or , t he f ol l owi ng r el at i onshi p
Thus, t he r at i o
c
i n YFM i s compar abl e t o
____
e
y
i n LEFM, i . e. i t i s a measur e of t he def ect t ol er ance of a st eel . The COD
t est , whi l st pr ef er r ed i n t he UK f or wel ds, i s not uni ver sal l y accept abl e
and f or l ow st r engt h, t ough cast st eel s, t he NDTT appr oach usi ng t he dr op-
wei ght t est ( ASTM E208) i s pr ef er r ed.
I n an ar t i cl e of t hi s nat ur e, i t i s not necessar y t o descr i be t he
det ai l ed t echni ues of t est i ng t o det er mi ne K
I C
and
c
. St andar d met hods
ar e avai l abl e
1, 2
and an ext ensi ve l i t er at ur e exi st s gi vi ng pr act i cal and
t heor et i cal det ai l s concer ni ng t he t est i ng par amet er s
3 - 1 0
. The t est s
ar e expensi ve t o car r y out because of t he machi ni ng and pr epar at i on of t he
t est pi eces and al so because of t he pr eci se i nst r ument at i on needed t o
measur e t he t est par amet er s. A vi ew of t he ser vohydr aul i c machi ne used at
SCRATA t o car r y out f r act ur e t oughness t est s i s shown i n Fi g. 1.
Resear ch wor k i s cur r ent l y i n pr ogr ess at SCRATA t o est abl i sh f or cast
st eel s t he compat i bi l i t y bet ween K
I C
,
c
, J and ot her f r act ur e par amet er s,
whi ch al l ow f or a di r ect ext ensi on of LEFM concept s t o YFM behavi or . Some
r esul t s f r om r ecent wor k ar e shown i n Fi g. 2 f or a 0. 34%C pl ai n car bon st eel
and i n Fi g. 3 f or 0. 54%C pl ai n car bon st eel . I t can be seen t hat t he
J- i nt egr al anal ysi s gave t oughness val ues f ar i n excess of t he K
Q
val ues.
( 1 1 )
I n t he case of l ow- al l oy st eel s, wher e t he advant age of usi ng J- i nt egr al
onl y l ay i n t he use of smal l er speci mens, t her e was cl oser cor r espondence
of r esul t s
( 12)
.
Cal cul at i on of Cr i t i cal Fl aw Si ze
Cr i t i cal f l aw si zes can be cal cul at ed wi t h r easonabl e accur acy usi ng
exper i ment al l y det er mi ned f r act ur e t oughness ( K
I C
) val ues. The cr i t i cal
si ze wi l l al so depend on t he f l aw shape and l ocat i on, and, addi t i onal l y,
t he appl i ed or wor ki ng st r ess (
w
) must be known. For sur f ace f l aws, t he
equat i on i s:
- 5-
- 6-
For i nt er nal or embedded f l aws, t he coef f i ci ent 1. 21 i s t aken as uni t y,
i . e. i nt er nal f l aws ar e l ess sever e t han sur f ace f l aws. Basi c r el at i onshi ps
f or var i ous cr ack geomet r i es ar e gi ven i n Fi g. 4. A sampl e cal cul at i on f or
det er mi ni ng t he cr i t i cal f l aw si ze i n a cast i ng i s gi ven i n Appendi x I .
Typi cal val ues of cr i t i cal f l aw si ze f or wi del y di f f er i ng t ypes of cast
st eel have been cal cul at ed i n Tabl e I A f or a r ange of f l aw geomet r i es and
t ypi cal wor ki ng st r esses expr essed as f r act i ons of t he act ual yi el d or
( 0. 2% pr oof ) st r ess of t he st eel . *
These r esul t s have been pl ot t ed t o show gr aphi cal l y some i mpor t ant
f eat ur es of t he dat a, I n Fi g. 5, f or a r ange of cr i t i cal f l aw si zes f r om
shar p t o r ounded, i t can be seen t hat at l ow wor ki ng st r esses f l aws may
be r el at i vel y l ar ge bef or e t hey become of cr i t i cal si ze and t hat a f ul l y
r ounded f l aw of near l y t wi ce t he si ze of a shar p f l aw can be t ol er at ed.
At hi gher st r esses, however , ( e. g. 0. 8 x yi el d st r ess) cr i t i cal f l aw si zes
become ver y smal l , i n f act l ess t han 10 mm ( . 39 i n. ) f or t he st eel s i l l us-
t r at ed, but t he st at ement i s gener al l y t r ue f or cast st eel s whi ch ar e
amenabl e t o t he l i near el ast i c f r act ur e mechani cs ( LEFM) appr oach.
Subcr i t i cal Fl aw Gr owt h by Fat i gue and St r ess Cor r osi on
Fat i gue f ai l ur e i s a t hr ee- st age pr ocess of i ni t i at i on, pr opagat i on
and f ast f r act ur e. The l at t er occur s when a cr ack has r eached a cr i t i cal
def ect si ze f or t he st r ess l evel appl i ed. I n t he absence of def ect s, t he
i ni t i at i on st age may occupy a l ar ge per cent age of a component ' s l i f e.
def ect s ar e pr esent , t he cr ack i ni t i at i on st age becomes r el at i vel y uni m-
por t ant si nce most of t he l i f e wi l l be spent i n t he cr ack pr opagat i on st age.
When
The f l aw gr owt h r at e, da/ dN, under condi t i ons of f l uct uat i ng wor ki ng
st r ess, may be measur ed i n t er ms of t he i ncr ease i n l engt h per cycl e.
Thi s al l ows pr edi ct i on of t he number of cycl es necessar y t o gr ow t he
i ni t i al f l aw ( a
i
) t o t he cr i t i cal f l aw si ze ( a
c r i t
) .
The r at e of f at i gue cr ack pr opagat i on i s r el at ed t o K by:
wher e c and n ar e mat er i al const ant s
( 14)
. The l at t er have been det er mi ned
f or a number of cast st eel s wi t h bot h machi ned and cast - t o- shape not ches
( Tabl e I B)
( 15, 16)
. Cur ves f or t he cr ack pr opagat i on r at e of sever al
st eel s ar e gi ven i n Fi g. 6; one of t he st eel s, r epr esent ed by a dot t ed
cur ve, cont ai ned Type I I sul phi de i ncl usi ons and t he i ncr eased r at e of cr ack
pr opagat i on i s cl ear l y seen.
I n gener al , i t i s not possi bl e t o pr edi ct t he l i f e bet ween a
i
and a
c

unl ess t he i ni t i al f l aw i s shar p. I f i t has a f i ni t e r adi us, p, t hen
t her e i s a dwel l t i me, i . e. a number of cycl es el apse bef or e commencement
of gr owt h. The number of cycl es t o cr ack i ni t i at i on, N
i
, may be cal cu-
l at ed f r om t he f ol l owi ng expr essi on
- 7-
- 8-
- 9-
wher e B and m ar e mat er i al const ant s. Val ues f or cast st eel s have been
det er mi ned
( 1 5 , 1 6 )
.
I n addi t i on t o subcr i t i cal cr ack gr owt h by f at i gue, gr owt h can occur
by st r ess- cor r osi on. Agai n t her e i s t he pr obl em of separ at i ng i ni t i at i on
and pr opagat i on, but t hi s can be over come i n t he l abor at or y by t est i ng pr e-
cr acked sampl es. A st r ess- cor r osi on st r ess i nt ensi t y l i mi t K
I SCC
can be
det er mi ned and used i n pl ace of K
I C
t o cal cul at e t he cr i t i cal cr ack si ze
bel ow whi ch st r ess- cor r osi on may b e i gnor ed.
APPLI CATI ON OF FRACTURE MECHANI CS
The el ement s of f r act ur e mechani cs may be summar i zed i n t he f or m of a
t r i angl e havi ng at i t s apexes t he par amet er s : wor ki ng st r ess (
w
) , f r act ur e
t oughness ( K
I C
) and cr i t i cal f l aw si ze ( a
c r i t
) . I f t wo of t he t hr ee par am-
et er s ar e known, t he t hi r d can be cal cul at ed; t hi s si mpl e concept emphasi zes
t he i mpor t ance of bei ng abl e t o accur at el y measur e t he si ze of a di scon-
t i nui t y. Fur t her mor e, t he desi gner does not al ways know exact l y t he magni -
t ude and di st r i but i on of t he st r esses i n a component and i t i s obvi ous why
a saf et y f act or has t o be appl i ed. But r esi dual st r esses i n a cast i ng can
be of a sur pr i si ngl y hi gh or der bef or e t he wor ki ng st r ess i s appl i ed. Con-
sequent l y, some knowl edge of t he magni t ude of possi bl e r esi dual st r esses i s
essent i al .
I n many heavy engi neer i ng appl i cat i ons st eel cast i ngs t end t o be "over -
desi gned", unnecessar i l y hi gh saf et y f act or s bei ng speci f i ed when i t can be
shown t hat t he di scont i nui t i es pr esent ar e not cr i t i cal . I n t hi s event ,
di scont i nui t i es of cer t ai n si zes can be t ol er at ed but t he smal l er t he f act or
of saf et y, t he smal l er wi l l be t he accept abl e di scont i nui t y si ze. I n
many cases i t i s mor e economi cal t o use t hi nner sect i ons and put a l i mi t
on t he si ze of t he di scont i nui t y; i n ot her cases, i f a cr i t i cal f l aw si ze
i s known, i t may be mor e economi cal t o sel ect t hi cker sect i ons and t o
l eave subcr i t i cal di scont i nui t i es r at her t han t o excavat e and wel d. Due
consi der at i on must be gi ven at al l t i mes t o t he t ype of ser vi ce f or whi ch
t he cast i ng i s dest i ned, e. g. st at i c or dynami c st r ess, t emper at ur e of
oper at i on, neut r al or host i l e envi r onment s, and t he possi bi l i t y of mi suse
dur i ng ser vi ce. No mor e t han t he desi r ed qual i t y need be "bui l t i n"
and t hi s i s t he basi s of t he concept "f i t ness f or pur pose". For t hi s con-
cept t o be oper at ed pr oper l y, t he r el evant f act or s must be quant i f i ed,
and t hi s i s t he under l yi ng ai m of t he wor k bei ng car r i ed out at SCRATA
i n t hi s f i el d at t he pr esent t i me. I t i s appar ent t hat f r act ur e mechani cs
can be used i n t hr ee maj or ar eas: ( i ) desi gn; ( i i ) mat er i al sel ect i on and
al l oy devel opmnet ; and ( i i i ) det er mi ni ng t he si gni f i cance of def ect s.
Anci l l ar y ar eas ar e ( i v) moni t or i ng and cont r ol , and f ai l ur e anal ysi s.
Each of t hese i t ems wi l l be enl ar ged upon.
Desi gn
Convent i onal desi gn pr ocedur es ar e based upon t he yi el d st r engt h
or ul t i mat e t ensi l e st r engt h. Thi s appr oach was consi der ed t o be r el at i vel y
saf e when appr opr i at e saf et y f act or s wer e used. I nst ances wher e unst abl e
f r act ur e occur r ed at st r esses bel ow t he yi el d st r ess however necessi t at ed
maki ng pr ovi si on f or such ci r cumst ances. Fr act ur e mechani cs pr ovi des t hi s
al t er nat i ve i n t er ms of t he K
I C
val ue, but cycl i c st r essi ng and f at i gue
cr ack gr owt h r at e al so have t o be t aken i nt o account . Fact or s of saf et y
can t hen be used on t he i ni t i al def ect si ze, t he wor ki ng st r ess, and/ or
t he ant i ci pat ed number of l oadi ng cycl es.
- 10-
An exampl e of t he pr act i cal appl i cat i on t o desi gn may be gi ven i n
t he mai n st r uct ur al f r amewor k of t he Beaubour g Cent r e, Par i s, Fr ance
( 17)
.
The desi gn of t he Beaubour g Cent r e was t he subj ect of an i nt er nat i onal
ar chi t ect ur al compet i t i on, l aunched i n 1971. Of t he 681 schemes submi t t ed,
t he wi nni ng ar chi t ect s wer e Pi ano and Roger s, and t he wi nni ng engi neer i ng
desi gn was t hat of Ove Ar up and Par t ner s. The l at t er wer e i nspi r ed t o
use st eel cast i ngs i n t hei r desi gn f ol l owi ng a vi si t t o Japan, wher e t hey
saw spher i cal cast st eel nodes i n t he t hr ee di mensi onal st r uct ur es at
"Osaka 1970" whi ch possessed a cl ean si mpl i ci t y r ar el y f ound el sewher e.
The Beaubour g bui l di ng has si x f l oor s and i s di vi ded l engt hwi se i nt o
13 bays, each measur i ng 12. 8 x 48 m ( 42 x 157. 5 f t . ) and ar e uni nt er r upt ed
by i nt er nal l oad- car r yi ng col umns. The f l oor s ar e suspended ext er nal l y
by cant i l ever beams ( st eel cast i ngs) whi ch hi nge on t o t he mai n col umns
( see Fi g. 7) . Because cast st eel was a new mat er i al t o t he desi gn engi neer s,
i t was necessar y t o devi se, i n col l abor at i on wi t h t he const r uct i onal
engi neer s, new met hods f or t est i ng and i nspect i on. Ul t r asoni c t est i ng of
t he nodes f or t he mai n gi r der s i s shown i n pr ogr ess i n t he pr oduct i on st age
( Fi g. 8) . I t was appr eci at ed t hat some def ect s wer e i nevi t abl e i n cast and
wel ded component s and t hat non- dest r uct i ve t est s coul d not be r el i ed upon
t o r eveal ever y shor t comi ng. The engi neer s deci ded, t her ef or e, t o base
t hei r speci f i cat i ons on f r act ur e t oughness t est s usi ng LEFM ( K
I C
) and YFM
( COD) wher e appl i cabl e. Mor eover , i t was appr eci at ed t hat t hese wer e ex-
pensi ve t est s and t he deci si on was t aken t hat r esul t s shoul d be used t o
est abl i sh t he or der of qual i t y of t he mat er i al s at t he st ar t of pr oduct i on.
The f r act ur e t oughness t est s showed t he cast st eel exhi bi t ed t he r equi r ed
st andar ds of qual i t y. Af t er pr el i mi nar y wel di ng t est s had i ndi cat ed t he
cor r ect wel di ng pr ocedur es, ul t i mat e t est s t o col l apse pr oved t hat i t
was possi bl e t o at t ai n sat i sf act or y and, i n some cases, excel l ent r esul t s.
Anot her exampl e i s t he desi gn agai nst br i t t l e f r act ur e of a mai n
cool ant pump i n a nucl ear r eact or pr i mar y ci r cui t
( 1 8 )
. The housi ng
was const r uct ed f r om t hr ee C- 1/ 2%Mo st eel cast i ngs whi ch wer e wel ded t oget her
t o f or m a casi ng havi ng wal l t hi ckness f r om 4 i n. t o 22 i n. and wei ghi ng
about 32 t ons, af t er i nt er nal sur f aces had been cl ad wi t h st ai nl ess st eel .
Because of t he hi gh t oughness of t he st eel , an LEFM appr oach was not val i d
and COD and J- i nt egr al t est s wer e car r i ed out over a r ange of t emper at ur es
( - 50 t o +70 C) ( - 58 t o +158F) . A good cor r el at i on bet ween t hese par amet er s
was f ound.
The f i ni t e el ement met hod was used t o det er mi ne t he st r ess f i el ds
f or pr oof t est l oadi ng and t hr ee ser vi ce condi t i ons, st ar t , r unni ng and
st op. An addi t i onal 10 N/ mm
2
( 1450 psi ) was t aken i nt o account as a
conser vat i ve est i mat e of r esi dual st r ess. Cr i t i cal def ect si zes wer e
cal cul at ed f r om COD, J and t he non- val i d K
Q
t he COD- der i ved val ues wer e
consi der abl y l ar ger t han t hose cal cul at ed f r om K
Q
. I t was appar ent t hat
K
Q
was unabl e t o t ake advant age of t he ext r a duct i l i t y avai l abl e i n and
beyond t he t r ansi t i on t emper at ur e r ange and i t was consi der ed t hat f or t hi s
appl i cat i on t he t ol er abl e def ect si zes def i ned on t he basi s of K
Q
wer e
much t oo st r i ngent .
The anal ysi s car r i ed out pr ovi ded val uabl e i nf or mat i on f or desi gn
engi neer s, on t he st r ess di st r i but i on and cr i t i cal def ect si zes i n t he
cast i ngs. Char py V- not ch and dr op- wei ght t est s wer e al so made and wi l l
be used i n t he f ut ur e f or qual i t y cont r ol pur poses.
- 11-
- 12-
A f ur t her exampl e of t he f r act ur e mechani cs appr oach t o desi gn i s
i n t he f i el d of power gener at i on. I n 1975, t he London f i r m Bovi ng & Co.
Li mi t ed r ecei ved an or der f r om t he Cent r al El ect r i ci t y Gener at i ng Boar d
( UK) f or si x 300 MW r ever si bl e pump t ur bi nes t o wor k under a head of
540 m ( 1771. 7 f t . ) . The machi nes wer e t o wor k i n var i ous modes, as pumps,
t ur bi nes, and al so t o r un wi t h t he r unner s bl ow down as spi nni ng r eser ve.
A l i f e of 55 year s wi t h 15, 000 mode changes each year was speci f i ed.
Si nce many mode changes i nvol ved openi ng or cl osi ng t he mai n i nl et val ve,
t hi s val ve, t he st ay r i ng spi r al casi ng, and t he t op and bot t om cover s
wer e desi gned f or 400, 000 cycl es, wi t h a st r ess r ange cor r espondi ng t o
t he pr essur e change when t he val ve opens t o when t he val ve cl oses, equal
t o 575 m ( 1886. 5 f t . ) . I t i s bel i eved t hat t hi s was t he f i r st t i me such
a r i gor ous speci f i cat i on f or f at i gue desi gn had been appl i ed t o a wat er
t ur bi ne.
The or i gi nal desi gn at t he t ender st age was based on convent i onal
met hods of wat er t ur bi ne desi gn but t he st r ess l evel adopt ed was adj ust ed
t o t ake account of t he f at i gue r equi r ement . Some cal cul at i ons wer e done
at t hi s st age t o assess t he sensi t i vi t y of t he desi gn t o t he expect ed
si ze of def ect s and a cast i ng accept ance st andar d was wr i t t en. Thi s al l owed
20% wal l t hi ckness def ect s i n t he mi ddl e t hi r d of t he sect i on t hi ckness,
but onl y ver y smal l def ect s i n t he t wo out er t hi r ds. For t he f i nal desi gn
an accur at e st r ess pat t er n was r equi r ed and t hi s was obt ai ned usi ng t he
phot o- el ast i c met hod f or t he val ve body and r ot or and f i ni t e el ement
anal ysi s f or t he t op and bot t om cover s and st ay r i ng. The mai n component s
of t he machi ne, t he val ve body and r ot or , t he st ay r i ng, t he t op and bot t om
cover s wer e cast i n car bon- manganese st eel . The spi r al casi ng was f abr i -
cat ed f r om st eel pl at e, and wel ded t o t he cast st eel st ay r i ng. The
f r act ur e t oughness of t he mat er i al s was det er mi ned by pl ane st r ai n f r act ur e
t oughness t est i ng.
Af t er t he component s wer e cast a car ef ul ul t r asoni c i nspect i on was
made, and al l def ect s wer e number ed and t hei r si ze and posi t i on t abul at ed.
The si ze was det er mi ned by pr obe movement t echni que. The def ect s wer e t hen
pl ot t ed on t o dr awi ngs of t he component s, so t hat t he st r ess i n t hat
posi t i on coul d be f ound. On each def ect , whet her i nsi de or out si de t he
def ect accept ance st andar d, a f r act ur e mechani cs assessment was made.
The cr ack gr owt h i n 400, 000 cycl es was est i mat ed, and t he K
I
was checked
usi ng t hi s enhanced cr ack si ze and a st r ess equal t o t he maxi mum t hat
coul d occur i n oper at i on ( dur i ng l oad r ej ect i on) . The possi bi l i t y of
pl ast i c col l apse occur r i ng i n t hese condi t i ons was al so checked. As a
r esul t of t hese cal cul at i ons a deci si on was t aken whet her t o accept or
r epai r t he def ect . I n t he case of def ect s i n cl ose pr oxi mi t y t o one
anot her , t he r ul es gi ven i n a draf t speci f i cat i on wer e used t o det er mi ne
any i nt er - act i on
( 1 9 )
. I t i s bel i eved t hat t hi s appr oach t o desi gn
ensur es a machi ne of adequat e l i f e, and mi ni mi zes t he amount of cast i ng
wel d r epai r s r equi r ed.
Mat er i al Sel ect i on
The f i r st st ep i n appl yi ng f r act ur e mechani cs t o mat er i al sel ect i on
i s t o obt ai n t he val ue of K
I C
( or K
C
) f or t he mat er i al s under consi der at i on.
For pl ai n car bon and l ower st r engt h st eel s auxi l i ar y t est met hods must be
used t o est i mat e t he K
C
or K
I C
, or a COD t est shoul d be car r i ed out and

c
det er mi ned. Next , assess t he t ype of f l aw t hat wi l l most l i kel y occur
i n t he cast i ng bei ng anal yzed ( e. g. sur f ace, edge or t hr ough- t hi ckness,
see Fi g. 4) and est i mat e t he r ange of f l aw si zes t hat coul d possi bl y be
- 13-
encount er ed. Then, pl ot a
c r i t
ver sus gr oss wor ki ng st r ess cal cul at ed, as
a par t i cul ar f r act i on of t he yi el d st r ess of t he st eel . Such a di agr am
( Fi g. 9) r epr esent s t he or der of t he st eel s accor di ng t o t hei r abi l i t y
t o car r y wor ki ng st r esses i n t he pr esence of f l aws of cer t ai n si zes, wi t hout
gi vi ng r i se t o f ast pr opagat i on of t hose f l aws. Such a di agr am f or each
mat er i al can be used t o sel ect t he opt i mum mat er i al , t o est abl i sh desi gn
st r ess l evel s, and t o f or m t he basi s f or i nspect i on r equi r ement s. I t must
be bor ne i n mi nd t hat t he st r esses pl ot t ed ar e act ual st r esses, whi ch, i n
t he ar ea of t he def ect , coul d be hi gher t han t he aver age desi gn st r ess;
and t hat a di scont i nui t y whi ch i s bel ow t he cr i t i cal si ze under st at i c
condi t i ons wi l l gr ow under t he act i on of r epeat ed st r ess, t hat i s, by a
mechani sm of f at i gue. Fur t her mor e, si nce
i s a measur e of t he def ect t ol er ance of a st eel , i ncr easi ng t he yi el d
st r engt h wi t hout pr opor t i onat e i ncr ease i n t oughness i s det r i ment al t o t he
f l aw t ol er ance. Thus, st eel s wi t h t he same
r at i o wi l l have t he same cr i t i cal di scont i nui t y si zes at t he same f r act i on
of t hei r yi el d st r esses but t he absol ut e wor ki ng st r esses can be ver y
di f f er ent .
Si gni f i cance of Di scont i nui t i es
Di scont i nui t y si ze i s one par amet er of t he f r act ur e t r i angl e and
t he si gni f i cance of di scont i nui t i es i n r el at i on t o t he ot her t wo par amet er s,
wor ki ng st r ess and K
I C
, has al r eady been di scussed under t he pr evi ous
headi ngs of desi gn and mat er i al sel ect i on. The f act or s t o be t aken i nt o
account when consi der i ng accept ance st andar ds f or t he maxi mum si ze and
number of f l aws t hat can be t ol er at ed i n a gi ven component ar e:
a) mechani cal pr oper t i es, i ncl udi ng f r act ur e t oughness;
b) appl i ed st r ess l evel ( i ncl udi ng r esi dual st r ess i f any) ;
c) cycl i c nat ur e of t he st r ess;
d) t emper at ur e;
e) envi r onment ;
f ) degr ee of uncer t ai nt y of f or egoi ng dat a; and
g) pot ent i al consequence of f ai l ur e.
Di scont i nui t i es i n st eel cast i ngs may be cl assi f i ed i nt o t wo cat e-
gor i es: ( 1) l i near or cr ack- l i ke ( whi ch i ncl udes col d cr acks, hot t ear s,
f i ne ( i nt er dendr i t i c) and f i l ament ar y shr i nkage) ; and ( 2) r ounded ( whi ch
i ncl udes gas por osi t y i n t he f or m of di scr et e near - spher i cal hal es, en-
t r apped ai r , pi nhol es, wor mhol es, and al so exogenous i ncl usi ons whi ch
consi st of nonmet al l i c mat t er ar i si ng f r om sand and/ or sl ag) . Apar t f r om
col d cr acks, whi ch ar e st r ess cr acks occur r i ng af t er t he compl et i on of
- 14-
- 15-
sol i di f i cat i on, st eel cast i ngs, at t he t i me of commencement of ser vi ce,
r ar el y exhi bi t si ngl e i nt er nal f l aws of t he exempl ar y t ype used i n f r ac-
t ur e t oughness cal cul at i ons. Fl aw t i ps ar e unl i kel y t o be as shar p as
t he f at i gue cr ack t i p used i n f r act ur e t oughness t est speci mens. I t i s
l i kel y t hat a dwel l t i me under cycl i c st r essi ng woul d be necessar y t o
i ni t i at e shar p cr ack. Agai n, apar t f r om t he col d cr ack, ot her f l aws
al most cer t ai nl y consi st of mul t i pl es or gr oups. Embedded f l aws ar e l ess
i nnocuous t han sur f ace f l aws, and, at pr esent , unt i l r esear ch shows how
t o t r eat f l aws of compl ex shape, a conser vat i ve appr oach i s adopt ed; al l
f l aws ar e assumed t o have a shar p t i p and t hr ee- di mensi onal gr oups of
f l aws ar e t aken t o be equi val ent t o one f l aw havi ng t he si ze of t he
envel ope encompassi ng t he smal l er ones.
Moni t or i ng, Cont r ol and Fai l ur e Anal ysi s
The use of f r act ur e mechani cs i n t he moni t or i ng of equi pment i n ser -
vi ce i s dependent mai nl y upon a knowl edge of t he f r act ur e t oughness of
t he mat er i al and t he exact appl i ed st r ess, be i t st at i c or cycl i c.
Wi t hout t hi s knowl edge, i t cannot be pr edi ct ed when a di scont i nui t y
wi l l r each a cr i t i cal si ze. Fur t her mor e, because of access di f f i cul t i es,
f l aw l ocat i on and si zi ng becomes mor e di f f i cul t i n si t u. Never t hel ess ,
pr ovi ded t hat al l t he l i mi t at i ons ar e under st ood, moni t or i ng of cr i t i cal
equi pment can be wor t hwhi l e. An exampl e appl i ed t o st eel cast i ngs i s
pr ovi ded by t he Cent r al El ect r i ci t y Gener at i ng Boar d ( UK) .
Dur i ng an i nspect i on of an I . P. cyl i nder of a power st at i on t ur bi ne,
ext ensi ve cr acki ng of t he i nl et st eam bel t was f ound. Sever al r egi ons
of shal l ow cr acki ng wer e el i mi nat ed by gr i ndi ng out , but one ext ensi ve
cr ack gave cause f or concer n because of i t s dept h and posi t i on. A r epai r
by wel di ng was r ul ed out because of possi bl e di st or t i on and a r epl acement
cast i ng was not avai l abl e. A f r act ur e mechani cs assessment was t her ef or e
under t aken t o det er mi ne whet her or not t he cr acked casi ng was accept abl e
f or f ut her ser vi ce. The 120 MW t ur bi ne uni t , of whi ch t he 1/ 2%Mo- 1/ 3%V
st eel casi ng was par t , had been i nst al l ed and commi ssi oned i n 1959/ 60,
and up t o 1970 had oper at ed as a base l oad machi ne wi t h ver y f ew hot and
col d st ar t s. Fr om 1970 onwar ds, t he uni t was used pr edomi nant l y f or t wo-
shi f t oper at i on and t her ef or e subj ect ed t o a l ar ge number of hot and
col d st ar t s; t her e seemed l i t t l e doubt t hat cr acki ng i n t he casi ng was
associ at ed wi t h t he l ar ge t emper at ur e di f f er ent i al s set up dur i ng st ar t -
ups and shut - downs.
The anal ysi s of t he cr ack behavi or f el l i nt o t hr ee par t s: ( 1) t he
anal ysi s of t he oper at i onal st r esses i n t he casi ng, ( 2) t he der i vat i on of
st r ess i nt ensi t y f act or s cor r espondi ng t o t hose st r esses , and ( 3) t he
appl i cat i on of t he cal cul at ed st r ess i nt ensi t y f act or s t o t he mechani cal
pr oper t y dat a.
Oper at i onal St r esses - The st r ess exper i enced by t he casi ng f or any
oper at i onal condi t i on was t aken as t he sum of t her mal , pr essur e and r e-
si dual st r esses. The t her mal st r ess was eval uat ed f r om t he pr oduct of t he
nomi nal st r ess and t he concent r at i on due t o t he l ocal geomet r y. The
pr essur e st r esses wer e negl ect ed dur i ng a st ar t unt i l t he t ur bi ne came
on l oad; t her eaf t er , t he st r esses wer e det er mi ned by t aki ng t he pr oduct
of t he nomi nal st r ess i n a uni f or m cyl i nder and t he concent r at i on due t o
t he l ocal geomet r y. Wi t h r egar d t o r esi dual st r ess, no measur ement s had
been made on cast i ngs i n 1/ 2%Mo- 1/ 3%V st eel , but pr evi ous st r ess r el axat i on dat a
- 16-
f or cast 1%Cr - Mo- V st eel at 550 C ( 1022F) subj ect ed t o r epeat ed st r ai ni ng,
i ndi cat ed t hat an equi l i br i um val ue of about 75 N/ mm
2
( 10875 psi ) was
r eached. Thi s i ndi cat i on was suppor t ed by ot her wor k on 1%Cr - Mo- V cr acked
cast i ngs. A r esi dual st r ess of 75 N/ mm
2
( 10875 psi ) was, t her ef or e,
assumed t o act as a uni f or m t ensi on acr oss t he uncr acked por t i on of t he
casi ng, nor mal t o t he pl ane of t he cr ack.
St r ess I nt ensi t y Fact or s - Est i mat es wer e based upon t he si mpl e
doubl e- edge cr acked pl at e geomet r y, a sol ut i on r el at i ng st r ess i nt ensi t y
f act or t o cr ack si ze, and appl i ed st r ess bei ng al r eady avai l abl e. An
est i mat e was made of t he var i at i on of st r ess i nt ensi t y f act or t hr ough
t he t hi ckness of t he casi ng by t aki ng t he st r ess and cr ack l engt h at each
posi t i on t hr ough t he wal l , and assumi ng t hat t hese di d not var y t hr ough
t he t hi ckness. I t was f ound t hat , f or t wo st ar t s and t he st eady st at e on-
l oad condi t i on, t he maxi mum st r ess i nt ensi t y f act or occur r ed at t he out er
sur f ace and f or shut - down at t he i nner sur f ace.
Cr ack Gr owt h Pr edi ct i ons - Fi gur e 10 shows t he var i at i on of st r ess
i nt ensi t y f act or wi t h out si de sur f ace st eel t emper at ur es f or a col d st ar t
whi ch i mposes r at es of heat i ng si mi l ar t o t hose pr evi ousl y obser ved.
Al so shown i n t hi s f i gur e i s t he K
I C
t emper at ur e dependency det er mi ned
i n ear l i er st udi es. I t can i mmedi at el y be seen t hat br i t t l e f r act ur e may
occur over t he t emper at ur e r ange 30 t o 130C ( 86 t o 266F) . Br i t t l e
f r act ur e can of cour se be avoi ded i f t he st eel t emper at ur e di f f er ent i al s
ar e l i mi t ed t o pr oduce st r ess i nt ensi t y f act or s whi ch f al l bel ow K
I C

at al l t emper at ur es.
Tol er abl e Thr ough Wal l Temper at ur e Di f f er ent i al s - The need t o avoi d
br i t t l e f r act ur e dur i ng st ar t - up and shut - down and t he r equi r ement f or
r est r i ct i on of st abl e gr owt h by f at i gue and cr eep per mi t t ed an oper at i onal
pat t er n t o be def i ned, as shown i n Fi g. 11. Regi ons A and B r epr esent
t he l i mi t at i ons on t he t emper at ur e di f f er ent i al s, as a f unct i on of t he
out si de st eel sur f ace t emper at ur e whi ch shoul d be f ol l owed f or t he avoi d-
ance of br i t t l e f r act ur e dur i ng st ar t - up and shut - down. I t shoul d be
not ed t hat a posi t i ve t emper at ur e di f f er ent i al means t hat t he i nner sur -
f ace of t he casi ng i s hot t er t han t he out si de, and a negat i ve di f f er ent i al
means t hat t he out er sur f ace i s hot t er t han t he i nner . The l i mi t at i on
of t he t hr ough wal l di f f er ent i al i n r egi on C of Fi g. 11, r esul t ed f r om
t he r equi r ement t o l i mi t st abl e gr owt h dur i ng Wi nt er 1974/ 75. Assumi ng
t hat t he machi ne was t o oper at e on a 5- day week, and r un f or 3000 hour s
over t hi s per i od, t he cr ack woul d gr ow by 6 mm ( . 24 i n. ) i f t he maxi mum
di f f er ent i al of r egi on C i s sust ai ned on each st ar t - up and shut - down.
Al t er nat i vel y, t he gr owt h coul d be r educed t o a negl i gi bl e val ue by
oper at i ng t he machi ne cont i nuousl y, i . e. a 7- day week.
I t was emphasi zed dur i ng t hi s st udy t hat many assumpt i ons had been
made i n ar r i vi ng at val ues f or pr essur e, r esi dual and t her mal st r esses
dur i ng st ar t - up, oper at i on and shut - down, and t hat t he f r act ur e mechani cs
assessment coul d not pr ovi de a guar ant ee f or t he saf et y of t he machi ne.
Fur t her mor e, i t was r ecommended t hat i n t he event of a st eam l eak, an
obser ved cr ack ext ensi on or any ci r cumst ance whi ch i ndi cat ed t hat cr ack
gr owt h may have occur r ed, t he uni t shoul d be shut down i mmedi at el y,
adher i ng t o t he r est r i ct i ons of ar ea B i n Fi g. 11. Addi t i onal i nst r u-
ment at i on was i nst al l ed i n t he casi ng and t he pr ecaut i ons st at ed wer e
adher ed t o, wi t h t he r esul t t hat si nce Wi nt er 1974/ 75 t he uni t has con-
t i nued t o oper at e sat i sf act or i l y.
- 17-
- 18-
I n addi t i on t o moni t or i ng, f ai l ur e anal ysi s i s ext r emel y i mpor t ant ,
f or onl y by doi ng t hi s can f r act ur e mechani cs be shown t o be a vi abl e
t echni que. Unf or t unat el y, no r epor t s exi st i n t he l i t er at ur e of t hi s
havi ng been appl i ed t o st eel cast i ngs, al t hough i nvest i gat i ons usi ng
f r act ur e mechani cs have been made on wel ded poi nt s bet ween f or ged and
t o a f or ged r ot or shaf t , I n t hi s case t he damage was compl ex and r el at ed
t o di scs whi ch f ai l ed i n ser vi ce; t he damage was ext ensi ve and i t was
di f f i cul t t o ascer t ai n whi ch cr acks had i ni t i at ed t he f ai l ur e and whi ch
wer e consequent i al damage. Fr act ur e mechani cs was used t o t est t he
hypot hesi s t hat t he f ai l ur e was due t o t he bur st i ng of one of t he l ow
pr essur e di scs dur i ng r ot at i on. I t al so i ndi cat ed t hat t he f ai l ur e coul d
have been post poned or even avoi ded by t he use of mat er i al of hi gher
f r act ur e t oughness. The i nvest i gat i on al l owed appr opr i at e met hods t o
be devel oped t o pr event such f ai l ur es i n t he f ut ur e
( 21)
.
Accur acy of Fl aw Si ze Measur ement
cast component s i n power gener at i ng pl ant
( 20 )
. I t has al so been appl i ed
Four mai n non- dest r uct i ve t est i ng t echni ques ar e used i n st eel
f oundr i es at t he pr esent t i me: magnet i c par t i cl e and penet r ant met hods
f or sur f ace i nspect i on; r adi ogr aphy and ul t r asoni c i nspect i on f or i nt er nal
exami nat i on. I t can be seen f r om Tabl e I A t hat , t ypi cal l y, t he smal l est
sur f ace def ect di mensi on t hat needs t o be measur ed i s of t he or der of
2. 5 mm ( . 10 i n. ) and 3. 0 mm ( . 12 i n. ) f or i nt er nal f l aws ( assumi ng t hat
desi gn st r esses gr eat er t han 0. 8
y
ar e not used) . An exami nat i on of
exi st i ng st andar ds i ncor por at i ng NDT met hods shows t hat t he smal l est
def ect s t hat must be measur ed f or accept ance pur poses ar e as shown i n
Tabl e I I . The val ues quot ed i n ASTM and ot her st andar ds have been evol ved
f r om exper i ence i n exami ni ng st eel cast i ngs and i t i s hoped t hat t he appl i -
cat i on of f r act ur e mechani cs wi l l hel p t o r at i onal i ze t he di f f er ence bet ween
exi st i ng NDT st andar ds.
I f we accept t hese dat a as t r ul y r epr esent i ng t he pr esent day si t uat i on,
i t woul d appear t hat r adi ogr aphy i s an i naccur at e t echni que f or measur i ng
f l aw si zes. For t he st eel wi t h t he l owest f l aw t ol er ance i n Tabl e I A,
embedded r ounded f l aws ( a/ b=1) of 15. 6 mm ( . 61 i n. ) ( i . e. 7. 8 mm ( . 31 i n. )
r adi us) can be t ol er at ed even at hi gh desi gn st r esses ( 0. 8
y
) ; consequent l y
t he f act t hat t he ASTM r adi ogr aphi c st andar d E280 r est r i ct s r ounded f l aws
t o 1. 0 mm ( . 04 i n. ) does not seem par t i cul ar l y r el evant . Whi t t aker
( 22)
conf i r ms t hi s vi ewpoi nt by sayi ng " I t r emai ns a sad f act t hat , i n gener al ,
r adi ogr aphy i s abl e t o det ect t he def ect s whi ch f r act ur e mechani cs show t o
be of onl y secondar y i mpor t ance, whi l st i t f ai l s t o det ect adequat el y t he
r eal l y i mpor t ant def ect s".
I t i s shown i n Tabl e I I t hat t he mi ni mum f l aw si ze det ect abl e by
ul t r asoni c met hods i s 10 mm ( . 39 i n. ) f or a l i near f l aw. The ul t r asoni c
met hod shoul d be abl e t o det ect f l aw si zes wi t h an accur acy of 20 per
cent , i . e. bet ween 8 and 12 mm ( . 31 and . 47 i n. ) f or l i near and 3 t o 5 mm
( . 12 t o . 20 i n. ) f or 4 mm ( . 16 i n. ) r ounded f l aws. Whet her or not a 20
per cent accur acy i s achi eved i s di f f i cul t t o assess, si nce t he accur acy
of t he t echni ques used ( ei t her maxi mum ampl i t ude or beam spr ead) depends
mai nl y on t he st r uct ur e of t he st eel and i t s ul t r asoni c at t enuat i on, whi ch
i n t ur n det er mi nes t he usabl e t est f r equency and t he r esol vi ng power of
t he met hod. Ot her i mpor t ant f act or s t o be consi der ed ar e t he equi pment
char act er i st i cs, set t i ng sensi t i vi t y, f r equency and di amet er of t he pr obe
cr yst al , sur f ace r oughness of t he cast i ng, shape of t he cast i ng and ver y
i mpor t ant l y, t he ski l l and abi l i t y of t he oper at or . Consequent l y, a f act or
- 19-
- 20-
of saf et y of 100 per cent i s suggest ed. I t woul d appear pr udent , f r om a
f r act ur e mechani cs poi nt of vi ew, not t o use st eel s of such l ow t oughness
t hat at t he desi gn or wor ki ng st r ess a r ounded cr i t i cal def ect si ze i s l ess
t han 6 mm ( . 24 i n. ) ( i . e. 3 mm ( . 12 i n. ) x 2) when ul t r asoni c i nspect i on
i s empl oyed.
Sur f ace or near sur f ace f l aws can be det ect ed by penet r ant and mag-
net i c par t i cl e met hods, but onl y t he l engt h, and not t he dept h* of f l aw
can be det er mi ned. The suggest ed capabi l i t y of t hese met hods i s f or
measur i ng l engt hs down t o 0. 25 mm ( . 01 i n. ) . Compar i son wi t h Tabl e I A
shows t hat t hi s i s a sat i sf act or y accur acy f or a r ange of st eel s havi ng
wi del y di f f er i ng pr oper t i es.
A compar i son of t he ef f i ci ency of var i ous NDT t echni ques has been
made f or sur f ace f at i gue cr acks i n heat t r eat ed l ow- al l oy wr ought st eel
( 23)
.
Fi g. 12 shows t hat cr acks wer e 100 per cent det ect ed by ul t r asoni cs when
6 mm ( . 24 i n. ) l ong, by t he magnet i c par t i cl e met hod when 9 mm ( . 35 i n. )
l ong and by penet r ant s when 10 mm ( . 39 i n. ) l ong. Even when t hey wer e
13 mm ( . 51 i n. ) l ong, r adi ogr aphy coul d onl y det ect t hem ever y 65 shot s
i n 100. The accur acy achi eved i n measur i ng t hese cr acks i s i l l ust r at ed
by Fi g. 13 whi ch shows t hat magnet i c par t i cl e achi eves an accur acy of
80 per cent f or cr acks 4 mm ( . 16 i n. ) l ong. The dat a, al t hough not
obt ai ned f r om st eel cast i ngs, i ndi cat e t he di f f i cul t i es i n f i ndi ng sur f ace
cr acks and measur i ng t hei r l engt hs. Fur t her mor e, of t hese met hods, onl y
ul t r asoni cs can measur e t he dept h of a f l aw ( and t hi s not at al l accur at el y)
whi ch f r act ur e mechani cs shows t o be much mor e i mpor t ant t han t he l engt h.
Foundr i es and st eel cast i ng user s shoul d t her ef or e sat i sf y t hemsel ves
t hat t hey know t he mi ni mum si ze of f l aw t hat can be consi st ent l y det ect ed,
t aki ng al l var i abl es i nt o account . Ther e i s l i t t l e vi r t ue i n bei ng abl e
t o det ect f l aws i f t hei r si ze, and hence t hei r si gni f i cance wi t h r egar d
t o f ai l ur e by br i t t l e f r act ur e, can not be det er mi ned.
The appl i cat i on of f r act ur e mechani cs pr i nci pl es assumes i deal
condi t i ons f or t heor et i cal mani pul at i on ( i . e. di scr et e di scont i nui t i es
ei t her at t he sur f ace or t ot al l y embedded) but i n t he pr act i cal case of
cast i ngs, di scont i nui t i es occur i r r egul ar l y i n shape and di st r i but i on.
Ways of deal i ng wi t h such si t uat i ons have been suggest ed
( 24)
but t wo
ver y i mpor t ant poi nt s r emai n: ( i ) NDT t echni ques ar e not suf f i ci ent l y
advanced t o gi ve accur at el y t he si ze, shape and l ocat i on of i ndi vi dual
and gr oups of f l aws; and ( i i ) mor e case hi st or i es ar e needed i nvol vi ng
t he appl i cat i on of f r act ur e mechani cs t o st eel cast i ngs t o di spel any
doubt s concer ni ng i t s appl i cat i on.
METALLURGI CAL FACTORS AFFECTI NG FRACTURE TOUGHNESS
For a gi ven st r uct ur e, hi gher t oughness i s associ at ed wi t h l ower
st r engt h l evel s. The mi cr ost r uct ur e i t sel f i nf l uences t oughness t o a
consi der abl e degr ee. Bai ni t e, at a gi ven st r engt h l evel , exhi bi t s bet t er
i mpact t oughness t han f er r i t e, upper bai ni t e gener al l y havi ng hi gher i mpact
t r ansi t i on t emper at ur es t han l ower bai ni t e ( 25) . T e mp e r e d ma r t e n s i t e
exhi bi t s t he hi ghest t oughness.
Car bon st eel s and most commer ci al l ow- al l oy st eel s exhi bi t f er r i t i c
or f er r i t i c/ pear l i t i c mi cr ost r uct ur es i n t he nor mal i zed and t emper ed
condi t i on, whi l st quenchi ng pr oduces bai ni t i c or mar t ensi t i c st r uct ur es
* Dept h her e means t he mi nor axi s i n a r oughl y el l i pt i cal shape,
and not dept h bel ow t he sur f ace.
- 21-
- 22-
i n l ow- al l oy st eel . Si gni f i cant di f f er ences i n t oughness- st r engt h r e-
l at i onshi ps ar e evi dent when quenched and t emper ed st eel cast i n s ar e
cr easi ng t he t emper i ng t emper at ur e, whi ch l ower s t he st r engt h, has t he
ef f ect of i ncr easi ng t he K
I C
val ue ( Fi g. 14) .
compar ed wi t h t hose i n t he nor mal i zed and t emper ed condi t i on
( 26)
. I n -
As may be expect ed, decr easi ng t he sul phur cont ent i ncr eases t he
f r act ur e t oughness. I ncr easi ng sul phur and phosphor us t oget her has a
mar ked ef f ect on l ower i ng t he f r act ur e t oughness
( 27)
. I n t est bl ocks
cast i ngs, however , i t was f ound t hat f r act ur e t oughness di d not necessar i l y
cor r el at e wi t h sul phur and phosphor us ( Fi g. 15) ; f r act ur e t oughness
var i ed wi t h posi t i on i n t he t op hal f but not i n t he bot t om hal f of t he
bl ock. Thi s r esul t i ndi cat ed t hat t he cast i ng was not adequat el y f ed and
t hat under head mi cr oshr i nkage was occur r i ng. The quest i on of por osi t y
i s one whi ch r equi r es much f ur t her wor k and cl oser def i ni t i on of t he
t ype, ext ent , shape, si ze and i nt er act i on of t he por es.
Anot her poi nt of whi ch f ur t her dat a ar e r equi r ed i s concer ned wi t h
gr ai ns and gr ai n boundar y ef f ect s. I n SCRATA wor k wher e i nt er gr anul ar
f r act ur e was encount er ed, no cor r el at i on coul d be f ound bet ween t he
amount of I . F. on t he f r act ur e sur f aces and t he cor r espondi ng K
I C
val ue.
The r eason f or t hi s i s t hat t he f r act ur e t oughness t est does not measur e
t he t oughness of t he whol e ar ea of t he uncr acked l i gament but measur es
t he t oughness of a r el at i vel y smal l zone at t he t i p of t he f at i gue pr e-
cr ack. I t was cal cul at ed f or t he st eel i n quest i on t hat t he di st ance
t hat t hi s zone ext ended ahead of t he cr ack t i p was appr oxi mat el y 0. 5 mm
( . 02 i n. ) . Vi r t ual l y none of t he I . F. ar eas of t he f r act ur e wer e wi t hi n
t hi s di st ance of t he i ni t i al cr ack t i p, t hus expl ai ni ng t he l ack of
cor r el at i on bet ween per cent age I . F. and K
I C
.
st eel s
( 2 8 )
. I t has been shown t hat f or an AI SI 4340 st eel cont ai ni ng
0. 8%Mn, aust eni t i zi ng at 1200C ( 2192F) can i ncr ease t he f r act ur e
t oughness ( K
I C

At t he same t i me however , Char py V- not ch val ues ar e l ower ed. I t i s possi bl e
t her ef or e, t hat gr ai n coar seni ng has t aken pl ace and t he pr e- cr ack t i p
was i n each t est wi t hi n a gr ai n, r emot e f r om a gr ai n boundar y. By com-
par i son, a Char py t est havi ng a bl unt not ch r equi r es mor e ener gy f or
cr ack i ni t i at i on but f ar l ess f or cr ack pr opagat i on t hr ough a coar se
gr ai ned st eel . Obser vat i ons made on t he t wo f or egoi ng exampl es coul d
wel l expl ai n t he scat t er whi ch occur s bet ween t est pi eces t aken f r om
adj acent posi t i ons.
A si mi l ar exampl e may be quot ed even t hough i t r el at es t o wr ought
) by a f act or of t wo wi t hout r educi ng t he yi el d st r engt h.
Mi cr oshr i nkage i s anot her phenomenon whi ch needs f ur t her st udy i n
r el at i on t o f r act ur e t oughness. I n one i nvest i gat i on, Ni - Cr - Mo st eel
t est pi eces showed i nt er act i on bet ween t he mi cr oshr i nkage and t he f at i gue
pr e- cr acki ng, a t ypi cal exampl e of whi ch i s shown i n Fi g. 16. The con-
cl usi on f r om t hi s par t i cul ar st udy was t hat por osi t y ef f ect i vel y r ai sed
t he measur ed t oughness, because mul t i - pl anar cr ack f r ont s, r at her t han
si ngl e cr acks, wer e bei ng t est ed. Thus, mi xed mode def or mat i on char -
act er i st i cs wer e i nduced whi ch i nvol ved mor e ener gy absor pt i on. Ther e
was no evi dence t o suggest t hat mi ni mum l evel s of t oughness wer e af f ect ed
by mi cr oshr i nkage.
- 23-
- 24-
-25-
ALTERNATI VE DATA
The advant age of t he f r act ur e mechani cs t est s over mor e convent i onal
t oughness t est s l i es i n t he f act t hat mat er i al val ues ar e obt ai ned t hat
can be used i n desi gn equat i ons. Never t hel ess, t he t est s ar e expensi ve
t o car r y out and i f t he r esul t s of cheaper and qui cker t est s can be
empi r i cal l y cor r el at ed wi t h K
I C
or
c
val ues, t hen t he cheaper t est s may
be per f or med, and t he der i ved val ue of K
I C
or
c
can be used i n t he
desi gn equat i ons. I t i s i mpor t ant t o r emember , however , t hat t he t ough-
ness of most st eel s decr eases wi t h decr easi ng t emper at ur e and i ncr eased
l oadi ng r at e ( i . e. t i me t aken t o r each maxi mum l oad) . Behavi or can
change ver y r api dl y at i nt er medi at e posi t i ons bet ween sl ow l oadi ng ( st at i c
f or K
I C
) t o r api d l oadi ng ( dynami c or i mpact f or K
I D
) . Fur t her mor e,
i ncr easi ng t he t hi ckness of t he mat er i al bei ng t est ed decr eases K
C
val ues
t o a const ant val ue, K
I C
. Di f f er ent t est s may do no mor e t han show
empi r i cal cor r el at i ons and i t woul d be unwi se t o appl y a cor r el at i on
f or one mat er i al t o anot her .
The Char py V- not ch t est i s wi del y used as a qual i t y cont r ol t est
and cor r el at i ons wi t h K
I C
have been sought
( 29)
. For cer t ai n wr ought
st eel s, t he upper shel f K
I C
/ CVN ( Bar som and Rol f e) cor r el at i on
( 30)
has
been f ound t o be accept abl e, whi l st f or f or ged r ot or st eel s a r at her
si mi l ar cor r el at i on has been f ound ( Bengl ey and Logsdon)
( 31)
. I n g e n e r a l ,
t hese met hods appl y t o wr ought st eel s whi ch exhi bi t a wel l - def i ned Char py
ener gy and f r act ur e appear ance t r ansi t i on cur ve and ar e not mar kedl y
sensi t i ve t o st r ai n r at e.
Wor k on cast st eel s has been car r i ed out f or t he St eel Founder s' Soci et y
of Amer i ca r eveal ed sever al cor r el at i ons f or cast 1 1/ 2%Ni - Cr - Mo and 1 1/ 2%
Mn- Ni - Cr - Mo st eel s
( 3 2 )
. Usi ng r oom t emper at ur e val ues of K
I C
and Char py
V- not ch absor bed ener gy, a pl ot of cr ack si ze f act or ( K
I C
/
y
)
2
ver sus
CVN/
y
gave a l i ne of best f i t havi ng t he equat i on:
The r el at i onshi p gave a cor r el at i on coef f i ci ent of 0. 855 and al t hough t he
sl ope of t he l i ne was sl i ght l y l ess t han t hat of Bar som and Rol f e, t he
agr eement was f ai r l y good.
Dynami c t ear t est s wer e al so car r i ed out i n t he SFSA pr ogr am, si nce
t hi s f or m of t est has been advocat ed as a l ess cost l y subst i t ut e f or
pl ane st r ai n f r act ur e t oughness t est i ng. I n t hese t est s hi gher st r engt h
t est pi eces had a f at i gue pr e- cr acked not ch i nst ead of t he mor e usual
br i t t l e wel d bead as a cr ack st ar t er . The l ower st r engt h speci mens
had a machi ned not ch, shar pened at t he bot t om by pr essi ng i n a kni f e- edge.
The t est s wer e per f or med i n a 2000 f t . l b. capaci t y doubl e- pendul um
i mpact machi ne. A pl ot of cr ack si ze f act or ( K
I C
/
y
)
2
ver sus DTTE/
y

gave an equat i on f or t he r el at i onshi p:
- 26-
wher e DTTE i s t he dynami c t ear t est ener gy i n f t . l b. The cor r el at i on was
si mi l ar t o t he one f or Char py V- not ch ener gy, despi t e t he gr eat er degr ee
of const r ai nt and shar per not ches used i n t he DT t est .
ACCEPTABLE FLAW SI ZE
Fr om pr evi ousl y ment i oned "f r act ur e t r i angl e" i t can be seen t hat i n
or der t o cal cul at e t he cr i t i cal di scont i nui t y si ze, t he appl i ed or wor ki ng
st r ess must be known; i deal l y, r esi dual st r ess i n t he cast i ng shoul d be
t aken i nt o account . Fur t her mor e, t he manner of appl yi ng l oad t o t he
cast i ng must be known ( st at i c or cycl i c) , and t he envi r onment i n whi ch
i t i s t o be used ( neut r al , cor r osi ve, subzer o t emper at ur e et c. ) . Cl ear l y,
t he f ounder and engi neer i ng desi gner must wor k cl osel y t oget her f or t he
use of f r act ur e mechani cs t o be successf ul .
What di scont i nui t y si ze must be det ect ed? The answer depends upon
t he f r act ur e t oughness of t he mat er i al and t he wor ki ng st r ess, but some
answer s ar e gi ven f or pl ai n car bon st eel cast i ngs i n Tabl e I I I
( 34)
.
Ver y f ew cast i ngs ever have f l aws of t he magni t udes shown i n t hi s Tabl e;
however , i t may be possi bl e f or a smal l er cr ack t o ext end t o a cr i t i cal
si ze as a r esul t of cycl i c l oadi ng. Thi s assumes t hat on cycl i c l oadi ng
a def ect pr opagat es i nst ant aneousl y, i . e. no account i s t aken of t he
number of cycl es r equi r ed t o i ni t i at e t he cr ack. ( Thi s i s anot her way
of i ncor por at i ng a f act or of saf et y) . Assumi ng t hat t he cycl i c l oad r ange
var i es f r om zer o t o a maxi mum of 1/ 2 YS, 2/ 3 YS and YS, a cal cul at i on may
be car r i ed out t o gi ve t he r esul t s i n Tabl e I V. These f l aw si zes i ndi cat e
t he i ni t i al sur f ace cr ack si ze whi ch wi l l gr ow t o 125 mm ( 4. 92 i n. ) deep
at t he t hr ee maxi mum appl i ed st r esses; i t wi l l be seen t hat even f or
10, 000 cycl es at t he yi el d st r ess t he i ni t i al cr i t i cal f l aw si ze i s
23 mm ( . 91 i n. ) deep and 230 mm ( 9. 06 i n. ) l ong
( 34)
. Cl ear l y, ver y
l ar ge cr ack si zes can be t ol er at ed i n car bon st eel s.
Cur ves gi vi ng cr i t i cal def ect si zes f or sever al medi um- t o hi gh-
st r engt h cast st eel s, f or appl i ed st r esses r angi ng f r om appr oxi mat el y
one- f i f t h yi el d st r ess t o f our - f i f t hs yi el d st r ess, ar e shown i n Fi g. 9.
Thus, f or an appl i ed st r ess of 300 N/ mm
2
( 43500 psi ) , t he si ze of a
cr i t i cal sur f ace f l aw ( dept h x l engt h r at i o 1: 3) woul d be 9 mm ( . 35 i n. )
f or C- 1%Cr and 1/ 2%Cr - 1/ 2%Mo- 1/ 4%V st eel s, 35 mm ( 1. 38 i n. ) f or a
1 1/ 2%Ni - Cr - Mo st eel , 38 mm (1. 50 i n. ) f or a mar agi ng st eel and 55 mm
( 2. 17 i n. ) f or a vacuum- mel t ed 1 1/ 2%Ni - Cr - Mo st eel . For ver y shar p cr acks
at wor ki ng st r esses near t he yi el d, cr i t i cal f l aw si zes become 2 t o 3 mm ( . 08 t o
. 12 i n. ) f ar medi um- al l oy st eel s but desi gn par amet er s r ar el y appr oach
t hi s. I n nor mal ci r cumst ances, 10 mm ( . 39 i n. ) i s pr obabl y t he smal l est
f l aw t hat wi l l be r equi r ed t o be det ect ed.
I t f ol l ows t hat si t uat i ons coul d ar i se wher e a f l aw i s pur posel y
l ef t i n a cast i ng, when ot her wi se, on t he basi s of i nt ui t i on, i t woul d
have been gouged out . On t he ot her hand a smal l f l aw ( say 10 mm ( . 39 i n. ) )
may have t o be gouged out ( because t he cr i t i cal si ze i s, say 6 mm
( . 24 i n. ) by cal cul at i on) . I t i s i mpossi bl e t o gener al i ze as t o whet her
t he use of f r act ur e mechani cs wi l l i ncr ease or decr ease wor k i n t he
f et t l i ng shop, but f l aws of a ver y l ar ge si ze wi l l doubt l ess become t ol -
er abl e i n l ow- car bon, un- al l oyed cast st eel s. Whet her or not we del i b-
er at el y l eave i n t hose f l aws t hat ot her wi se woul d have been r emoved
depends upon t he accept ance of t he f r act ur e mechani cs appr oach. Fur t her
wor k i s needed t o i ndi cat e t he i mpor t ance of di f f er ent t ypes and gr oupi ngs
of f l aws and t hei r ar i t hmet i cal t r eat ment .
- 27-
- 28-
DETERMI NATI ON OF FLAW SI ZE
Ar e t he f l aw si zes ar i si ng f r om f r act ur e mechani cs consi der at i ons
l ar ge enough t o be det ect ed or si zed by non- dest r uct i ve f l aw det ect i on
met hods? For sur f ace f l aws, whi ch ar e nor mal l y f ound by magnet i c par t i cl e
or dye penet r ant met hods, l i near f l aws of about 4 mm ( . 16 i n. ) r epr esent
t he l i mi t , t he si zi ng of smal l er f l aws bei ng t oo i nacur at e t o be mean-
i ngf ul . For measur i ng i nt er nal f l aws by ul t r asoni cs, l i near f l aws of
about 10 mm ( . 39 i n. ) may be measur ed but f or smal l er f l aws, sensi t i vi t y
i s not good enough f or t hem t o be accur at el y si zed. Wi t h ul t r asoni cs,
measur ement of def ect l engt h i s much dependent upon t he si ze of pr obe used;
t he smal l er t he f l aw, t he smal l er must be t he pr obe, because a f l aw
cannot be si zed accur at el y i f i t i s smal l er t han t he cr yst al si ze. The
dept h of a f l aw al so becomes mor e di f f i cul t t o measur e accur at el y when
dept h i s smal l i n r el at i on t o t he cr oss sect i on of t he ul t r asoni c beam.
Unf or t unat el y, i t i s t he dept h of a sur f ace f l aw whi ch i s i mpor t ant i n
f r act ur e mechani cs assessment and dept h i s t he most di f f i cul t di mensi on
t o measur e by ul t r asoni cs. I t cannot be measur ed at al l by magnet i c
par t i cl e or dye penet r ant met hods. Radi ogr aphy i s no bet t er wher e smal l
f l aws ar e concer ned.
I t appear s t hat we ar e i n a gr ey ar ea when f r act ur e mechani cs i ndi -
cat es t he cr i t i cal f l aw si ze i s 10 t o 15 mm ( . 39 t o . 60 i n. ) or l ess.
Founder s and engi neer s, t her ef or e, shoul d sat i sf y t hemsel ves t hat t hey
know t he mi ni mum si ze of f l aw t hat can be measur ed under a gi ven set of
ci r cumst ances; t her e i s l i t t l e vi r t ue i n bei ng abl e t o det ect f l aws i f
t hei r si ze, and hence si gni f i cance wi t h r egar d t o f ai l ur e by br i t t l e
f r act ur e, cannot be det er mi ned. I n pr act i ce, t he cal cul at ed cr i t i cal
f l aw si ze shoul d be subst ant i al l y l ar ger t han t he act ual f l aw si ze t hat
mi ght escape det ect i on. An al t er nat i ve pr ecedur e i s t o est i mat e conser -
vat i vel y t he si ze of t he smal l est f l aw t hat can be det ect ed by t he NDT
t echni ques avai l abl e and t o sel ect a st eel havi ng a hi gher K
I C
val ue and
hence a l ar ger cr i t i cal f l aw si ze t han t hat cal cul at ed.
FLAWS I N RELATI ON TO QUALI TY
A "no det ect abl e di scont i nui t y" cr i t er i on i mpl i es t hat al l cast
st eel s have t he same r esi st ance t o f r act ur e. Whi l st f r act ur e may be con-
t r ol l ed by pl ast i c col l apse i n r el at i vel y t hi n sect i ons, t he out put of
cast i ngs wi t h r el at i vel y l ar ge sect i on t hi ckness i s hi gh enough t o ensur e
t hat f r act ur e r esi st ance shoul d be cal cul at ed accor di ng t o t he pr i nci pl es
of LEFM. Ther e ar e sever al ways of def i ni ng qual i t y, but t he most apt
i s t hat whi ch r el at es qual i t y t o f i t ness f or pur pose; i f t he cast i ng
pr oper l y does t he j ob i t i s i nt ended t o do, t hen i t i s of sat i sf act or y
qual i t y. How i s i t possi bl e t o det er mi ne what l evel of , say, por osi t y,
accor di ng t o r ef er ence r adi ogr aphs, i s accept abl e f or t he cast i ng t o be
of adequat e qual i t y? Ref er ence r adi ogr aphs ar e composed of a ser i es of
t ypi cal r adi ogr aphs i n or der of i ncr easi ng sever i t y of t he speci f i c di s-
cont i nui t y, so t hat r adi ogr aphs of ot her f l aws may be compar ed wi t h t hem;
t hey ar e not di r ect l y r el at ed t o l oad car r yi ng abi l i t y. The f i r st r adi o-
gr aphi c st andar d, adopt ed as E71 by ASTM i n 1947, was pr epar ed by exper t s
t o i l l ust r at e var i ous sever i t i es i n ar bi t r ar y pr ogr essi ons. Thi s speci -
f i cat i on and ot her s t hat f ol l owed had no t echni cal basi s i n r el at i on t o
desi gn, al t hough t hey have been t r emendousl y usef ul when ser vi ce r ecor ds
of sui t abi l i t y and unsui t abi l i t y have been kept . Thei r shor t comi ngs
become evi dent wi t h new desi gns, wher e t her e i s no backgr ound exper i ence.
- 29-
They r ai se unnecessar y const r ai nt s i n non- cr i t i cal appl i cat i ons, wher e
a f l aw nor mal l y consi der ed t o be sever e by r adi ogr aphi c st andar ds can be
qui t e har ml ess i n a r egi on of l ow st r ess
( 35)
.
Radi ogr aphi c st andar ds, t her ef or e, shoul d be used mor e sensi bl y
i n r el at i on t o moder n desi gn cr i t er i a based on f r act ur e mechani cs. The
same r emar k appl i es t o ot her NDT accept ance st andar ds f or st eel cast i ngs
whi ch may be i ssued i n t he f ut ur e. I t must be acknowl edged, however ,
t hat much mor e r esear ch needs t o be done i nt o t he accur acy of si zi ng f l aws,
t he behavi or i n pr act i ce of act ual f l aws i n var i ous st r ess syst ems, t he
i nt er act i on of gr oups of f l aws, t he di st r i but i on of st r ess wi t hi n a
component , t he ef f ect of r esi dual st r ess and t he ef f ect of met al l ur gi cal
var i abl es. Most i mpor t ant , convi nci ng pr oof i s r equi r ed t hat f r act ur e
mechani cs t heor y does wor k i n pr act i ce, because, af t er al l , no f ai l ur e
may be consequent upon f act or s of saf et y havi ng been t oo hi gh.
Al l t hi s i s not l i kel y t o happen dur i ng t he cour se of any si ngl e
r esear ch pr ogr am; i t wi l l evol ve as any ot her t echnol ogy has, by t r i al ,
obser vat i on, deduct i on, r ef i ned t r i al , and so on. A st ar t has been made
by BSI and ASTM, who have met i cul ousl y descr i bed and def i ned t he met hods
of f r act ur e t oughness t est i ng, so t hat al l r esul t s f r om what ever sour ce
shoul d be compar abl e. Next wi l l be t he exami nat i on of casual t y mat er i al ,
t o t r y t o wor k out r et r ospect i vel y why f ai l ur e occur r ed. Si mul t aneousl y,
f r act ur e t oughness dat a wi l l be r equest ed i n speci f i cat i ons, i n t he f i r st
i nst ance onl y f or l ar ge, compl ex, hi gh i nt egr i t y cast i ngs. Usef ul ex-
per i ence wi l l accr ue f r om wor k al r eady done on wr ought st eel s, and wel ds,
wher e i n t he l at t er case a speci f i cat i on f or accept ance based on f r act ur e
suf f i ci ent l y l ar ge body of f r act ur e mechani cs dat a wi l l be gener at ed f or
st eel cast i ngs, so t hat speci f i cat i on mi ni mum r equi r ement s can be based
on st at i st i cal l y der i ved val ues, as i s t he case f or ot her mat er i al pr op-
er t i es. Typi cal val ues f or K
I C
and COD f or cast st eel s ar e gi ven i n
Tabl e V.
mechani cs pr i nci pl es has al r eady been pr oposed
( 1 9 )
. I n t he f ut ur e, a
Unt i l t hi s i nf or mat i on becomes avai l abl e, t he f ol l owi ng gui de may
be used when desi gni ng "f r act ur e cr i t i cal " st eel cast i ngs t o ensur e t hat
t he qual i t y of t he cast i ngs i s adequat e.
1. Saf et y f act or s shoul d be put on bot h t he gr oss wor ki ng st r ess and
on t he cal cul at ed cr i t i cal f l aw si ze. Si nce t he exact l i gament
st r esses ar e not al ways known wi t h accur acy, par t i cul ar l y i n t he
case of compl ex- shaped cast i ngs, i t i s essent i al t o put a saf et y
f act or on t he gr oss st r ess. Al so, i n or der not t o appr oach t he
a
c r i t
, a f act or of saf et y must be put on t he cal cul at ed val ue.
2. For a gi ven K
I C
val ue, f l aw t ol er ance can be good or bad, dependi ng
on t he yi el d st r engt h of t he st eel , so t he par amet er :
i s a bet t er r epr esent at i on of t he f l aw t ol er ance of a st eel .
- 30-
- 31-
3.
A st eel shoul d be chosen havi ng a l ar ge cr i t i cal f l aw si ze ( a
c r i t
)
whi ch can be measur ed mor e accur at el y.
I f t he wor ki ng l oad i s f l uct uat i ng i t i s necessar y t o cal cul at e
f r om cr ack pr opagat i on r at e cur ves t he t i me f or a f l aw ( a
i
) t o gr ow
t o a cr i t i cal si ze ( a
c r i t
) . Thi s can t hen be compar ed wi t h t he desi gn
l i f e of t he component .
si nce t hi s i s t he best si ngl e met hod f or det ect i ng f l aws and est i m-
at i ng t hei r si ze.
4.
5. A st eel shoul d be chosen t hat i s amenabl e t o ul t r asoni c exami nat i on,
6. I t shoul d be assumed t hat a st r i ng of cr acks i s one l ong cr ack, t hat
a gr oup of f l aws i s one l ar ge f l aw of si ze compar abl e t o t he envel ope
t hat ci r cumscr i bes t hem, t hat , unl ess cl ear l y ot her wi se, al l f l aws
have a shar p aspect r at i o and t hat t hey r esi de on t he sur f ace.
A st eel sel ect ed on t hi s basi s i s l i kel y t o be over desi gned but
per haps not so much as i f t her e had been no awar eness of f r act ur e mech-
ani cs pr i nci pl es. Ot her desi gn cr i t er i a r emai n unal t er ed, as do ot her
consi der at i ons such as wel dabi l i t y.
WELDI NG OF STEEL CASTI NGS
How wi l l wel ds af f ect t he cr i t i cal f l aw si ze and f r act ur e t oughness
of t he cast i ng? A wor d of caut i on and mor e r esear ch i s needed on t hi s
subj ect . I n an i nvest i gat i on i nt o t he f r act ur e t oughness of wel d- r epai r ed
2 1/ 2%Ni - Cr - Mo cast i ngs, t he t oughness of t wo wel d deposi t s was measur ed,
t he r esul t s bei ng summar i zed i n Tabl e VI
( 36)
. Cal cul at i ons f or "al l ow-
abl e"* f l aw si zes wer e made, assumi ng an appl i ed st r ess of t wo- t hi r ds
t hat of t he yi el d st r engt h of t he cast i ng and a f l aw shape ( aspect
r at i o) of 4: 1 i n a 100 mm ( 3. 93 i n. ) t hi ck sect i on. I t can be seen t hat
t he "al l owabl e" f l aw dept h of 70 mm ( 2. 76 i n, ) i n t he cast i ng i s r educed
t o 52 mm ( 2. 05 i n. ) i n one wel d deposi t and t o 38 mm ( 1. 50 i n. ) i n t he
ot her ( 31 mm ( 1. 22 i n. ) af t er st r ess r el i evi ng) . I n t he wor st case,
assumi ng t hat t he r esi dual st r ess i s equal t o and act s addi t i vel y t o
t he yi el d st r ess, t he al l owabl e f l aw dept h i s r educed t o 5 mm ( . 20 i n. ) .
Thi s exampl e i l l ust r at es t hat wel di ng t he cast i ng and l eavi ng i n a f l aw
of 5 mm ( . 20 i n. ) i s no bet t er t han l eavi ng i n t he or i gi nal 70 mm ( 2. 76 i n. )
f l aw i n t he cast i ng. Fr act ur e t oughness val ues of t he heat af f ect ed zones
wer e not det er mi ned but t hey woul d al most cer t ai nl y have been l ower t han
i n t he par ent met al . I n cast C- Mn st eel s t he HAZ' s wer e f ound t o have
l ower COD val ues t han t he par ent met al , as shown i n Tabl e VI I
( 13)
. Thi s
emphasi zes t he f act t hat t oughness consi der at i ons of wel ded st eel cast i ngs
( bot h r epai r wel ded and cast / wel d assembl i es) shoul d be based on t he
pr oper t i es of t he wel ded ar eas, as i s t he case f or wel ded st r uct ur e i n
wr ought pr oduct s.
*The appl i cat i on of a f act or of saf et y ( usual l y 2) t o t he cr i t i cal def ect
si ze gi ves r i se t o t he concept of an "al l owabl e" def ect si ze i n f usi on
wel ded j oi nt s, f or a si ngl e appl i cat i on of l oad; i t does not , however ,
t ake i nt o account cycl i c l oadi ng ef f ect s.
- 32-
- 33-
SPECI FI CATI ONS
Wi l l f r act ur e mechani cs t est s become mandat or y i n speci f i cat i ons?
Ther e i s consi der abl e act i vi t y i n t he compi l i ng and r evi si ng of bot h
nat i onal and i nt er nat i onal st andar d speci f i cat i ons r el at i ng t o st eel
cast i ngs. SCRATA has cont r i but ed a l ot by way of dr af t pr epar at i on,
col l at i ng comment s, and car r yi ng out st at i st i cal sur veys of mechani cal
pr oper t i es. SCRATA i s al so becomi ng i ncr easi ngl y i nvol ved, mai nl y i n an
advi sor y capaci t y, i n t he compi l at i on of pr i vat e st andar ds. These ar i se
mai nl y f r om Gover nment or nat i onal i zed bodi es who f i nd t hat t hei r demands
and r equi r ement s f or st eel cast i ngs ar e shar pl y i ncr easi ng and f eel t he
need t o wr i t e t hei r own st andar d speci f i cat i ons i n vi ew of t he speci f i c
nat ur e of t hei r own engi neer i ng r equi r ement s. I n near l y al l speci f i ca-
t i ons ar i si ng i n t hi s ar ea, t he emphasi s i s on non- dest r uct i ve t est i ng
and qual i t y, t he mat er i al and i t s mechani cal pr oper t i es of t en bei ng
cover ed by quot i ng a Br i t i sh St andar d. Thus, as engi neer i ng r equi r e-
ment s become mor e st r i ngent , t he def i ni t i on of def ect cr i t i cal i t y be-
comes mor e i mpor t ant .
I n t he ASME Boi l er and Pr essur e Vessel Code, Sect i ons I I I and VI I I ,
Summer 1972 Addenda, dr op wei ght t est s on cast mat er i al made i n accor d-
ance wi t h ASTM E208- 69 ar e now mandat or y. Thi s t ype of t est , used t o
det er mi ne t he ni l duct i l i t y t r ansi t i on t emper at ur e, coul d wel l r ecei ve
mor e pr omi nence i n t he f ut ur e, par t i cul ar l y f or t he t ough st r uct ur al
st eel s whi ch ar e not conveni ent l y t r eat abl e by f r act ur e mechani cs.
Act i vi t y i n def i ni ng nat i onal and i nt er nat i onal st andar d speci f i -
cat i ons i s i ncr easi ng r api dl y and t he st eel f ounder can expect t o see
mor e pr eci se st andar ds f or st eel cast i ngs. Thi s i s a r ef l ect i on of
t he cont i nual l y i mpr ovi ng t echnol ogy of manuf act ur e and wi l l i ncr ease
t he conf i dence shown by t he engi neer - user i n empl oyi ng st eel cast i ngs
i n hi s desi gns f or pl ant and equi pment .
CONCLUSI ONS
Fr act ur e mechani cs i s a compar at i vel y new subj ect t hat has al r eady
shown i t s usef ul ness t o engi neer s i n desi gn, st eel devel opment and f ai l ur e
anal ysi s. I t has pr oved usef ul i n t he under st andi ng of br i t t l e f r act ur e
and i n t he anal ysi s of pr obl ems i nvol vi ng f at i gue cr ack gr owt h. A si mpl e
cal cul at i on wi l l det er mi ne t he or der of magni t ude of a cr i t i cal f l aw
si ze, but i n such cal cul at i ons, assumpt i ons have t o be made concer ni ng
t he accur acy of f l aw si zi ng by commer ci al l y used NDT met hods and al so
concer ni ng t he exact st r ess i n t he l ocal i t y of t he f l aw. Never t hel ess,
i t i s essent i al t hat t he f oundr yman knows t he "bar e necessi t i es" of
f r act ur e mechani cs, si nce hi s cust omer wi l l ask about i t and expect
r epl i es. I t i s unl i kel y t hat t he f oundr yman wi l l get i nvol ved i n r out i ne
f r act ur e t oughness t est i ng, f or st eel s once pr oved wi l l be hencef or t h
accept ed on t he basi s of a si mpl er r out i ne t est .
The f r act ur e t oughness of cast st eel s i s compar abl e t o t hat of
si mi l ar wr ought st eel s and, at l ower st r engt hs and appl i ed st r esses,
ver y l ar ge f l aws can be t ol er at ed. Under mor e st r i ngent condi t i ons,
cr i t i cal f l aw si zes can be ver y smal l . I n t he l at t er case, t he l i mi t i ng
f act or wi l l be NDT and i t wi l l be pr udent t o sel ect a st eel of suf f i -
ci ent l y hi gh f r act ur e t oughness t o obt ai n a cr ack si ze t hat i s det ect abl e
under t he gi ven condi t i ons. Mor e r esear ch i s needed t o quant i f y and
- 34-
under st and t he ef f ect s of t he var i ous f l aws t hat occur i n st eel cast i ngs.
The adopt i on of mor e cr i t i cal desi gn pol i ci es i s i mpor t ant t o st eel -
f ounder s and cast i ng user s. The advant ageous combi nat i on of hi gh st r engt h,
adequat e duct i l i t y, st i f f ness and consi der abl e t oughness i n a wi de r ange
of car bon and al l oy cast st eel s usual l y r anks t hem ahead of ot her cast
met al s f or ar duous appl i cat i ons, par t i cul ar l y when cost i s t aken i nt o
account . I f t he pr act i ce i s cont i nued of i ncor por at i ng l ar ge saf et y
f act or s i nt o desi gn cal cul at i ons, t he r el at i ve advant age of cast st eel s
compar ed wi t h ot her cast met al s i s sever el y r educed. The use of f r act ur e
mechani cs shoul d hel p i n over comi ng t hi s out moded appr oach t o desi gn.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The aut hor wi shes t o t hank hi s col l eagues Dr . M. S. Found and Dr .
K. Sel by ( SCRATA Pr oduct Technol ogy Gr oup) f or hel pf ul di scussi ons dur i ng
t he wr i t i ng of t hi s paper ; al so Mr . P. Ri ce of Ove Ar up and Par t ner s,
Mr . R. V. Mat hews of Bovi ng and Co. Lt d. , and Dr . W. Lai dl er of t he
Cent r al El ect r i ci t y Gener at i ng Boar d ( Sci ent i f i c Ser vi ces Di vi si on)
f or pr ovi di ng exampl es of t he appl i cat i on of f r acut r e mechani cs t o st eel
cast i ngs. Resear ch at SCRATA i s par t l y f i nanced by t he Engi neer i ng
Mat er i al s Requi r ement s Boar d.
- 35-
REFERENCES
1. Met hod of Test f or Pl ane St r ai n Fr act ur e Toughness ( K
I C
) Test i ng
of Met al l i c Mat er i al s, BS 5447: 1977, Br i t i sh St andar ds I nst i t ut i on.
2. Met hods f or Cr ack Openi ng Di spl acement ( COD) Test i ng. Dr af t f or
Devel opment DD19: 1972. Br i t i sh St andar ds I nst i t ut i on.
3. J. F. Knot t ; Fundament al s of Fr act ur e Mechani cs. London 1973.
( But t er wor t hs ) .
4. M. J. May, C. E. Ni chol son and A. H. Pr i est . A New Appr oach t o
Subcr i t i cal Fl aw Gr owt h. Low Al l oy St eel s. I r on and St eel
I nst i t ut e Publ i cat i on 114, 1968, 177- 187.
5. Pr act i cal Appl i cat i on of Fr act ur e Mechani cs t o Pr essur e Vessel
Technol ogy. I nst i t ut i on of Mechani cal Engi neer s, London, 1971.
6. Fr act ur e Toughness Test i ng and i t s Appl i cat i ons. Amer i can Soci et y
f or Test i ng and Mat er i al s STP 381. Phi l adel phi a, 1964.
7. W. F. Br own and J. E. Sr awl ey ( Eds. ) . Pl ane St r ai n Cr ack Toughness
Test i ng of Hi gh St r engt h Met al l i c Mat er i al s.
f or Test i ng and Mat er i al s STP 410.
Amer i can Soci et y
Phi l adel phi a, 1966.
8. Fr act ur e Toughness Test i ng and i t s Appl i cat i ons. Amer i can Soci et y
f or Test i ng and Mat er i al s STP 463. Phi l adel phi a 1970.
9. E. F. Wal ker . Test Techni ques, Fr act ur e Toughness. I r on and St eel
I nst i t ut e, Publ i cat i on 121, 1968, 49- 66.
10. M. O. Dobson ( Ed. ) . Pr act i cal Fr act ur e Mechani cs f or St r uct ur al
St eel . Pr oc. Symposi um on Fr act ur e Toughness Concept s f or Wel dabl e
St r uct ur al St eel . Ri sl ey, 1969 ( UKAEA and Chapman and Hal l Lt d. )
11. J. T. Bar nby and I . S. Al - Dai mal ani . Assessment of t he Br i t t l e
Fr act ur e of Cast St eel s. Par t 2, Car bon and Car bon- manganese
St eel s. Jnl . Mat er i al s Sci ence, 1976, ( 11), 1989- 1994.
12. J. T. Bar nby and I . S. Al - Dai mal ani . Assessment of t he Br i t t l e
Fr act ur e of Cast St eel s. Par t 1, Low Al l oy St eel s. Jnl . Mat er i al s
Sci ence, 1976, ( 11) , 1979- 1988.
13. G. R. Egan and S. J. H. St i l l . St eel Cast i ngs f or St r uct ur al Use.
Wel di ng I nst i t ut e Conf er ence on Wel di ng i n Of f shor e Const r uct i ons,
Newcast l e- on- Tyne, Feb. 1974.
14. P. C. Par i s. The Fr act ur e Mechani cs Appr oach t o Fat i gue. Pr oc.
Tent h Sagamor e Ar my Mat er i al s Reser ach Conf . , August , 1963,
Syr acuse Uni ver si t y Pr ess 1964.
15. J. T. Bar nby and R. Hol der . Fat i gue Fr om Not ches i n Cast St eel s.
Met al Sci ence, 1977, Januar y, 5- 10.
- 36-
16. R. Hol der and J. T. Bar nby. Fat i gue f r om Cast - t o- Shape Not ches i n
Cast St eel s. Met al Sci ence, 1977, Januar y, 11- 15.
17. P. Ri ce and L. Gr ut . Mai n St r uct ur al Fr amewor k of t he Beaubour g
Cent r e, Par i s ( Fr ance) . Aci er - St ahl - St eel 1975, 4 0 ( 9) , Sept . , 297- 309.
18. W. St umpp, T. Var ga and E. F. Boyl e. Exper i ment al and Theor et i cal
Anal ysi s i n El ast i c- Pl ast i c Fr act ur e Mechani cs. 2nd I nt er nat i onal
Conf er ence on St r uct ur al Mechani cs i n React or Technol ogy, 1973,
Di vi si on G. Paper G4/ 8.
19. Anon. Pr oposed Assessment Met hods f or Fl aws wi t h Respect t o Fai l ur e
by Br i t t l e Fr act ur e, Wel di ng i n t he Wor l d 1975, 13 ( 1- 2) , 29- 48.
20. I . L. Mogf or d and A. T. Pr i ce. Appl i cat i on of Fr act ur e Mechani cs
t o Pr edi ct Wel d Per f or mance. Pr oc. I nt er nat i onal Conf er ence on
Wel di ng Resear ch Rel at ed t o Power Pl ant , CEGB Mar chwood Engi neer i ng
Labor at or i es, Sout hampt on, 1972. Paper No. 15.
21. J. L. Gr ay. I nvest i gat i on i nt o t he Consequences of t he Fai l ur e
of a Tur bi ne Gener at or at Hi nckl y Poi nt ' A' . Pr oc. I nst i t ut i on of
Mechani cal Engi neer s, 1972, 186, 379- 390.
22. V. N. Whi t t aker . A Revi ew of Non- Dest r uct i ve Measur ement of Fl aw
Si ze. Non- Dest r uct i ve Test i ng, 1972, Apr i l , 92- 100.
23. P. F. Packman, H. S. Pear son, J. S. Owens and G. J. Young. Def i ni t i on
of Fat i gue Cr acks Thr ough Non- Dest r uct i ve Test i ng, Jour nal of Mat er i al s,
1969, 4, 666- 700.
24. J. T. Bar nby. Toughness and Cr i t i cal Def ect Si ze. Non- Dest r uct i ve
Test i ng, 1972, Feb. , 32- 37.
25. F. B. Pi cker i ng. The St r uct ur e and Pr oper t i es of Bai ni t e i n St eel s.
Symposi um on Tr ansf or mat i on and Har denabi l i t y i n St eel s. Cl i max
Mol ybdenum Co. , Ann Ar bor . 1967.
26. E. M. Gal l and P. F. Wi eser . St r engt h Toughness Rel at i onshi ps f or
Cast St eel s. J. St eel Cast i ngs Resear ch ( USA) , 1973, ( 64) , Sept . , 3- 6.
27. J. F. Wal l ace. Toughness of Cast St eel s as I nf l uenced by Heat
Tr eat ment and Ot her Pr ocessi ng Var i abl es. J. St eel Cast i ngs Resear ch,
( USA) , 1976, ( 74) , Mar . , 1- 15.
28. R. O. Ri t chi e, B. Fr anci s and W. L. Ser ver . Eval uat i on of Toughness
i n AI SI 4340 Al l oy St eel Aust eni t i zed at Low and Hi gh Temper at ur es.
Met . Tr ans. , 1976, 7A, 831- 838.
29. S. T. Rol f e. Use of Fr act ur e Mechani cs i n Desi gn. Revi ew 186,
I nt er nat i onal Met al l ur gi cal Revi ews, 1974, 19, 183- 198.
30. J. M. Bar som and S. T. Rol f e. Cor r el at i on Bet ween Char py V- not ch
Test Resul t s i n t he Tr ansi t i on Temper at ur e Range. I mpact Test i ng
of Met al s.
Phi l adel phi a, 1970, 281- 302.
Amer i can Soci et y f or Test i ng Mat er i al s STP 466.
- 37-
31. J. A. Begl ey and W. A. Logsdon. Cor r el at i on of Fr act ur e Toughness
and Char py Pr oper t i es f or Rot or St eel s. West i nghouse Resear ch
Labor at or i es, Sci ent i f i c Paper , 71- 1ET- MSRLF- P1. , May, 1971.
32. M. T. Gr oves and J. F. Wal l ace. Cast St eel Pl ane Fr act ur e Toughness.
Char py V- not ch and Dynami c Tear Test Cor r el at i ons. J. St eel Cast i ngs
Resear ch ( USA) , 1975, ( 70) , Mar . , 1- 9.
33. E. T. Wessel and T. R. Mager . Fr act ur e Mechani cs Technol ogy as
Appl i ed t o Thi ck- wal l ed Nucl ear Pr essur e Vessel s. Conf er ence on
Pr act i cal Appl i cat i on of Fr act ur e Mechani cs t o Pr essur e- vessel
Technol ogy. Pr oc. I nst i t ut i on of Mechani cal Engi neer s, May, 1971.
34. H. D. Gr eenber g and W. G. Cl ar k Jnr . , A Fr act ur e Mechani cs Appr oach
t o t he Devel opment of Real i st i c Accept ance St andar ds f or Heavy Wal l ed
St eel Cast i ngs. Met al s Engi neer i ng Quar t er l y ( ASM) , 1969, 9, ( 3) ,
Aug. , 30- 39.
35. C. W. Br i ggs. Radi ogr aphi c I nspect i on St andar ds Used t o Locat e
I nt er nal Di scont i nui t i es ar e Based on Fact ual Dat a. Ri ght ? Wr ong!
Cast i ng Engi neer i ng, 1972, Jan. / Feb. , 26- 31.
36. S. E. Webst er , T. M. Banks and E. F. Wal ker . Appl i cat i on of Fr act ur e
Mechani cs t o Wel d Repai r Toughness i n St eel Cast i ngs. WI / SCRATA/ BNF
Conf er ence on Wel di ng of Cast i ngs. Br adf or d, 1976. Paper 12.
- 38-
APPENDI X I - SAMPLE CALCULATI ON
Assume a cast i ng made i n 1 1/ 2%Ni - Cr - Mo st eel i s t o be oper at ed at
hal f of i t s yi el d st r ess ( 740 N/ mm
2
) ( 107300 psi ) and one appl i cat i on
of l oad, and t hat i t has a sur f ace cr ack t he maj or axi s of whi ch i s
~1 1/ 2 t i mes t he l engt h of t he mi nor axi s. The f r act ur e t oughness ( K
I C
)
of t he st eel i s measur ed at 86 MNm
- 3/ 2
( 78 ksi i n.
1/ 2
) .
The cr i t i cal def ect si ze may be cal cul at ed as f ol l ows:
wher e K
I C
= pl ane st r ai n f r act ur e t oughness.

w
= gr oss wor ki ng st r ess nor mal t o maj or axi s of t he f l aw.
a
c r

= 0. 2 per cent pr oof st r ess.
= doubl e el l i pt i cal i nt egr al .
= cr i t i cal dept h of a sur f ace f l aw ( i . e. hal f t he wi dt h of an
embedded f l aw)
( For embedded f l aws t he coef f i ci ent on t he denomi nat or i s t aken as uni t y) .
To def i ne t he shape of t he f l aw, a/ b can be consi der ed t o r epr esent
t he f l aw si ze aspect r at i o, wher e 2a i s t he mi nor and 2b i s t he maj or
axi s of an el l i pse ( i . e. when a
r el at i onshi p bet ween and a/ b i s gi ven i n Fi g. 17 f or easy r ef er ence.
I n t hi s exampl e, a/ b = 0. 2 and
w
/ b = 1 t he el l i pse becomes a ci r cl e) . The
= 740/ 2. Usi ng t hese val ues i n equat i on
( 2) ,
- 39-
- 40-
I nser t i ng t hi s val ue f or Q i n equat i on ( 3)
I n a f at i gue si t uat i on:
- 41-
We have t he f ol l owi ng val ues f or i nser t i on i n equat i on ( 7) :
Thi s i s t he number of cycl es t hat wi l l gr ow an i ni t i al sur f ace cr ack
of 5 mm ( . 20 i n. ) dept h t o 24. 75 mm ( . 97 i n. ) , t he cr i t i cal si ze, when
oper at i ng at hal f t he yi el d st r ess. By compar i son wi t h Tabl e I V f or pl ai n
car bon st eel , a cr ack of 16 mm ( . 63 i n. ) dept h wi l l gr ow t o 125 mm ( 4. 92 i n. )
i n 100, 000 cycl es at hal f t he yi el d st r ess. Whi l st t he oper at i ng condi t i ons
ar e not i dent i cal , t he or der of magni t ude di f f er ence i s gr eat and i l l ust r at es
t he poi nt t hat hi gher st r engt h st eel s do not oper at e wel l under condi t i ons
of cycl i c st r ess.
- 42-
WRI TTEN DI SCUSSI ON by L. Venne, ESCO Corporat i on
We woul d l i ke t o compl i ment Dr . Jackson upon hi s excel l ent paper on
"Fr act ur e Toughness i n Rel at i on t o St eel Cast i ngs Desi gn and Appl i cat i on".
I t i s evi dent t hat t he wor k of SCRATA and some appl i cat i ons i n t he
U. K. ar e wel l advanced i n r el at i on t o t he Amer i can Foundr y I ndust r y i n
t he ar ea of f r act ur e mechani cs. Most of us have been t aki ng a "wai t
and see" at t i t ude t o det er mi ne what t he f ut ur e r equi r ement s of i ndust r y
woul d be bef or e commi t t i ng our sel ves i n t he ar ea of f r act ur e t oughness.
We have f or many year s been dependi ng upon t he " v" not ch char py
i mpact t est t o det er mi ne t he r el at i ve t oughness of a gi ven st eel but i t
now appear s t hat t hi s t est has a number of shor t comi ngs and we wi l l
need t o devel op addi t i onal dat a f or t he f ut ur e.
I n t hi s r egar d I woul d l i ke t o ask Dr . Jackson how he f eel s we
shoul d pr oceed as an i ndi vi dual company or as an i ndust r y t o begi n ob-
t ai ni ng i nf or mat i on on our st eel i n a f r act ur e t oughness pr ogr am.
Dr . Jackson r ef er s t o t he wor k of R. O. Ri t chi e i n exami ni ng t he
r el at i onshi p bet ween char py i mpact and f r act ur e t oughness. Thi s wor k
shows t hat t he r el at i vel y bl unt not ch of t he char py speci man t ends t o
gi ve r esul t s r at her opposi t e t o t he ver y shar p r adi us of t he f r act ur e
t oughness speci men under cer t ai n condi t i ons and i t woul d seem t hat bot h
have si gni f i cance i n det er mi ni ng t he ef f ect of cr i t i cal def ect s i n cast i ngs.
Woul d i t be a l ogi cal st ep t o wor k wi t h i nst r ument ed char py t est i ng
t o obt ai n dynami c char py i nf or mat i on or shoul d t he appr oach be t o LEFM?
Dr . Jackson r ef er s t o Cr ack Gr owt h by f at i gue and by st r ess cor r o-
si on. I woul d ask i f Dr . Jackson coul d comment on t he si gni f i cance of
hydr ogen i n cr ack gr owt h by st r ess cor r osi on cr acki ng especi al l y when
st udyi ng st eel s of hi gh yi el d st r engt h.
AUTHOR' S REPLY
Fr act ur e mechani cs i nvol ves cost l y t est i ng and I consi der i t t o be
unl i kel y t hat K
I C
or COD t est i ng wi l l ever be wr i t t en i nt o st eel cast i ngs
speci f i cat i ons as an accept ance t est . The day may come, however , when
desi gn engi neer s make i ncr eased use of f r act ur e mechani cs pr i nci pl es
and wr i t e speci f i c t est s i nt o t hei r own pur chasi ng speci f i cat i ons. I
f eel mor e conf i dent i n sayi ng t hat , even i f t hi s does not happen, desi gn-
er s wi l l want t o know t he or der of f r act ur e t oughness par amet er s f or t he
mor e commonl y used cast st eel s. Bot h SCRATA nad t he SFSA have car r i ed
out wor k t hat f ul f i l l s t he i ni t i al needs of t he desi gner .
The SFSA have al so r el at ed LEFM dat a t o Char py V- not ch dat a and I
t hi nk t hat t hi s wi l l be t he appr oach made wi t h r egar ds t o st andar d speci -
f i cat i ons. That i s, Char py V- not ch par amet er s ( pr obabl y FATT) wi l l be
i ncl uded i n t he speci f i cat i on f or a st eel , and t he desi gner wi l l know
f r om accumul at ed dat a on t hat st eel a val ue f or f r acut r e t oughness, at
l east wi t hi n a cer t ai n scat t er band, and wi l l be abl e t o use t hat val ue
f or desi gn and NDT speci f i cat i on pur poses.
- 43-
I bel i eve t hat t he f r act ur e mechani cs par amet er s t o be f i r st used
i n t hi s way wi l l be K
I C
f or LEFM and COD f or YFM. As ment i oned pr e-
vi ousl y, a f ai r l y subst ant i al body of dat a exi st s f or t hese par amet er s
i n r el at i on t o cast st eel . Fur t her mor e, st andar d speci f i cat i ons f or
t hese par amet er s exi st or ar e i n pr epar at i on i n bot h t he USA and UK.
By compar i son, mor e wor k has t o be done on i nst r ument al Char py t est i ng
and t he i nt er pr et at i on of r esul t s f or use i n desi gn. The t est i s
cheaper and f ar qui cker of cour se, and coul d become, under appr opr i at e
ci r cumst ances, t he al t er nat i ve accept ance t est t o Char py V- not ch FATT.
Ver y l i t t l e at t ent i on has been gi ven t o t he f r act ur e mechani cs
appr oach t o cast st eel s under condi t i ons of st r ess cor r osi on. Opi ni ons
have been gi ven, f or wr ought st eel s, t hat hydr ogen pl ays an i mpor t ant
The i mpor t ance of hydr ogen i n HAZ and SCC si t uat i ons has al so been r ec-
ogni zed, i n so f ar as hydr ogen wi l l i nduce cr acki ng and cor r el at i ons
bet ween
r ol e i n st r ess cor r osi on cr acki ng i n st eel s of hi gh yi el d st r engt h
( 1 )
.
and har dness and mi cr ost r uct ur e have been pr oposed.
( 2 )
The mode of mi cr oscopi c f r act ur e under var yi ng condi t i ons of el ec-
t r ode pot ent i al can under go a t r ansi t i on dependi ng on i ni t i al K l evel
r el at i ve t o K
Q
i n ai r
( 3)
. At i nt er medi at e K l evel s, however , st r ess
cor r osi on cr ack gr owt h r at es ar e essent i al l y i ndependent of K and t he
t endency f or st r ess cor r osi on cr acks t o br anch ar e el ect r ochemi cal l y,
as wel l as mechani cal l y, cont r ol l ed. I t i s appar ent t hat condi t i ons at
t he cr ack t i p have an i mpor t ant bear i ng on t he mode and ki net i cs of
cr ack pr opagat i on i n st eel s of hi gh yi el d st r engt h, but no speci f i c
wor k has been car r i ed out on cast st eel s. St r ess cor r osi on behavi or
of cast st ai nl ess st eel s has however , been st udi ed i n r el at i on t o
del t a- f er r i t e cont ent and sensi t i zat i on
( 4)
.
REFERENCES
1. P. McI nt yr e. St r ess Cor r osi on i n St eel . The Pr act i cal I mpl i cat i ons
of Fr act ur e Mechani sms, I nst i t ut i on of Met al l ur gi st s, Mar ch 1973, 88- 94.
2. T. G. Gooch and M. W. F. Cane. Fr act ogr aphi c Obser vat i ons of Hy-
dr ogen I nduced Cr acki ng i n St eel . The Pr act i cal I mpl i cat i ons of
Fr act ur e Mechani sms, I nst i t ut i on of Met al l ur gi st s, Mar ch 1973, 95- 102.
3. A. A. Shei nker and J. D. Wood. St r ess Cor r osi on Cr acki ng of a
Hi gh St r engt h St eel . St r ess Cor r osi on Cr acki ng of Met al s - A St at e
of t he Ar t , ASTM STP 518, Amer i can Soci et y f or Test i ng and Mat er i al s,
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