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CHAPTER THREE
WELL CONTROL

PART ONE
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GENERAL INFORMATION for Well Control

The function of Well Control can be conveniently subdivided into three main categories,
namely PRIMARY WELL CONTROL, SECONDARY WELL CONTROL and TERTIARY
WELL CONTROL. These categories are briefly described in the following paragraphs.
Primary Well Control
It is the name given to the process which maintains a hydrostatic pressure in the wellbore
greater than the pressure of the fluids in the formation being drilled, but less than formation
fracture pressure. If hydrostatic pressure is less than formation pressure then formation fluids
will enter the wellbore. If the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid in the wellbore exceeds the
fracture pressure of the formation then the fluid in the well could be lost. In an extreme case
of lost circulation the formation pressure may exceed hydrostatic pressure allowing
formation fluids to enter into the well.
An overbalance of hydrostatic pressure over formation pressure is maintained, this excess is
generally referred to as a trip margin.
Secondary Well Control
If the pressure of the fluids in the wellbore ( i.e. mud) fail to prevent formation fluids
entering the wellbore, the well will flow. This process is stopped using a “blow out
preventer” to prevent the escape of wellbore fluids from the well This is the initial stage of
secondary well control. Containment of unwanted formation fluids.
Tertiary Well Control
Tertiary well control describes the third line of defence. Where the formation cannot be
controlled by primary or secondary well control (hydrostatic and equipment). An
underground blowout for example. However in well control it is not always used as a
qualitative term. ‘Unusual well control operations’ listed
below are considered under this term:-

a) A kick is taken with the kick off bottom.

b) The drill pipe plugs off during a kill operation.
c) There is no pipe in the hole.
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d) Hole in drill string.

e) Lost circulation.
f) Excessive casing pressure.
g) Plugged and stuck off bottom.
h) Gas percolation without gas expansion.

also include operations like stripping or snubbing in the hole, or drilling relief wells. The
point to remember is "what is the well status at shut in?" This determines the method of well
control.
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE

Hydrostatic pressure is defined as the pressure due to the unit weight and vertical height of a
column of fluid.
Hydrostatic Pressure = Fluid Density x True Vertical Depth

Note: It is the vertical height/depth of the fluid column that matters, its shape is
unimportant.

Figure 1 Different shaped vessels

Since the pressure is measured in psi and depth is measured in feet, it is convenient to
convert mud weights from pounds per gallon ppg to a pressure gradient psi/ft. The
conversion factor is 0.052.
Pressure Gradient psi/ft = Fluid Density in ppg X 0.052
Hydrostatic Pressure psi = Density in ppg X 0.052 X True Vert. Depth

The Conversion factor 0.052 psi/ft per lb/gal is derived as follows:

A cubic foot contains 7.48 US gallons

A fluid weighing 1 ppg is therefore equivalent to 7.48 lbs/cu.ft

The pressure exerted by one foot of that fluid over the area of the base would be:
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Figure 2 Area definition of a cubic foot

Example:
The Pressure Gradient of a 10 ppg mud
= 10 x 0.052
= 0.52 psi/ft
Conversion constants for other mud weight units are:
Specific Gravity x 0.433 = Pressure Gradient psi/ft
Pounds per Cubic Foot /144 = Pressure Gradient psi/ft

FORMATION PRESSURE

Formation pressure or pore pressure is said to be normal when it is caused solely by the
hydrostatic head of the subsurface water contained in the formations and there is pore to pore
pressure communication with the atmosphere.
Dividing this pressure by the true vertical depth gives an average pressure gradient of the
formation fluid, normally between 0.433 psi/ft and 0.465 psi/ft.
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The North Sea area pore pressure averages 0.452 psi/ft. In the absence of accurate data,
0.465 psi/ft which is the average pore pressure gradient in the Gulf of Mexico is often taken
to be the “normal” pressure gradient.

NORMAL FORMATION PRESSURE

Normal Formation Pressure is equal to the hydrostatic pressure of water extending from the
surface to the subsurface formation. Thus, the normal formation pressure gradient in any area
will be equal to the hydrostatic pressure gradient of the water occupying the pore spaces of
the subspace formations in that area.
The magnitude of the hydrostatic pressure gradient is affected by the concentration of
dissolved solids (salts) and gases in the formation water.
Increasing the dissolved solids (higher salt concentration) increases the formation pressure
gradient whilst an increase in the level of gases in solution will decrease the pressure
gradient.
For example, formation water with a salinity of 80,000 ppm sodium chloride (common salt)
at a temperature of 25C, has a pressure gradient of 0.465 psi/ft. Fresh water (zero salinity)
has a pressure gradient of 0.433 psi/ft.
Temperature also has an effect as hydrostatic pressure gradients will decrease at higher
temperatures due to fluid expansion.
In formations deposited in an offshore environment, formation water density may vary from
slightly saline (0.44 psi/ft) to saturated saline (0.515 psi/ft). Salinity varies with depth and
formation type. Therefore, the average value of normal formation pressure gradient may not
be valid for all depths. For instance, it is possible that local normal pressure gradients as high
as 0.515 psi/ft may exist in formations adjacent to salt formations where the formation water
is completely salt-saturated.
The following table gives examples of the magnitude of the normal formation pressure
gradient for various areas. However, in the absence of accurate data, 0.465 psi/ft is often
taken to be the normal pressure gradient.
Table 1. Average Normal Formation Pressure Gradients
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ABNORMAL PRESSURE

Every pressure which does not conform with the definition given for normal pressure is
abnormal.
The principal causes of abnormal pressures are:-

1- Under-compaction in shales

When first deposited, shale has a high porosity. More than 50% of the total volume of
uncompacted clay-mud may consist of water in which it is laid. During normal compaction,
a gradual reduction in porosity accompanied by a loss of formation water occur as the
thickness and weight of the overlaying sediments increase.
Compaction reduces the pore space in shale, as compaction continues water is squeezed out.
As a result, water must be removed from the shale before further compaction can occur.
Not all of the expelled liquid is water, hydrocarbons may also be flushed from the shale.
If the balance between the rate of compaction and fluid expulsion is disrupted such that fluid
removal is impeded then fluid pressures within the shale will increase. The inability of shale
to expel water at a sufficient rate results in a much higher porosity than expected for the
depth of shale burial in that area.
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The relationship between permeability and porosity (from Chilingar, 1964)

2 Salt Beds

Continuous salt depositions over large areas can cause abnormal pressures. Salt is totally
impermeable to fluids and behave plastically. It deforms and flows by recrystallisation. Its
properties of pressure transmission are more like fluids than solids, thereby exerting
pressures equal to the overburden load in all directions.
The fluids in the underlying formations cannot escape as there is no communication to the
surface and thus the formations become over pressured.
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3 Mineralisation

The alteration of sediments and their constituent minerals can result in variations of the total
volume of the minerals present. An increase in the volume of these solids will result in an
increased fluid pressure. An example of this occurs when anhydrite is laid down. If it later
takes on water crystallisation, its structure changes to become gypsum, with a volume
increase of around 35%.
4 Tectonic Causes
Is a compacting force that is applied horizontally in subsurface formations. In normal
pressure environments water is expelled from clays as they are being compacted with
increasing overburden pressures. If however an additional horizontal compacting force
squeezes the clays laterally and if fluids are not able to escape at a rate equal to the reduction
in pore volume the result will be an increase in pore pressure.

Abnormal Formation Pressures caused by Tectonic Compressional Folding

5 Faulting

Faults may cause abnormally high pressures. Formation slippage may bring a permeable
formation laterally against an impermeable formation preventing the flow of fluids.
Nonsealing faults may allow fluids to move from a deeper permeable formation to a
shallower formation. If the shallower formation is sealed then it will be pressurized from the
deeper zone.
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This is a trap resulting from faulting in which the block on the right has moved up with respect to the one on the left.

6 Diapirism

A salt diapirism is an upward intrusion of salt to form a salt dome. This up thrust disturbs the
normal layering of sediments and over pressures can occur due to the folding and faulting of
the intruded formations.

Salt domes often deform overlying rocks to form traps like the one shown here.
7 Reservoir Structure
Abnormally high pressures can develop in normally compacted rocks. In a reservoir in which
a high relief structure contains oil or gas, an abnormally high pressure gradient as measured
relative to surface will exist as shown in the following fig:
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An anticlinal type of folded structure is shown here. Anticline differs from a dome in being long and narrow

Trap nomenclature (a) in a simple structural trap and (b) in stratigraphic traps. Note that the size of the stratigraphic trap on the left is limited only by its petroleum
content, while the size of the trap on the right is self-limiting.
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FORMATION FRACTURE PRESSURE

In order to plan to drill a well safely it is necessary to have some knowledge of the fracture
pressures of the formation to be encountered. The maximum volume of any uncontrolled
influx to the wellbore depends on the fracture pressure of the exposed formations.
If wellbore pressures were to equal or exceed this fracture pressure, the formation would
break down as fracture was initiated, followed by loss of mud, loss of hydrostatic pressure
and loss of primary control. Fracture pressures are related to the weight of the formation
matrix (Rock) and the fluids (water/oil) occupying the pore space within the matrix, above
the zone of interest. These two factors combine to produce what is known as the overburden
pressure. Assuming the average density of a thick sedimentary sequence to be the equivalent
of 19.2 ppg then the overburden gradient is given by:
0.052 x 19.2 = 1.0 psi/ft

Since the degree of compaction of sediments is known to vary with depth the gradient is not
constant.
Onshore, since the sediments tend to be more compacted, the overburden gradient can be
taken as being close to 1.0 psi/ft. Offshore, however the overburden gradients at shallow
depths will be much less than 1.0 psi/ft due to the effect of the depth of seawater and large
thicknesses of unconsolidated sediment. This makes surface casing seats in offshore wells
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much more vulnerable to break down and is the reason why shallow gas kicks should never
be shut in.
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LEAK-OFF TESTS

The leak-off test establishes a practical value for the input into fracture pressure predictions
and indicates the limit of the amount of pressure that can be applied to the wellbore over the
next section of hole drilled. It provides the basic data needed for further fracture calculations
and it also tests the effectiveness of the cement job.
The test is performed by applying an incremental pressure from the surface to the closed
wellbore/casing system until it can be seen that fluid is being injected into the formation.
Leak-off tests should normally be taken to this leak-off pressure unless it exceeds the
pressure to which the casing was tested. In some instances as when drilling development
wells this might not be necessary and a formation competency test, where the pressure is
only increased to a predetermined limit, might be all that is required.
Leak-Off Test Procedure:

Before starting, gauges should be checked for accuracy. The upper pressure limit should be
determined.
1) The casing should be tested prior to drilling out the shoe.
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2) Drill out the shoe and cement, exposing 5 - 10 ft of new formation.

3) Circulate and condition the mud, check mud density in and out.
4) Pull the bit inside the casing. Line up cement pump and flush all lines to be used for the
test.
5) Close BOPs.
6) With the well closed in, the cement pump is used to pump a small volume at a time into
the well typically a 1/4 or 1/2 bbl per min. Monitor the pressure build up and accurately
record the volume of mud pumped. Plot pressure versus volume of mud pumped.
7) Stop the pump when any deviation from linearity is noticed between pump pressure and
volume pumped.
8) Bleed off the pressure and establish the amounts of mud, if any, lost to the formation.
EXAMPLES OF LEAK-OFF TEST PLOT INTERPRETATION

In non-consolidated or highly permeable formations fluid can be lost at very low pressures.
In this case the pressure will fall once the pump has been stopped and a plot such as that
shown in Fig-a will be obtained. Figs-b and c show typical plots for consolidated permeable
and consolidated impermeable formations respectively.
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Formation Breakdown Pressure (psi)

= hydrostatic pressure of mud in casing + applied surface pressure

= (mud wt. x constant x vert shoe depth) + surface pressure

The formation breakdown pressure can be expressed as a GRADIENT.

The formation breakdown gradient expressed as a maximum allowable mud weight:

Maximum Allowable Mud Weight (ppg) = Formation Breakdown Gradient (psi/ft) 0.052

MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE ANNULAR SURFACE PRESSURE - MAASP.

The leak-off test was used to determine the strength of the formations below the casing shoe.
The Formation Breakdown Pressure = an applied surface pressure + hydrostatic pressure of mud
in the casing
The applied surface pressure at which leak-off occurred is the maximum allowable annular
surface pressure with the mud weight in use at that time. MAASP is the maximum surface
pressure that can be tolerated before the formation at the shoe fractures.
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MAASP = Formation Breakdown pressure at shoe – Hydrostatic Pressure of mud in use in the
casing shoe

or rewritten as:
MAASP = (Fracture gradient – Mud gradient) x True Vert. Shoe Depth
or as:
MAASP = (Max equiv. mud wt. – Mud wt. in casing) x (0.052 x True Vert. shoe depth)
MAASP is only valid if the casing is full of the original mud, if the mud weight in
the casing is changed MAASP must be recalculated.
The calculated MAASP is no longer valid if influx fluids enter into the casing.
CIRCULATING PUMP PRESSURE

The pressure provided by the rig pump is the sum of all of the individual pressures in the
circulating systems. All the pressure produced by the pump is expended in this process,
overcoming friction losses between the mud and whatever it is in contact with:
• Pressure loss in surface lines
• Pressure loss in drill-string
• Pressure loss across bit jets
• Pressure loss in annulus
Pressure losses are independent of hydrostatic and imposed pressures.
Pressure losses in the annulus acts as a “back pressure” on the exposed formations,
consequently the total pressure at the bottom of the annulus is higher with the pump on than
with the pump off.
Circulating bottom hole pressure=Static bottom hole pressure +Annulus pressure losses
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The total pressure on bottom can be calculated and converted to an equivalent static mud
weight which exerts the same pressure.
Equivalent Mud Wt (ppg) = (APL + Pmuda)0.052 TVD
Or

Where: APL = Annulus Pressure Loss

Pmuda = Hydrostatic Mud Pressure in Annulus
Circulating pressure will be affected if the pump rate or the properties of the fluid being
circulated are changed.
Example:-
Assuming a circulating pump pressure is 3000 psi when pumping at 100 spm. The pump
speed is increased to 120 spm. To approximate the new circulating pump pressure:

Where:- P(1) = Original pump pressure at original pump speed.

P(2) = New circulating pressure at new pump speed.

P(2) = 3000 x (1202/1002)= 4320 psi at 120 spm

Example:-
Assuming a circulating pump pressure in 3000 psi with a 10 ppg mud weight pumping at 100
spm. If the mud weight in the system was changed to 12 ppg. To approximate the new
circulating pump pressure:

P(2) = 3000 x 12/10=3600 psi when circulating with 12 ppg mud.

Note: Changing either pump speed or mud weight will affect annulus pressure losses.
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Definition of Kick

A kick is an intrusion of unwanted fluids into the wellbore such that the effective hydrostatic
pressure of the wellbore fluid is exceeded by the formation pressure.
Definition of Influx

An influx is an intrusion of formation fluids into the wellbore which does not immediately
cause formation pressure to exceed the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid in the wellbore, but
may do, if not immediately recognized as an influx, particularly if the formation fluid is gas.
PRIMARY WELL CONTROL - HOW IT IS EFFECTED

To ensure primary well control is in place the following procedures and precautions must be
observed.
Mud Weight

Mud into and out of the well must be weighted to ensure the correct weight is being
maintained to control the well. This task is normally carried out by the shaker man at least
every thirty minutes or less, depending upon the nature of the drilling operation and/or
company policy. The mud weight can be increased by increasing the solid content and
decreased either by dilution or the use of solids control equipment.
Tripping Procedures

Tripping in or out of the well must be maintained using an accurate log called a trip sheet. A
trip sheet is used to record the volume of mud put into the well or displaced from the well
when tripping.
A calibrated trip tank is normally used for the accurate measurement of mud volumes and
changes to mud volumes while tripping.
When tripping pipe or drill collars out of the hole, a given volume of mud is put into the well
for the volume of steel removed. If the volume required to fill the hole is significantly less
than the volume of steel removed, then tripping must be stopped to ensure the well is stable,
and consideration given to going back to bottom to condition the mud and investigate the
cause of the problem.
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Trip Margin (Safety Factor)

Trip Margin (Safety Factor) is an overbalance to compensate for the loss of ECD and to
overcome the effects of swab pressures during a trip out of the hole.
Flow Checks
Flow checks are performed to ensure that the well is stable. Flow checks should be carried
out with the pumps off to check the well with ECD effects removed. Flow checks are usually
performed when a trip is going to take place at the following minimum places:
• on bottom
• at the casing shoe
• before the BHA is pulled into the BOP's
Short Trips/Wiper Trips
In some circumstances prior to pulling out of the hole a short trip, 5 or 10 stands should be
considered. The well is then circulated and mud returns carefully monitored.
Pumping a Slug of Heavy Mud
This is a practice often carried out to enable the pipe to be pulled dry and the hole to be more
accurately monitored during the trip. The following equation is used to calculate the dry pipe
volume for the slug pumped:
Dry Pipe Volume = Slug Volume x (Slug Weight /Mud Weight - 1)
This dry pipe volume can be converted to Dry Pipe Length by dividing this volume by the
internal capacity of the pipe as illustrated in the following equation:
Dry Pipe Length = Dry Pipe Volume (bbls) /Drill Pipe Capacity (bbls/ft)
CAUSES OF KICKS AND INFLUXES
The most common causes of kicks are:
• Improper monitoring of pipe movement (drilling assembly and casing).
- Trip out - making sure hole takes the proper amount of mud.
- Trip in - making sure it gives up proper amount of mud and preventing lost circulation due
to surges.
• Swabbing during pipe movement.
• Loss of circulation.
• Insufficient mud weight.
- Abnormal pressured formations
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- Shallow gas sands

• Special situations.
- Drill stem testing
- Drilling into an adjacent well
- Excessive drilling rate through a gas sand
Surveys in the past have shown that the major portion of well control problems
have occurred during trips. The potential exists for the reduction of bottom hole
pressure due to:
• Loss of ECD with pumps off.
• Reduction in fluid levels when pulling pipe and not filling the hole.
• Swabbing.
FAILURE TO KEEP THE HOLE FULL DURING A TRIP
If the fluid level in the hole falls as pipe is removed a reduction in bottom hole pressure will
occur. If the magnitude of the reduction exceeds the trip margin or safety overbalance factor
a kick may occur. The hole must be kept full with a lined up trip tank that can be monitored
to ensure that the hole is taking the correct amount of mud. If the hole fails to take the correct
mud volume, it can be detected. A trip tank line up is shown in Fig
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Useful formulae for calculating the psi reduction per foot of drill pipe pulled are as follows: