Properties of Drilling Fluids

Density of mud:
Density is defined as weight per unit volume. It is expressed either in
pounds per gallon (lb/gal) or pounds per cubic foot (lb/ft"), or in
ilograms per cubic meter (g/m!), or compared to the weight of an e"ual
volume of water, as specific gravity (#$). %he pressure exerted by a static
mud column depends on both the density and the depth& therefore, it is
convenient to express density in terms of pounds per s"uare inch per foot
(psi/ft), or ilograms per s"uare centimeter per meter (g/cm/m).
In order to prevent the inflow of formation fluids and to lay down a thin,
low'permeability filter cae on the walls of the hole, the pressure of the
mud column must exceed the pore pressure'the pressure exerted by the
fluids in the pores of the formation'by at least ()) psi (*+ g/ern,). %he
pore pressure depends on the depth of the porous formation, the density
of the formation fluids, and the geological conditions.
normally pressured formations, which have a self'supporting structure of
solid particles (so the pore pressure depends only on the weight of the
overlying pore fluids), and abnormally pressured or geopressured
formations, which are not fully compacted into a self'supporting structure
(so the pore fluids must bear the weight of some of the overlying
sediments as well as the weight of the overlying fluids). %he hydrostatic
pressure gradient of formation fluids varies from ).+- psi/ft to over )..(
psi/ft ().* to ).*( g/cm/m), depending on the salinity of the water.
%he bul density of partially compacted sediments increases with depth,
but an average (#$) of (.- is usually accepted, so that the overburden (or
geostatic or litholostatic) pressure gradient is about * psi/ft ().(-
g/cm(/m), and the pore pressure of geopressured formations is
somewhere between the normal and the overburden pressure gradients,
depending on the degree of compaction.
/esides controlling pore fluids, the pressure of the mud column on the
walls of the hole helps maintain borehole stability. In the case of plastic
formations, such as roc salt and unconsolidated clays, the pressure of the
mud is crucial.
%he buoyant effect of the mud on the drill cuttings increases with its
density, helping transport them in the annulus, but retarding settling at the
surface. 0ery rarely is an increase in mud density 1ustified as a means of
improving cutting'carrying capacity.
In the interest of well safety, there is a natural tendency to carry a mud
density well above that actually needed to control the formation fluids,
but this policy has several ma1or disadvantages. In the first place,
excessive mud density may increase the pressure on the borehole walls so
much that the hole fails in tension. %his failure is nown as induced
fracturing.
In induced fracturing, mud is lost into the fracture so formed, and the
level in the annulus falls until e"uilibrium conditions are reached. %he
problem of maintaining mud density high enough to control formation
fluids, but not so high as to induce a fracture becomes acute when
normally pressured and geopressured formations are exposed at the same
time. 2nder these circumstances, it i generally necessary to set a string of
casing to separate the two 3ones. #everal methods have been developed
for predicting the occurrence of geopressures., 4nowledge of the
expected pore pressure and fracture gradients.
5nother disadvantage of excessive mud densities is their influence on
drilling rate (rate of penetration 6.7.8). 9aboratory experiments and field
experience have shown that the rate of penetration is reduced by mud
overbalance pressure (the differential between the mud pressure and the
pore pressure when drilling in permeable rocs) and by the absolute
pressure of the mud column when drilling rocs of very low permeability.
5 high overbalance pressure also increases the ris of sticing the drill
pipe.
9astly, excessive mud densities are a disadvantage because they
unnecessarily increase mud costs. :ud costs are not a very important
consideration when drilling in normally pressured formations, because
ade"uate densities are automatically obtained from the formation solids
that are dispersed into the mud by the action of the bit. :ud densities
greater than about I lb/gal (*.-( #$) cannot be obtained with formation
solids because the increase in viscosity is too great. ;igher densities are
obtained with barite which has a specific gravity of about +.(., as
compared to about ((.<) for formation solids, so that much less of solids
by volume is re"uired to obtain a given density. :ud costs are increased
not only by the initial cost of the barite, but also, and to a greater extent,
by the increased cost of maintaining suitable properties, particularly flow
properties. /ecause of the incorporation of drilled solids, the viscosity
continuously increases as drilling proceeds, and must be reduced from
time to time by the addition of water and more barite to restore the
density. (George R. Gray-1983)
Flo Properties:
%he flow properties of the drilling fluid playa vital role in the success of
the drilling operation. %hese properties are primarily responsible for
removal of the drill cuttings, but influence drilling progress in many other
ways. 2nsatisfactory performance can lead to such serious problems as
bridging the hole, filling the bottom of the hole with drill cuttings,
reduced penetration rate, hole enlargement, stuc pipe, loss of circulation,
and even a blowout.
%he flow behavior of fluids is governed by flow regimes, the
relationships between pressure and velocity. %here are two such flow
regimes, namely laminar flo, which prevails at low flow velocities and
is a function of the viscous properties of the fluid, and tur!ulent flo,
which is governed by the inertial properties of the fluid and is only
indirectly influenced by the viscosity. 8ressure increases with velocity
increase much more rapidly when flow is turbulent than when it is
laminar.
"aminar Flo=
9aminar flow in a round pipe may be visuali3ed as infinitely thin
cylinders sliding over each other. %he velocity of the cylinders increases
from 3ero at the pipe wall to a maximum at the axis of the pipe. %he
difference in velocity between any two such cylinders, divided by the
distance between them. Defines the shear rate. %he axial force divided by
the surface area. 7f a cylinder defines the shear stress. %he ratio of shear
stress to shear rate is called the viscosity. 5nd is a measure of the
resistance to flow of the fluid. %he unit of viscosity is the (poise) the
shear stress in dynes/m' divided by the shear rate in reciprocal seconds
gives the viscosity in poises. %he unit employed in mud viscometry is the
centipoises (cp), which is one hundredth of a poise.
#ur!ulent Flo=
>low in a pipe changes from laminar to turbulent when the flow velocity
exceeds a certain critical value. Instead of layers of water sliding
smoothly over each other, flow changes locally in velocity and direction,
while maintaining an overall direction parallel to the axis of the pipe.
9aminar flow may be compared to a river flowing smoothly over a plain,
and turbulent flow to flow over rapids where interaction with
irregularities on the bottom causes vortices and eddies.
>riction factor, which is a function of the 6eynolds number and the
roughness of the pipe wall. (George R. Gray-1983)
>igure. #chematic diagram of laminar and turbulent flow regimes (George
R. Gray-1983)
P$:
%he relative acidity or alalinity of a li"uid is conveniently expressed as
p;.
Defined as the negative logarithm (to the base *)) of the hydrogen'ion
concentration, p; units decrease with increasing acidity by a factor of *).
>or example, the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution having a p; of
- is ten times that of a solution of p; +. 5t p; of ?, the hydrogen'ion
concentration is e"ual to the hydroxyl'ion concentration and the li"uid is
neutral, as with pure water. 5bove p; ?, the hydroxyl'ion concentration
increases by a factor of *) with each p; unit& thus, the hydroxyl'ion
concentration at p; ** is ten times that at p; *) (hydrogen ion
concentration is one tenth. (
%he optimum control of some mud systems is based on p;, as is the
detection and treatment of certain contaminants. 5 mud made with
bentonite and fresh water, for example, will have a p; of @ to A.
Bontamination by cement will raise the p; to *) to **, and treatment
with an acidic poly phosphate will bring the p; bac to @ or A, other
reasons for p; control include maintenance of lime'treated mud,s,
mitigation of corrosion, and effective use of thinners.
:easurement of p; is routinely made by comparing the color developed
on immersing a paper strip impregnated with certain dyes (indicators)
with the color of reference standards. If the li"uid has a high
concentration of dissolved salts, or is deeply colored (such as by tannins
and lignite), the colorimetric method is not satisfactory, but an
electrometric method employing the glass electrode can be used to give
reliable results in most mud,s. If the sodium'ion concentration is very
high, a special glass electrode may be needed. (George R. Gray-1983)
%l&alinity:
5lalinity measurements are made to determine the amount of lime in
lime" treated mud,s. %he mud is titrated to determine the total amount of
lime, soluble and insoluble, in the system (8m) %he filtrate is titrated to
determine the amount of lime in solution (8t). %he amount of undissolved
lime is calculated from 8m 8t. :easurements of the alalinity of water
samples, and of filtrates of very lightly chemically treated mud,s, can be
used to calculate the concentration of hydroxyl (7;), carbonate (B)-),
and bicarbonate (;B)-) ions in solution. (George R. Gray-1983)
'ation ()*+ange 'apa*ity=
:ethylene /lue %est.
%he methylene blue test serves to indicate the amount of active clay in a
mud system or a sample of shale. %he test measures the total cation
exchange capacity of the clays present and is useful in con1unction with
the determination of solids content as an indication of the colloidal
characteristics of the clay minerals. #imilarly, shale cuttings can be
characteri3ed and some estimations can be made regarding mud'maing
properties and possible effects on hole stability. 7rganic materials, if
present in the sample, are destroyed by oxidation with hydrogen peroxide.
%he sample is titrated with standard methylene blue solution until the
adsorptive capacity is satisfied, as shown by the appearance of a blue
color in the water in which the sample is suspended. If other adsorptive
materials are not present in significant amounts, the bentonite content can
be estimated, based on an exchange capacity of ?. mill e"uivalents per
*)) grams of dry bentonite. (George R. Gray-1983)
,is*osity:
5lthough calculated from measurements at relatively low shear rates, the
plastic viscosity is an indicator of high shear rate viscosities.
Bonse"uently, it tells us something about the expected behavior of the
mud at the bit. 7ne of our design criteria was to minimi3e the high shear
rate viscosity. %o accomplish this, we should minimi3e the plastic
viscosity. 5 decrease in plastic viscosity should signal a corresponding
decrease in the viscosity at the bit, resulting in higher penetration rate.
Increasing the plastic viscosity is not a desirable means of increasing the
hole'cleaning ability of a mud. In fact, the increase in pressure drop down
the drill string, caused by an increase in 80, would reduce the available
flow rate and tend to offset any increase in lifting ability. In general, high
plastic viscosity is never desirable and should be maintained as low as
practical.
%he plastic viscosity is primarily a function of the viscosity of the li"uid
phase and the volume of solids contained in a mud. %he viscosity of the
li"uid phase is increased by addition of any soluble material. :any of the
water'soluble polymers used for fluid'loss control are "uite effective in
increasing the plastic viscosity. #aturated salt water has twice the
viscosity of fresh water. Diesel oil, which is commonly used as the li"uid
phase of oil'base mud,s, has three times the viscosity of fresh water. /oth
salt water mud,s and oil mud,s tend to have high plastic viscosities.
%he volume of solids in a mud, is the dry volume of solids plus the
increase in volume due to hydration. %he water of hydration actually
becomes a part of the solid so far as its effect on viscosity is concerned.
In other words, the plastic viscosity is increased by addition of any type
of solid& but solids such as clays, which hydrate, will further increase the
plastic viscosity as their volume is increased by hydration. %his maes the
hydration and dispersion of shale particles particularly detrimental.
5s long as these particles are large and relatively unhydrated, their effect
on viscosity is small. ;owever, time, temperature, and agitation tend to
disperse and allow hydration of the individual clay platelets, which
results in increased viscosities. In order to combat the tendency of shale
particles to disperse and hydrate, the "inhibitive" mud,s were designed.
:aterials such as lime, gypsum, lignosulfonate, and polymers are added
to inhibit the rate of dispersion and hydration. %hese materials do cause
inhibition, but if the inhibited particles are not removed from the system,
the solids content will continue to build. In time, the plastic viscosity will
be as high or higher than before and other mud properties such as filter
cae thicness will suffer.
:inimum plastic viscosities can be achieved only to the degree that the
mud is ept free of drilled solids. (>igure) shows guidelines for plastic
viscosity of water'base mud,s at various mud weights. %he lower curve
represents mud,s that contain only barite and sufficient bentonite to
suspend the barite. %his curve should represent minimum plastic
viscosities for good mud performance. %he upper curve is an average for
many field mud,s that have been checed.
8lastic viscosity decreases with increasing temperature, due to thinning of
water. If the mud is checed at *-)C>, the 80 will be about *) percent
lower than at *()C>& if it is checed at **)C>, it will be about *) percent
higher. >or this reason, all mud tests should be made at the same
temperature, *()C> (DEE7F, *AA<)
%he desired viscosity of a mud is influenced by several factors, including=
I. :ud density&
II. ;ole si3e&
III. 8ump rate&
I0. Drilling rate&
0. pressure&
0I. ;ole condition.
%he viscosity of a mud is a function of three components=
I. 0iscosity of the base li"uid or continuous phase&
II. %he si3e shapes and number of solids particles in the mud (plastic
viscosity)&
III. Inter'particle forces (yield point). (www.adgtech.com.au)
Plasti* -is*osity:
Is that part of the resistance to flow in mud caused by the friction between
suspended particles and the viscosity of the base li"uid. %he plastic
viscosity is a measure of the internal resistance to flow due to the amount,
type and si3e of solids present in the mud. It is due to mechanical friction
of the solids in the mud as they come in contact with Dach other and with
the li"uid phase of the mud. %he plastic viscosity depends on the
concentration and si3e of solids present. %he solids present in the mud
can be considered either active or inactive. 5n example of an inactive
solid would be drilled solids incorporated in the mud while drilling.
Increasing the percentage by volume of solids in the mud can increase the
plastic viscosity. If the volume percent solids remain constant, then
reducing the si3e of the solid would also increase the plastic viscosity due
to the increased surface area exposed. %his increased surface area allows
for more frictional contact. %o reduce the plastic viscosity, either the
solid concentration can be reduced or a flocculant can be added to
increase the si3e of the particles thereby reducing the available surface
area. In the field the reduction is usually made by dilution with water or
separation with mechanical solids removal. (www.adgtech.com.au)
Funnel -is*osity:
6outine field measurements of drilling mud viscosity are made with a
:arsh >unnel, which measures a timed rate of flow. %he values obtained
are called Gapparent viscosityH. (www.adgtech.com.au)