Extreme Submarine

Copyright Journal of Ocean Technology 2009
NOT FOR REPRODUCTION

Who should read this paper?
The paper should be read by designers and manufacturers of cylindrical
structures such as submarines or autonomous underwater vehicles that
may be subject to external hydrostatic pressure. Under external pressure,
circular cylinders normally collapse at pressures which are often a small
fraction of those to cause the same vessels to collapse under uniform
internal pressure. This mode of failure is called shell instability.
Why is it important?
The work reported here is innovative in that it presents a new design
chart for circular cylinders collapsing under external hydrostatic pressure
based on both theoretical and experimental data. The design chart
consists of two straight lines, rather than the more complex curves
typical of well-known codes. The design chart also allows the designer
to design much shorter and thicker vessels than the standard codes do.
The authors contend that this will enable engineers to design pressure
vessels that can dive to a much greater depth than previously known.
Currently, most large submarines can only dive to a maximum depth of
about 400 m (0.25 mi.), but the maximum depth of the oceans is some
29 times deeper than this.
About the authors
Carl Ross is Professor of Structural Dynamics at the University of
Portsmouth, UK, where he has been employed since 1966. His research
interests include the statics, stability, and dynamics of submarine
pressure hulls.
Astrit Spahiu was a mechanical engineering student at the University of
Portsmouth, UK, where he researched on the collapse of model
submarine pressure hulls under external hydrostatic pressure. Currently
he works for Pall Europe, Ltd., Portsmouth, UK.
Graham Brown is Chief Mechanical Engineer at Sonardyne International
Ltd., Yateley, Hampshire, UK. His interests are in the design,
construction, and testing of pressure vessels under external hydrostatic
pressure.
Andrew Little is Principal Lecturer at the University of Portsmouth in
the UK. His interests lie in the statics, stability, and dynamics of
submarine pressure hulls, which he has been researching since 1989.
Extreme submarine
Ross, Spahiu, Brown and Little present new charts
for use in the design of small submarines to
descend to the bottom of the deep ocean.
Carl T.F. Ross
Astrit Spahiu
Graham X. Brown
Andrew P.F. Little
84 The Journal of Ocean Technology
Reviews & Papers

Maritime and Port Security, Vol. 4, No. 2, 2009 85 Copyright Journal of Ocean Technology 2009
BUCKLING OF NEAR-PERFECT THICK-WALLED CIRCULAR CYLINDERS
UNDER UNIFORM EXTERNAL HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
Carl T.F. Ross
1
, Astrit Spahiu
1
, Graham X. Brown
2
, and Andrew P.F. Little
1
1 University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, United Kingdom (www.port.ac.uk)
2 Sonardyne International Ltd., Yateley, Hampshire, United Kingdom (www.sonardyne.com)
ABSTRACT
The aim of this study was to produce design charts to predict inelastic collapse pressures for
thick-walled circular cylinders under uniform external pressure because the existing charts were
out of the range for shorter and thicker vessels. Both theoretical and experimental investigations
were carried out on 15 stainless steel models, which were tested to destruction and reported for
the first time. A theoretical investigation was also carried on other models, tested by previous
researchers, to give more points and more credibility to the design chart.
The theoretical investigation was based on an analytical method because previous work proved
that, in general, it was superior to numerical methods for this particular problem. It was hoped
that the details from the current series of models, together with the new design chart, would
enable some smaller submarines to descend to the bottom of the Marianas Trench (11.52 km or
7.16 mi); one of the models collapsed at a pressure of about 1000 bar, which was equivalent to a
submarine diving to a depth of about 10 km (6.2 mi).
The analytical solution adopted the von Mises buckling analysis via a home produced computer
program called MisesNP, which also calculated the Windenburg thinness ratio (). By plotting
the reciprocal thinness ratio against the plastic knockdown factor (PKD), where the PKD was
obtained by dividing the theoretical buckling pressure by the corresponding experimentally
obtained buckling pressure for each vessel, a useful design chart was produced.
INTRODUCTION
Research has found that the oceans contain
large quantities of precious metals and
minerals and Dickens et al. [1997] have
estimated that there are about 10,000 billion
tonnes of frozen methane hydrates buried
underground in the deep oceans. In monetary
terms, the total value of this gas is about
$7,500 trillion. Some people believe that we
should leave this methane where it is, but
the authors of this paper believe that the
temptation for humankind to mine this fossil
fuel will be much too great.
Currently a large submarine can only dive to a
depth of about 400 m (0.25 mi) and this is one
of the reasons why the present study has been
conducted. Submarine pressure hulls are
usually composed of a combination of circular
Reviews & Papers Copyright Journal of Ocean Technology 2009

NOT FOR REPRODUCTION NOT FOR REPRODUCTION
cylinders, cones, and domes, especially the
former. Under external pressure, circular
cylinders normally collapse at pressures, which
are often a small fraction of those to cause the
same vessels to collapse under uniform
internal pressure. This mode of failure is called
shell instability [Ross, 2001; Bryan, 1888; von
Mises, 1914;
Windenburg and
Trilling, 1934;
Bryant, 1954], or
lobar buckling,
where the vessel
collapses around
its circumference in
the form of a
number of
circumferential
waves or lobes; it
is shown in Figure
1, where it can be
seen that the
number of lobes
was six for the
models shown. It
is an undesirable
mode of failure, as
it is structurally
inefficient and one way to improve its
structural efficiency is to ring-stiffen its flank,
as shown in Figure 2.
If the ring-stiffeners are not strong enough, the
entire ring-shell combination can collapse
bodily, as shown in Figure 3 [Ross, 2001;
Bryant, 1954; Nash, 1995]. This mode of
failure is known as general instability.
Another mode of failure is known as
axisymmetric deformation [Ross, 2001; Ross,
1999], where the circular cylindrical shell
implodes inwards, keeping its circular form
while collapsing, as shown in Figure 4.
In this paper, we will only consider the shell
instability and axisymmetric modes of failure.
THEORETICAL ANALYSES
Axisymmetric Failure
As described earlier, one mode of failure is
called axisymmetric deformation. For
un-stiffened thin-walled circular cylinders
[Ross, 1999] under uniform pressure, the
membrane principal stresses for this mode of
failure are given by:
H
= Hoop Stress = pR/h (1)
L
= Longitudinal Stress = pR/(2h)
where
P = Pressure
R = Internal Radius
h = Wall Thickness
We will need the Hoop Stress formula of
equation (1) to show how the Windenburg
thinness ratio [Windenburg and Trilling, 1934]
is derived.
Figure 1: Shell instability (The TVR
Series).
Figure 2: Ring-stiffened circular
cylinders.
Figure 3: General instability of ring-
stiffened circular cylinders.
Figure 4: Axisymmetric collapse.
Shell Instability
Previous researchers have found that shell
instability [Ross, 2001; Bryan, 1888; von
Mises, 1914; Windenburg and Trilling, 1934]
is the most important failure mode of pressure
vessels under external pressure because thin-
walled circular cylinders have little or no
resistance to this mode of failure.
One of the first buckling analyses by this mode
of failure, where the end boundary conditions
corresponded to that of simple-supports, was
presented in 1914 by von Mises [1914], as
follows:
where
n = the number of circumferential waves or
lobes that the vessel buckles into
L = unsupported length of the circular cylinder
E = Youngs modulus
= Poissons ratio
Another simpler formula for elastic shell
instability is from the David Taylor Model
Basin [Windenburg and Trilling, 1934]; that is
as follows:

4

P = Pressure
R = Internal Radius
h = Wall Thickness

We will need the Hoop Stress formula of equation (1) to show how the Windenburg thinness
ratio [Windenburg and Trilling, 1934] is derived.

Shell Instability
Previous researchers have found that shell instability [Ross, 2001; Bryan, 1888; von Mises,
1914; Windenburg and Trilling, 1934] is the most important failure mode of pressure vessels
under external pressure because thin-walled circular cylinders have little or no resistance to
this mode of failure.

One of the first buckling analyses by this mode of failure, where the end boundary conditions
corresponded to that of simple-supports, was presented in 1914 by von Mises [1914], as
follows:

( )
(
(
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
(
(
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
(
(
(
(
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
4
2
2
1 12
2
1
1
L
R
n
R
h
L
R
n
L
R
L
R
n
R
Eh
p

(2)

where

n = the number of circumferential waves or lobes that the vessel buckles into
(2)

5

L = unsupported length of the circular cylinder
E = Youngs modulus
= Poissons ratio

Another simpler formula for elastic shell instability is from the David Taylor Model Basin
[Windenburg and Trilling, 1934]; that is, the DTMB formula is as follows:

( )
(
(
(
(
(
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
1
2
5
4
3
2
2
45 . 0
2
1
42 . 2
R
h
R
L
L
h
E
p
(3)

However, the above theories are for thin near-perfect vessels that buckle elastically, but in
practice many shorter and thicker vessels buckle inelastically at pressures that are a small
fraction of the predictions of elastic theory. A thick-walled circular cylinder was defined by
Wilson [1956] as one where h/R > 1/30; for the present series h/R=1/9.3. Attempts to analyse
the thicker and shorter types of vessels by so-called exact theories have not been successful.
This is because many models give rogue results where vessels, which one would expect to
have a higher buckling resistance than similar thinner models, do not always follow the
expected common sense behavioural patterns. In the present paper, the problem of reduced
buckling pressures due to inelastic instability is addressed with the aid of the Windenburg
thinness ratio ; this has been successfully achieved in previous publications [Ross, 2001;
Little et al., 2008; Ross, 2008]. In the case of the present paper, this facility has been extended
so that shorter and thicker vessels are catered for. The importance of this is that thicker walled
submarine pressure hulls can dive deeper into the oceans.
(3)
However, the above theories are for thin near-
perfect vessels that buckle elastically. In
practice, many shorter and thicker vessels
buckle inelastically at pressures that are a
small fraction of the predictions of elastic
theory. A thick-walled circular cylinder was
defined by Wilson [1956] as one where h/R >
1/30. For the present series, h/R=1/9.3.
Attempts to analyse the thicker and shorter
types of vessels by so-called exact theories
have not been successful. This is because
many models give rogue results where vessels,
which one would expect to have a higher
buckling resistance than similar thinner
models, do not always follow the expected
common sense behavioural patterns. In the
present paper, the problem of reduced buckling
pressures due to inelastic instability is
addressed with the aid of the Windenburg
thinness ratio ; this has been successfully
achieved in previous publications [Ross, 2001;
Little et al., 2008; Ross et al., 2008]. In the
case of the present paper, this facility has been
extended so that shorter and thicker vessels are
catered for. The importance of this is that
thicker walled submarine pressure hulls can
dive deeper into the oceans.
One attempt to numerically analyse initially
imperfect thick-walled circular cylinders was
by Bosman et al. [1993]. However, the initial
out-of-circularity of the model of Bosman et

al. was some 50 times of that of the present
series and, whereas they obtained good results,
it cannot be considered here.
Derivation of the Windenburg Thinness Ratio
Experiments on circular section tubes of
intermediate and shorter lengths when the
thinness ratio, namely [Ross, 2001; Windenburg
and Trilling, 1934], has a value of less than
about 1.3, have shown that they fail somewhere
in-between the pressures of equation (1) and
(3). Windenburg and Trilling [Ross, 2001;
Windenburg and Trilling, 1934] argued that if
we equated equations (1) and (3), we can get a
thinness ratio relating these two modes of failure,
which will enable us to precisely predict the
collapse pressures for intermediate circular
cylinders. They called this their thinness ratio .
Now if we examine equation (3), we can see in
the denominator on the right hand side of
equation (2) that L/d is much larger than
0.45*(h/d)
0.5
, thus if we neglect 0.45*(h/d)
0.5

and assume that = 0.3, we can simplify
equation (3) to the form:
Pcr = 2.6*E*(h/d)
2.5
/ (L/d) , (4)
where d = 2R.
Equating (1) and (4), we get yp*(2h) / d =
2.6E*(h/d)
2.5
/ (L/d)
Or yp*h/d =
2
* E*(h/d)
2.5
/ (L/d)
Or
2
=(L/d) / (h/d)
-1.5
* (yp / E)
Or = [(L/d)
2
/ (h/d)
3
]
0.25
* (yp / E)
0.5
(Note: Windenburg and Trilling [1934]
squared in the above calculation, so that for
most intermediate length vessels the value of
would be approximately one.)
It should be noted that in the above analyses,
the general instability mode of failure was not
considered.
MODELS AND SPECIMENS
Material Properties
The material selected to carry out this study
was Duplex Stainless Steel (DSS) UNS
S31803, which was produced by extrusion. It
is a kind of Cr22 ferrite-austenite, supplied by
Forfab Limited, Scotland, via Sterling Tubes.
The chemical composition is given in Table 1.
Alloying elements affect properties and the
microstructure of DSS in various ways, thus
each must be understood in order to maximise
the effectiveness and to prevent the alloying
element from becoming harmful and instead
being beneficial to the marine application.
The Present Series of Models
Fifteen Duplex stainless steel tube specimens
with a wall thickness of 3.07 mm were tested;
their geometrical properties are shown in Table
2. From Table 2, it can be seen that the ratio of
the initial out-of-circularity to the wall
thickness of these vessels varied from 0.016 h
to 0.029 h, where h = the wall thickness. That
is, the vessels were nearly geometrically
Table 1: Chemical Composition of SAF2205 Duplex Stainlesss Steel (%).

7

Or = [(L/d)
2
/ (h/d)
3
]
0.25
* (
yp
/ E)
0.5

N.B. Windenburg and Trilling squared in the above calculation, so that for most
intermediate length vessels the value of would be approximately one.

It should be noted that in the above analyses, the general instability mode of failure was not
considered.

MODELS AND SPECIMENS

Material Properties
The material selected to carry out this study was Duplex Stainless Steel (DSS) UNS S31803,
which was produced by extrusion. It was a kind of Cr22 ferrite-austenite, supplied by Forfab
Limited, Scotland, via Sterling Tubes. The chemical composition is given in Table 1.

C Si Mn Cr Ni Mo N
0.018 0.45 0.79 22.16 5.34 3.11 0.182
Table 1: Chemical Composition of SAF2205 Duplex Stainlesss Steel (%).
N.B. The data was provided by the suppliers in their Material Test Certificate.

Alloying elements affect properties and the microstructure of DSS in various ways, thus each
must be understood in order to maximise the effectiveness and to prevent the alloying element
from becoming harmful and instead being beneficial to the marine application.

Note: The data was provided by the suppliers in their Material Test Certificate.
Table 2: Models' Data (mm).

9

Models
Overall
Length L
o

Unsupported
Length L
O/D
Mean
Radius
Out of
Circularity (e)
AS 1a 40.06 30.06 60.17 28.6 0.0796
AS 1b 40.09 30.09 60.02 28.6 0.0884
AS 2a 50.02 40.02 60.01 28.6 0.0876
AS 2b 50.01 40.01 60.31 28.6 0.0733
AS 3a 60.04 50.04 60.16 28.6 0.0753
AS 3b 60.04 50.04 60.18 28.6 0.0722
AS 4a 70.42 60.42 60.16 28.6 0.0571
AS 4b 70.02 60.02 60.24 28.6 0.0884
AS 5a 80.36 70.04 60.18 28.6 0.0756
AS 5b 80.03 70.03 60.15 28.6 0.0685
AS 6a 100.32 90.32 60.17 28.6 0.0861
AS 6b 100.36 90.32 60.17 28.6 0.0654
AS 7a 149.96 139.96 60.17 28.6 0.0581
AS 7b 149.99 139.99 60.17 28.6 0.0564
AS 8 199.96 189.96 60.16 28.6 0.0466
Table 2: Models Data (mm).

To seal each tube due to the effects of external hydrostatic pressure, two end bungs were
manufactured. The end bungs were made of mild steel and were fitted with O-ring nitrile
gaskets to seal against any water ingress that may have occurred while the specimens were
under external hydrostatic pressure; see Figure 6.

The chosen unsupported length L and the actual overall length L
o
, of each model is shown in
Figure 7, where it can be seen that the value of L was considered to be between the O-ring
gaskets.

Tensile Testing
The tensile strength of the material was obtained with two uniaxial specimens and its Youngs
modulus was obtained with a circular ring specimen; see Figure 8.

perfect when compared with the charts of
references 11 and 12, where the vessels had a
maximum initial out-of-roundness of up to
0.16 h, or more than five times those of the
present series. Thus, it is fair to refer to the
present series as being of near perfect
circularity, based on their e/h values, where e
= initial out-of-circularity.
The initial out-of-circularity was measured by
a Mitutoya Co-ordinate Measuring Machine,
where the out-of-circularity was defined as the
maximum deviation from an inward point to
an outward point, on a mean circumference.
The mean circumference was obtained from a
least squares fit at mid-bay.
The material was supplied in the form of a
long extruded tube of length of about 1300
mm; this tube was cut to the required lengths,
as shown in Figure 5.
Outer Diameter = 60 mm
Wall Thickness = 3.07 mm
To seal each tube due to the effects of external
hydrostatic pressure, two end bungs were
manufactured. The end bungs were made of
mild steel and were fitted with O-ring nitrile
gaskets to seal against any water ingress that
may have occurred while the specimens were
under external hydrostatic pressure; see
Figure 6.
The chosen unsupported length L and the
actual overall length L
o
, of each model is
shown in Figure 7, where it can be seen that
the value of L was considered to be between
the O-ring gaskets.
Tensile Testing
The tensile strength of the material was
obtained with two uniaxial specimens and its

Youngs modulus was obtained with a circular
ring specimen; see Figure 8.
Figures 9 and 10 show the load-extension
relationships for two uniaxial tensile tests from
which the yield stress and the ultimate tensile
strength were determined. Figure 11 shows the
load-deflection relationship for the ring
specimen, which was used to obtain the
Youngs modulus of Duplex stainless steel.
The ring specimen was loaded diametrically in
compression and the resulting diametrical
deflection was automatically recorded. The
relationship can be seen in Figure 11. From
this relationship, the experimental Youngs
modulus was calculated from Roarks formula,
Table 17 and [Young, 1989].
Whereas Figures 9 and 10 are Load-Deflection
relationships and it may have been preferable
Figure 5: Test models and end bungs with O-Ring nitrile gaskets.
Figure 6: Details of the end bungs (mm). Figure 7: Assembly view of the models with the end bungs.
Figure 8: Specimens used to obtain the mechanical properties.
Figure 10: Uniaxial tensile test results (second test). Tensile test to find yield stress and UTS; d = 24 mm.
Figure 9: Uniaxial tensile test results (first test). Tensile test to find yield stress and UTS; = 24 mm.

to have plotted Stress-Strain relationships,
Figures 9 are 10 were automatic computer
outputs from the tensile testing machine.
The measured and the manufacturers values
of the material properties are given in Table 3.
THEORETICAL INVESTIGATION
MisesNP: Buckling Predictions
The computer program MisesNP calculates the
elastic buckling pressure for perfect circular
cylinders subjected to uniform external
pressure and simply supported at their ends,
together with the Windenburg thinness ratio
[Windenburg and Trilling, 1934]. This program
can be used on most personal computers and at
present it is supplied free of charge.
The buckling pressures are based on the David
Taylor Marine Basin (DTMB) formula and
also the von Mises formula [Windenburg and
Trilling, 1934]. The following input data was
used for this program:
Unsupported Length; from Table 2
Shell Thickness: 3.07 mm
Mean Radius; from Table 2
Young Modulus E; from Table 3
Poissons Ratio; from Table 3
Yield Stress
yp
; from Table 3
Figure 11: Non-destructive O Ring test to obtain E. O-Ring testing results to find Young Modulus E; = 1 mm.

10

The ring specimen was loaded diametrally in compression and the resulting diametral
deflection was automatically recorded; the relationship can be seen in Figure 11. From this
relationship, the experimental Youngs modulus was calculated from Roarks formula, Table
17 and [Young, 1989].

Whereas Figures 9 and 10 are Load-Deflection relationships and it may have been preferable
to have plotted Stress-Strain relationships, Figures 9 are 10 were automatic computer outputs
from the tensile testing machine.

The measured and the manufacturers values of the material properties are given in Table 3.

Young
Modulus E
(GPa)
Ultimate
Tensile
Strength
UTS

(MPa)
Yield
Stress
YP

(MPa)

Poissons
Ratio

(Assumed)
Experimental
Data
158 713 543 0.3
Manufacturers
Data (1) & (2)
-
-
756
739
589
554
-
Table 3: Mechanical Properties of Duplex Stainless Steel.

THEORETICAL INVESTIGATION

MisesNP: Buckling Predictions
The computer program MisesNP calculates the elastic buckling pressure for perfect circular
cylinders subjected to uniform external pressure and simply supported at their ends together
with the Windenburg thinness ratio [Windenburg and Trilling, 1934]. This program can be
used on most personal computers and at present it is supplied free of charge.
Table 3: Mechanical Properties of Duplex Stainless Steel.
A screen dump of the output of MisesNP is
shown in Figure 12 and the results are shown in
Table 4; it is a very easy program to use and the
instructions for using it are given in [Ross, 2001].
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
The main aim of the experimental investigation
was to determine the collapse pressures of the
Duplex stainless models. The models were
sealed when the end bungs were fitted together
with their O-ring gaskets.
Figure 12: Output of the computer program MisesNP.

11

The buckling pressures are based on the DTMB formula and also the von Mises formula
[Windenburg and Trilling, 1934]. The following input data was used for this program:

Unsupported Length; from Table 2
Shell Thickness: 3.07 mm
Mean Radius; from Table 2
Young Modulus E; from Table 3
Poissons Ratio; from Table 3
Yield Stress
yp
; from Table 3

A screen dump of the output of MisesNP is shown in Figure 12 and the results are shown in
Table 4; it is a very easy program to use and the instructions for using it are given in [Ross,
2001].

Model
MisesNP
P
cr1
(MPa)
No Lobes
DTMB
P
cr
(MPa)
1/
AS1a 643.82 4 644.55 0.381 2.625
AS1b 634.51 4 646.84 0.381 2.625
AS2a 462.87 4 458.11 0.440 2.273
AS2b 460.65 4 455.93 0.440 2.273
AS3a 355.12 3 352.23 0.492 2.033
AS3b 356.19 3 352.99 0.492 2.033
AS4a 278.61 3 289.42 0.539 1.855
AS4b 287.53 3 288.66 0.539 1.855
AS5a 232.29 3 242.26 0.582 1.718
AS5b 232.13 3 242.29 0.582 1.718
AS6a 187.03 3 184.00 0.661 1.513
AS6b 187.03 3 184.00 0.661 1.513
AS7a 110.76 2 115.82 0.823 1.215
AS7b 110.72 2 115.82 0.823 1.215
AS8 74.19 2 84.34 0.958 1.047
Table 4: Theoretical results for the present series.
Equipment Used
The specimens were tested in a high-pressure
tank supplied by Sonardyne Limited (Yateley,
Hampshire, United Kingdom) with a
maximum working pressure of 1200 bar; see
Figure 13. The equipment was pressurised by a
hand-driven hydraulic pump; thus, line losses
were negligible. The hydrostatic pressure was
measured by a Bourdon Tube pressure gauge.
Experimental Procedure
1. Each specimen was sealed off with
the end bungs.
2. Each model was submerged in turn
in the pressure tank, which was filled
with water.
3. The tanks closure plate was screwed
down.
4. The trapped air in the tank was pumped
out through the closure plates bleed hole
and then the bleed hole was sealed.

5. The hydrostatic pressure was raised by a
hand-driven hydraulic pump connected
by a flexible hose to the tank.
6. The collapse pressures of each model
were noted; each models failure was
accompanied by a bang and a
corresponding drop in the hydrostatic
pressure.
7. The tank was depressurised via the bleed
valve located in the closure plate after
each model collapsed.
8. After each model collapsed, it was
removed from the test tank and
examined closely by the naked eye.
9. The material of the models, when
observed by the naked eye, did not
appear to have suffered from visual
fractures or other microstructure failures
during the experiment.
Experimental Results
Table 5 gives the experimentally obtained collapse
pressures Pexp, together with other observations.
Although strain gauges were not used, the
vessels appeared to fail plastically. This type of
failure was assumed in the experiments
because of the massive plastic deformations
that took place when each vessel collapsed. If
the vessels collapsed elastically, then they may
have regained their shape, partially or fully,
because of the hydrostatic pressure drop that
was accompanied when each vessel collapsed.
It is true some vessels that collapse elastically
suffer from post-failure plastic deformation,
but in general this plastic deformation would
normally be relatively small due to the
experimental procedure.
Figure 13: High Pressure Tank (material of construction: Stainless Steel).
The collapsed models are shown in Figure 14,
where it can be seen that many suffered
considerable plastic deformation.
DESIGN CHARTS
This section brings together the theoretical and
experimental results from the proceedings of
present series with the results from other
experiments to present a design chart that can
cater for a wider geometry than previous
design charts. Similar design charts for
geometrically imperfect circular cylinders
[Ross, 2001; Little et al., 2008; Ross et al.,
2008] have been produced elsewhere.
Design Chart for the Present Series
First the Plastic Knockdown Factor (PKD)
must be calculated in order to produce the
design chart. This is defined between the
relationship of theoretical and experimental
buckling pressures presented on previous
sections through investigations.
Hence:
Pcr1 = von Mises Theoretical Buckling Pressure
Pexp = Experimental Buckling Pressure

The plastic knockdown factors are listed in
Table 6 together with the thinness ratios
Table 5 for JOT147 (Ross et al.) V4N2
Model
Overall
Length Lo
(mm)
Unsupported
Length L
(mm)
Pressure
P
exp (MPa)

Pressure
P
exp (bar)

Post-Failure Remarks
AS 1a 40.06 30.06 93 930 Perfect Axisymetric Failure
AS 1b 40.09 30.09 100 1000 Perfect Axisymetric Failure
AS 2a 50.02 40.02 84 840
Plastic Buckling Partially
Axisymetric
AS 2b 50.01 40.01 84 840
Lobar Buckling Partially
Axisymetric
AS 3a 60.04 50.04 71.5 715 Inelastic Buckling
AS 3b 60.04 50.04 70.5 705 Inelastic Buckling
AS 4a 70.42 60.42 66.5 665 Inelastic Buckling
AS 5a 80.35 70.04 66.0 650
One Sided Failure over its
length
AS 6a 100.32 90.32 61.8 618
length
AS 6b 100.36 90.32 61.8 618
length
AS 7a 149.96 139.96 57.5 575
length
AS 7b 149.99 139.99 57.5 575
length
AS 8 199.96 189.96 58.0 580
One-sided Failure over its
length
Table 5: Experimental results for the present series.
exp
1
P
P
PKD
cr
=

Figure 14: Plan view of the collapsed AS Series of models together with the end bungs and the nitrile O Rings.

17

Model
Unsupported
Length (mm)
1/
P
cr1
MisesNP
(MPa)
P
exp

(MPa)
PKD
AS1a 30.06 0.381 2.62 643.82 93 6.92
AS1b 30.09 0.381 2.62 634.51 100 6.35
AS2a 40.02 0.440 2.27 462.87 84 5.51
AS2b 40.01 0.440 2.27 460.65 84 5.48
AS3a 50.04 0.492 2.03 355.12 71.5 4.97
AS3b 50.04 0.492 2.03 356.19 70.5 5.05
AS4a 60.42 0.539 1.86 278.61 66.5 4.19
AS4b 60.02 0.539 1.86 287.53 66 4.36
AS5a 70.04 0.582 1.72 232.29 65 3.57
AS5b 70.03 0.582 1.72 232.13 65 3.57
AS6a 90.32 0.661 1.51 187.03 61.8 3.03
AS6b 90.32 0.661 1.51 187.03 61.8 3.03
AS7a 139.96 0.823 1.22 110.76 57.5 1.93
AS7b 139.99 0.823 1.22 110.72 57.5 1.93
AS8 189.96 0.958 1.04 74.19 58 1.28
Table: 6 Plastic Knockdown Factors for the present series.

Results Obtained from Other Geometrically Perfect Circular Cylinders
COLLAPSE PRESSURES OF STURMS THIN-WALLED CIRCULAR CYLINDERS
The work carried out in Sturms study [Sturm, 1941] in Table 7 was on eight carefully
manufactured models. The models were manufactured through extrusion. They were made
very precisely in aluminium alloy; their o-o-c was not given.

COLLAPSE PRESSURES OF OTHER MODELS
The results carried by Ross [1965] and Reynolds [1960] on machined stiffened models are
given in Table 8. These models were found to have failed by inelastic shell instability. Models
Table: 6 Plastic Knockdown Factors for the present series.
calculated from the computer program
MisesNP.
Results Obtained from Other Geometrically
Perfect Circular Cylinders
Collapse pressures of Sturms thin-walled
circular cylinders
The work carried out in Sturms study [Sturm,
1941] in Table 7 was on eight carefully
manufactured models. The models were
manufactured through extrusion. They were
made very precisely in aluminium alloy; their
out-of-circularity was not given.
Collapse pressures of other models
The results carried by Ross [1965] and
Reynolds [1960] on machined stiffened models
are given in Table 8. These models were found
to have failed by inelastic shell instability.
Models 1 to 3 were machined from aluminum
alloy and their initial out-of-circularity was
less than 0.08 mm. Models U12 and U22 were
machined at the David Taylor Model Basin;
they were made from high-strength steel, but
their initial out-of-circularity was not given.
Table 9 shows the results obtained from Ross
Model 7 [Ross, 1965], which was compared
with the experimental buckling pressure of this
isotropic model and the David Taylor Model
Basin formula. The model was machined from mild
steel and its initial out-of-circularity was 0.1 mm.
Table 7: Theoretical and Experimental results of Sturm.
Table 8: Collapse of ring reinforced cylinders by Ross and Reynolds.
* Denotes Reynolds
inelastic lobar buckling of
circular cylindrical shells
under external hydrostatic
pressure.


19

Lobar Buckling, Thin-Walled Cylinder, Ross [1965]
Model 1/
DTMB
formula
Experimental
PKD
(Pcr/Pexp)
7 1.424 0.70 427 568 0.75
Table 9: Buckling Pressure of Model Number 7.

In another study, Ross and Johns [Ross and Johns, 1971] believed that boundary conditions
play an important role in the experimentally obtained buckling pressures for many vessels.
Fixed boundaries are found to produce larger collapse pressures than those with simply-
supported edges. This proof comes from testing to destruction (see Table 10) of three
machine-stiffened circular cylinders under uniform external pressure (see Figure 1), where
TVR-1 had the largest ring stiffeners at the ends of the shell and TVR-3 had the smallest ring
stiffeners at the ends of the shell. The models of Tables 10 to 12 were carefully machined
from mild steel and their initial o-o-c was less than 0.13 mm, where the initial o-o-c was
measured with the aid of a Talyrond Machine.

Buckling Pressures with Boundary Conditions, Ross and Johns [1971]
Model 1/
von
Mises
Experimental
PKD
(Pcr/Pexp)
TVR-1 1.629 0.61 245 320 0.77
TVR-2 1.629 0.61 245 316 0.78
TVR-3 1.747 0.57 244 304 0.80
Table 10: Buckling Pressures for TVR Series; see Figure 1.

The theoretical and experimental buckling pressures obtained by Ross et al. [1995] based on
the shell instability of circular cylinders is given in Table 11.


19

Lobar Buckling, Thin-Walled Cylinder, Ross [1965]
Model 1/
DTMB
formula
Experimental
PKD
(Pcr/Pexp)
7 1.424 0.70 427 568 0.75

In another study, Ross and Johns [Ross and Johns, 1971] believed that boundary conditions
play an important role in the experimentally obtained buckling pressures for many vessels.
Fixed boundaries are found to produce larger collapse pressures than those with simply-
supported edges. This proof comes from testing to destruction (see Table 10) of three
machine-stiffened circular cylinders under uniform external pressure (see Figure 1), where
TVR-1 had the largest ring stiffeners at the ends of the shell and TVR-3 had the smallest ring
stiffeners at the ends of the shell. The models of Tables 10 to 12 were carefully machined
from mild steel and their initial o-o-c was less than 0.13 mm, where the initial o-o-c was

Buckling Pressures with Boundary Conditions, Ross and Johns [1971]
Model 1/
von
Mises
Experimental
PKD
(Pcr/Pexp)
TVR-1 1.629 0.61 245 320 0.77
TVR-2 1.629 0.61 245 316 0.78
TVR-3 1.747 0.57 244 304 0.80

The theoretical and experimental buckling pressures obtained by Ross et al. [1995] based on
the shell instability of circular cylinders is given in Table 11.


20

Ross et al. [1995]
Model 1/
von
Mises
Experimental
PKD
(Pcr/Pexp)
1 0.599 1.67 198.67 60 3.31
2 0.532 1.88 273.77 63.24 4.34
3 0.482 2.07 326.1 71.72 4.55
Table 11: Buckling Pressures based on shell Instability.

According to Ross [2001] and Kimber, there may be a connection between plastic shell
instability and plastic axisymmetric collapse of machined circular cylinders under uniform
external pressure. The results from theoretical and experimental investigations of buckling
pressures showed this (see Table 12).

Plastic Axisymmetric Buckling of Thin-Walled Circular Cylinders,
Ross [1996]
Model 1/
von
Mises
Experimental
PKD
(Pcr/Pexp)
4 0.476 2.10 420.69 97.24 4.33
5 0.406 2.46 642.00 111.72 5.75
6 0.336 2.98 1084.34 131.72 8.23
Table 12: Plastic axisymmetric buckling pressures of machined cylinders.

In Table 13 the results are listed from ten machined stiffened circular cylinders tested to
destruction under external hydrostatic pressure by Hom and Couch [1961]. The cylinders
were designed with geometries so that they would collapse in the lobar buckling range and
they were machined from strain hardened steel. The models of Table 13 were machined by
the DTMB, but their initial o-o-c was not given. Table 14 gives the results of Seleim and
Kennedy [1990]. These models were machined in aluminium alloy and their maximum initial
o-o-c was 0.9 mm.
In another study, Ross and Johns [1971] believed
that boundary conditions play an important
role in the experimentally obtained buckling
pressures for many vessels. Fixed boundaries
are found to produce larger collapse pressures
than those with simply-supported edges. This
proof comes from testing to destruction (see
Table 10) of three machine-stiffened circular
cylinders under uniform external pressure (see
Figure 1), where TVR-1 had the largest ring
stiffeners at the ends of the shell and TVR-3
had the smallest ring stiffeners at the ends of
the shell. The models of Tables 10 to 12 were
carefully machined from mild steel and their
initial out-of-circularity was less than 0.13 mm,
where the initial out-of-circularity was
The theoretical and experimental buckling
pressures obtained by Ross et al. [1995] based
on the shell instability of circular cylinders is
given in Table 11.
According to Ross [2001], there may be a
connection between plastic shell instability and
plastic axisymmetric collapse of machined
circular cylinders under uniform external
pressure. The results from theoretical and
experimental investigations of buckling
In Table 13 the results are listed from ten
machined stiffened circular cylinders tested to
destruction under external hydrostatic pressure
by Hom and Couch [1961]. The cylinders were
designed with geometries so that they would
collapse in the lobar buckling range and they
were machined from strain hardened steel. The
models of Table 13 were machined by the
DTMB, but their initial out-of-circularity was
not given. Table 14 gives the results of Seleim
and Kennedy [1990]. These models were
machined in aluminium alloy and their
maximum initial out-of-circularity was 0.9 mm.
Updated Design Chart Including the Present
Series
The updated design chart, which allows for
shorter and thicker vessels to be analysed, is
shown in Figure 15. This design chart adopts
the results of the present series of models
together with those of similar near-perfect
circular cylindrical shells that collapsed under
external hydrostatic pressure. The linearity of
the chart in the plastic zone, where the PKD
is much greater than unity, appears to indicate
that it will prove a very useful design tool for
industry.

20

Ross et al. [1995]
Model 1/
von
Mises
Experimental
PKD
(Pcr/Pexp)
1 0.599 1.67 198.67 60 3.31
2 0.532 1.88 273.77 63.24 4.34
3 0.482 2.07 326.1 71.72 4.55

According to Ross [2001] and Kimber, there may be a connection between plastic shell
instability and plastic axisymmetric collapse of machined circular cylinders under uniform
external pressure. The results from theoretical and experimental investigations of buckling

Plastic Axisymmetric Buckling of Thin-Walled Circular Cylinders,
Ross [1996]
Model 1/
von
Mises
Experimental
PKD
(Pcr/Pexp)
4 0.476 2.10 420.69 97.24 4.33
5 0.406 2.46 642.00 111.72 5.75
6 0.336 2.98 1084.34 131.72 8.23

In Table 13 the results are listed from ten machined stiffened circular cylinders tested to
destruction under external hydrostatic pressure by Hom and Couch [1961]. The cylinders
were designed with geometries so that they would collapse in the lobar buckling range and
they were machined from strain hardened steel. The models of Table 13 were machined by
the DTMB, but their initial o-o-c was not given. Table 14 gives the results of Seleim and
Kennedy [1990]. These models were machined in aluminium alloy and their maximum initial
o-o-c was 0.9 mm.

21

Table 13: Results of Hom and Couch [Ross and Johns, 1971].

Model 1/
Pcr
MisesNP
(MPa)
Pexp
(MPa)
PKD
(Pcr/Pexp)
1 0.62 15.5 14.6 1.06
2 1.11 22.76 12.3 1.85
Table 14: Results of imperfection sensitivity of stiffened cylinders [Ross et al., 1995].

Updated Design Chart Including the Present Series
The updated design chart, which allows for shorter and thicker vessels to be analysed, is
shown in Figure 15. This design chart adopts the results of the present series of models
together with those of similar near-perfect circular cylindrical shells that collapsed under
external hydrostatic pressure. The linearity of the chart in the plastic zone, where the PKD is
much greater than unity, appears to indicate that it will prove a very useful design tool for
industry.

The design chart was obtained from models made from mild steel, high-tensile steel, stainless
steel, and aluminium alloys; thus, the chart should be suitable for structural design in such
Inelastic and elastic stability of ring stiffened shells, Hom and Couch [1961]
Model 1/
DTMB
formula
Experimental
PKD
(Pcr/Pexp)
12 0.855 1.17 1786 975 1.83
65 0.893 1.12 2969 1695 1.75
13 0.986 1.01 1807 1160 1.56
22 1.035 0.97 963 735 1.31
62 1.111 0.90 4628 1335 3.47
54 1.34 0.75 616 695 0.89
23 1.354 0.74 665 705 0.94
55 1.358 0.74 651 730 0.89
56 1.443 0.69 654 725 0.90
73 1.671 0.60 387 475 0.81

The design chart was obtained from models
made from mild steel, high-tensile steel, stainless
steel, and aluminium alloys; thus, the chart
should be suitable for structural design in such
metals. The elastic portion of the chart is to
the left of the vertical line and the plastic portion
is above the long inclined line; that is, where
the reciprocal thinness ratio is greater than 0.8.
How to Use the Design Charts
Determine the design diving depth of a circular
cylindrical section of a submarine pressure
hull with the following particulars:
Mean diameter = 14m
Wall thickness = 7.5 cm
Unsupported length L = 1m
Youngs modulus = E =200 GPa
Yield stress = yp = 500 MPa
Poissons ratio = =0.3
Safety Factor = SF= 3
Inputting the above data into the computer
program MisesNP, we get the following:
Theoretical buckling pressure = Pcr = 26.21
MPa, with n = 13 lobes & = 0.675.
Therefore 1/ = 1.48 and, from Figure 15,
Plastic Knockdown Factor = PKD = 4.2.
Therefore the predicted collapse buckling
pressure = 262.1 bar/4.2 = 62.4 bar.
Design buckling pressure = 62.4/SF =
62.4/3 = 20.8 bar.
Design Diving depth = 208 m = 682 ft.
To enable the vessel to dive to a greater depth,
it will be efficient to decrease the value of the
unsupported length between frames (i.e. L
should be made smaller).

21


Model 1/
Pcr
MisesNP
(MPa)
Pexp
(MPa)
PKD
(Pcr/Pexp)
1 0.62 15.5 14.6 1.06
2 1.11 22.76 12.3 1.85

Updated Design Chart Including the Present Series
The updated design chart, which allows for shorter and thicker vessels to be analysed, is
shown in Figure 15. This design chart adopts the results of the present series of models
together with those of similar near-perfect circular cylindrical shells that collapsed under
external hydrostatic pressure. The linearity of the chart in the plastic zone, where the PKD is
much greater than unity, appears to indicate that it will prove a very useful design tool for
industry.

Inelastic and elastic stability of ring stiffened shells K. Hom, P. Couch
Model 1/
DTMB
formula
Experimental
PKD
(Pcr/Pexp)
12 0.855 1.17 1786 975 1.83
65 0.893 1.12 2969 1695 1.75
13 0.986 1.01 1807 1160 1.56
22 1.035 0.97 963 735 1.31
62 1.111 0.90 4628 1335 3.47
54 1.34 0.75 616 695 0.89
23 1.354 0.74 665 705 0.94
55 1.358 0.74 651 730 0.89
56 1.443 0.69 654 725 0.90
73 1.671 0.60 387 475 0.81
Figure 15: Design chart for geometrically perfect circular cylindrical shells.
(Note: The use of the Safety Factor effectively
gives us a lower bound.)
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
The theoretical and experimental results are
summarised in Table 6 for all models from the
current series. The experimental results from
Table 5 could be divided mainly into three
categories. The shorter models AS1a and AS1b
failed in the form of axisymmetric failure, while
the slightly longer models AS2a and AS2b
failed in the form of combined plastic shell
instability and a plastic axisymmetric collapse.
The mid-range models collapsed by an inelastic
buckling mode. The remaining six models
(AS5a, AS6a/b, AS7a/b, and AS8) suffered
from one sided failure mode over their length
(i.e. ovalling). Tested models from present
series were found to have only minor geometrical
imperfections overall; these models were thus
nearly geometrically perfect. Previous work
carried out by others suggests that such
imperfections can influence experimental results.
The theoretical investigation produced a consistent
relationship between the length and the buckling
pressure when applying the computer program
MisesNP.
Furthermore, the experimental results were also
encouraging in terms of consigned buckling
pressure results. In summary, from all the
investigative proceedings considered in this paper,
a useful design chart was successfully produced.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The buckling resistance of the vessels
was reduced because, in general, plastic
shell instability took place.
2. All the models in this paper failed either
axisymmetrically or by plastic or
inelastic lobar buckling.
3. The design chart for use of cylindrical
shells, including those made from Duplex
Stainless Steel, was successfully produced.
4. The theoretical buckling pressures by
MisesNP were higher than the
experimentally determined ones because
the theory was based on elastic theory;
however, the models failed plastically at
much-reduced pressures.
5. The present series of models produced
additional points on the graph (see
Figure 15), which gave the graph more
credence than the previous one [Ross,
2001]. It also allowed shorter and thicker
vessels to be analysed than could be
done previously so that submarine
design can include vessels that can dive
to much greater depths of water.
6. It is true that the British Ministry of
Defences (MOD) design charts
[Defence Procurement Agency, 2001] are
used very successfully to design these
vessels. However, when the AS series of
models was plotted on the MOD chart,
it showed that the MOD chart
underestimated the collapse pressures of
Models AS1a and AS1b by circa 50%.
This is in contrast to the design chart of
Figure 15, which underestimated the
collapse pressures of Models AS1a &
AS1b by only circa 5%.
7. In the case of BS5500 [British Standards
Institution, 1980], it was even more
conservative than the MOD chart when
analysing short thick models, such as
AS1a and AS1b. Here, it underestimated
the collapse pressures of these vessels by
circa 100%.

8. Many practising structural designers
have complained to the present authors
of the conservativeness of BS5500 when
designing circular cylinders to withstand
shell instability under external
hydrostatic pressure. Many prefer the
Design Chart of Ross [2001] and have
used it successfully over many years and
have saved a lot of money. The present
design chart extends Ross design chart
to cater for shorter and thicker circular
cylinders.
9. Moreover, the use of BS5500 to
determine the buckling pressure of a
circular cylinder, in comparison with
using the method presented here, is very
time consuming. This is because for
BS5500 the von Mises buckling pressure
has to be determined for every value of
n from another set of charts in order to
obtain the minimum value of the
theoretical buckling pressure. This is in
contrast to Ross computer program,
namely MisesNP, which determines the
minimum buckling pressure and the
Windenburg thinness ratio in just a few
seconds. Instructions on how to use this
program are given in [Ross, 2001].
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Mr. Jack
Murray of Forfab Limited for supplying the
material of construction of the models.
REFERENCES
Bosman, T.N., Pegg, N.G., and Kenning, P.J.
[1993, May]. Experimental and Numerical
Determination of Non-Linear Overall
Collapse of Imperfect Pressure Vessel
Compartments. (International Symposium
on Naval Submarines 4, RINA, London,
United Kingdom.)
British Standards Institution [1980]. BS 5500
British Standard Specification for Unfired
Fusion Welded Pressure Vessels, Issue 5.
(United Kingdom: British Standards
Institution.)
Bryan, G.H. [1888]. Application of the Energy
test to the collapse of a long thin pipe
Under External Pressure. (Proceedings of
the Philosophical Society, pp 287-92,
Cambridge, United Kingdom.)
Bryant, A.R. [1954]. Hydrostatic Pressure
Buckling of Ring-Stiffened Tubes.
(Report, Naval Construction Research
Establishment, R-306, Dunfermline, Scotland.)
Defence Procurement Agency [2001]. SSP74
Design of Submarine Structures. (United
Kingdom: Defence Procurement Agency,
Sea Technology Group.)
Dickens, G.R., Paull, C.K., Wallace, P., and
the ODP Leg 164 Scientific Party [1997,
January]. Direct measurement of in situ
quantities in a large gas-hydrate reservoir.
Nature, Vol 385.
Hom, K. and Couch, P. [1961]. Hydrostatic
tests of Inelastic and Elastic Stability of
Ring-stiffened cylindrical shells Machined
from Strain-hardening steel. (DTMB
Report 1501, pp 2-11.)
Little, A.P.F., Ross, C.T.F., Short, D. And
Brown, G.X. [2008]. Inelastic Buckling of
Geometrically Imperfect Tubes under
External Hydrostatic Pressure. Journal of
Ocean Technology, Vol 3 No 1, pp 75-90.
Nash, W.A. [1995]. Hydrostatically Loaded
Structures: The Structural Mechanics,
Analysis and Design of Powered
Submersibles. Exeter, United Kingdom:
BPC Wheatons Limited.
Reynolds, T.E. [1960, August]. Inelastic Lobar
Buckling of Cylindrical hells Under
External Hydrostatic Pressure. (DTMB
Report Number 1392.)
Ross, C.T.F. [1965]. The Collapse of Ring-
reinforced Cylinders Under Uniform
External Pressure. Trans. Royal Institution
of Naval Architects, Vol 107, pp 375-94.
Ross, C.T.F. and Johns, T. [1971]. The Effect
of Stiffener size on Interframe Shell
Instability of Ring-reinforced Circular
cylinders. Journal of Ship Research, Vol 1,
pp 141-3.
Ross, C.T.F., Haynes, P., Seers, A. and Johns,
T. [1995]. Inelastic Buckling of Ring-
stiffened Circular Cylinders Under
Uniform External Pressure. (International
Conference Proceedings on Structural
Dynamics and Vibration, American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, P.D. Vol
70, pp 207-215.)
Ross, C.T.F. [1996]. Plastic Axisymmetric
Buckling of Thin-walled Circular cylinders
Under Uniform External Pressure.
(International Conference Proceedings on
Engineering Technology, American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, Book
IV.)
Ross, C.T.F. [1999]. Mechanics of Solids.
Chichester, United Kingdom: Horwood
Publishing Limited.
Ross, C.T.F. [2001]. Pressure Vessels: External
Pressure Technology. Chichester, United
Kingdom: Horwood Publishing Limited.
Ross, C.T.F., Little, A.P.F., Brown, G.X. and
Nagappan, A. [2008]. Inelastic Shell
Instability of Geometrically Imperfect
Aluminium Alloy Circular Cylinders under
Uniform External Pressure. Marine
Technology, SNAME, Vol 45, No 3, pp
175-181.
Seleim, S.S. and Kennedy, J.B. [1990].
Imperfection Sensitivity of Stiffened
Cylinders Subjected to External Pressure.
Computers and Structures, Vol 34, No1, pp
63-69.
Sturm, G.R. [1941]. A Study of the Collapsing
Pressure of Thin-walled Cylinders.
(University of Illinois Bulletin Series, No
329, pp 1-77.)
von Mises, R. [1914]. Der Kritische
Aussendruck Zylindrischer Rohre.
Zeitschrift Verienger Deutchscher
Ingenieur, Vol 58, pp 750-755.
Wilson, L.B. [1956, December]. The
Deformation under Uniform Pressure of a
Circular Cylindrical Shell Supported by
Equally Spaced Circular Ring Frames.
(NCRE Report No. 337B, Dunfermline,
United Kingdom.)
Windenburg, D.F. and Trilling, C. [1934].
Collapse by Instability of cylindrical shells
Under External Pressure. Trans. American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, Vol 11,
pp 819-25.
Young, W.C. [1989]. Roarks Formulas for
Stress and Strain. New York, United States
of America: McGraw-Hill Book Company.

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