Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Capital Volume I
Capital Volume I
'he direct barter of products attains the elementar* form of the relati)e e9pression of )alue in one
respect, but not in another8 'hat form is 9 5ommodit* ( Y * 5ommodit* /8 'he form of direct
barter is 9 use4)alue ( Y * use4)alue /8
3
'he articles ( and / in this case are not as *et
commodities, but become so onl* b* the act of barter8 'he first step made b* an obDect of utilit*
to"ards acIuiring e9change4)alue is "hen it forms a non4use4)alue for its o"ner, and that
happens "hen it forms a superfluous portion of some article reIuired for his immediate "ants8
=bDects in themsel)es are e9ternal to man, and conseIuentl* alienable b* him8 >n order that this
alienation ma* be reciprocal, it is onl* necessar* for men, b* a tacit understanding, to treat each
other as pri)ate o"ners of those alienable obDects, and b* implication as independent indi)iduals8
/ut such a state of reciprocal independence has no e9istence in a primiti)e societ* based on
propert* in common, "hether such a societ* ta+es the form of a patriarchal famil*, an ancient
>ndian communit*, or a #eru)ian >nca State8 'he e9change of commodities, therefore, first begins
on the boundaries of such communities, at their points of contact "ith other similar communities,
or "ith members of the latter8 So soon, ho"e)er, as products once become commodities in the
e9ternal relations of a communit*, the* also, b* reaction, become so in its internal intercourse8
'he proportions in "hich the* are e9changeable are at first Iuite a matter of chance8 Bhat ma+es
them e9changeable is the mutual desire of their o"ners to alienate them8 $eantime the need for
foreign obDects of utilit* graduall* establishes itself8 'he constant repetition of e9change ma+es it
33 5hapter 6
a normal social act8 >n the course of time, therefore, some portion at least of the products of
labour must be produced "ith a special )ie" to e9change8 From that moment the distinction
becomes firml* established bet"een the utilit* of an obDect for the purposes of consumption, and
its utilit* for the purposes of e9change8 >ts use4)alue becomes distinguished from its e9change4
)alue8 =n the other hand, the Iuantitati)e proportion in "hich the articles are e9changeable,
becomes dependent on their production itself8 5ustom stamps them as )alues "ith definite
magnitudes8
>n the direct barter of products, each commodit* is directl* a means of e9change to its o"ner, and
to all other persons an eIui)alent, but that onl* in so far as it has use4)alue for them8 (t this stage,
therefore, the articles e9changed do not acIuire a )alue4form independent of their o"n use4)alue,
or of the indi)idual needs of the e9changers8 'he necessit* for a )alue4form gro"s "ith the
increasing number and )ariet* of the commodities e9changed8 'he problem and the means of
solution arise simultaneousl*8 5ommodit*4o"ners ne)er eIuate their o"n commodities to those
of others, and e9change them on a large scale, "ithout different +inds of commodities belonging
to different o"ners being e9changeable for, and eIuated as )alues to, one and the same special
article8 Such last4mentioned article, b* becoming the eIui)alent of )arious other commodities,
acIuires at once, though "ithin narro" limits, the character of a general social eIui)alent8 'his
character comes and goes "ith the momentar* social acts that called it into life8 >n turns and
transientl* it attaches itself first to this and then to that commodit*8 /ut "ith the de)elopment of
e9change it fi9es itself firml* and e9clusi)el* to particular sorts of commodities, and becomes
cr*stallised b* assuming the mone*4form8 'he particular +ind of commodit* to "hich it stic+s is
at first a matter of accident8 Ce)ertheless there are t"o circumstances "hose influence is decisi)e8
'he mone*4form attaches itself either to the most important articles of e9change from outside,
and these in fact are primiti)e and natural forms in "hich the e9change4)alue of home products
finds e9pression; or else it attaches itself to the obDect of utilit* that forms, li+e cattle, the chief
portion of indigenous alienable "ealth8 Comad races are the first to de)elop the mone*4form,
because all their "orldl* goods consist of mo)eable obDects and are therefore directl* alienable;
and because their mode of life, b* continuall* bringing them into contact "ith foreign
communities, solicits the e9change of products8 $an has often made man himself, under the form
of sla)es, ser)e as the primiti)e material of mone*, but has ne)er used land for that purpose8 Such
an idea could onl* spring up in a bourgeois societ* alread* "ell de)eloped8 >t dates from the last
third of the 17th centur*, and the first attempt to put it in practice on a national scale "as made a
centur* after"ards, during the French bourgeois re)olution8
>n proportion as e9change bursts its local bonds, and the )alue of commodities more and more
e9pands into an embodiment of human labour in the abstract, in the same proportion the character
of mone* attaches itself to commodities that are b* Cature fitted to perform the social function of
a uni)ersal eIui)alent8 'hose commodities are the precious metals8
'he truth of the proposition that, @although gold and sil)er are not b* Cature mone*, mone* is b*
Cature gold and sil)er,A
6
is sho"n b* the fitness of the ph*sical properties of these metals for the
functions of mone*8
7
%p to this point, ho"e)er, "e are acIuainted onl* "ith one function of
mone*, namel*, to ser)e as the form of manifestation of the )alue of commodities, or as the
material in "hich the magnitudes of their )alues are sociall* e9pressed8 (n adeIuate form of
manifestation of )alue, a fit embodiment of abstract, undifferentiated, and therefore eIual human
labour, that material alone can be "hose e)er* sample e9hibits the same uniform Iualities8 =n the
other hand, since the difference bet"een the magnitudes of )alue is purel* Iuantitati)e, the
mone* commodit* must be susceptible of merel* Iuantitati)e differences, must therefore be
di)isible at "ill, and eIuall* capable of being reunited8 Gold and sil)er possess these properties
b* Cature8
36 5hapter 6
'he use4)alue of the mone*4commodit* becomes t"o4fold8 >n addition to its special use4)alue as
a commodit* (gold, for instance, ser)ing to stop teeth, to form the ra" material of articles of
lu9ur*, Pc8!, it acIuires a formal use4)alue, originating in its specific social function8
Since all commodities are merel* particular eIui)alents of mone*, the latter being their uni)ersal
eIui)alent, the*, "ith regard to the latter as the uni)ersal commodit*, pla* the parts of particular
commodities8
8
Be ha)e seen that the mone*4form is but the refle9, thro"n upon one single commodit*, of the
)alue relations bet"een all the rest8 'hat mone* is a commodit*
2
is therefore a ne" disco)er*
onl* for those "ho, "hen the* anal*se it, start from its full* de)eloped shape8 'he act of
e9change gi)es to the commodit* con)erted into mone*, not its )alue, but its specific )alue4form8
/* confounding these t"o distinct things some "riters ha)e been led to hold that the )alue of
gold and sil)er is imaginar*8
17
'he fact that mone* can, in certain functions, be replaced b* mere
s*mbols of itself, ga)e rise to that other mista+en notion, that it is itself a mere s*mbol8
Ce)ertheless under this error lur+ed a presentiment that the mone*4form of an obDect is not an
inseparable part of that obDect, but is simpl* the form under "hich certain social relations
manifest themsel)es8 >n this sense e)er* commodit* is a s*mbol, since, in so far as it is )alue, it is
onl* the material en)elope of the human labour spent upon it8
11
/ut if it be declared that the social
characters assumed b* obDects, or the material forms assumed b* the social Iualities of labour
under the rRgime of a definite mode of production, are mere s*mbols, it is in the same breath also
declared that these characteristics are arbitrar* fictions sanctioned b* the so4called uni)ersal
consent of man+ind8 'his suited the mode of e9planation in fa)our during the 18th centur*8
%nable to account for the origin of the pu11ling forms assumed b* social relations bet"een man
and man, people sought to denude them of their strange appearance b* ascribing to them a
con)entional origin8
>t has alread* been remar+ed abo)e that the eIui)alent form of a commodit* does not impl* the
determination of the magnitude of its )alue8 'herefore, although "e ma* be a"are that gold is
mone*, and conseIuentl* directl* e9changeable for all other commodities, *et that fact b* no
means tells ho" much 17 lbs8, for instance, of gold is "orth8 $one*, li+e e)er* other commodit*,
cannot e9press the magnitude of its )alue e9cept relati)el* in other commodities8 'his )alue is
determined b* the labour4time reIuired for its production, and is e9pressed b* the Iuantit* of an*
other commodit* that costs the same amount of labour4time8
16
Such Iuantitati)e determination of
its relati)e )alue ta+es place at the source of its production b* means of barter8 Bhen it steps into
circulation as mone*, its )alue is alread* gi)en8 >n the last decades of the 17th centur* it had
alread* been sho"n that mone* is a commodit*, but this step mar+s onl* the infanc* of the
anal*sis8 'he difficult* lies, not in comprehending that mone* is a commodit*, but in disco)ering
ho", "h*, and b* "hat means a commodit* becomes mone*8
1:
Be ha)e alread* seen, from the most elementar* e9pression of )alue, 9 commodit* ( Y *
commodit* /, that the obDect in "hich the magnitude of the )alue of another obDect is
represented, appears to ha)e the eIui)alent form independentl* of this relation, as a social
propert* gi)en to it b* Cature8 Be follo"ed up this false appearance to its final establishment,
"hich is complete so soon as the uni)ersal eIui)alent form becomes identified "ith the bodil*
form of a particular commodit*, and thus cr*stallised into the mone*4form8 Bhat appears to
happen is, not that gold becomes mone*, in conseIuence of all other commodities e9pressing
their )alues in it, but, on the contrar*, that all other commodities uni)ersall* e9press their )alues
in gold, because it is mone*8 'he intermediate steps of the process )anish in the result and lea)e
no trace behind8 5ommodities find their o"n )alue alread* completel* represented, "ithout an*
initiati)e on their part, in another commodit* e9isting in compan* "ith them8 'hese obDects, gold
37 5hapter 6
and sil)er, Dust as the* come out of the bo"els of the earth, are forth"ith the direct incarnation of
all human labour8 -ence the magic of mone*8 >n the form of societ* no" under consideration, the
beha)iour of men in the social process of production is purel* atomic8 -ence their relations to
each other in production assume a material character independent of their control and conscious
indi)idual action8 'hese facts manifest themsel)es at first b* products as a general rule ta+ing the
form of commodities8 Be ha)e seen ho" the progressi)e de)elopment of a societ* of commodit*4
producers stamps one pri)ileged commodit* "ith the character of mone*8 -ence the riddle
presented b* mone* is but the riddle presented b* commodities; onl* it no" stri+es us in its most
glaring form8
Chapter 3: Money, Or the Circulation of
Commodities
Section 1: The $easure of Values
'hroughout this "or+, > assume, for the sa+e of simplicit*, gold as the mone*4commodit*8
'he first chief function of mone* is to suppl* commodities "ith the material for the e9pression of
their )alues, or to represent their )alues as magnitudes of the same denomination, Iualitati)el*
eIual, and Iuantitati)el* comparable8 >t thus ser)es as a universal measure of value8 (nd onl* b*
)irtue of this function does gold, the eIui)alent commodit* par excellence, become mone*8
>t is not mone* that renders commodities commensurable8 Lust the contrar*8 >t is because all
commodities, as )alues, are realised human labour, and therefore commensurable, that their
)alues can be measured b* one and the same special commodit*, and the latter be con)erted into
the common measure of their )alues, i$e8, into mone*8 $one* as a measure of )alue, is the
phenomenal form that must of necessit* be assumed b* that measure of )alue "hich is immanent
in commodities, labour4time8
1
'he e9pression of the )alue of a commodit* in gold F x commodit* ( Y y mone*4commodit* F is
its mone*4form or price8 ( single eIuation, such as 1 ton of iron Y 6 ounces of gold, no" suffices
to e9press the )alue of the iron in a sociall* )alid manner8 'here is no longer an* need for this
eIuation to figure as a lin+ in the chain of eIuations that e9press the )alues of all other
commodities, because the eIui)alent commodit*, gold, no" has the character of mone*8 'he
general form of relati)e )alue has resumed its original shape of simple or isolated relati)e )alue8
=n the other hand, the e9panded e9pression of relati)e )alue, the endless series of eIuations, has
no" become the form peculiar to the relati)e )alue of the mone*4commodit*8 'he series itself,
too, is no" gi)en, and has social recognition in the prices of actual commodities8 Be ha)e onl* to
read the Iuotations of a price4list bac+"ards, to find the magnitude of the )alue of mone*
e9pressed in all sorts of commodities8 /ut mone* itself has no price8 >n order to put it on an eIual
footing "ith all other commodities in this respect, "e should be obliged to eIuate it to itself as its
o"n eIui)alent8
'he price or mone*4form of commodities is, li+e their form of )alue generall*, a form Iuite
distinct from their palpable bodil* form; it is, therefore, a purel* ideal or mental form8 (lthough
in)isible, the )alue of iron, linen and corn has actual e9istence in these )er* articles: it is ideall*
made perceptible b* their eIualit* "ith gold, a relation that, so to sa*, e9ists onl* in their o"n
heads8 'heir o"ner must, therefore, lend them his tongue, or hang a tic+et on them, before their
prices can be communicated to the outside "orld8
6
Since the e9pression of the )alue of
commodities in gold is a merel* ideal act, "e ma* use for this purpose imaginar* or ideal mone*8
E)er* trader +no"s, that he is far from ha)ing turned his goods into mone*, "hen he has
e9pressed their )alue in a price or in imaginar* mone*, and that it does not reIuire the least bit of
real gold, to estimate in that metal millions of pounds? "orth of goods8 Bhen, therefore, mone*
ser)es as a measure of )alue; it is emplo*ed onl* as imaginar* or ideal mone*8 'his circumstance
has gi)en rise to the "ildest theories8
:
/ut, although the mone* that performs the functions of a
measure of )alue is onl* ideal mone*, price depends entirel* upon the actual substance that is
mone*8 'he )alue, or in other "ords, the Iuantit* of human labour contained in a ton of iron, is
32 5hapter :
e9pressed in imagination b* such a Iuantit* of the mone*4commodit* as contains the same
amount of labour as the iron8 (ccording, therefore, as the measure of )alue is gold, sil)er, or
copper, the )alue of the ton of iron "ill be e9pressed b* )er* different prices, or "ill be
represented b* )er* different Iuantities of those metals respecti)el*8
>f, therefore, t"o different commodities, such as gold and sil)er, are simultaneousl* measures of
)alue, all commodities ha)e t"o prices F one a gold4price, the other a sil)er4price8 'hese e9ist
Iuietl* side b* side, so long as the ratio of 'he )alue of sil)er to that of gold remains unchanged,
sa*, at 13:18 E)er* change in their ratio disturbs the ratio "hich e9ists bet"een the gold4prices
and the sil)er4prices of commodities, and thus pro)es, b* facts, that a double standard of )alue is
inconsistent "ith the functions of a standard8
5ommodities "ith definite prices present themsel)es under the form; a commodit* ( Y 9 gold; b
commodit* / Y 1 gold; c commodit* 5 Y * gold, 'c8, "here a, b, c, represent definite Iuantities
of the commodities (, /, 5 and 9, 1, *, definite Iuantities of gold8 'he )alues of these
commodities are, therefore, changed in imagination into so man* different Iuantities of gold8
-ence, in spite of the confusing )ariet* of the commodities themsel)es, their )alues become
magnitudes of the same denomination, gold4magnitudes8 'he* are no" capable of being
compared "ith each other and measured, and the "ant becomes technicall* felt of comparing
them "ith some fi9ed Iuantit* of gold as a unit measure8 'his unit, b* subseIuent di)ision into
aliIuot parts, becomes itself the standard or scale8 /efore the* become mone*, gold, sil)er, and
copper alread* possess such standard measures in their standards of "eight, so that, for e9ample,
a pound "eight, "hile ser)ing as the unit, is, on the one hand, di)isible into ounces, and, on the
other, ma* be combined to ma+e up hundred"eights8
3
>t is o"ing to this that, in all metallic
currencies, the names gi)en to the standards of mone* or of price "ere originall* ta+en from the
pre4e9isting names of the standards of "eight8
(s measure of #alue, and as standard of price, mone* has t"o entirel* distinct functions to
perform8 >t is the measure of )alue inasmuch as it is the sociall* recognised incarnation of human
labour; it is the standard of price inasmuch as it is a fi9ed "eight of metal8 (s the measure of
)alue it ser)es to con)ert the )alues of all the manifold commodities into prices, into imaginar*
Iuantities of gold; as the standard of price it measures those Iuantities of gold8 'he measure of
)alues measures commodities considered as )alues; the standard of price measures, on the
contrar*, Iuantities of gold b* a unit Iuantit* of gold, not the )alue of one Iuantit* of gold b* the
"eight of another8 >n order to ma+e gold a standard of price, a certain "eight must be fi9ed upon
as the unit8 >n this case, as in all cases of measuring Iuantities of the same denomination, the
establishment of an un)ar*ing unit of measure is all4important8 -ence, the less the unit is subDect
to )ariation, so much the better does the standard of price fulfil its office8 /ut onl* in so far as it
is itself a product of labour, and, therefore, potentiall* )ariable in )alue, can gold ser)e as a
measure of )alue8
6
>t is, in the first place, Iuite clear that a change in the )alue of gold does not, in an* "a*, affect its
function as a standard of price8 Co matter ho" this )alue )aries, the proportions bet"een the
)alues of different Iuantities of the metal remain constant8 -o"e)er great the fall in its )alue, 16
ounces of gold still ha)e 16 times the )alue of 1 ounce; and in prices, the onl* thing considered is
the relation bet"een different Iuantities of gold8 Since, on the other hand, no rise or fall in the
)alue of an ounce of gold can alter its "eight, no alteration can ta+e place in the "eight of its
aliIuot parts8 'hus gold al"a*s renders the same ser)ice as an in)ariable standard of price,
ho"e)er much its )alue ma* )ar*8
>n the second place, a change in the )alue of gold does not interfere "ith its functions as a
measure of )alue8 'he change affects all commodities simultaneousl*, and, therefore, caeteris
67 5hapter :
paribus, lea)es their relati)e )alues inter se, unaltered, although those )alues are no" e9pressed
in higher or lo"er gold4prices8
Lust as "hen "e estimate the )alue of an* commodit* b* a definite Iuantit* of the use4)alue of
some other commodit*, so in estimating the )alue of the former in gold, "e assume nothing more
than that the production of a gi)en Iuantit* of gold costs, at the gi)en period, a gi)en amount of
labour8 (s regards the fluctuations of prices generall*, the* are subDect to the la"s of elementar*
relati)e )alue in)estigated in a former chapter8
( general rise in the prices of commodities can result onl*, either from a rise in their )alues F the
)alue of mone* remaining constant F or from a fall in the )alue of mone*, the )alues of
commodities remaining constant8 =n the other hand, a general fall in prices can result onl*, either
from a fall in the )alues of commodities F the )alue of mone* remaining constant F or from a rise
in the )alue of mone*, the )alues of commodities remaining constant8 >t therefore b* no means
follo"s, that a rise in the )alue of mone* necessaril* implies a proportional fall in the prices of
commodities; or that a fall in the )alue of mone* implies a proportional rise in prices8 Such
change of price holds good onl* in the case of commodities "hose )alue remains constant8 Bith
those, for e9ample, "hose )alue rises, simultaneousl* "ith, and proportionall* to, that of mone*,
there is no alteration in price8 (nd if their )alue rise either slo"er or faster than that of mone*, the
fall or rise in their prices "ill be determined b* the difference bet"een the change in their )alue
and that of mone*; and so on8
<et us no" go bac+ to the consideration of the price4form8
/* degrees there arises a discrepanc* bet"een the current mone*names of the )arious "eights of
the precious metal figuring as mone*, and the actual "eights "hich those names originall*
represented8 'his discrepanc* is the result of historical causes, among "hich the chief are: F (1!
'he importation of foreign mone* into an imperfectl* de)eloped communit*8 'his happened in
&ome in its earl* da*s, "here gold and sil)er coins circulated at first as foreign commodities8 'he
names of these foreign coins ne)er coincide "ith those of the indigenous "eights8 (6! (s "ealth
increases, the less precious metal is thrust out b* the more precious from its place as a measure of
)alue, copper b* sil)er, sil)er b* gold, ho"e)er much this order of seIuence ma* be in
contradiction "ith poetical chronolog*8
7
'he "ord pound, for instance, "as the mone*4name
gi)en to an actual pound "eight of sil)er8 Bhen gold replaced sil)er as a measure of )alue, the
same name "as applied according to the ratio bet"een the )alues of sil)er and gold, to perhaps 14
13th of a pound of gold8 'he "ord pound, as a mone*4name, thus becomes differentiated from the
same "ord as a "eight4name8
8
(:! 'he debasing of mone* carried on for centuries b* +ings and
princes to such an e9tent that, of the original "eights of the coins, nothing in fact remained but
the names8
2
'hese historical causes con)ert the separation of the mone*4name from the "eight4name into an
established habit "ith the communit*8 Since the standard of mone* is on the one hand purel*
con)entional, and must on the other hand find general acceptance, it is in the end regulated b*
la"8 ( gi)en "eight of one of the precious metals, an ounce of gold, for instance, becomes
officiall* di)ided into aliIuot parts, "ith legall* besto"ed names, such as pound, dollar, Pc8
'hese aliIuot parts, "hich thenceforth ser)e as units of mone*, are then subdi)ided into other
aliIuot parts "ith legal names, such as shilling, penn*, Pc8
17
/ut, both before and after these
di)isions are made, a definite "eight of metal is the standard of metallic mone*8 'he sole
alteration consists in the subdi)ision and denomination8
'he prices, or Iuantities of gold, into "hich the )alues of commodities are ideall* changed, are
therefore no" e9pressed in the names of coins, or in the legall* )alid names of the subdi)isions
of the gold standard8 -ence, instead of sa*ing: ( Iuarter of "heat is "orth an ounce of gold; "e
61 5hapter :
sa*, it is "orth ]: 17s8 17 1J6d8 >n this "a* commodities e9press b* their prices ho" much the*
are "orth, and mone* ser)es as money of account "hene)er it is a Iuestion of fi9ing the )alue of
an article in its mone*4form8
11
'he name of a thing is something distinct from the Iualities of that thing8 > +no" nothing of a
man, b* +no"ing that his name is Lacob8 >n the same "a* "ith regard to mone*, e)er* trace of a
)alue4relation disappears in the names pound, dollar, franc, ducat, Pc8 'he confusion caused b*
attributing a hidden meaning to these cabalistic signs is all the greater, because these mone*4
names e9press both the )alues of commodities, and, at the same time, aliIuot parts of the "eight
of the metal that is the standard of mone*8
16
=n the other hand, it is absolutel* necessar* that
)alue, in order that it ma* be distinguished from the )aried bodil* forms of commodities, should
assume this material and unmeaning, but, at the same time, purel* social form8
1:
#rice is the mone*4name of the labour realised in a commodit*8 -ence the e9pression of the
eIui)alence of a commodit* "ith the sum of mone* constituting its price, is a tautolog*
1
, Dust as
in general the e9pression of the relati)e )alue of a commodit* is a statement of the eIui)alence of
t"o commodities8 /ut although price, being the e9ponent of the magnitude of a commodit*?s
)alue, is the e9ponent of its e9change4ratio "ith mone*, it does not follo" that the e9ponent of
this e9change4ratio is necessaril* the e9ponent of the magnitude of the commodit*?s )alue8
Suppose t"o eIual Iuantities of sociall* necessar* labour to be respecti)el* represented b* 1
Iuarter of "heat and ]6 (nearl* 1J6 o18 of gold!, ]6 is the e9pression in mone* of the magnitude
of the )alue of the Iuarter of "heat, or is its price8 >f no" circumstances allo" of this price being
raised to ]:, or compel it to be reduced to ]1, then although ]1 and ]: ma* be too small or too
great properl* to e9press the magnitude of the "heat?s )alue; ne)ertheless the* are its prices, for
the* are, in the first place, the form under "hich its )alue appears, i$e8, mone*; and in the second
place, the e9ponents of its e9change4ratio "ith mone*8 >f the conditions of production, in other
"ords, if the producti)e po"er of labour remain constant, the same amount of social labour4time
must, both before and after the change in price, be e9pended in the reproduction of a Iuarter of
"heat8 'his circumstance depends, neither on the "ill of the "heat producer, nor on that of the
o"ners of other commodities8
$agnitude of )alue e9presses a relation of social production, it e9presses the conne9ion that
necessaril* e9ists bet"een a certain article and the portion of the total labour4time of societ*
reIuired to produce it8 (s soon as magnitude of )alue is con)erted into price, the abo)e necessar*
relation ta+es the shape of a more or less accidental e9change4ratio bet"een a single commodit*
and another, the mone*4commodit*8 /ut this e9change4ratio ma* e9press either the real
magnitude of that commodit*?s )alue, or the Iuantit* of gold de)iating from that )alue, for
"hich, according to circumstances, it ma* be parted "ith8 'he possibilit*, therefore, of
Iuantitati)e incongruit* bet"een price and magnitude of )alue, or the de)iation of the former
from the latter, is inherent in the price4form itself8 'his is no defect, but, on the contrar*,
admirabl* adapts the price4form to a mode of production "hose inherent la"s impose themsel)es
onl* as the mean of apparentl* la"less irregularities that compensate one another8
'he price4form, ho"e)er, is not onl* compatible "ith the possibilit* of a Iuantitati)e incongruit*
bet"een magnitude of )alue and price, i$e8, bet"een the former and its e9pression in mone*, but it
ma* also conceal a Iualitati)e inconsistenc*, so much so, that, although mone* is nothing but the
)alue4form of commodities, price ceases altogether to e9press )alue8 =bDects that in themsel)es
are no commodities, such as conscience, honour, Pc8, are capable of being offered for sale b*
their holders, and of thus acIuiring, through their price, the form of commodities8 -ence an
obDect ma* ha)e a price "ithout ha)ing )alue8 'he price in that case is imaginar*, li+e certain
Iuantities in mathematics8 =n the other hand, the imaginar* price4form ma* sometimes conceal
66 5hapter :
either a direct or indirect real )alue4relation; for instance, the price of unculti)ated land, "hich is
"ithout )alue, because no human labour has been incorporated in it8
#rice, li+e relati)e )alue in general, e9presses the )alue of a commodit* (e$8, a ton of iron!, b*
stating that a gi)en Iuantit* of the eIui)alent (e$8, an ounce of gold!, is directl* e9changeable for
iron8 /ut it b* no means states the con)erse, that iron is directl* e9changeable for gold8 >n order,
therefore, that a commodit* ma* in practice act effecti)el* as e9change4)alue, it must Iuit its
bodil* shape, must transform itself from mere imaginar* into real gold, although to the
commodit* such transubstantiation ma* be more difficult than to the -egelian @concept,A the
transition from @necessit*A to @freedom,A or to a lobster the casting of his shell, or to Saint
Lerome the putting off of the old (dam8
13
'hough a commodit* ma*, side b* side "ith its actual
form (iron, for instance!, ta+e in our imagination the form of gold, *et it cannot at one and the
same time actuall* be both iron and gold8 'o fi9 its price, it suffices to eIuate it to gold in
imagination8 /ut to enable it to render to its o"ner the ser)ice of a uni)ersal eIui)alent, it must
be actuall* replaced b* gold8 >f the o"ner of the iron "ere to go to the o"ner of some other
commodit* offered for e9change, and "ere to refer him to the price of the iron as proof that it "as
alread* mone*, he "ould get the same ans"er as St8 #eter ga)e in hea)en to 0ante, "hen the
latter recited the creed F
@(ssad bene e trascorsa
0?esta moneta gia la lega e?l peso,
$a dimmi se tu l?hai nella tua borsa8A
( price therefore implies both that a commodit* is e9changeable for mone*, and also that it must
be so e9changed8 =n the other hand, gold ser)es as an ideal measure of )alue, onl* because it has
alread*, in the process of e9change, established itself as the mone*4commodit*8 %nder the ideal
measure of )alues there lur+s the hard cash8
Section ': The $edium of Circulation
&. The %etamorphosis of 'ommodities
Be sa" in a former chapter that the e9change of commodities implies contradictor* and mutuall*
e9clusi)e conditions8 'he differentiation of commodities into commodities and mone* does not
s"eep a"a* these inconsistencies, but de)elops a modus vivendi, a form in "hich the* can e9ist
side b* side8 'his is generall* the "a* in "hich real contradictions are reconciled8 For instance, it
is a contradiction to depict one bod* as constantl* falling to"ards another, and as, at the same
time, constantl* fl*ing a"a* from it8 'he ellipse is a form of motion "hich, "hile allo"ing this
contradiction to go on, at the same time reconciles it8
>n so far as e9change is a process, b* "hich commodities are transferred from hands in "hich
the* are non4use4)alues, to hands in "hich the* become use4)alues, it is a social circulation of
matter8 'he product of one form of useful labour replaces that of another8 Bhen once a
commodit* has found a resting4place, "here it can ser)e as a use4)alue, it falls out of the sphere
of e9change into that of consumption8 /ut the former sphere alone interests us at present8 Be
ha)e, therefore, no" to consider e9change from a formal point of )ie"; to in)estigate the change
of form or metamorphosis of commodities "hich effectuates the social circulation of matter8
'he comprehension of this change of form is, as a rule, )er* imperfect8 'he cause of this
imperfection is, apart from indistinct notions of )alue itself, that e)er* change of form in a
commodit* results from the e9change of t"o commodities, an ordinar* one and the mone*4
commodit*8 >f "e +eep in )ie" the material fact alone that a commodit* has been e9changed for
gold, "e o)erloo+ the )er* thing that "e ought to obser)e F namel*, "hat has happened to the
6: 5hapter :
form of the commodit*8 Be o)erloo+ the facts that gold, "hen a mere commodit*, is not mone*,
and that "hen other commodities e9press their prices in gold, this gold is but the mone*4form of
those commodities themsel)es8
5ommodities, first of all, enter into the process of e9change Dust as the* are8 'he process then
differentiates them into commodities and mone*, and thus produces an e9ternal opposition
corresponding to the internal opposition inherent in them, as being at once use4)alues and )alues8
5ommodities as use4)alues no" stand opposed to mone* as e9change4)alue8 =n the other hand,
both opposing sides are commodities, unities of use4)alue and )alue8 /ut this unit* of differences
manifests itself at t"o opposite poles, and at each pole in an opposite "a*8 /eing poles the* are as
necessaril* opposite as the* are connected8 =n the one side of the eIuation "e ha)e an ordinar*
commodit*, "hich is in realit* a use4)alue8 >ts )alue is e9pressed onl* ideall* in its price, b*
"hich it is eIuated to its opponent, the gold, as to the real embodiment of its )alue8 =n the other
hand, the gold, in its metallic realit*, ran+s as the embodiment of )alue, as mone*8 Gold, as gold,
is e9change4)alue itself8 (s to its use4)alue, that has onl* an ideal e9istence, represented b* the
series of e9pressions of relati)e )alue in "hich it stands face to face "ith all other commodities,
the sum of "hose uses ma+es up the sum of the )arious uses of gold8 'hese antagonistic forms of
commodities are the real forms in "hich the process of their e9change mo)es and ta+es place8
<et us no" accompan* the o"ner of some commodit* F sa*, our old friend the "ea)er of linen F
to the scene of action, the mar+et8 -is 67 *ards of linen has a definite price, ]68 -e e9changes it
for the ]6, and then, li+e a man of the good old stamp that he is, he parts "ith the ]6 for a famil*
/ible of the same price8 'he linen, "hich in his e*es is a mere commodit*, a depositor* of )alue,
he alienates in e9change for gold, "hich is the linen?s )alue4form, and this form he again parts
"ith for another commodit*, the /ible, "hich is destined to enter his house as an obDect of utilit*
and of edification to its inmates8 'he e9change becomes an accomplished fact b* t"o
metamorphoses of opposite *et supplementar* character F the con)ersion of the commodit* into
mone*, and the re4con)ersion of the mone* into a commodit*8
16
'he t"o phases of this
metamorphosis are both of them distinct transactions of the "ea)er F selling, or the e9change of
the commodit* for mone*; bu*ing, or the e9change of the mone* for a commodit*; and, the unit*
of the t"o acts, selling in order to bu*8
'he result of the "hole transaction, as regards the "ea)er, is this, that instead of being in
possession of the linen, he no" has the /ible; instead of his original commodit*, he no"
possesses another of the same )alue but of different utilit*8 >n li+e manner he procures his other
means of subsistence and means of production8 From his point of )ie", the "hole process
effectuates nothing more than the e9change of the product of his labour for the product of some
one else?s, nothing more than an e9change of products8
'he e9change of commodities is therefore accompanied b* the follo"ing changes in their form8
5ommodit* F $one* F 5ommodit*8
5FFFFFF $ FFFFFF58
'he result of the "hole process is, so far as concerns the obDects themsel)es, 5 F 5, the e9change
of one commodit* for another, the circulation of materialised social labour8 Bhen this result is
attained, the process is at an end8
' ( %. First metamorphosis, or sale
'he leap ta+en b* )alue from the bod* of the commodit*, into the bod* of the gold, is, as > ha)e
else"here called it, the salto mortale of the commodit*8 >f it falls short, then, although the
commodit* itself is not harmed, its o"ner decidedl* is8 'he social di)ision of labour causes his
labour to be as one4sided as his "ants are man*4sided8 'his is precisel* the reason "h* the
6 5hapter :
product of his labour ser)es him solel* as e9change4)alue8 /ut it cannot acIuire the properties of
a sociall* recognised uni)ersal eIui)alent, e9cept b* being con)erted into mone*8 'hat mone*,
ho"e)er, is in some one else?s poc+et8 >n order to entice the mone* out of that poc+et, our friend?s
commodit* must, abo)e all things, be a use4)alue to the o"ner of the mone*8 For this, it is
necessar* that the labour e9pended upon it, be of a +ind that is sociall* useful, of a +ind that
constitutes a branch of the social di)ision of labour8 /ut di)ision of labour is a s*stem of
production "hich has gro"n up spontaneousl* and continues to gro" behind the bac+s of the
producers8 'he commodit* to be e9changed ma* possibl* be the product of some ne" +ind of
labour, that pretends to satisf* ne"l* arisen reIuirements, or e)en to gi)e rise itself to ne"
reIuirements8 ( particular operation, though *esterda*, perhaps, forming one out of the man*
operations conducted b* one producer in creating a gi)en commodit*, ma* to4da* separate itself
from this conne9ion, ma* establish itself as an independent branch of labour and send its
incomplete product to mar+et as an independent commodit*8 'he circumstances ma* or ma* not
be ripe for such a separation8 'o4da* the product satisfies a social "ant8 'omorro" the article
ma*, either altogether or partiall*, be superseded b* some other appropriate product8 $oreo)er,
although our "ea)er?s labour ma* be a recognised branch of the social di)ision of labour, *et that
fact is b* no means sufficient to guarantee the utilit* of his 67 *ards of linen8 >f the communit*?s
"ant of linen, and such a "ant has a limit li+e e)er* other "ant, should alread* be saturated b*
the products of ri)al "ea)ers8 our friend?s product is superfluous, redundant, and conseIuentl*
useless8 (lthough people do not loo+ a gift4horse in the mouth, our friend does not freIuent the
mar+et for the purpose of ma+ing presents8 /ut suppose his product turn out a real use4)alue, and
thereb* attracts mone*E 'he Iuestion arises, ho" much "ill it attractE Co doubt the ans"er is
alread* anticipated in the price of the article, in the e9ponent of the magnitude of its )alue8 Be
lea)e out of consideration here an* accidental miscalculation of )alue b* our friend, a mista+e
that is soon rectified in the mar+et8 Be suppose him to ha)e spent on his product onl* that amount
of labour4time that is on an a)erage sociall* necessar*8 'he price then, is merel* the mone*name
of the Iuantit* of social labour realised in his commodit*8 /ut "ithout the lea)e, and behind the
bac+, of our "ea)er, the old4fashioned mode of "ea)ing undergoes a change8 'he labour4time
that *esterda* "as "ithout doubt sociall* necessar* to the production of a *ard of linen, ceases to
be so to4da*, a fact "hich the o"ner of the mone* is onl* too eager to pro)e from the prices
Iuoted b* our friend?s competitors8 %nluc+il* for him, "ea)ers are not fe" and far bet"een8
<astl*, suppose that e)er* piece of linen in the mar+et contains no more labour4time than is
sociall* necessar*8 >n spite of this, all these pieces ta+en as a "hole, ma* ha)e had superfluous
labour4time spent upon them8 >f the mar+et cannot stomach the "hole Iuantit* at the normal price
of 6 shillings a *ard, this pro)es that too great a portion of the total labour of the communit* has
been e9pended in the form of "ea)ing8 'he effect is the same as if each indi)idual "ea)er had
e9pended more labour4time upon his particular product than is sociall* necessar*8 -ere "e ma*
sa*, "ith the German pro)erb: caught together, hung together8 (ll the linen in the mar+et counts
but as one article of commerce, of "hich each piece is onl* an aliIuot part8 (nd as a matter of
fact, the )alue also of each single *ard is but the materialised form of the same definite and
sociall* fi9ed Iuantit* of homogeneous human labour8
17
Be see then, commodities are in lo)e "ith mone*, but @the course of true lo)e ne)er did run
smooth8A 'he Iuantitati)e di)ision of labour is brought about in e9actl* the same spontaneous
and accidental manner as its Iualitati)e di)ision8 'he o"ners of commodities therefore find out,
that the same di)ision of labour that turns them into independent pri)ate producers, also frees the
social process of production and the relations of the indi)idual producers to each other "ithin that
process, from all dependence on the "ill of those producers, and that the seeming mutual
63 5hapter :
independence of the indi)iduals is supplemented b* a s*stem of general and mutual dependence
through or b* means of the products8
'he di)ision of labour con)erts the product of labour into a commodit*, and thereb* ma+es
necessar* its further con)ersion into mone*8 (t the same time it also ma+es the accomplishment
of this transubstantiation Iuite accidental8 -ere, ho"e)er, "e are onl* concerned "ith the
phenomenon in its integrit*, and "e therefore assume its progress to be normal8 $oreo)er, if the
con)ersion ta+e place at all, that is, if the commodit* be not absolutel* unsaleable, its
metamorphosis does ta+e place although the price realised ma* be abnormall* abo)e or belo" the
)alue8
'he seller has his commodit* replaced b* gold, the bu*er has his gold replaced b* a commodit*8
'he fact "hich here stares us in the face is, that a commodit* and gold, 67 *ards of linen and ]6,
ha)e changed hands and places, in other "ords, that the* ha)e been e9changed8 /ut for "hat is
the commodit* e9changedE For the shape assumed b* its o"n )alue, for the uni)ersal eIui)alent8
(nd for "hat is the gold e9changedE For a particular form of its o"n use4)alue8 Bh* does gold
ta+e the form of mone* face to face "ith the linenE /ecause the linen?s price of ]6, its
denomination in mone*, has alread* eIuated the linen to gold in its character of mone*8 (
commodit* strips off its original commodit*4form on being alienated, i$e8, on the instant its use4
)alue actuall* attracts the gold, that before e9isted onl* ideall* in its price8 'he realisation of a
commodit*?s price, or of its ideal )alue4form, is therefore at the same time the realisation of the
ideal use4)alue of mone*; the con)ersion of a commodit* into mone*, is the simultaneous
con)ersion of mone* into a commodit*8 'he apparentl* single process is in realit* a double one8
From the pole of the commodit*4o"ner it is a sale, from the opposite pole of the mone*4o"ner, it
is a purchase8 >n other "ords, a sale is a purchase, 5F$ is also $F58
18
%p to this point "e ha)e considered men in onl* one economic capacit*, that of o"ners of
commodities, a capacit* in "hich the* appropriate the produce of the labour of others, b*
alienating that of their o"n labour8 -ence, for one commodit*4o"ner to meet "ith another "ho
has mone*, it is necessar*, either, that the product of the labour of the latter person, the bu*er,
should be in itself mone*, should be gold, the material of "hich mone* consists, or that his
product should alread* ha)e changed its s+in and ha)e stripped off its original form of a useful
obDect8 >n order that it ma* pla* the part of mone*, gold must of course enter the mar+et at some
point or other8 'his point is to be found at the source of production of the metal, at "hich place
gold is bartered, as the immediate product of labour, for some other product of eIual )alue8 From
that moment it al"a*s represents the realised price of some commodit*8
12
(part from its
e9change for other commodities at the source of its production, gold, in "hose4so4e)er hands it
ma* be, is the transformed shape of some commodit* alienated b* its o"ner; it is the product of a
sale or of the first metamorphosis 5F$8
67
Gold, as "e sa", became ideal mone*, or a measure of
)alues, in conseIuence of all commodities measuring their )alues b* it, and thus contrasting it
ideall* "ith their natural shape as useful obDects, and ma+ing it the shape of their )alue8 >t became
real mone*, b* the general alienation of commodities, b* actuall* changing places "ith their
natural forms as useful obDects, and thus becoming in realit* the embodiment of their )alues8
Bhen the* assume this mone*4shape, commodities strip off e)er* trace of their natural use4)alue,
and of the particular +ind of labour to "hich the* o"e their creation, in order to transform
themsel)es into the uniform, sociall* recognised incarnation of homogeneous human labour8 Be
cannot tell from the mere loo+ of a piece of mone*, for "hat particular commodit* it has been
e9changed8 %nder their mone*4form all commodities loo+ ali+e8 -ence, mone* ma* be dirt,
although dirt is not mone*8 Be "ill assume that the t"o gold pieces, in consideration of "hich
our "ea)er has parted "ith his linen, are the metamorphosed shape of a Iuarter of "heat8 'he
sale of the linen, 5F$, is at the same time its purchase, $F58 /ut the sale is the first act of a
66 5hapter :
process that ends "ith a transaction of an opposite nature, namel*, the purchase of a /ible; the
purchase of the linen, on the other hand, ends a mo)ement that began "ith a transaction of an
opposite nature, namel*, "ith the sale of the "heat8 5F$ (linenFmone*!, "hich is the first phase
of 5F$UF5 (linenFmone*F/ible!, is also $F5 (mone*Flinen!, the last phase of another
mo)ement 5F$F5 ("heatFmone*Flinen!8 'he first metamorphosis of one commodit*, its
transformation from a commodit* into mone*, is therefore also in)ariabl* the second
metamorphosis of some other commodit*, the retransformation of the latter from mone* into a
commodit*8
61
%('# or purchase.
The second and concluding metamorphosis of a commodity
/ecause mone* is the metamorphosed shape of all other commodities, the result of their general
alienation, for this reason it is alienable itself "ithout restriction or condition8 >t reads all prices
bac+"ards, and thus, so to sa*, depicts itself in the bodies of all other commodities, "hich offer to
it the material for the realisation of its o"n use4)alue8 (t the same time the prices, "ooing
glances cast at mone* b* commodities, define the limits of its con)ertibilit*, b* pointing to its
Iuantit*8 Since e)er* commodit*, on becoming mone*, disappears as a commodit*, it is
impossible to tell from the mone* itself, ho" it got into the hands of its possessor, or "hat article
has been changed into it8 Con olet, from "hate)er source it ma* come8 &epresenting on the one
hand a sold commodit*, it represents on the other a commodit* to be bought8
66
$F5, a purchase, is, at the same time, 5F$, a sale; the concluding metamorphosis of one
commodit* is the first metamorphosis of another8 Bith regard to our "ea)er, the life of his
commodit* ends "ith the /ible, into "hich he has recon)erted his ]68 /ut suppose the seller of
the /ible turns the ]6 set free b* the "ea)er into brand* $F5, the concluding phase of 5F$F5
(linenFmone*F/ible!, is also 5F$, the first phase of 5F$F5 (/ibleFmone*Fbrand*!8 'he
producer of a particular commodit* has that one article alone to offer; this he sells )er* often in
large Iuantities, but his man* and )arious "ants compel him to split up the price realised, the sum
of mone* set free, into numerous purchases8 -ence a sale leads to man* purchases of )arious
articles8 'he concluding metamorphosis of a commodit* thus constitutes an aggregation of first
metamorphoses of )arious other commodities8
>f "e no" consider the completed metamorphosis of a commodit*, as a "hole, it appears in the
first place, that it is made up of t"o opposite and complementar* mo)ements, 5F$ and $F58
'hese t"o antithetical transmutations of a commodit* are brought about b* t"o antithetical social
acts on the part of the o"ner, and these acts in their turn stamp the character of the economic
parts pla*ed b* him8 (s the person "ho ma+es a sale, he is a seller; as the person "ho ma+es a
purchase, he is a bu*er8 /ut Dust as, upon e)er* such transmutation of a commodit*, its t"o forms,
commodit*4form and mone*4form, e9ist simultaneousl* but at opposite poles, so e)er* seller has
a bu*er opposed to him, and e)er* bu*er a seller8 Bhile one particular commodit* is going
through its t"o transmutations in succession, from a commodit* into mone* and from mone* into
another commodit*, the o"ner of the commodit* changes in succession his part from that of seller
to that of bu*er8 'hese characters of seller and bu*er are therefore not permanent, but attach
themsel)es in turns to the )arious persons engaged in the circulation of commodities8
'he complete metamorphosis of a commodit*, in its simplest form, implies four e9tremes, and
three dramatic personae8 First, a commodit* comes face to face "ith mone*; the latter is the form
ta+en b* the )alue of the former, and e9ists in all its hard realit*, in the poc+et of the bu*er8 (
commodit*4o"ner is thus brought into contact "ith a possessor of mone*8 So soon, no", as the
commodit* has been changed into mone*, the mone* becomes its transient eIui)alent4form, the
use4)alue of "hich eIui)alent4form is to be found in the bodies of other commodities8 $one*, the
67 5hapter :
final term of the first transmutation, is at the same time the starting4point for the second8 'he
person "ho is a seller in the first transaction thus becomes a bu*er in the second, in "hich a third
commodit*4o"ner appears on the scene as a seller8
6:
'he t"o phases, each in)erse to the other, that ma+e up the metamorphosis of a commodit*
constitute together a circular mo)ement, a circuit: commodit*4form, stripping off of this form,
and return to the commodit*4form8 Co doubt, the commodit* appears here under t"o different
aspects8 (t the starting4point it is not a use4)alue to its o"ner; at the finishing point it is8 So, too,
the mone* appears in the first phase as a solid cr*stal of )alue, a cr*stal into "hich the
commodit* eagerl* solidifies, and in the second, dissol)es into the mere transient eIui)alent4form
destined to be replaced b* a use4)alue8
'he t"o metamorphoses constituting the circuit are at the same time t"o in)erse partial
metamorphoses of t"o other commodities8 =ne and the same commodit*, the linen, opens the
series of its o"n metamorphoses, and completes the metamorphosis of another (the "heat!8 >n the
first phase or sale, the linen pla*s these t"o parts in its o"n person8 /ut, then, changed into gold,
it completes its o"n second and final metamorphosis, and helps at the same time to accomplish
the first metamorphosis of a third commodit*8 -ence the circuit made b* one commodit* in the
course of its metamorphoses is ine9tricabl* mi9ed up "ith the circuits of other commodities8 'he
total of all the different circuits constitutes the circulation of commodities8
'he circulation of commodities differs from the direct e9change of products (barter!, not onl* in
form, but in substance8 =nl* consider the course of e)ents8 'he "ea)er has, as a matter of fact,
e9changed his linen for a /ible, his o"n commodit* for that of some one else8 /ut this is true
onl* so far as he himself is concerned8 'he seller of the /ible, "ho prefers something to "arm his
inside, no more thought of e9changing his /ible for linen than our "ea)er +ne" that "heat had
been e9changed for his linen8 /?s commodit* replaces that of (, but ( and / do not mutuall*
e9change those commodities8 >t ma*, of course, happen that ( and / ma+e simultaneous
purchases, the one from the other; but such e9ceptional transactions are b* no means the
necessar* result of the general conditions of the circulation of commodities8 Be see here, on the
one hand, ho" the e9change of commodities brea+s through all local and personal bounds
inseparable from direct barter, and de)elops the circulation of the products of social labour; and
on the other hand, ho" it de)elops a "hole net"or+ of social relations spontaneous in their
gro"th and entirel* be*ond the control of the actors8 >t is onl* because the farmer has sold his
"heat that the "ea)er is enabled to sell his linen, onl* because the "ea)er has sold his linen that
our -otspur is enabled to sell his /ible, and onl* because the latter has sold the "ater of
e)erlasting life that the distiller is enabled to sell his eau)de)vie, and so on8
'he process of circulation, therefore, does not, li+e direct barter of products, become e9tinguished
upon the use4)alues changing places and hands8 'he mone* does not )anish on dropping out of
the circuit of the metamorphosis of a gi)en commodit*8 >t is constantl* being precipitated into
ne" places in the arena of circulation )acated b* other commodities8 >n the complete
metamorphosis of the linen, for e9ample, linen F mone* F /ible, the linen first falls out of
circulation, and mone* steps into its place8 'hen the /ible falls out of circulation, and again
mone* ta+es its place8 Bhen one commodit* replaces another, the mone*4commodit* al"a*s
stic+s to the hands of some third person8
6
5irculation s"eats mone* from e)er* pore8
Cothing can be more childish than the dogma, that because e)er* sale is a purchase, and e)er*
purchase a sale, therefore the circulation of commodities necessaril* implies an eIuilibrium of
sales and purchases8 >f this means that the number of actual sales is eIual to the number of
purchases, it is mere tautolog*8 /ut its real purport is to pro)e that e)er* seller brings his bu*er to
mar+et "ith him8 Cothing of the +ind8 'he sale and the purchase constitute one identical act, an
68 5hapter :
e9change bet"een a commodit*4o"ner and an o"ner of mone*, bet"een t"o persons as opposed
to each other as the t"o poles of a magnet8 'he* form t"o distinct acts, of polar and opposite
characters, "hen performed b* one single person8 -ence the identit* of sale and purchase implies
that the commodit* is useless, if, on being thro"n into the alchemistical retort of circulation, it
does not come out again in the shape of mone*; if, in other "ords, it cannot be sold b* its o"ner,
and therefore be bought b* the o"ner of the mone*8 'hat identit* further implies that the
e9change, if it does ta+e place, constitutes a period of rest, an inter)al, long or short, in the life of
the commodit*8 Since the first metamorphosis of a commodit* is at once a sale and a purchase, it
is also an independent process in itself8 'he purchaser has the commodit*, the seller has the
mone*, i$e8, a commodit* read* to go into circulation at an* time8 Co one can sell unless some
one else purchases8 /ut no one is forth"ith bound to purchase, because he has Dust sold8
5irculation bursts through all restrictions as to time, place, and indi)iduals, imposed b* direct
barter, and this it effects b* splitting up, into the antithesis of a sale and a purchase, the direct
identit* that in barter does e9ist bet"een the alienation of one?s o"n and the acIuisition of some
other man?s product8 'o sa* that these t"o independent and antithetical acts ha)e an intrinsic
unit*, are essentiall* one, is the same as to sa* that this intrinsic oneness e9presses itself in an
e9ternal antithesis8 >f the inter)al in time bet"een the t"o complementar* phases of the complete
metamorphosis of a commodit* become too great, if the split bet"een the sale and the purchase
become too pronounced, the intimate conne9ion bet"een them, their oneness, asserts itself b*
producing F a crisis8 'he antithesis, use4)alue and )alue; the contradictions that pri)ate labour is
bound to manifest itself as direct social labour, that a particularised concrete +ind of labour has to
pass for abstract human labour; the contradiction bet"een the personification of obDects and the
representation of persons b* things; all these antitheses and contradictions, "hich are immanent
in commodities, assert themsel)es, and de)elop their modes of motion, in the antithetical phases
of the metamorphosis of a commodit*8 'hese modes therefore impl* the possibilit*, and no more
than the possibilit*, of crises8 'he con)ersion of this mere possibilit* into a realit* is the result of
a long series of relations, that, from our present standpoint of simple circulation, ha)e as *et no
e9istence8
63
B. The currency
!"
of money
'he change of form, 5F$F5, b* "hich the circulation of the material products of labour is
brought about, reIuires that a gi)en )alue in the shape of a commodit* shall begin the process,
and shall, also in the shape of a commodit*, end it8 'he mo)ement of the commodit* is therefore
a circuit8 =n the other hand, the form of this mo)ement precludes a circuit from being made b*
the mone*8 'he result is not the return of the mone*, but its continued remo)al further and further
a"a* from its starting4point8 So long as the seller stic+s fast to his mone*, "hich is the
transformed shape of his commodit*, that commodit* is still in the first phase of its
metamorphosis, and has completed onl* half its course8 /ut so soon as he completes the process,
so soon as he supplements his sale b* a purchase, the mone* again lea)es the hands of its
possessor8 >t is true that if the "ea)er, after bu*ing the /ible, sell more linen, mone* comes bac+
into his hands8 /ut this return is not o"ing to the circulation of the first 67 *ards of linen; that
circulation resulted in the mone* getting into the hands of the seller of the /ible8 'he return of
mone* into the hands of the "ea)er is brought about onl* b* the rene"al or repetition of the
process of circulation "ith a fresh commodit*, "hich rene"ed process ends "ith the same result
as its predecessor did8 -ence the mo)ement directl* imparted to mone* b* the circulation of
commodities ta+es the form of a constant motion a"a* from its starting4point, of a course from
the hands of one commodit*4o"ner into those of another8 'his course constitutes its currenc*
(cours de la monnaie!8
62 5hapter :
'he currenc* of mone* is the constant and monotonous repetition of the same process8 'he
commodit* is al"a*s in the hands of the seller; the mone*, as a means of purchase, al"a*s in the
hands of the bu*er8 (nd mone* ser)es as a means of purchase b* realising the price of the
commodit*8 'his realisation transfers the commodit* from the seller to the bu*er and remo)es the
mone* from the hands of the bu*er into those of the seller, "here it again goes through the same
process "ith another commodit*8 'hat this one4sided character of the mone*?s motion arises out
of the t"o4sided character of the commodit*?s motion, is a circumstance that is )eiled o)er8 'he
)er* nature of the circulation of commodities begets the opposite appearance8 'he first
metamorphosis of a commodit* is )isibl*, not onl* the mone*?s mo)ement, but also that of the
commodit* itself; in the second metamorphosis, on the contrar*, the mo)ement appears to us as
the mo)ement of the mone* alone8 >n the first phase of its circulation the commodit* changes
place "ith the mone*8 'hereupon the commodit*, under its aspect of a useful obDect, falls out of
circulation into consumption8
67
>n its stead "e ha)e its )alue4shape F the mone*8 >t then goes
through the second phase of its circulation, not under its o"n natural shape, but under the shape
of mone*8 'he continuit* of the mo)ement is therefore +ept up b* the mone* alone, and the same
mo)ement that as regards the commodit* consists of t"o processes of an antithetical character, is,
"hen considered as the mo)ement of the mone*, al"a*s one and the same process, a continued
change of places "ith e)er fresh commodities8 -ence the result brought about b* the circulation
of4commodities, namel*, the replacing of one commodit* b* another, ta+es the appearance of
ha)ing been effected not b* means of the change of form of the commodities but rather b* the
mone* acting as a medium of circulation, b* an action that circulates commodities, to all
appearance motionless in themsel)es, and transfers them from hands in "hich the* are non4use4
)alues, to hands in "hich the* are use4)alues; and that in a direction constantl* opposed to the
direction of the mone*8 'he latter is continuall* "ithdra"ing commodities from circulation and
stepping into their places, and in thus "a* continuall* mo)ing further and further from its
starting4point -ence although the mo)ement of the mone* is merel* the e9pression of the
circulation of commodities, *et the contrar* appears to be the actual fact, and the circulation of
commodities seems to be the result of the mo)ement of the mone*8
68
(gain, mone* functions as a means of circulation onl* because in it the )alues of commodities
ha)e independent realit*8 -ence its mo)ement, as the medium of circulation, is, in fact, merel*
the mo)ement of commodities "hile changing their forms8 'his fact must therefore ma+e itself
plainl* )isible in the currenc* of mone*8 'hus the linen for instance, first of all changes its
commodit*4form into its mone*form8 'he second term of its first metamorphosis, 5F$, the
mone* form, then becomes the first term of its final metamorphosis, $F5, its re4con)ersion into
the /ible8 /ut each of these t"o changes of form is accomplished b* an e9change bet"een
commodit* and mone*, b* their reciprocal displacement8 'he same pieces of coin come into the
seller?s hand as the alienated form of the commodity and lea)e it as the absolutely alienable form
of the commodity8 'he* are displaced t"ice8 'he first metamorphosis of the linen puts these coins
into the "ea)er?s poc+et, the second dra"s them out of it8 'he t"o in)erse changes undergone b*
the same commodit* are reflected in the displacement, t"ice repeated, but in opposite directions,
of the same pieces of coin8
>f, on the contrar*, onl* one phase of the metamorphosis is gone through, if there are onl* sales or
onl* purchases, then a gi)en piece of mone* changes its place onl* once8 >ts second change of
place al"a*s e9presses the second metamorphosis of the commodit*, its re4con)ersion from
mone*8 'he freIuent repetition of the displacement of the same coins reflects not onl* the series
of metamorphoses that a single commodit* has gone through, but also the intert"ining of the
innumerable metamorphoses in the "orld of commodities in general8 >t is a matter of course, that
77 5hapter :
all this is applicable to the simple circulation of commodities alone, the onl* form that "e are
no" considering8
E)er* commodit*, "hen it first steps into circulation, and undergoes its first change of form, does
so onl* to fall out of circulation again and to be replaced b* other commodities8 $one*, on the
contrar*, as the medium of circulation, +eeps continuall* "ithin the sphere of circulation, and
mo)es about in it8 'he Iuestion therefore arises, ho" much mone* this sphere constantl*
absorbsE
>n a gi)en countr* there ta+e place e)er* da* at the same time, but in different localities,
numerous one4sided metamorphoses of commodities, or, in other "ords, numerous sales and
numerous purchases8 'he commodities are eIuated beforehand in imagination, b* their prices, to
definite Iuantities of mone*8 (nd since, in the form of circulation no" under consideration,
mone* and commodities al"a*s come bodil* face to face, one at the positi)e pole of purchase,
the other at the negati)e pole of sale, it is clear that the amount of the means of circulation
reIuired, is determined beforehand b* the sum of the prices of all these commodities8 (s a matter
of fact, the mone* in realit* represents the Iuantit* or sum of gold ideall* e9pressed beforehand
b* the sum of the prices of the commodities8 'he eIualit* of these t"o sums is therefore self4
e)ident8 Be +no", ho"e)er, that, the )alues of commodities remaining constant, their prices )ar*
"ith the )alue of gold (the material of mone*!, rising in proportion as it falls, and falling in
proportion as it rises8 Co" if, in conseIuence of such a rise or fall in the )alue of gold, the sum of
the prices of commodities fall or rise, the Iuantit* of mone* in currenc* must fall or rise to the
same e9tent8 'he change in the Iuantit* of the circulating medium is, in this case, it is true,
caused b* the mone* itself, *et not in )irtue of its function as a medium of circulation, but of its
function as a measure of )alue8 First, the price of the commodities )aries in)ersel* as the )alue of
the mone*, and then the Iuantit* of the medium of circulation )aries directl* as the price of the
commodities8 E9actl* the same thing "ould happen if, for instance, instead of the )alue of gold
falling, gold "ere replaced b* sil)er as the measure of )alue, or if, instead of the )alue of sil)er
rising, gold "ere to thrust sil)er out from being the measure of )alue8 >n the one case, more sil)er
"ould be current than gold "as before; in the other case, less gold "ould be current than sil)er
"as before8 >n each case the )alue of the material of mone*, i8 e8, the )alue of the commodit* that
ser)es as the measure of )alue, "ould ha)e undergone a change, and therefore so, too, "ould the
prices of commodities "hich e9press their )alues in mone*, and so, too, "ould the Iuantit* of
mone* current "hose function it is to realise those prices8 Be ha)e alread* seen, that the sphere
of circulation has an opening through "hich gold (or the material of mone* generall*! enters into
it as a commodit* "ith a gi)en )alue8 -ence, "hen mone* enters on its functions as a measure of
)alue, "hen it e9presses prices, its )alue is alread* determined8 >f no" its )alue fall, this fact is
first e)idenced b* a change in the prices of those commodities that are directl* bartered for the
precious metals at the sources of their production8 'he greater part of all other commodities,
especiall* in the imperfectl* de)eloped stages of ci)il societ*, "ill continue for a long time to be
estimated b* the former antiIuated and illusor* )alue of the measure of )alue8 Ce)ertheless, one
commodit* infects another through their common )alue4relation, so that their prices, e9pressed in
gold or in sil)er, graduall* settle do"n into the proportions determined b* their comparati)e
)alues, until finall* the )alues of all commodities are estimated in terms of the ne" )alue of the
metal that constitutes mone*8 'his process is accompanied b* the continued increase in the
Iuantit* of the precious metals, an increase caused b* their streaming in to replace the articles
directl* bartered for them at their sources of production8 >n proportion therefore as commodities
in general acIuire their true prices, in proportion as their )alues become estimated according to
the fallen )alue of the precious metal, in the same proportion the Iuantit* of that metal necessar*
for realising those ne" prices is pro)ided beforehand8 ( one4sided obser)ation of the results that
71 5hapter :
follo"ed upon the disco)er* of fresh supplies of gold and sil)er, led some economists in the 17th,
and particularl* in the 18th centur*, to the false conclusion, that the prices of commodities had
gone up in conseIuence of the increased Iuantit* of gold and sil)er ser)ing as means of
circulation8 -enceforth "e shall consider the )alue of gold to be gi)en, as, in fact, it is
momentaril*, "hene)er "e estimate the price of a commodit*8
=n this supposition then, the Iuantit* of the medium of circulation is determined b* the sum of
the prices that ha)e to be realised8 >f no" "e further suppose the price of each commodit* to be
gi)en, the sum of the prices clearl* depends on the mass of commodities in circulation8 >t reIuires
but little rac+ing of brains to comprehend that if one Iuarter of "heat costs ]6,177 Iuarters "ill
cost ]677, 677 Iuarters ]77, and so on, that conseIuentl* the Iuantit* of mone* that changes
place "ith the "heat, "hen sold, must increase "ith the Iuantit* of that "heat8
>f the mass of commodities remain constant, the Iuantit* of circulating mone* )aries "ith the
fluctuations in the prices of those commodities8 >t increases and diminishes because the sum of
the prices increases or diminishes in conseIuence of the change of price8 'o produce this effect, it
is b* no means reIuisite that the prices of all commodities should rise or fall simultaneousl*8 (
rise or a fall in the prices of a number of leading articles, is sufficient in the one case to increase,
in the other to diminish, the sum of the prices of all commodities, and, therefore, to put more or
less mone* in circulation8 Bhether the change in the price correspond to an actual change of
)alue in the commodities, or "hether it be the result of mere fluctuations in mar+et4prices, the
effect on the Iuantit* of the medium of circulation remains the same8 Suppose the follo"ing
articles to be sold or partiall* metamorphosed simultaneousl* in different localities: sa*, one
Iuarter of "heat, 67 *ards of linen, one /ible, and gallons of brand*8 >f the price of each article
be ]6, and the sum of the prices to be realised be conseIuentl* ]8, it follo"s that ]8 in mone*
must go into circulation8 >f, on the other hand, these same articles are lin+s in the follo"ing chain
of metamorphoses: 1 Iuarter of "heat F ]6 F 67 *ards of linen F ]6 F 1 /ible F ]6 F gallons of
brand* F ]6, a chain that is alread* "ell +no"n to us, in that case the ]6 cause the different
commodities to circulate one after the other, and after realising their prices successi)el*, and
therefore the sum of those prices, ]8, the* come to rest at last in the poc+et of the distiller8 'he ]6
thus ma+e four mo)es8 'his repeated change of place of the same pieces of mone* corresponds to
the double change in form of the commodities, to their motion in opposite directions through t"o
stages of circulation8 and to the interlacing of the metamorphoses of different commodities8
62
'hese antithetic and complementar* phases, of "hich the process of metamorphosis consists, are
gone through, not simultaneousl*, but successi)el*8 'ime is therefore reIuired for the completion
of the series8 -ence the )elocit* of the currenc* of mone* is measured b* the number of mo)es
made b* a gi)en piece of mone* in a gi)en time8 Suppose the circulation of the articles ta+es a
da*8 'he sum of the prices to be realised in the da* is ]8, the number of mo)es of the t"o pieces
of mone* is four, and the Iuantit* of mone* circulating is ]68 -ence, for a gi)en inter)al of time
during the process of circulation, "e ha)e the follo"ing relation: the Iuantit* of mone*
functioning as the circulating medium is eIual to the sum of the prices of the commodities
di)ided b* the number of mo)es made b* coins of the same denomination8 'his la" holds
generall*8
'he total circulation of commodities in a gi)en countr* during a gi)en period is made up on the
one hand of numerous isolated and simultaneous partial metamorphoses, sales "hich are at the
same time purchases, in "hich each coin changes its place onl* once, or ma+es onl* one mo)e;
on the other hand, of numerous distinct series of metamorphoses partl* running side b* side, and
partl* coalescing "ith each other, in each of "hich series each coin ma+es a number of mo)es,
the number being greater or less according to circumstances8 'he total number of mo)es made b*
all the circulating coins of one denomination being gi)en, "e can arri)e at the a)erage number of
76 5hapter :
mo)es made b* a single coin of that denomination, or at the a)erage )elocit* of the currenc* of
mone*8 'he Iuantit* of mone* thro"n into the circulation at the beginning of each da* is of
course determined b* the sum of the prices of all the commodities circulating simultaneousl* side
b* side8 /ut once in circulation, coins are, so to sa*, made responsible for one another8 >f the one
increase its )elocit*, the other either retards its o"n, or altogether falls out of circulation; for the
circulation can absorb onl* such a Iuantit* of gold as "hen multiplied b* the mean number of
mo)es made b* one single coin or element, is eIual to the sum of the prices to be realised8 -ence
if the number of mo)es made b* the separate pieces increase, the total number of those pieces in
circulation diminishes8 >f the number of the mo)es diminish, the total number of pieces increases8
Since the Iuantit* of mone* capable of being absorbed b* the circulation is gi)en for a gi)en
mean )elocit* of currenc*, all that is necessar* in order to abstract a gi)en number of so)ereigns
from the circulation is to thro" the same number of one4pound notes into it, a tric+ "ell +no"n to
all ban+ers8
Lust as the currenc* of mone*, generall* considered, is but a refle9 of the circulation of
commodities, or of the antithetical metamorphoses the* undergo, so, too, the )elocit* of that
currenc* reflects the rapidit* "ith "hich commodities change their forms, the continued
interlacing of one series of metamorphoses "ith another, the hurried social interchange of matter,
the rapid disappearance of commodities from the sphere of circulation, and the eIuall* rapid
substitution of fresh ones in their places8 -ence, in the )elocit* of the currenc* "e ha)e the fluent
unit* of the antithetical and complementar* phases, the unit* of the con)ersion of the useful
aspect of commodities into their )alue4aspect, and their re4con)ersion from the latter aspect to the
former, or the unit* of the t"o processes of sale and purchase8 =n the other hand, the retardation
of the currenc* reflects the separation of these t"o processes into isolated antithetical phases,
reflects the stagnation in the change of form, and therefore, in the social interchange of matter8
'he circulation itself, of course, gi)es no clue to the origin of this stagnation; it merel* puts in
e)idence the phenomenon itself8 'he general public, "ho, simultaneousl* "ith the retardation of
the currenc*, see mone* appear and disappear less freIuentl* at the peripher* of circulation,
naturall* attribute this retardation to a Iuantitati)e deficienc* in the circulating medium8
:7
'he total Iuantit* of mone* functioning during a gi)en period as the circulating medium, is
determined, on the one hand, b* the sum of the prices of the circulating commodities, and on the
other hand, b* the rapidit* "ith "hich the antithetical phases of the metamorphoses follo" one
another8 =n this rapidit* depends "hat proportion of the sum of the prices can, on the a)erage, be
realised b* each single coin8 /ut the sum of the prices of the circulating commodities depends on
the Iuantit*, as "ell as on the prices, of the commodities8 'hese three factors, ho"e)er, state of
prices, Iuantit* of circulating commodities, and )elocit* of mone*4currenc*, are all )ariable8
-ence, the sum of the prices to be realised, and conseIuentl* the Iuantit* of the circulating
medium depending on that sum, "ill )ar* "ith the numerous )ariations of these three factors in
combination8 =f these )ariations "e shall consider those alone that ha)e been the most important
in the histor* of prices8
Bhile prices remain constant, the Iuantit* of the circulating medium ma* increase o"ing to the
number of circulating commodities increasing, or to the )elocit* of currenc* decreasing, or to a
combination of the t"o8 =n the other hand the Iuantit* of the circulating medium ma* decrease
"ith a decreasing number of commodities, or "ith an increasing rapidit* of their circulation8
Bith a general rise in the prices of commodities, the Iuantit* of the circulating medium "ill
remain constant, pro)ided the number of commodities in circulation decrease proportionall* to
the increase in their prices, or pro)ided the )elocit* of currenc* increase at the same rate as prices
rise, the number of commodities in circulation remaining constant8 'he Iuantit* of the circulating
7: 5hapter :
medium ma* decrease, o"ing to the number of commodities decreasing more rapidl*; or to the
)elocit* of currenc* rise8
Bith a general fall in the prices of commodities, the Iuantit* of the circulating medium "ill
remain constant, pro)ided the number of commodities increase proportionall* to their fall in
price, or pro)ided the )elocit* of currenc* decrease in the same proportion8 'he Iuantit* of the
circulating medium "ill increase, pro)ided the number of commodities increase Iuic+er, or the
rapidit* of circulation decrease Iuic+er, than the prices fall8
'he )ariations of the different factors ma* mutuall* compensate each other, so that
not"ithstanding their continued instabilit*, the sum of the prices to be realised and the Iuantit* of
mone* in circulation remain constant; conseIuentl*, "e find, especiall* if "e ta+e long periods
into consideration, that the de)iations from the a)erage le)el, of the Iuantit* of mone* current in
an* countr*, are much smaller than "e should at first sight e9pect, apart of course from e9cessi)e
perturbations periodicall* arising from industrial and commercial crises, or less freIuentl*, from
fluctuations in the )alue of mone*8
'he la", that the Iuantit* of the circulating medium is determined b* the sum of the prices of the
commodities circulating, and the a)erage )elocit* of currenc*
:1
ma* also be stated as follo"s:
gi)en the sum of the )alues of commodities, and the a)erage rapidit* of their metamorphoses, the
Iuantit* of precious metal current as mone* depends on the )alue of that precious metal8 'he
erroneous opinion that it is, on the contrar*, prices that are determined b* the Iuantit* of the
circulating medium, and that the latter depends on the Iuantit* of the precious metals in a
countr*;
:6
this opinion "as based b* those "ho first held it, on the absurd h*pothesis that
commodities are "ithout a price, and mone* "ithout a )alue, "hen the* first enter into
circulation, and that, once in the circulation, an aliIuot part of the medle* of commodities is
e9changed for an aliIuot part of the heap of precious metals8
::
C. Coin and #ym$ol# of value
'hat mone* ta+es the shape of coin, springs from its function as the circulating medium8 'he
"eight of gold represented in imagination b* the prices or mone*4names of commodities, must
confront those commodities, "ithin the circulation, in the shape of coins or pieces of gold of a
gi)en denomination8 5oining, li+e the establishment of a standard of prices, is the business of the
State8 'he different national uniforms "orn at home b* gold and sil)er as coins, and doffed again
in the mar+et of the "orld, indicate the separation bet"een the internal or national spheres of the
circulation of commodities, and their uni)ersal sphere8
'he onl* difference, therefore, bet"een coin and bullion, is one of shape, and gold can at an*
time pass from one form to the other8
:
/ut no sooner does coin lea)e the mint, than it
immediatel* finds itself on the high4road to the melting pot8 0uring their currenc*, coins "ear
a"a*, some more, others less8 Came and substance, nominal "eight and real "eight, begin their
process of separation8 5oins of the same denomination become different in )alue, because the*
are different in "eight8 'he "eight of gold fi9ed upon as the standard of prices, de)iates from the
"eight that ser)es as the circulating medium, and the latter thereb* ceases an* longer to be a real
eIui)alent of the commodities "hose prices it realises8 'he histor* of coinage during the middle
ages and do"n into the 18th centur*, records the e)er rene"ed confusion arising from this cause8
'he natural tendenc* of circulation to con)ert coins into a mere semblance of "hat the* profess
to be, into a s*mbol of the "eight of metal the* are officiall* supposed to contain, is recognised
b* modern legislation, "hich fi9es the loss of "eight sufficient to demonetise a gold coin, or to
ma+e it no longer legal tender8
7 5hapter :
'he fact that the currenc* of coins itself effects a separation bet"een their nominal and their real
"eight, creating a distinction bet"een them as mere pieces of metal on the one hand, and as coins
"ith a definite function on the other F this fact implies the latent possibilit* of replacing metallic
coins b* to+ens of some other material, b* s*mbols ser)ing the same purposes as coins8 'he
practical difficulties in the "a* of coining e9tremel* minute Iuantities of gold or sil)er, and the
circumstance that at first the less precious metal is used as a measure of )alue instead of the4more
precious, copper instead of sil)er, sil)er instead of gold, and that the less precious circulates as
mone* until dethroned b* the more precious F all these facts e9plain the parts historicall* pla*ed
b* sil)er and copper to+ens as substitutes for gold coins8 Sil)er and copper to+ens ta+e the place
of gold in those regions of the circulation "here coins pass from hand to hand most rapidl*, and
are subDect to the ma9imum amount of "ear and tear8 'his occurs "here sales and purchases on a
)er* small scale are continuall* happening8 >n order to pre)ent these satellites from establishing
themsel)es permanentl* in the place of gold, positi)e enactments determine the e9tent to "hich
the* must be compulsoril* recei)ed as pa*ment instead of gold8 'he particular trac+s pursued b*
the different species of coin in currenc*, run naturall* into each other8 'he to+ens +eep compan*
"ith gold, to pa* fractional parts of the smallest gold coin; gold is, on the one hand, constantl*
pouring into retail circulation, and on the other hand is as constantl* being thro"n out again b*
being changed into to+ens8
:3
'he "eight of metal in the sil)er and copper to+ens is arbitraril* fi9ed b* la"8 Bhen in currenc*,
the* "ear a"a* e)en more rapidl* than gold coins8 -ence their functions are totall* independent
of their "eight, and conseIuentl* of all )alue8 'he function of gold as coin becomes completel*
independent of the metallic )alue of that gold8 'herefore things that are relati)el* "ithout )alue,
such as paper notes, can ser)e as coins in its place8 'his purel* s*mbolic character is to a certain
e9tent mas+ed in metal to+ens8 >n paper mone* it stands out plainl*8 >n fact, ce n?est Iue le
premier pas Iui coSte8
Be allude here onl* to incon)ertible paper mone* issued b* the State and ha)ing compulsor*
circulation8 >t has its immediate origin in the metallic currenc*8 $one* based upon credit implies
on the other hand conditions, "hich, from our standpoint of the simple circulation of
commodities, are as *et totall* un+no"n to us8 /ut "e ma* affirm this much, that Dust as true
paper mone* ta+es its rise in the function of mone* as the circulating medium, so mone* based
upon credit ta+es root spontaneousl* in the function of mone* as the means of pa*ment8
:6
'he State puts in circulation bits of paper on "hich their )arious denominations, sa* ]1, ]3, Pc8,
are printed8 >n so far as the* actuall* ta+e the place of gold to the same amount, their mo)ement is
subDect to the la"s that regulate the currenc* of mone* itself8 ( la" peculiar to the circulation of
paper mone* can spring up onl* from the proportion in "hich that paper mone* represents gold8
Such a la" e9ists; stated simpl*, it is as follo"s: the issue of paper mone* must not e9ceed in
amount the gold (or sil)er as the case ma* be! "hich "ould actuall* circulate if not replaced b*
s*mbols8 Co" the Iuantit* of gold "hich the circulation can absorb, constantl*4fluctuates about a
gi)en le)el8 Still, the mass of the circulating medium in a gi)en countr* ne)er sin+s belo" a
certain minimum easil* ascertained b* actual e9perience8 'he fact that this minimum mass
continuall* undergoes changes in its constituent parts, or that the pieces of gold of "hich it
consists are being constantl* replaced b* fresh ones, causes of course no change either in its
amount or in the continuit* of its circulation8 >t can therefore be replaced b* paper s*mbols8 >f, on
the other hand, all the conduits of circulation "ere to4da* filled "ith paper mone* to the full
e9tent of their capacit* for absorbing mone*, the* might to4morro" be o)erflo"ing in
conseIuence of a fluctuation in the circulation of commodities8 'here "ould no longer be an*
standard8 >f the paper mone* e9ceed its proper limit, "hich is the amount in gold coins of the li+e
denomination that can actuall* be current, it "ould, apart from the danger of falling into general
73 5hapter :
disrepute, represent onl* that Iuantit* of gold, "hich, in accordance "ith the la"s of the
circulation of commodities, is reIuired, and is alone capable of being represented b* paper8 >f the
Iuantit* of paper mone* issued be double "hat it ought to be, then, as a matter of fact, ]1 "ould
be the mone*4name not of 1J of an ounce, but of 1J8 of an ounce of gold8 'he effect "ould be
the same as if an alteration had ta+en place in the function of gold as a standard of prices8 'hose
)alues that "ere pre)iousl* e9pressed b* the price of ]1 "ould no" be e9pressed b* the price of
]68
#aper mone* is a to+en representing gold or mone*8 'he relation bet"een it and the )alues of
commodities is this, that the latter are ideall* e9pressed in the same Iuantities of gold that are
s*mbolicall* represented b* the paper8 =nl* in so far as paper mone* represents gold, "hich li+e
all other commodities has )alue, is it a s*mbol of )alue8
:7
Finall*, some one ma* as+ "h* gold is capable of being replaced b* to+ens that ha)e no )alueE
/ut, as "e ha)e alread* seen, it is capable of being so replaced onl* in so far as it functions
e9clusi)el* as coin, or as the circulating medium, and as nothing else8 Co", mone* has other
functions besides this one, and the isolated function of ser)ing as the mere circulating medium is
not necessaril* the onl* one attached to gold coin, although this is the case "ith those abraded
coins that continue to circulate8 Each piece of mone* is a mere coin, or means of circulation, onl*
so long as it actuall* circulates8 /ut this is Dust the case "ith that minimum mass of gold, "hich is
capable of being replaced b* paper mone*8 'hat mass remains constantl* "ithin the sphere of
circulation, continuall* functions as a circulating medium, and e9ists e9clusi)el* for that purpose8
>ts mo)ement therefore represents nothing but the continued alternation of the in)erse phases of
the metamorphosis 5F$F5, phases in "hich commodities confront their )alue4forms, onl* to
disappear again immediatel*8 'he independent e9istence of the e9change4)alue of a commodit* is
here a transient apparition, b* means of "hich the commodit* is immediatel* replaced b* another
commodit*8 -ence, in this process "hich continuall* ma+es mone* pass from hand to hand, the
mere s*mbolical e9istence of mone* suffices8 >ts functional e9istence absorbs, so to sa*, its
material e9istence8 /eing a transient and obDecti)e refle9 of the prices of commodities, it ser)es
onl* as a s*mbol of itself, and is therefore capable of being replaced b* a to+en8
:8
=ne thing is,
ho"e)er, reIuisite; this to+en must ha)e an obDecti)e social )alidit* of its o"n, and this the paper
s*mbol acIuires b* its forced currenc*8 'his compulsor* action of the State can ta+e effect onl*
"ithin that inner sphere of circulation "hich is coterminous "ith the territories of the communit*,
but it is also onl* "ithin that sphere that mone* completel* responds to its function of being the
circulating medium, or becomes coin8
Section *: $one
'he commodit* that functions as a measure of )alue, and, either in its o"n person or b* a
representati)e, as the medium of circulation, is mone*8 Gold (or sil)er! is therefore mone*8 >t
functions as mone*, on the one hand, "hen it has to be present in its o"n golden person8 >t is then
the mone*4commodit*, neither merel* ideal, as in its function of a measure of )alue, nor capable
of being represented, as in its function of circulating medium8 =n the other hand, it also functions
as mone*, "hen b* )irtue of its function, "hether that function be performed in person or b*
representati)e, it congeals into the sole form of )alue, the onl* adeIuate form of e9istence of
e9change4)alue, in opposition to use4)alue, represented b* all other commodities8
A. %oardin&
'he continual mo)ement in circuits of the t"o antithetical metamorphoses of commodities, or the
ne)er ceasing alternation of sale and purchase, is reflected in the restless currenc* of mone*, or in
76 5hapter :
the function that mone* performs of a perpetuum mobile of circulation8 /ut so soon as the series
of metamorphoses is interrupted, so soon as sales are not supplemented b* subseIuent purchases,
mone* ceases to be mobilised; it is transformed, as /oisguillebert sa*s, from @meubleA into
@immeuble,A from mo)able into immo)able, from coin into mone*8
Bith the )er* earliest de)elopment of the circulation of commodities, there is also de)eloped the
necessit*, and the passionate desire, to hold fast the product of the first metamorphosis8 'his
product is the transformed shape of the commodit*, or its gold4chr*salis8
:2
5ommodities are thus
sold not for the purpose of bu*ing others, but in order to replace their commodit*4form b* their
mone*4form8 From being the mere means of effecting the circulation of commodities, this change
of form becomes the end and aim8 'he changed form of the commodit* is thus pre)ented from
functioning as its unconditionall* alienable form, or as its merel* transient mone*4form8 'he
mone* becomes petrified into a hoard, and the seller becomes a hoarder of mone*8
>n the earl* stages of the circulation of commodities, it is the surplus use4)alues alone that are
con)erted into mone*8 Gold and sil)er thus become of themsel)es social e9pressions for
superfluit* or "ealth8 'his nai)e form of hoarding becomes perpetuated in those communities in
"hich the traditional mode of production is carried on for the suppl* of a fi9ed and limited circle
of home "ants8 >t is thus "ith the people of (sia, and particularl* of the East >ndies8 ;anderlint,
"ho fancies that the prices of commodities in a countr* are determined b* the Iuantit* of gold
and sil)er to be found in it, as+s himself "h* >ndian commodities are so cheap8 (ns"er: /ecause
the -indus bur* their mone*8 From 1676 to 17:, he remar+s, the* buried 137 millions of pounds
sterling of sil)er, "hich originall* came from (merica to Europe8
7
>n the 17 *ears from 1836 to
1866, England e9ported to >ndia and 5hina ]167,777,777 in sil)er, "hich had been recei)ed in
e9change for (ustralian gold8 $ost of the sil)er e9ported to 5hina ma+es its "a* to >ndia8
(s the production of commodities further de)elops, e)er* producer of commodities is compelled8
to ma+e sure of the ne9us rerum or the social pledge8
1
-is "ants are constantl* ma+ing
themsel)es felt, and necessitate the continual purchase of other people?s commodities, "hile the
production and sale of his o"n goods reIuire time, and depend upon circumstances8 >n order then
to be able to bu* "ithout selling, he must ha)e sold pre)iousl* "ithout bu*ing8 'his operation,
conducted on a general scale, appears to impl* a contradiction8 /ut the precious metals at the
sources of their production are directl* e9changed for other commodities8 (nd here "e ha)e sales
(b* the o"ners of commodities! "ithout purchases (b* the o"ners of gold or sil)er!8
6
(nd
subseIuent sales, b* other producers, unfollo"ed b* purchases, merel* bring about the
distribution of the ne"l* produced precious metals among all the o"ners of commodities8 >n this
"a*, all along the line of e9change, hoards of gold and sil)er of )aried e9tent are accumulated8
Bith the possibilit* of holding and storing up e9change4)alue in the shape of a particular
commodit*, arises also the greed for gold8 (long "ith the e9tension of circulation, increases the
po"er of mone*, that absolutel* social form of "ealth e)er read* for use8 @Gold is a "onderful
thingQ Bhoe)er possesses it is lord of all he "ants8 /* means of gold one can e)en get souls into
#aradise8A (5olumbus in his letter from Lamaica, 137:8! Since gold does not disclose "hat has
been transformed into it, e)er*thing, commodit* or not, is con)ertible into gold8 E)er*thing
becomes saleable and bu*able8 'he circulation becomes the great social retort into "hich
e)er*thing is thro"n, to come out again as a gold4cr*stal8 Cot e)en are the bones of saints, and
still less are more delicate res sacrosanctae, e9tra commercium hominum able to "ithstand this
alchem*8
:
Lust as e)er* Iualitati)e difference bet"een commodities is e9tinguished in mone*, so
mone*, on its side, li+e the radical le)eller that it is, does a"a* "ith all distinctions8
:a
/ut mone*
itself is a commodit*, an e9ternal obDect, capable of becoming the pri)ate propert* of an*
indi)idual8 'hus social po"er becomes the pri)ate po"er of pri)ate persons8 'he ancients
therefore denounced mone* as sub)ersi)e of the economic and moral order of things8
:b
$odern
77 5hapter :
societ*, "hich, soon after its birth, pulled #lutus b* the hair of his head from the bo"els of the
earth,
greets gold as its -ol* Grail, as the glittering incarnation of the )er* principle of its o"n
life8
( commodit*, in its capacit* of a use4)alue, satisfies a particular "ant, and is a particular element
of material "ealth8 /ut the )alue of a commodit* measures the degree of its attraction for all
other elements of material "ealth, and therefore measures the social "ealth of its o"ner8 'o a
barbarian o"ner of commodities, and e)en to a Best4European peasant, )alue is the same as
)alue4form, and therefore8 to him the increase in his hoard of gold and sil)er is an increase in
)alue8 >t is true that the )alue of mone* )aries, at one time in conseIuence of a )ariation in its
o"n )alue, at another, in conseIuence of a change in the )alues of commodities8 /ut this, on the
one hand, does not pre)ent 677 ounces of gold from still containing more )alue than 177 ounces,
nor, on the other hand, does it hinder the actual metallic form of this article from continuing to be
the uni)ersal eIui)alent form of all other commodities, and the immediate social incarnation of
all human labour8 'he desire after hoarding is in its )er* nature unsatiable8 >n its Iualitati)e
aspect, or formall* considered, mone* has no bounds to its efficac*, i$e8, it is the uni)ersal
representati)e of material "ealth, because it is directl* con)ertible into an* other commodit*8
/ut, at the same time, e)er* actual sum of mone* is limited in amount, and, therefore, as a means
of purchasing, has onl* a limited efficac*8 'his antagonism bet"een the Iuantitati)e limits of
mone* and its Iualitati)e boundlessness, continuall* acts as a spur to the hoarder in his Sis*phus4
li+e labour of accumulating8 >t is "ith him as it is "ith a conIueror "ho sees in e)er* ne"
countr* anne9ed, onl* a ne" boundar*8
>n order that gold ma* be held as mone*, and made to form a hoard, it must be pre)ented from
circulating, or from transforming itself into a means of enDo*ment8 'he hoarder, therefore, ma+es
a sacrifice of the lusts of the flesh to his gold fetish8 -e acts in earnest up to the Gospel of
abstention8 =n the other hand, he can "ithdra" from circulation no more than "hat he has thro"n
into it in the shape of commodities8 'he more he produces, the more he is able to sell8 -ard "or+,
sa)ing, and a)arice are, therefore, his three cardinal )irtues, and to sell much and bu* little the
sum of his political econom*8
3
/* the side of the gross form of a hoard, "e find also its aesthetic form in the possession of gold
and sil)er articles8 'his gro"s "ith the "ealth of ci)il societ*8 @So*ons riches ou paraissons
richesA (0iderot!8
>n this "a* there is created, on the one hand, a constantl* e9tending mar+et for gold and sil)er,
unconnected "ith their functions as mone*, and, on the other hand, a latent source of suppl*, to
"hich recourse is had principall* in times of crisis and social disturbance8
-oarding ser)es )arious purposes in the econom* of the metallic circulation8 >ts first function
arises out of the conditions to "hich the currenc* of gold and sil)er coins is subDect8 Be ha)e
seen ho", along "ith the continual fluctuations in the e9tent and rapidit* of the circulation of
commodities and in their prices, the Iuantit* of mone* current unceasingl* ebbs and flo"s8 'his
mass must, therefore, be capable of e9pansion and contraction8 (t one time mone* must be
attracted in order to act as circulating coin, at another, circulating coin must be repelled in order
to act again as more or less stagnant mone*8 >n order that the mass of mone*, actuall* current,
ma* constantl* saturate the absorbing po"er of the circulation, it is necessar* that the Iuantit* of
gold and sil)er in a countr* be greater than the Iuantit* reIuired to function as coin8 'his
condition is fulfilled b* mone* ta+ing the form of hoards8 'hese reser)es ser)e as conduits for the
suppl* or "ithdra"al of mone* to or from the circulation, "hich in this "a* ne)er o)erflo"s its
ban+s8
6
78 5hapter :
B. Mean# of 'ayment
>n the simple form of the circulation of commodities hitherto considered, "e found a gi)en )alue
al"a*s presented to us in a double shape, as a commodit* at one pole, as mone* at the opposite
pole8 'he o"ners of commodities came therefore into contact as the respecti)e representati)es of
"hat "ere alread* eIui)alents8 /ut "ith the de)elopment of circulation, conditions arise under
"hich the alienation of commodities becomes separated, b* an inter)al of time, from the
realisation of their prices8 >t "ill be sufficient to indicate the most simple of these conditions8 =ne
sort of article reIuires a longer, another a shorter time for its production8 (gain, the production of
different commodities depends on different seasons of the *ear8 =ne sort of commodit* ma* be
born on its o"n mar+et place, another has to ma+e a long Dourne* to mar+et8 5ommodit*4o"ner
Co8 1, ma* therefore be read* to sell, before Co8 6 is read* to bu*8 Bhen the same transactions
are continuall* repeated bet"een the same persons, the conditions of sale are regulated in
accordance "ith the conditions of production8 =n the other hand, the use of a gi)en commodit*,
of a house, for instance, is sold (in common parlance, let! for a definite period8 -ere, it is onl* at
the end of the term that the bu*er has actuall* recei)ed the use4)alue of the commodit*8 -e
therefore bu*s it before he pa*s for it8 'he )endor sells an e9isting commodit*, the purchaser
bu*s as the mere representati)e of mone*, or rather of future mone*8 'he )endor becomes a
creditor, the purchaser becomes a debtor8 Since the metamorphosis of commodities, or the
de)elopment of their )alue4form, appears here under a ne" aspect, mone* also acIuires a fresh
function; it becomes the means of pa*ment8
'he character of creditor, or of debtor, results here from the simple circulation8 'he change in the
form of that circulation stamps bu*er and seller "ith this ne" die8 (t first, therefore, these ne"
parts are Dust as transient and alternating as those of seller and bu*er, and are in turns pla*ed b*
the same actors8 /ut the opposition is not nearl* so pleasant, and is far more capable of
cr*stallisation8
7
'he same characters can, ho"e)er, be assumed independentl* of the circulation
of commodities8 'he class4struggles of the ancient "orld too+ the form chiefl* of a contest
bet"een debtors and creditors, "hich in &ome ended in the ruin of the plebeian debtors8 'he*
"ere displaced b* sla)es8 >n the middle ages the contest ended "ith the ruin of the feudal debtors,
"ho lost their political po"er together "ith the economic basis on "hich it "as established8
Ce)ertheless, the mone* relation of debtor and creditor that e9isted at these t"o periods reflected
onl* the deeper4l*ing antagonism bet"een the general economic conditions of e9istence of the
classes in Iuestion8
<et us return to the circulation of commodities8 'he appearance of the t"o eIui)alents,
commodities and mone*, at the t"o poles of the process of sale, has ceased to be simultaneous8
'he mone* functions no", first as a measure of )alue in the determination of the price of the
commodit* sold; the price fi9ed b* the contract measures the obligation of the debtor, or the sum
of mone* that he has to pa* at a fi9ed date8 Secondl*, it ser)es as an ideal means of purchase8
(lthough e9isting onl* in the promise of the bu*er to pa*, it causes the commodit* to change
hands8 >t is not before the da* fi9ed for pa*ment that the means of pa*ment actuall* steps into
circulation, lea)es the hand of the bu*er for that of the seller8 'he circulating medium "as
transformed into a hoard, because the process stopped short after the first phase, because the
con)erted shape of the commodit*, )i18, the mone*, "as "ithdra"n from circulation8 'he means
of pa*ment enters the circulation, but onl* after the commodit* has left it8 'he mone* is no
longer the means that brings about the process8 >t onl* brings it to a close, b* stepping in as the
absolute form of e9istence of e9change4)alue, or as the uni)ersal commodit*8 'he seller turned
his commodit* into mone*, in order thereb* to satisf* some "ant, the hoarder did the same in
order to +eep his commodit* in its mone*4shape, and the debtor in order to be able to pa*; if he
72 5hapter :
do not pa*, his goods "ill be sold b* the sheriff8 'he )alue4form of commodities, mone*, is
therefore no" the end and aim of a sale, and that o"ing to a social necessit* springing out of the
process of circulation itself8
'he bu*er con)erts mone* bac+ into commodities before he has turned commodities into mone*:
in other "ords, he achie)es the second metamorphosis of commodities before the first8 'he
seller?s commodit* circulates, and realises its price, but onl* in the shape of a legal claim upon
mone*8 >t is con)erted into a use4)alue before it has been con)erted into mone*8 'he completion
of its first metamorphosis follo"s onl* at a later period8
8
'he obligations falling due "ithin a gi)en period, represent the sum of the prices of the
commodities, the sale of "hich ga)e rise to those obligations8 'he Iuantit* of gold necessar* to
realise this sum, depends, in the first instance, on the rapidit* of currenc* of the means of
pa*ment8 'hat Iuantit* is conditioned b* t"o circumstances: first the relations bet"een debtors
and creditors form a sort of chain, in such a "a* that (, "hen he recei)es mone* from his debtor
/, straight"a* hands it o)er to 5 his creditor, and so on; the second circumstance is the length of
the inter)als bet"een the different due4da*s of the obligations8 'he continuous chain of pa*ments,
or retarded first metamorphoses, is essentiall* different from that interlacing of the series of
metamorphoses "hich "e considered on a former page8 /* the currenc* of the circulating
medium, the conne9ion bet"een bu*ers and sellers, is not merel* e9pressed8 'his conne9ion is
originated b*, and e9ists in, the circulation alone8 5ontrari"ise, the mo)ement of the means of
pa*ment e9presses a social relation that "as in e9istence long before8
'he fact that a number of sales ta+e place simultaneousl*, and side b* side, limits the e9tent to
"hich coin can be replaced b* the rapidit* of currenc*8 =n the other hand, this fact is a ne" le)er
in economising the means of pa*ment8 >n proportion as pa*ments are concentrated at one spot,
special institutions and methods are de)eloped for their liIuidation8 Such in the middle ages "ere
the virements at <*ons8 'he debts due to ( from /, to / from 5, to 5 from (, and so on, ha)e
onl* to be confronted "ith each other, in order to annul each other to a certain e9tent li+e positi)e
and negati)e Iuantities8 'here thus remains onl* a single balance to pa*8 'he greater the amount
of the pa*ments concentrated, the less is this balance relati)el* to that amount, and the less is the
mass of the means of pa*ment in circulation8
'he function of mone* as the means of pa*ment implies a contradiction "ithout a terminus
medius8 >n so far as the pa*ments balance one another, mone* functions onl* ideall* as mone* of
account, as a measure of )alue8 >n so far as actual pa*ments ha)e to be made, mone* does not
ser)e as a circulating medium, as a mere transient agent in the interchange of products, but as the
indi)idual incarnation of social labour, as the independent form of e9istence of e9change4)alue,
as the uni)ersal commodit*8 'his contradiction comes to a head in those phases of industrial and
commercial crises "hich are +no"n as monetar* crises8
2
Such a crisis occurs onl* "here the
e)er4lengthening chain of pa*ments, and an artificial s*stem of settling them, has been full*
de)eloped8 Bhene)er there is a general and e9tensi)e disturbance of this mechanism, no matter
"hat its cause, mone* becomes suddenl* and immediatel* transformed, from its merel* ideal
shape of mone* of account, into hard cash8 #rofane commodities can no longer replace it8 'he
use4)alue of commodities becomes )alueless, and their )alue )anishes in the presence of its o"n
independent form8 =n the e)e of the crisis, the bourgeois, "ith the self4sufficienc* that springs
from into9icating prosperit*, declares mone* to be a )ain imagination8 5ommodities alone are
mone*8 /ut no" the cr* is e)er*"here: mone* alone is a commodit*Q (s the hart pants after fresh
"ater, so pants his soul after mone*, the onl* "ealth8
37
>n a crisis, the antithesis bet"een
commodities and their )alue4form, mone*, becomes heightened into an absolute contradiction8
-ence, in such e)ents, the form under "hich mone* appears is of no importance8 'he mone*
87 5hapter :
famine continues, "hether pa*ments ha)e to be made in gold or in credit mone* such as ban+4
notes8
31
>f "e no" consider the sum total of the mone* current during a gi)en period, "e shall find that,
gi)en the rapidit* of currenc* of the circulating medium and of the means of pa*ment, it is eIual
to the sum of the prices to be realised, plus the sum of the pa*ments falling due, minus the
pa*ments that balance each other, minus finall* the number of circuits in "hich the same piece of
coin ser)es in turn as means of circulation and of pa*ment8 -ence, e)en "hen prices, rapidit* of
currenc*, and the e9tent of the econom* in pa*ments, are gi)en, the Iuantit* of mone* current
and the mass of commodities circulating during a gi)en period, such as a da*, no longer
correspond8 $one* that represents commodities long "ithdra"n from circulation, continues to be
current8 5ommodities circulate, "hose eIui)alent in mone* "ill not appear on the scene till some
future da*8 $oreo)er, the debts contracted each da*, and the pa*ments falling due on the same
da*, are Iuite incommensurable Iuantities8
36
5redit4mone* springs directl* out of the function of mone* as a means of pa*ment8 5ertificates
of the debts o"ing for the purchased commodities circulate for the purpose of transferring those
debts to others8 =n the other hand, to the same e9tent as the s*stem of credit is e9tended, so is the
function of mone* as a means of pa*ment8 >n that character it ta+es )arious forms peculiar to
itself under "hich it ma+es itself at home in the sphere of great commercial transactions8 Gold
and sil)er coin, on the other hand, are mostl* relegated to the sphere of retail trade8
3:
Bhen the production of commodities has sufficientl* e9tended itself, mone* begins to ser)e as
the means of pa*ment be*ond the sphere of the circulation of commodities8 >t becomes the
commodit* that is the uni)ersal subDect4matter of all contracts8
3
&ents, ta9es, and such li+e
pa*ments are transformed from pa*ments in +ind into mone* pa*ments8 'o "hat e9tent this
transformation depends upon the general conditions of production, is sho"n, to ta+e one e9ample,
b* the fact that the &oman Empire t"ice failed in its attempt to le)* all contributions in mone*8
'he unspea+able miser* of the French agricultural population under <ouis O>;8, a miser* so
eloIuentl* denounced b* /oisguillebert, $arshal ;auban, and others, "as due not onl* to the
"eight of the ta9es, but also to the con)ersion of ta9es in +ind into mone* ta9es8
33
>n (sia, on the
other hand, the fact that state ta9es are chiefl* composed of rents pa*able in +ind, depends on
conditions of production that are reproduced "ith the regularit* of natural phenomena8 (nd this
mode of pa*ment tends in its turn to maintain the ancient form of production8 >t is one of the
secrets of the conser)ation of the =ttoman Empire8 >f the foreign trade, forced upon Lapan b*
Europeans, should lead to the substitution of mone* rents for rents in +ind, it "ill be all up "ith
the e9emplar* agriculture of that countr*8 'he narro" economic conditions under "hich that
agriculture is carried on, "ill be s"ept a"a*8
>n e)er* countr*, certain da*s of the *ear become b* habit recognised settling da*s for )arious
large and recurrent pa*ments8 'hese dates depend, apart from other re)olutions in the "heel of
reproduction, on conditions closel* connected "ith the seasons8 'he* also regulate the dates for
pa*ments that ha)e no direct conne9ion "ith the circulation of commodities such as ta9es, rents,
and so on8 'he Iuantit* of mone* reIuisite to ma+e the4pa*ments, falling due on those dates all
o)er the countr*, causes periodical, though merel* superficial, perturbations in the econom* of
the medium of pa*ment8
36
From the la" of the rapidit* of currenc* of the means of pa*ment, it follo"s that the Iuantit* of
the means of pa*ment reIuired for all periodical pa*ments, "hate)er their source, is in in)erse
37
proportion to the length of their periods8
38
'he de)elopment of mone* into a medium of pa*ment ma+es it necessar* to accumulate mone*
against the dates fi9ed for the pa*ment of the sums o"ing8 Bhile hoarding, as a distinct mode of
81 5hapter :
acIuiring riches, )anishes "ith the progress of ci)il societ*, the formation of reser)es of the
means of pa*ment gro"s "ith that progress8
C. (niver#al Money
Bhen mone* lea)es the home sphere of circulation, it strips off the local garbs "hich it there
assumes, of a standard of prices, of coin, of to+ens, and of a s*mbol of )alue, and returns to its
original form of bullion8 >n the trade bet"een the mar+ets of the "orld, the )alue of commodities
is e9pressed so as to be uni)ersall* recognised8 -ence their independent )alue4form also, in these
cases, confronts them under the shape of uni)ersal mone*8 >t is onl* in the mar+ets of the "orld
that mone* acIuires to the full e9tent the character of the commodit* "hose bodil* form is also
the immediate social incarnation of human labour in the abstract8 >ts real mode of e9istence in this
sphere adeIuatel* corresponds to its ideal concept8
Bithin the sphere of home circulation, there can be but one commodit* "hich, b* ser)ing as a
measure of )alue, becomes mone*8 >n the mar+ets of the "orld a double measure of )alue holds
s"a*, gold and sil)er8
32
$one* of the "orld ser)es as the uni)ersal medium of pa*ment, as the uni)ersal means of
purchasing, and as the uni)ersall* recognised embodiment of all "ealth8 >ts function as a means
of pa*ment in the settling of international balances is its chief one8 -ence the "atch"ord of the
mercantilists, balance of trade8
67
Gold and sil)er ser)e as international means of purchasing
chiefl* and necessaril* in those periods "hen the customar* eIuilibrium in the interchange of
products bet"een different nations is suddenl* disturbed8 (nd lastl*, it ser)es as the uni)ersall*
recognised embodiment of social "ealth, "hene)er the Iuestion is not of bu*ing or pa*ing, but of
transferring "ealth from one countr* to another, and "hene)er this transference in the form of
commodities is rendered impossible, either b* special conDunctures in the mar+ets or b* the
purpose itself that is intended8
61
Lust as e)er* countr* needs a reser)e of mone* for its home circulation so, too, it reIuires one for
e9ternal circulation in the mar+ets of the "orld8 'he functions of hoards, therefore, arise in part
out of the function of mone*, as the medium of the home circulation and home pa*ments, and in
part out of its function of mone* of the "orld8
66
For this latter function, the genuine mone*4
commodit*, actual gold and sil)er, is necessar*8 =n that account, Sir Lames Steuart, in order to
distinguish them from their purel* local substitutes, calls gold and sil)er @mone* of the "orld8A
'he current of the stream of gold and sil)er is a double one8 =n the one hand, it spreads itself
from its sources o)er all the mar+ets of the "orld, in order to become absorbed, to )arious
e9tents, into the different national spheres of circulation, to fill the conduits of currenc*, to
replace abraded gold and sil)er coins, to suppl* the material of articles of lu9ur*, and to petrif*
into hoards8
6:
'his first current is started b* the countries that e9change their labour, realised in
commodities, for the labour embodied in the precious metals b* gold and sil)er4producing
countries8 =n the other hand, there is a continual flo"ing bac+"ards and for"ards of gold and
sil)er bet"een the different national spheres of circulation, a current "hose motion depends on
the ceaseless fluctuations in the course of e9change8
6
5ountries in "hich the bourgeois form of production is de)eloped to a certain e9tent, limit the
hoards concentrated in the strong rooms of the ban+s to the minimum reIuired for the proper
performance of their peculiar functions8
63
Bhene)er these hoards are stri+ingl* abo)e their
a)erage le)el, it is, "ith some e9ceptions, an indication of stagnation in the circulation of
commodities, of an interruption in the e)en flo" of their metamorphoses8
66
86 5hapter :
Part 2: Transformation of Money
into Capital
Chapter 4: The General Formula for Capital
'he circulation of commodities is the starting4point of capital8 'he production of commodities,
their circulation, and that more de)eloped form of their circulation called commerce, these form
the historical ground4"or+ from "hich it rises8 'he modern histor* of capital dates from the
creation in the 16th centur* of a "orld4embracing commerce and a "orld4embracing mar+et8
>f "e abstract from the material substance of the circulation of commodities, that is, from the
e9change of the )arious use4)alues, and consider onl* the economic forms produced b* this
process of circulation, "e find its final result to be mone*: this final product of the circulation of
commodities is the first form in "hich capital appears8
(s a matter of histor*, capital, as opposed to landed propert*, in)ariabl* ta+es the form at first of
mone*; it appears as mone*ed "ealth, as the capital of the merchant and of the usurer8
1
/ut "e
ha)e no need to refer to the origin of capital in order to disco)er that the first form of appearance
of capital is mone*8 Be can see it dail* under our )er* e*es8 (ll ne" capital, to commence "ith,
comes on the stage, that is, on the mar+et, "hether of commodities, labour, or mone*, e)en in our
da*s, in the shape of mone* that b* a definite process has to be transformed into capital8
'he first distinction "e notice bet"een mone* that is mone* onl*, and mone* that is capital, is
nothing more than a difference in their form of circulation8
'he simplest form of the circulation of commodities is 54$45, the transformation of
commodities into mone*, and the change of the mone* bac+ again into commodities; or selling in
order to bu*8 /ut alongside of this form "e find another specificall* different form: $454$, the
transformation of mone* into commodities, and the change of commodities bac+ again into
mone*; or bu*ing in order to sell8 $one* that circulates in the latter manner is thereb*
transformed into, becomes capital, and is alread* potentiall* capital8
Co" let us e9amine the circuit $454$ a little closer8 >t consists, li+e the other, of t"o antithetical
phases8 >n the first phase, $45, or the purchase, the mone* is changed into a commodit*8 >n the
second phase, 54$, or the sale, the commodit* is changed bac+ again into mone*8 'he
combination of these t"o phases constitutes the single mo)ement "hereb* mone* is e9changed
for a commodit*, and the same commodit* is again e9changed for mone*; "hereb* a commodit*
is bought in order to be sold, or, neglecting the distinction in form bet"een bu*ing and selling,
"hereb* a commodit* is bought "ith mone*, and then mone* is bought "ith a commodit*8
6
'he
result, in "hich the phases of the process )anish, is the e9change of mone* for mone*, $4$8 >f >
purchase 6,777 lbs8 of cotton for ]177, and resell the 6,777 lbs8 of cotton for ]117, > ha)e, in fact,
e9changed ]177 for ]117, mone* for mone*8
Co" it is e)ident that the circuit $454$ "ould be absurd and "ithout meaning if the intention
"ere to e9change b* this means t"o eIual sums of mone*, ]177 for ]1778 'he miser?s plan
"ould be far simpler and surer; he stic+s to his ]177 instead of e9posing it to the dangers of
8 5hapter
circulation8 (nd *et, "hether the merchant "ho has paid ]177 for his cotton sells it for ]117, or
lets it go for ]177, or e)en ]37, his mone* has, at all e)ents, gone through a characteristic and
original mo)ement, Iuite different in +ind from that "hich it goes through in the hands of the
peasant "ho sells corn, and "ith the mone* thus set free bu*s clothes8 Be ha)e therefore to
e9amine first the distinguishing characteristics of the forms of the circuits $454$ and 54$45,
and in doing this the real difference that underlies the mere difference of form "ill re)eal itself8
<et us see, in the first place, "hat the t"o forms ha)e in common8
/oth circuits are resol)able into the same t"o antithetical phases, 54$, a sale, and $45, a
purchase8 >n each of these phases the same material elements 4 a commodit*, and mone*, and the
same economic dramatis personae, a bu*er and a seller 4 confront one another8 Each circuit is the
unit* of the same t"o antithetical phases, and in each case this unit* is brought about b* the
inter)ention of three contracting parties, of "hom one onl* sells, another onl* bu*s, "hile the
third both bu*s and sells8
Bhat, ho"e)er, first and foremost distinguishes the circuit 54$45 from the circuit $454$, is the
in)erted order of succession of the t"o phases8 'he simple circulation of commodities begins
"ith a sale and ends "ith a purchase, "hile the circulation of mone* as capital begins "ith a
purchase and ends "ith a sale8 >n the one case both the starting4point and the goal are
commodities, in the other the* are mone*8 >n the first form the mo)ement is brought about b* the
inter)ention of mone*, in the second b* that of a commodit*8
>n the circulation 54$45, the mone* is in the end con)erted into a commodit*, that ser)es as a
use4)alue; it is spent once for all8 >n the in)erted form, $454$, on the contrar*, the bu*er la*s out
mone* in order that, as a seller, he ma* reco)er mone*8 /* the purchase of his commodit* he
thro"s mone* into circulation, in order to "ithdra" it again b* the sale of the same commodit*8
-e lets the mone* go, but onl* "ith the sl* intention of getting it bac+ again8 'he mone*,
therefore, is not spent, it is merel* ad)anced8
:
>n the circuit 54$45, the same piece of mone* changes its place t"ice8 'he seller gets it from the
bu*er and pa*s it a"a* to another seller8 'he complete circulation, "hich begins "ith the receipt,
concludes "ith the pa*ment, of mone* for commodities8 >t is the )er* contrar* in the circuit $454
$8 -ere it is not the piece of mone* that changes its place t"ice, but the commodit*8 'he bu*er
ta+es it from the hands of the seller and passes it into the hands of another bu*er8 Lust as in the
simple circulation of commodities the double change of place of the same piece of mone* effects
its passage from one hand into another, so here the double change of place of the same
commodit* brings about the reflu9 of the mone* to its point of departure8
Such reflu9 is not dependent on the commodit* being sold for more than "as paid for it8 'his
circumstance influences onl* the amount of the mone* that comes bac+8 'he reflu9 itself ta+es
place, so soon as the purchased commodit* is resold, in other "ords, so soon as the circuit $454
$ is completed8 Be ha)e here, therefore, a palpable difference bet"een the circulation of mone*
as capital, and its circulation as mere mone*8
'he circuit 54$45 comes completel* to an end, so soon as the mone* brought in b* the sale of
one commodit* is abstracted again b* the purchase of another8
>f, ne)ertheless, there follo"s a reflu9 of mone* to its starting4point, this can onl* happen through
a rene"al or repetition of the operation8 >f > sell a Iuarter of corn for ]:, and "ith this ]: bu*
clothes, the mone*, so far as > am concerned, is spent and done "ith8 >t belongs to the clothes
merchant8 >f > no" sell a second Iuarter of corn, mone* indeed flo"s bac+ to me, not ho"e)er as
a seIuel to the first transaction, but in conseIuence of its repetition8 'he mone* again lea)es me,
so soon as > complete this second transaction b* a fresh purchase8 'herefore, in the circuit 54$4
5, the e9penditure of mone* has nothing to do "ith its reflu98 =n the other hand, in $454$, the
83 5hapter
reflu9 of the mone* is conditioned b* the )er* mode of its e9penditure8 Bithout this reflu9, the
operation fails, or the process is interrupted and incomplete, o"ing to the absence of its
complementar* and final phase, the sale8
'he circuit 54$45 starts "ith one commodit*, and finishes "ith another, "hich falls out of
circulation and into consumption8 5onsumption, the satisfaction of "ants, in one "ord, use4)alue,
is its end and aim8 'he circuit $454$, on the contrar*, commences "ith mone* and ends "ith
mone*8 >ts leading moti)e, and the goal that attracts it, is therefore mere e9change4)alue8
>n the simple circulation of commodities, the t"o e9tremes of the circuit ha)e the same economic
form8 'he* are both commodities, and commodities of eIual )alue8 /ut the* are also use4)alues
differing in their Iualities, as, for e9ample, corn and clothes8 'he e9change of products, of the
different materials in "hich the labour of societ* is embodied, forms here the basis of the
mo)ement8 >t is other"ise in the circulation $454$, "hich at first sight appears purposeless,
because tautological8 /oth e9tremes ha)e the same economic form8 'he* are both mone*, and
therefore are not Iualitati)el* different use4)alues; for mone* is but the con)erted form of
commodities, in "hich their particular use4)alues )anish8 'o e9change ]177 for cotton, and then
this same cotton again for ]177, is merel* a roundabout "a* of e9changing mone* for mone*, the
same for the same, and appears to be an operation Dust as purposeless as it is absurd8
=ne sum of
mone* is distinguishable from another onl* b* its amount8 'he character and tendenc* of the
process $454$, is therefore not due to an* Iualitati)e difference bet"een its e9tremes, both
being mone*, but solel* to their Iuantitati)e difference8 $ore mone* is "ithdra"n from
circulation at the finish than "as thro"n into it at the start8 'he cotton that "as bought for ]177 is
perhaps resold for ]177 _ ]17 or ]1178 'he e9act form of this process is therefore $454$U, "here
$U Y $ _ 0 $ Y the original sum ad)anced, plus an increment8 'his increment or e9cess o)er the
original )alue > call @surplus )alue8A 'he )alue originall* ad)anced, therefore, not onl* remains
intact "hile in circulation, but adds to itself a surplus )alue or e9pands itself8 >t is this mo)ement
that con)erts it into capital8
=f course, it is also possible, that in 54$45, the t"o e9tremes 545, sa* corn and clothes, ma*
represent different Iuantities of )alue8 'he farmer ma* sell his corn abo)e its )alue, or ma* bu*
the clothes at less than their )alue8 -e ma*, on the other hand, @be doneA b* the clothes merchant8
Net, in the form of circulation no" under consideration, such differences in )alue are purel*
accidental8 'he fact that the corn and the clothes are eIui)alents, does not depri)e the process of
all meaning, as it does in $454$8 'he eIui)alence of their )alues is rather a necessar* condition
to its normal course8
'he repetition or rene"al of the act of selling in order to bu*, is +ept "ithin bounds b* the )er*
obDect it aims at, namel*, consumption or the satisfaction of definite "ants, an aim that lies
altogether outside the sphere of circulation8 /ut "hen "e bu* in order to sell, "e, on the contrar*,
begin and end "ith the same thing, mone*, e9change4)alue; and thereb* the mo)ement becomes
interminable8 Co doubt, $ becomes $ _ 0 $, ]177 become ]1178 /ut "hen )ie"ed in their
Iualitati)e aspect alone, ]117 are the same as ]177, namel* mone*; and considered
Iuantitati)el*, ]117 is, li+e ]177, a sum of definite and limited )alue8 >f no", the ]117 be spent as
mone*, the* cease to pla* their part8 'he* are no longer capital8 Bithdra"n from circulation, the*
become petrified into a hoard, and though the* remained in that state till doomsda*, not a single
farthing "ould accrue to them8 >f, then, the e9pansion of )alue is once aimed at, there is Dust the
same inducement to augment the )alue of the ]117 as that of the ]177; for both are but limited
e9pressions for e9change4)alue, and therefore both ha)e the same )ocation to approach, b*
Iuantitati)e increase, as near as possible to absolute "ealth8 $omentaril*, indeed, the )alue
originall* ad)anced, the ]177 is distinguishable from the surplus )alue of ]17 that is anne9ed to it
86 5hapter
during circulation; but the distinction )anishes immediatel*8 (t the end of the process, "e do not
recei)e "ith one hand the original ]177, and "ith the other, the surplus )alue of ]178 Be simpl*
get a )alue of ]117, "hich is in e9actl* the same condition and fitness for commencing the
e9panding process, as the original ]177 "as8 $one* ends the mo)ement onl* to begin it again8
3
'herefore, the final result of e)er* separate circuit, in "hich a purchase and conseIuent sale are
completed, forms of itself the starting4point of a ne" circuit8 'he simple circulation of
commodities 4 selling in order to bu* 4 is a means of carr*ing out a purpose unconnected "ith
circulation, namel*, the appropriation of use4)alues, the satisfaction of "ants8 'he circulation of
mone* as capital is, on the contrar*, an end in itself, for the e9pansion of )alue ta+es place onl*
"ithin this constantl* rene"ed mo)ement8 'he circulation of capital has therefore no limits8
6
(s the conscious representati)e of this mo)ement, the possessor of mone* becomes a capitalist8
-is person, or rather his poc+et, is the point from "hich the mone* starts and to "hich it returns8
'he e9pansion of )alue, "hich is the obDecti)e basis or main4spring of the circulation $454$,
becomes his subDecti)e aim, and it is onl* in so far as the appropriation of e)er more and more
"ealth in the abstract becomes the sole moti)e of his operations, that he functions as a capitalist,
that is, as capital personified and endo"ed "ith consciousness and a "ill8 %se4)alues must
therefore ne)er be loo+ed upon as the real aim of the capitalist;
7
neither must the profit on an*
single transaction8 'he restless ne)er4ending process of profit4ma+ing alone is "hat he aims at8
8
'his boundless greed after riches, this passionate chase after e9change4)alue
2
, is common to the
capitalist and the miser; but "hile the miser is merel* a capitalist gone mad, the capitalist is a
rational miser8 'he ne)er4ending augmentation of e9change4)alue, "hich the miser stri)es after,
b* see+ing to sa)e
17
his mone* from circulation, is attained b* the more acute capitalist, b*
constantl* thro"ing it afresh into circulation8
11
'he independent form, i$e$, the mone*4form, "hich the )alue of commodities assumes in the case
of simple circulation, ser)es onl* one purpose, namel*, their e9change, and )anishes in the final
result of the mo)ement8 =n the other hand, in the circulation $454$, both the mone* and the
commodit* represent onl* different modes of e9istence of )alue itself, the mone* its general
mode, and the commodit* its particular, or, so to sa*, disguised mode8
16
>t is constantl* changing
from one form to the other "ithout thereb* becoming lost, and thus assumes an automaticall*
acti)e character8 >f no" "e ta+e in turn each of the t"o different forms "hich self4e9panding
)alue successi)el* assumes in the course of its life, "e then arri)e at these t"o propositions:
5apital is mone*: 5apital is commodities8
1:
>n truth, ho"e)er, )alue is here the acti)e factor in a
process, in "hich, "hile constantl* assuming the form in turn of mone* and commodities, it at
the same time changes in magnitude, differentiates itself b* thro"ing off surplus )alue from
itself; the original )alue, in other "ords, e9pands spontaneousl*8 For the mo)ement, in the course
of "hich it adds surplus )alue, is its o"n mo)ement, its e9pansion, therefore, is automatic
e9pansion8 /ecause it is )alue, it has acIuired the occult Iualit* of being able to add )alue to
itself8 >t brings forth li)ing offspring, or, at the least, la*s golden eggs8
;alue, therefore, being the acti)e factor in such a process, and assuming at one time the form of
mone*, at another that of commodities, but through all these changes preser)ing itself and
e9panding, it reIuires some independent form, b* means of "hich its identit* ma* at an* time be
established8 (nd this form it possesses onl* in the shape of mone*8 >t is under the form of mone*
that )alue begins and ends, and begins again, e)er* act of its o"n spontaneous generation8 >t
began b* being ]177, it is no" ]117, and so on8 /ut the mone* itself is onl* one of the t"o forms
of )alue8 %nless it ta+es the form of some commodit*, it does not become capital8 'here is here
no antagonism, as in the case of hoarding, bet"een the mone* and commodities8 'he capitalist
+no"s that all commodities, ho"e)er scur)* the* ma* loo+, or ho"e)er badl* the* ma* smell,
87 5hapter
are in faith and in truth mone*, in"ardl* circumcised Le"s, and "hat is more, a "onderful means
"hereb* out of mone* to ma+e more mone*8
>n simple circulation, 54$45, the )alue of commodities attained at the most a form independent
of their use4)alues, i$e$, the form of mone*; but that same )alue no" in the circulation $454$, or
the circulation of capital, suddenl* presents itself as an independent substance, endo"ed "ith a
motion of its o"n, passing through a life4process of its o"n, in "hich mone* and commodities
are mere forms "hich it assumes and casts off in turn8 Ca*, more: instead of simpl* representing
the relations of commodities, it enters no", so to sa*, into pri)ate relations "ith itself8 >t
differentiates itself as original )alue from itself as surplus )alue; as the father differentiates
himself from himself Iua the son, *et both are one and of one age: for onl* b* the surplus )alue
of ]17 does the ]177 originall* ad)anced become capital, and so soon as this ta+es place, so soon
as the son, and b* the son, the father, is begotten, so soon does their difference )anish, and the*
again become one, ]1178
;alue therefore no" becomes )alue in process, mone* in process, and, as such, capital8 >t comes
out of circulation, enters into it again, preser)es and multiplies itself "ithin its circuit, comes
bac+ out of it "ith e9panded bul+, and begins the same round e)er afresh8
1
$4$U, mone* "hich
begets mone*, such is the description of 5apital from the mouths of its first interpreters, the
$ercantilists8
/u*ing in order to sell, or, more accuratel*, bu*ing in order to sell dearer, $454$U, appears
certainl* to be a form peculiar to one +ind of capital alone, namel*, merchants? capital8 /ut
industrial capital too is mone*, that is changed into commodities, and b* the sale of these
commodities, is re4con)erted into more mone*8 'he e)ents that ta+e place outside the sphere of
circulation, in the inter)al bet"een the bu*ing and selling, do not affect the form of this
mo)ement8 <astl*, in the case of interest4bearing capital, the circulation $454$U appears
abridged8 Be ha)e its result "ithout the intermediate stage, in the form $4$U, @en st*le lapidaireA
so to sa*, mone* that is "orth more mone*, )alue that is greater than itself8
$454$U is therefore in realit* the general formula of capital as it appears prima facie "ithin the
sphere of circulation8
Chapter 5: Contradictions in the General
Formula of Capital
'he form "hich circulation ta+es "hen mone* becomes capital, is opposed to all the la"s "e
ha)e hitherto in)estigated bearing on the nature of commodities, )alue and mone*, and e)en of
circulation itself8 Bhat distinguishes this form from that of the simple circulation of commodities,
is the in)erted order of succession of the t"o antithetical processes, sale and purchase8 -o" can
this purel* formal distinction bet"een these processes change their character as it "ere b* magicE
/ut that is not all8 'his in)ersion has no e9istence for t"o out of the three persons "ho transact
business together8 (s capitalist, > bu* commodities from ( and sell them again to /, but as a
simple o"ner of commodities, > sell them to / and then purchase fresh ones from (8 ( and / see
no difference bet"een the t"o sets of transactions8 'he* are merel* bu*ers or sellers8 (nd > on
each occasion meet them as a mere o"ner of either mone* or commodities, as a bu*er or a seller,
and, "hat is more, in both sets of transactions, > am opposed to ( onl* as a bu*er and to / onl* as
a seller, to the one onl* as mone*, to the other onl* as commodities, and to neither of them as
capital or a capitalist, or as representati)e of an*thing that is more than mone* or commodities, or
that can produce an* effect be*ond "hat mone* and commodities can8 For me the purchase from
( and the sale to / are part of a series8 /ut the conne9ion bet"een the t"o acts e9ists for me
alone8 ( does not trouble himself about m* transaction "ith /, nor does / about m* business
"ith (8 (nd if > offered to e9plain to them the meritorious nature of m* action in in)erting the
order of succession, the* "ould probabl* point out to me that > "as mista+en as to that order of
succession, and that the "hole transaction, instead of beginning "ith a purchase and ending "ith
a sale, began, on the contrar*, "ith a sale and "as concluded "ith a purchase8 >n truth, m* first
act, the purchase, "as from the standpoint of (, a sale, and m* second act, the sale, "as from the
standpoint of /, a purchase8 Cot content "ith that, ( and / "ould declare that the "hole series
"as superfluous and nothing but -o+us #o+us; that for the future ( "ould bu* direct from /, and
/ sell direct to (8 'hus the "hole transaction "ould be reduced to a single act forming an
isolated, non4complemented phase in the ordinar* circulation of commodities, a mere sale from
(?s point of )ie", and from /?s, a mere purchase8 'he in)ersion, therefore, of the order of
succession, does not ta+e us outside the sphere of the simple circulation of commodities, and "e
must rather loo+, "hether there is in this simple circulation an*thing permitting an e9pansion of
the )alue that enters into circulation, and, conseIuentl*, a creation of surplus )alue8
<et us ta+e the process of circulation in a form under "hich it presents itself as a simple and
direct e9change of commodities8 'his is al"a*s the case "hen t"o o"ners of commodities bu*
from each other, and on the settling da* the amounts mutuall* o"ing are eIual and cancel each
other8 'he mone* in this case is mone* of account and ser)es to e9press the )alue of the
commodities b* their prices, but is not, itself, in the shape of hard cash, confronted "ith them8 So
far as regards use4)alues, it is clear that both parties ma* gain some ad)antage8 /oth part "ith
goods that, as use4)alues, are of no ser)ice to them, and recei)e others that the* can ma+e use of8
(nd there ma* also be a further gain8 (, "ho sells "ine and bu*s corn, possibl* produces more
"ine, "ith gi)en labour4time, than farmer / could, and / on the other hand, more corn than
"ine4gro"er ( could8 (, therefore, ma* get, for the same e9change4)alue, more corn, and / more
"ine, than each "ould respecti)el* get "ithout an* e9change b* producing his o"n corn and
82 5hapter 3
"ine8 Bith reference, therefore, to use4)alue, there is good ground for sa*ing that @e9change is a
transaction b* "hich both sides gain8A
1
>t is other"ise "ith e9change4)alue8 @( man "ho has
plent* of "ine and no corn treats "ith a man "ho has plent* of corn and no "ine; an e9change
ta+es place bet"een them of corn to the )alue of 37, for "ine of the same )alue8 'his act
produces no increase of e9change4)alue either for the one or the other; for each of them alread*
possessed, before the e9change, a )alue eIual to that "hich he acIuired b* means of that
operation8A
6
'he result is not altered b* introducing mone*, as a medium of circulation, bet"een
the commodities, and ma+ing the sale and the purchase t"o distinct acts8
:
'he )alue of a
commodit* is e9pressed in its price before it goes into circulation, and is therefore a precedent
condition of circulation, not its result8
(bstractedl* considered, that is, apart from circumstances not immediatel* flo"ing from the la"s
of the simple circulation of commodities, there is in an e9change nothing (if "e e9cept the
replacing of one use4)alue b* another! but a metamorphosis, a mere change in the form of the
commodit*8 'he same e9change4)alue, i8e8, the same Iuantit* of incorporated social labour,
remains throughout in the hands of the o"ner of the commodit*, first in the shape of his o"n
commodit*, then in the form of the mone* for "hich he e9changed it, and lastl*, in the shape of
the commodit* he bu*s "ith that mone*8 'his change of form does not impl* a change in the
magnitude of the )alue8 /ut the change, "hich the )alue of the commodit* undergoes in this
process, is limited to a change in its mone*4form8 'his form e9ists first as the price of the
commodit* offered for sale, then as an actual sum of mone*, "hich, ho"e)er, "as alread*
e9pressed in the price, and lastl*, as the price of an eIui)alent commodit*8 'his change of form
no more implies, ta+en alone, a change in the Iuantit* of )alue, than does the change of a ]3 note
into so)ereigns, half so)ereigns and shillings8 So far therefore as the circulation of commodities
effects a change in the form alone of their )alues, and is free from disturbing influences, it must
be the e9change of eIui)alents8 <ittle as ;ulgar4Econom* +no"s about the nature of )alue, *et
"hene)er it "ishes to consider the phenomena of circulation in their purit*, it assumes that suppl*
and demand are eIual, "hich amounts to this, that their effect is nil8 >f therefore, as regards the
use4)alues e9changed, both bu*er and seller ma* possibl* gain something, this is not the case as
regards the e9change4)alues8 -ere "e must rather sa*, @Bhere eIualit* e9ists there can be no
gain8A
3
>t is true, commodities ma* be sold at prices de)iating from their )alues, but these
de)iations are to be considered as infractions of the la"s of the e9change of commodities
6
, "hich
in its normal state is an e9change of eIui)alents, conseIuentl*, no method for increasing )alue8
7
-ence, "e see that behind all attempts to represent the circulation of commodities as a source of
surplus )alue, there lur+s a &uid pro &uo, a mi9ing up of use4)alue and e9change4)alue8 For
instance, 5ondillac sa*s: @>t is not true that on an e9change of commodities "e gi)e )alue for
)alue8 =n the contrar*, each of the t"o contracting parties in e)er* case, gi)es a less for a greater
)alue8 888 >f "e reall* e9changed eIual )alues, neither part* could ma+e a profit8 (nd *et, the*
both gain, or ought to gain8 Bh*E 'he )alue of a thing consists solel* in its relation to our "ants8
Bhat is more to the one is less to the other, and vice vers%8 888 >t is not to be assumed that "e offer
for sale articles reIuired for our o"n consumption8 888 Be "ish to part "ith a useless thing, in
order to get one that "e need; "e "ant to gi)e less for more8 888 >t "as natural to thin+ that, in an
e9change, )alue "as gi)en for )alue, "hene)er each of the articles e9changed "as of eIual )alue
"ith the same Iuantit* of gold8 888 /ut there is another point to be considered in our calculation8
'he Iuestion is, "hether "e both e9change something superfluous for something necessar*8A
8
Be see in this passage, ho" 5ondillac not onl* confuses use4)alue "ith e9change4)alue, but in a
reall* childish manner assumes, that in a societ*, in "hich the production of commodities is "ell
de)eloped, each producer produces his o"n means of subsistence, and thro"s into circulation
onl* the e9cess o)er his o"n reIuirements
2
Still, 5ondillac?s argument is freIuentl* used b*
27 5hapter 3
modern economists, more especiall* "hen the point is to sho", that the e9change of commodities
in its de)eloped form, commerce, is producti)e of surplus )alue8 For instance, @5ommerce 888
adds )alue to products, for the same products in the hands of consumers, are "orth more than in
the hands of producers, and it ma* strictl* be considered an act of production8A
17
/ut
commodities are not paid for t"ice o)er, once on account of their use4)alue, and again on account
of their )alue8 (nd though the use4)alue of a commodit* is more ser)iceable to the bu*er than to
the seller, its mone*4form is more ser)iceable to the seller8 Bould he other"ise sell itE Be might
therefore Dust as "ell sa* that the bu*er performs @strictl* an act of production,A b* con)erting
stoc+ings, for e9ample, into mone*8
>f commodities, or commodities and mone*, of eIual e9change4)alue, and conseIuentl*
eIui)alents, are e9changed, it is plain that no one abstracts more )alue from, than he thro"s into,
circulation8 'here is no creation of surplus )alue8 (nd, in its normal form, the circulation of
commodities demands the e9change of eIui)alents8 /ut in actual practice, the process does not
retain its normal form8 <et us, therefore, assume an e9change of non4eIui)alents8
>n an* case the mar+et for commodities is onl* freIuented b* o"ners of commodities, and the
po"er "hich these persons e9ercise o)er each other, is no other than the po"er of their
commodities8 'he material )ariet* of these commodities is the material incenti)e to the act of
e9change, and ma+es bu*ers and sellers mutuall* dependent, because none of them possesses the
obDect of his o"n "ants, and each holds in his hand the obDect of another?s "ants8 /esides these
material differences of their use4)alues, there is onl* one other difference bet"een commodities,
namel*, that bet"een their bodil* form and the form into "hich the* are con)erted b* sale, the
difference bet"een commodities and mone*8 (nd conseIuentl* the o"ners of commodities are
distinguishable onl* as sellers, those "ho o"n commodities, and bu*ers, those "ho o"n mone*8
Suppose then, that b* some ine9plicable pri)ilege, the seller is enabled to sell his commodities
abo)e their )alue, "hat is "orth 177 for 117, in "hich case the price is nominall* raised 17`8
'he seller therefore poc+ets a surplus )alue of 178 /ut after he has sold he becomes a bu*er8 (
third o"ner of commodities comes to him no" as seller, "ho in this capacit* also enDo*s the
pri)ilege of selling his commodities 17` too dear8 =ur friend gained 17 as a seller onl* to lose it
again as a bu*er8
11
'he net result is, that all o"ners of commodities sell their goods to one another
at 17` abo)e their )alue, "hich comes precisel* to the same as if the* sold them at their true
)alue8 Such a general and nominal rise of prices has the same effect as if the )alues had been
e9pressed in "eight of sil)er instead of in "eight of gold8 'he nominal prices of commodities
"ould rise, but the real relation bet"een their )alues "ould remain unchanged8
<et us ma+e the opposite assumption, that the bu*er has the pri)ilege of purchasing commodities
under their )alue8 >n this case it is no longer necessar* to bear in mind that he in his turn "ill
become a seller8 -e "as so before he became bu*er; he had alread* lost 17` in selling before he
gained 17` as bu*er8
16
E)er*thing is Dust as it "as8
'he creation of surplus )alue, and therefore the con)ersion of mone* into capital, can
conseIuentl* be e9plained neither on the assumption that commodities are sold abo)e their )alue,
nor that the* are bought belo" their )alue8
1:
'he problem is in no "a* simplified b* introducing irrele)ant matters after the manner of 5ol8
'orrens: @Effectual demand consists in the po"er and inclination (Q!, on the part of consumers, to
gi)e for commodities, either b* immediate or circuitous barter, some greater portion of 888 capital
than their production costs8A
1
>n relation to circulation, producers and consumers meet onl* as
bu*ers and sellers8 'o assert that the surplus )alue acIuired b* the producer has its origin in the
fact that consumers pa* for commodities more than their )alue, is onl* to sa* in other "ords: 'he
o"ner of commodities possesses, as a seller, the pri)ilege of selling too dear8 'he seller has
21 5hapter 3
himself produced the commodities or represents their producer, but the bu*er has to no less e9tent
produced the commodities represented b* his mone*, or represents their producer8 'he distinction
bet"een them is, that one bu*s and the other sells8 'he fact that the o"ner of the commodities,
under the designation of producer, sells them o)er their )alue, and under the designation of
consumer, pa*s too much for them, does not carr* us a single step further8
13
'o be consistent therefore, the upholders of the delusion that surplus )alue has its origin in a
nominal rise of prices or in the pri)ilege "hich the seller has of selling too dear, must assume the
e9istence of a class that onl* bu*s and does not sell, i8e8, onl* consumes and does not produce8
'he e9istence of such a class is ine9plicable from the standpoint "e ha)e so far reached, )i18, that
of simple circulation8 /ut let us anticipate8 'he mone* "ith "hich such a class is constantl*
ma+ing purchases, must constantl* flo" into their poc+ets, "ithout an* e9change, gratis, b*
might or right, from the poc+ets of the commodit*4o"ners themsel)es8 'o sell commodities abo)e
their )alue to such a class, is onl* to crib bac+ again a part of the mone* pre)iousl* gi)en to it8
16
'he to"ns of (sia $inor thus paid a *earl* mone* tribute to ancient &ome8 Bith this mone*
&ome purchased from them commodities, and purchased them too dear8 'he pro)incials cheated
the &omans, and thus got bac+ from their conIuerors, in the course of trade, a portion of the
tribute8 Net, for all that, the conIuered "ere the reall* cheated8 'heir goods "ere still paid for
"ith their o"n mone*8 'hat is not the "a* to get rich or to create surplus )alue8
<et us therefore +eep "ithin the bounds of e9change "here sellers are also bu*ers, and bu*ers,
sellers8 =ur difficult* ma* perhaps ha)e arisen from treating the actors as personifications instead
of as indi)iduals8
( ma* be cle)er enough to get the ad)antage of / or 5 "ithout their being able to retaliate8 (
sells "ine "orth ]7 to /, and obtains from him in e9change corn to the )alue of ]378 ( has
con)erted his ]7 into ]37, has made more mone* out of less, and has con)erted his commodities
into capital8 <et us e9amine this a little more closel*8 /efore the e9change "e had ]7 "orth of
"ine in the hands of (, and ]37 "orth of corn in those of /, a total )alue of ]278 (fter the
e9change "e ha)e still the same total )alue of ]278 'he )alue in circulation has not increased b*
one iota, it is onl* distributed differentl* bet"een ( and /8 Bhat is a loss of )alue to / is surplus
)alue to (; "hat is @minusA to one is @plusA to the other8 'he same change "ould ha)e ta+en
place, if (, "ithout the formalit* of an e9change, had directl* stolen the ]17 from /8 'he sum of
the )alues in circulation can clearl* not be augmented b* an* change in their distribution, an*
more than the Iuantit* of the precious metals in a countr* b* a Le" selling a Kueen (nne?s
farthing for a guinea8 'he capitalist class, as a "hole, in an* countr*, cannot o)er4reach
themsel)es8
17
'urn and t"ist then as "e ma*, the fact remains unaltered8 >f eIui)alents are e9changed, no
surplus )alue results, and if non4eIui)alents are e9changed, still no surplus )alue8
18
5irculation,
or the e9change of commodities, begets no )alue8
12
'he reason is no" therefore plain "h*, in anal*sing the standard form of capital, the form under
"hich it determines the economic organisation of modern societ*, "e entirel* left out of
consideration its most popular, and, so to sa*, antedilu)ian forms, merchants? capital and mone*4
lenders? capital8
'he circuit $454$, bu*ing in order to sell dearer, is seen most clearl* in genuine merchants?
capital8 /ut the mo)ement ta+es place entirel* "ithin the sphere of circulation8 Since, ho"e)er, it
is impossible, b* circulation alone, to account for the con)ersion of mone* into capital, for the
formation of surplus )alue, it "ould appear, that merchants? capital is an impossibilit*, so long as
eIui)alents are e9changed;
67
that, therefore, it can onl* ha)e its origin in the t"o4fold ad)antage
gained, o)er both the selling and the bu*ing producers, b* the merchant "ho parasiticall* sho)es
26 5hapter 3
himself in bet"een them8 >t is in this sense that Fran+lin sa*s, @"ar is robber*, commerce is
generall* cheating8A
61
>f the transformation of merchants? mone* into capital is to be e9plained
other"ise than b* the producers being simpl* cheated, a long series of intermediate steps "ould
be necessar*, "hich, at present, "hen the simple circulation of commodities forms our onl*
assumption, are entirel* "anting8
Bhat "e ha)e said "ith reference to merchants? capital, applies still more to
mone*4lenders? capital8 >n merchants? capital, the t"o e9tremes, the mone* that is
thro"n upon the mar+et, and the augmented mone* that is "ithdra"n from the
mar+et, are at least connected b* a purchase and a sale, in other "ords b* the
mo)ement of the circulation8 >n mone*4lenders? capital the form $454$ is
reduced to the t"o e9tremes "ithout a mean, $4$ , mone* e9changed for more
mone*, a form that is incompatible "ith the nature of mone*, and therefore
remains ine9plicable from the standpoint of the circulation of commodities8 -ence
(ristotle: @since chrematistic is a double science, one part belonging to
commerce, the other to economic, the latter being necessar* and praise"orth*, the
former based on circulation and "ith Dustice disappro)ed (for it is not based on
Cature, but on mutual cheating!, therefore the usurer is most rightl* hated,
because mone* itself is the source of his gain, and is not used for the purposes for
"hich it "as in)ented8 For it originated for the e9change of commodities, but
interest ma+es out of mone*, more mone*8 -ence its name (abcb\ interest and
offspring!8 For the begotten are li+e those "ho beget them8 /ut interest is mone*
of mone*, so that of all modes of ma+ing a li)ing, this is the most contrar* to
Cature8A
66
>n the course of our in)estigation, "e shall find that both merchants? capital and interest4bearing
capital are deri)ati)e forms, and at the same time it "ill become clear, "h* these t"o forms
appear in the course of histor* before the modern standard form of capital8
Be ha)e sho"n that surplus )alue cannot be created b* circulation, and, therefore, that in its
formation, something must ta+e place in the bac+ground, "hich is not apparent in the circulation
itself8
6:
/ut can surplus )alue possibl* originate an*"here else than in circulation, "hich is the
sum total of all the mutual relations of commodit*4o"ners, as far as the* are determined b* their
commoditiesE (part from circulation, the commodit*4o"ner is in relation onl* "ith his o"n
commodit*8 So far as regards )alue, that relation is limited to this, that the commodit* contains a
Iuantit* of his o"n labour, that Iuantit* being measured b* a definite social standard8 'his
Iuantit* is e9pressed b* the )alue of the commodit*, and since the )alue is rec+oned in mone* of
account, this Iuantit* is also e9pressed b* the price, "hich "e "ill suppose to be ]178 /ut his
labour is not represented both b* the )alue of the commodit*, and b* a surplus o)er that )alue,
not b* a price of 17 that is also a price of 11, not b* a )alue that is greater than itself8 'he
commodit* o"ner can, b* his labour, create )alue, but not self4e9panding )alue8 -e can increase
the )alue of his commodit*, b* adding fresh labour, and therefore more )alue to the )alue in
hand, b* ma+ing, for instance, leather into boots8 'he same material has no" more )alue, because
it contains a greater Iuantit* of labour8 'he boots ha)e therefore more )alue than the leather, but
the )alue of the leather remains "hat it "as; it has not e9panded itself, has not, during the ma+ing
of the boots, anne9ed surplus )alue8 >t is therefore impossible that outside the sphere of
circulation, a producer of commodities can, "ithout coming into contact "ith other commodit*4
o"ners, e9pand )alue, and conseIuentl* con)ert mone* or commodities into capital8
2: 5hapter 3
>t is therefore impossible for capital to be produced b* circulation, and it is eIuall* impossible for
it to originate apart from circulation8 >t must ha)e its origin both in circulation and *et not in
circulation8
Be ha)e, therefore, got a double result8
'he con)ersion of mone* into capital has to be e9plained on the basis of the la"s that regulate the
e9change of commodities, in such a "a* that the starting4point is the e9change of eIui)alents8
6
=ur friend, $one*bags, "ho as *et is onl* an embr*o capitalist, must bu* his commodities at
their )alue, must sell them at their )alue, and *et at the end of the process must "ithdra" more
)alue from circulation than he thre" into it at starting8 -is de)elopment into a full4gro"n
capitalist must ta+e place, both "ithin the sphere of circulation and "ithout it8 'hese are the
conditions of the problem8 *ic Rhodus+ hic salta!
63
Chapter 6: The Buying and Selling of Labour-
Power
'he change of )alue that occurs in the case of mone* intended to be con)erted into capital, cannot
ta+e place in the mone* itself, since in its function of means of purchase and of pa*ment, it does
no more than realise the price of the commodit* it bu*s or pa*s for; and, as hard cash, it is )alue
petrified, ne)er )ar*ing8
1
Lust as little can it originate in the second act of circulation, the re4sale
of the commodit*, "hich does no more than transform the article from its bodil* form bac+ again
into its mone*4form8 'he change must, therefore, ta+e place in the commodit* bought b* the first
act, $45, but not in its )alue, for eIui)alents are e9changed, and the commodit* is paid for at its
full )alue8 Be are, therefore, forced to the conclusion that the change originates in the use4)alue,
as such, of the commodit*, i8e8, in its consumption8 >n order to be able to e9tract )alue from the
consumption of a commodit*, our friend, $one*bags, must be so luc+* as to find, "ithin the
sphere of circulation, in the mar+et, a commodit*, "hose use4)alue possesses the peculiar
propert* of being a source of )alue, "hose actual consumption, therefore, is itself an embodiment
of labour, and, conseIuentl*, a creation of )alue8 'he possessor of mone* does find on the mar+et
such a special commodit* in capacit* for labour or labour4po"er8
/* labour4po"er or capacit* for labour is to be understood the aggregate of those mental and
ph*sical capabilities e9isting in a human being, "hich he e9ercises "hene)er he produces a use4
)alue of an* description8
/ut in order that our o"ner of mone* ma* be able to find labour4po"er offered for sale as a
commodit*, )arious conditions must first be fulfilled8 'he e9change of commodities of itself
implies no other relations of dependence than those "hich, result from its o"n nature8 =n this
assumption, labour4po"er can appear upon the mar+et as a commodit*, onl* if, and so far as, its
possessor, the indi)idual "hose labour4po"er it is, offers it for sale, or sells it, as a commodit*8 >n
order that he ma* be able to do this, he must ha)e it at his disposal, must be the untrammelled
o"ner of his capacit* for labour, i8e8, of his person8
6
-e and the o"ner of mone* meet in the
mar+et, and deal "ith each other as on the basis of eIual rights, "ith this difference alone, that
one is bu*er, the other seller; both, therefore, eIual in the e*es of the la"8 'he continuance of this
relation demands that the o"ner of the labour4po"er should sell it onl* for a definite period, for if
he "ere to sell it rump and stump, once for all, he "ould be selling himself, con)erting himself
from a free man into a sla)e, from an o"ner of a commodit* into a commodit*8 -e must
constantl* loo+ upon his labour4po"er as his o"n propert*, his o"n commodit*, and this he can
onl* do b* placing it at the disposal of the bu*er temporaril*, for a definite period of time8 /* this
means alone can he a)oid renouncing his rights of o"nership o)er it8
:
'he second essential condition to the o"ner of mone* finding labour4po"er in the mar+et as a
commodit* is this F that the labourer instead of being in the position to sell commodities in "hich
his labour is incorporated, must be obliged to offer for sale as a commodit* that )er* labour4
po"er, "hich e9ists onl* in his li)ing self8
>n order that a man ma* be able to sell commodities other than labour4po"er, he must of course
ha)e the means of production, as ra" material, implements, Pc8 Co boots can be made "ithout
leather8 -e reIuires also the means of subsistence8 Cobod* F not e)en @a musician of the futureA
23 5hapter 6
F can li)e upon future products, or upon use4)alues in an unfinished state; and e)er since the first
moment of his appearance on the "orld?s stage, man al"a*s has been, and must still be a
consumer, both before and "hile he is producing8 >n a societ* "here all products assume the form
of commodities, these commodities must be sold after the* ha)e been produced, it is onl* after
their sale that the* can ser)e in satisf*ing the reIuirements of their producer8 'he time necessar*
for their sale is superadded to that necessar* for their production8
For the con)ersion of his mone* into capital, therefore, the o"ner of mone* must meet in the
mar+et "ith the free labourer, free in the double sense, that as a free man he can dispose of his
labour4po"er as his o"n commodit*, and that on the other hand he has no other commodit* for
sale, is short of e)er*thing necessar* for the realisation of his labour4po"er8
'he Iuestion "h* this free labourer confronts him in the mar+et, has no interest for the o"ner of
mone*, "ho regards the labour4mar+et as a branch of the general mar+et for commodities8 (nd
for the present it interests us Dust as little8 Be cling to the fact theoreticall*, as he does practicall*8
=ne thing, ho"e)er, is clear F Cature does not produce on the one side o"ners of mone* or
commodities, and on the other men possessing nothing but their o"n labour4po"er8 'his relation
has no natural basis, neither is its social basis one that is common to all historical periods8 >t is
clearl* the result of a past historical de)elopment, the product of man* economic re)olutions, of
the e9tinction of a "hole series of older forms of social production8
So, too, the economic categories, alread* discussed b* us, bear the stamp of histor*8 0efinite
historical conditions are necessar* that a product ma* become a commodit*8 >t must not be
produced as the immediate means of subsistence of the producer himself8 -ad "e gone further,
and inIuired under "hat circumstances all, or e)en the maDorit* of products ta+e the form of
commodities, "e should ha)e found that this can onl* happen "ith production of a )er* specific
+ind, capitalist production8 Such an inIuir*, ho"e)er, "ould ha)e been foreign to the anal*sis of
commodities8 #roduction and circulation of commodities can ta+e place, although the great mass
of the obDects produced are intended for the immediate reIuirements of their producers, are not
turned into commodities, and conseIuentl* social production is not *et b* a long "a* dominated
in its length and breadth b* e9change4)alue8 'he appearance of products as commodities pre4
supposes such a de)elopment of the social di)ision of labour, that the separation of use4)alue
from e9change4)alue, a separation "hich first begins "ith barter, must alread* ha)e been
completed8 /ut such a degree of de)elopment is common to man* forms of societ*, "hich in
other respects present the most )ar*ing historical features8 =n the other hand, if "e consider
mone*, its e9istence implies a definite stage in the e9change of commodities8 'he particular
functions of mone* "hich it performs, either as the mere eIui)alent of commodities, or as means
of circulation, or means of pa*ment, as hoard or as uni)ersal mone*, point, according to the
e9tent and relati)e preponderance of the one function or the other, to )er* different stages in the
process of social production8 Net "e +no" b* e9perience that a circulation of commodities
relati)el* primiti)e, suffices for the production of all these forms8 =ther"ise "ith capital8 'he
historical conditions of its e9istence are b* no means gi)en "ith the mere circulation of mone*
and commodities8 >t can spring into life, onl* "hen the o"ner of the means of production and
subsistence meets in the mar+et "ith the free labourer selling his labour4po"er8 (nd this one
historical condition comprises a "orld?s histor*8 5apital, therefore, announces from its first
appearance a ne" epoch in the process of social production8
Be must no" e9amine more closel* this peculiar commodit*, labour4po"er8 <i+e all others it has
a )alue8
3
-o" is that )alue determinedE
'he )alue of labour4po"er is determined, as in the case of e)er* other commodit*, b* the labour4
time necessar* for the production, and conseIuentl* also the reproduction, of this special article8
26 5hapter 6
So far as it has )alue, it represents no more than a definite Iuantit* of the a)erage labour of
societ* incorporated in it8 <abour4po"er e9ists onl* as a capacit*, or po"er of the li)ing
indi)idual8 >ts production conseIuentl* pre4supposes his e9istence8 Gi)en the indi)idual, the
production of labour4po"er consists in his reproduction of himself or his maintenance8 For his
maintenance he reIuires a gi)en Iuantit* of the means of subsistence8 'herefore the labour4time
reIuisite for the production of labour4po"er reduces itself to that necessar* for the production of
those means of subsistence; in other "ords, the )alue of labour4po"er is the )alue of the means of
subsistence necessar* for the maintenance of the labourer8 <abour4po"er, ho"e)er, becomes a
realit* onl* b* its e9ercise; it sets itself in action onl* b* "or+ing8 /ut thereb* a definite Iuantit*
of human muscle, ner)e8 brain, Pc8, is "asted, and these reIuire to be restored8 'his increased
e9penditure demands a larger income8
6
>f the o"ner of labour4po"er "or+s to4da*, to4morro" he
must again be able to repeat the same process in the same conditions as regards health and
strength8 -is means of subsistence must therefore be sufficient to maintain him in his normal state
as a labouring indi)idual8 -is natural "ants, such as food, clothing, fuel, and housing, )ar*
according to the climatic and other ph*sical conditions of his countr*8 =n the other hand, the
number and e9tent of his so4called necessar* "ants, as also the modes of satisf*ing them, are
themsel)es the product of historical de)elopment, and depend therefore to a great e9tent on the
degree of ci)ilisation of a countr*, more particularl* on the conditions under "hich, and
conseIuentl* on the habits and degree of comfort in "hich, the class of free labourers has been
formed8
7
>n contradistinction therefore to the case of other commodities, there enters into the
determination of the )alue of labour4po"er a historical and moral element8 Ce)ertheless, in a
gi)en countr*, at a gi)en period, the a)erage Iuantit* of the means of subsistence necessar* for
the labourer is practicall* +no"n8
'he o"ner of labour4po"er is mortal8 >f then his appearance in the mar+et is to be continuous,
and the continuous con)ersion of mone* into capital assumes this, the seller of labour4po"er
must perpetuate himself, @in the "a* that e)er* li)ing indi)idual perpetuates himself, b*
procreation8A
8
'he labour4po"er "ithdra"n from the mar+et b* "ear and tear and death, must be
continuall* replaced b*, at the )er* least, an eIual amount of fresh labour4po"er8 -ence the sum
of the means of subsistence necessar* for the production of labour4po"er must include the means
necessar* for the labourer?s substitutes, i8e8, his children, in order that this race of peculiar
commodit*4o"ners ma* perpetuate its appearance in the mar+et8
2
>n order to modif* the human organism, so that it ma* acIuire s+ill and handiness in a gi)en
branch of industr*, and become labour4po"er of a special +ind, a special education or training is
reIuisite, and this, on its part, costs an eIui)alent in commodities of a greater or less amount8
'his amount )aries according to the more or less complicated character of the labour4po"er8 'he
e9penses of this education (e9cessi)el* small in the case of ordinar* labour4po"er!, enter pro
tanto into the total )alue spent in its production8
'he )alue of labour4po"er resol)es itself into the )alue of a definite Iuantit* of the means of
subsistence8 >t therefore )aries "ith the )alue of these means or "ith the Iuantit* of labour
reIuisite for their production8
Some of the means of subsistence, such as food and fuel, are consumed dail*, and a fresh suppl*
must be pro)ided dail*8 =thers such as clothes and furniture last for longer periods and reIuire to
be replaced onl* at longer inter)als8 =ne article must be bought or paid for dail*, another "ee+l*,
another Iuarterl*, and so on8 /ut in "hate)er "a* the sum total of these outla*s ma* be spread
o)er the *ear, the* must be co)ered b* the a)erage income, ta+ing one da* "ith another8 >f the
total of the commodities reIuired dail* for the production of labour4po"er Y (, and those
reIuired "ee+l* Y /, and those reIuired Iuarterl* Y 5, and so on, the dail* a)erage of these
27 5hapter 6
commodities Y (:63( _ 36/ _ 5 _ Pc! J :638 Suppose that in this mass of commodities
reIuisite for the a)erage da* there are embodied 6 hours of social labour, then there is
incorporated dail* in labour4po"er half a da*?s a)erage social labour, in other "ords, half a da*?s
labour is reIuisite for the dail* production of labour4po"er8 'his Iuantit* of labour forms the
)alue of a da*?s labour4po"er or the )alue of the labour4po"er dail* reproduced8 >f half a da*?s
a)erage social labour is incorporated in three shillings, then three shillings is the price
corresponding to the )alue of a da*?s labour4po"er8 >f its o"ner therefore offers it for sale at three
shillings a da*, its selling price is eIual to its )alue, and according to our supposition, our friend
$one*bags, "ho is intent upon con)erting his three shillings into capital, pa*s this )alue8
'he minimum limit of the )alue of labour4po"er is determined b* the )alue of the commodities,
"ithout the dail* suppl* of "hich the labourer cannot rene" his )ital energ*, conseIuentl* b* the
)alue of those means of subsistence that are ph*sicall* indispensable8 >f the price of labour4po"er
fall to this minimum, it falls belo" its )alue, since under such circumstances it can be maintained
and de)eloped onl* in a crippled state8 /ut the )alue of e)er* commodit* is determined b* the
labour4time reIuisite to turn it out so as to be of normal Iualit*8
>t is a )er* cheap sort of sentimentalit* "hich declares this method of determining the )alue of
labour4po"er, a method prescribed b* the )er* nature of the case, to be a brutal method, and
"hich "ails "ith &ossi that, @'o comprehend capacit* for labour (puissance de tra)ail! at the
same time that "e ma+e abstraction from the means of subsistence of the labourers during the
process of production, is to comprehend a phantom (dtre de raison!8 Bhen "e spea+ of labour, or
capacit* for labour, "e spea+ at the same time of the labourer and his means of subsistence, of
labourer and "ages8A
17
Bhen "e spea+ of capacit* for labour, "e do not spea+ of labour, an*
more than "hen "e spea+ of capacit* for digestion, "e spea+ of digestion8 'he latter process
reIuires something more than a good stomach8 Bhen "e spea+ of capacit* for labour, "e do not
abstract from the necessar* means of subsistence8 =n the contrar*, their )alue is e9pressed in its
)alue8 >f his capacit* for labour remains unsold, the labourer deri)es no benefit from it, but rather
he "ill feel it to be a cruel nature4imposed necessit* that this capacit* has cost for its production a
definite amount of the means of subsistence and that it "ill continue to do so for its reproduction8
-e "ill then agree "ith Sismondi: @that capacit* for labour 888 is nothing unless it is sold8A
11
=ne conseIuence of the peculiar nature of labour4po"er as a commodit* is, that its use4)alue
does not, on the conclusion of the contract bet"een the bu*er and seller, immediatel* pass into
the hands of the former8 >ts )alue, li+e that of e)er* other commodit*, is alread* fi9ed before it
goes into circulation, since a definite Iuantit* of social labour has been spent upon it; but its use4
)alue consists in the subseIuent e9ercise of its force8 'he alienation of labour4po"er and its
actual appropriation b* the bu*er, its emplo*ment as a use4)alue, are separated b* an inter)al of
time8 /ut in those cases in "hich the formal alienation b* sale of the use4)alue of a commodit*, is
not simultaneous "ith its actual deli)er* to the bu*er, the mone* of the latter usuall* functions as
means of pa*ment8
16
>n e)er* countr* in "hich the capitalist mode of production reigns, it is the
custom not to pa* for labour4po"er before it has been e9ercised for the period fi9ed b* the
contract, as for e9ample, the end of each "ee+8 >n all cases, therefore, the use4)alue of the labour4
po"er is ad)anced to the capitalist: the labourer allo"s the bu*er to consume it before he recei)es
pa*ment of the price; he e)er*"here gi)es credit to the capitalist8 'hat this credit is no mere
fiction, is sho"n not onl* b* the occasional loss of "ages on the ban+ruptc* of the capitalist,
1:
but also b* a series of more enduring conseIuences8
1
Ce)ertheless, "hether mone* ser)es as a
means of purchase or as a means of pa*ment, this ma+es no alteration in the nature of the
e9change of commodities8 'he price of the labour4po"er is fi9ed b* the contract, although it is
not realised till later, li+e the rent of a house8 'he labour4po"er is sold, although it is onl* paid for
at a later period8 >t "ill, therefore, be useful, for a clear comprehension of the relation of the
28 5hapter 6
parties, to assume pro)isionall*, that the possessor of labour4po"er, on the occasion of each sale,
immediatel* recei)es the price stipulated to be paid for it8
Be no" +no" ho" the )alue paid b* the purchaser to the possessor of this peculiar commodit*,
labour4po"er, is determined8 'he use4)alue "hich the former gets in e9change, manifests itself
onl* in the actual utilisation, in the consumption of the labour4po"er8 'he mone*4o"ner bu*s
e)er*thing necessar* for this purpose, such as ra" material, in the mar+et, and pa*s for it at its
full )alue8 'he consumption of labour4po"er is at one and the same time the production of
commodities and of surplus )alue8 'he consumption of labour4po"er is completed, as in the case
of e)er* other commodit*, outside the limits of the mar+et or of the sphere of circulation8
(ccompanied b* $r8 $one*bags and b* the possessor of labour4po"er, "e therefore ta+e lea)e
for a time of this nois* sphere, "here e)er*thing ta+es place on the surface and in )ie" of all
men, and follo" them both into the hidden abode of production, on "hose threshold there stares
us in the face @Co admittance e9cept on business8A -ere "e shall see, not onl* ho" capital
produces, but ho" capital is produced8 Be shall at last force the secret of profit ma+ing8
'his sphere that "e are deserting, "ithin "hose boundaries the sale and purchase of labour4po"er
goes on, is in fact a )er* Eden of the innate rights of man8 'here alone rule Freedom, EIualit*,
#ropert* and /entham8 Freedom, because both bu*er and seller of a commodit*, sa* of labour4
po"er, are constrained onl* b* their o"n free "ill8 'he* contract as free agents, and the
agreement the* come to, is but the form in "hich the* gi)e legal e9pression to their common "ill8
EIualit*, because each enters into relation "ith the other, as "ith a simple o"ner of commodities,
and the* e9change eIui)alent for eIui)alent8 #ropert*, because each disposes onl* of "hat is his
o"n8 (nd /entham, because each loo+s onl* to himself8 'he onl* force that brings them together
and puts them in relation "ith each other, is the selfishness, the gain and the pri)ate interests of
each8 Each loo+s to himself onl*, and no one troubles himself about the rest, and Dust because the*
do so, do the* all, in accordance "ith the pre4established harmon* of things, or under the auspices
of an all4shre"d pro)idence, "or+ together to their mutual ad)antage, for the common "eal and
in the interest of all8
=n lea)ing this sphere of simple circulation or of e9change of commodities, "hich furnishes the
@Free4trader ;ulgarisA "ith his )ie"s and ideas, and "ith the standard b* "hich he Dudges a
societ* based on capital and "ages, "e thin+ "e can percei)e a change in the ph*siognom* of
our dramatis personae8 -e, "ho before "as the mone*4o"ner, no" strides in front as capitalist;
the possessor of labour4po"er follo"s as his labourer8 'he one "ith an air of importance,
smir+ing, intent on business; the other, timid and holding bac+, li+e one "ho is bringing his o"n
hide to mar+et and has nothing to e9pect but F a hiding8
Part 3: The Production of Absolute
Surplus Value
Chapter 7: The Labour-Process and the Process
of Producing Surplus Value
Section 1: The (abour"Process or the
Production of !se"Values
'he capitalist bu*s labour4po"er in order to use it; and labour4po"er in use is labour itself8 'he
purchaser of labour4po"er consumes it b* setting the seller of it to "or+8 /* "or+ing, the latter
becomes actuall*, "hat before he onl* "as potentiall*, labour4po"er in action, a labourer8 >n
order that his labour ma* re4appear in a commodit*, he must, before all things, e9pend it on
something useful, on something capable of satisf*ing a "ant of some sort8 -ence, "hat the
capitalist sets the labourer to produce, is a particular use4)alue, a specified article8 'he fact that
the production of use4)alues, or goods, is carried on under the control of a capitalist and on his
behalf, does not alter the general character of that production8 Be shall, therefore, in the first
place, ha)e to consider the labour4process independentl* of the particular form it assumes under
gi)en social conditions8
<abour is, in the first place, a process in "hich both man and Cature participate, and in "hich
man of his o"n accord starts, regulates, and controls the material re4actions bet"een himself and
Cature8 -e opposes himself to Cature as one of her o"n forces, setting in motion arms and legs,
head and hands, the natural forces of his bod*, in order to appropriate Cature?s productions in a
form adapted to his o"n "ants8 /* thus acting on the e9ternal "orld and changing it, he at the
same time changes his o"n nature8 -e de)elops his slumbering po"ers and compels them to act
in obedience to his s"a*8 Be are not no" dealing "ith those primiti)e instincti)e forms of labour
that remind us of the mere animal8 (n immeasurable inter)al of time separates the state of things
in "hich a man brings his labour4po"er to mar+et for sale as a commodit*, from that state in
"hich human labour "as still in its first instincti)e stage8 Be pre4suppose labour in a form that
stamps it as e9clusi)el* human8 ( spider conducts operations that resemble those of a "ea)er, and
a bee puts to shame man* an architect in the construction of her cells8 /ut "hat distinguishes the
"orst architect from the best of bees is this, that the architect raises his structure in imagination
before he erects it in realit*8 (t the end of e)er* labour4process, "e get a result that alread*
e9isted in the imagination of the labourer at its commencement8 -e not onl* effects a change of
form in the material on "hich he "or+s, but he also realises a purpose of his o"n that gi)es the
la" to his modus operandi, and to "hich he must subordinate his "ill8 (nd this subordination is
no mere momentar* act8 /esides the e9ertion of the bodil* organs, the process demands that,
during the "hole operation, the "or+man?s "ill be steadil* in consonance "ith his purpose8 'his
means close attention8 'he less he is attracted b* the nature of the "or+, and the mode in "hich it
is carried on, and the less, therefore, he enDo*s it as something "hich gi)es pla* to his bodil* and
mental po"ers, the more close his attention is forced to be8
177 5hapter 7
'he elementar* factors of the labour4process are 1, the personal acti)it* of man, i$e8, "or+ itself,
6, the subDect of that "or+, and :, its instruments8
'he soil (and this, economicall* spea+ing, includes "ater! in the )irgin state in "hich it supplies
1
man "ith necessaries or the means of subsistence read* to hand, e9ists independentl* of him, and
is the uni)ersal subDect of human labour8 (ll those things "hich labour merel* separates from
immediate conne9ion "ith their en)ironment, are subDects of labour spontaneousl* pro)ided b*
Cature8 Such are fish "hich "e catch and ta+e from their element, "ater, timber "hich "e fell in
the )irgin forest, and ores "hich "e e9tract from their )eins8 >f, on the other hand, the subDect of
labour has, so to sa*, been filtered through pre)ious labour, "e call it ra" material; such is ore
alread* e9tracted and read* for "ashing8 (ll ra" material is the subDect of labour, but not e)er*
subDect of labour is ra" material: it can onl* become so, after it has undergone some alteration b*
means of labour8
(n instrument of labour is a thing, or a comple9 of things, "hich the labourer interposes bet"een
himself and the subDect of his labour, and "hich ser)es as the conductor of his acti)it*8 -e ma+es
use of the mechanical, ph*sical, and chemical properties of some substances in order to ma+e
other substances subser)ient to his aims8
6
<ea)ing out of consideration such read*4made means of
subsistence as fruits, in gathering "hich a man?s o"n limbs ser)e as the instruments of his labour,
the first thing of "hich the labourer possesses himself is not the subDect of labour but its
instrument8 'hus Cature becomes one of the organs of his acti)it*, one that he anne9es to his o"n
bodil* organs, adding stature to himself in spite of the /ible8 (s the earth is his original larder, so
too it is his original tool house8 >t supplies him, for instance, "ith stones for thro"ing, grinding,
pressing, cutting, Pc8 'he earth itself is an instrument of labour, but "hen used as such in
agriculture implies a "hole series of other instruments and a comparati)el* high de)elopment of
labour8
:
Co sooner does labour undergo the least de)elopment, than it reIuires speciall* prepared
instruments8 'hus in the oldest ca)es "e find stone implements and "eapons8 >n the earliest
period of human histor* domesticated animals, i$e8, animals "hich ha)e been bred for the
purpose, and ha)e undergone modifications b* means of labour, pla* the chief part as instruments
of labour along "ith speciall* prepared stones, "ood, bones, and shells8
>f the labourer consumes his disposable time for himself, he robs the capitalist8
3
'he capitalist then ta+es his stand on the la" of the e9change of commodities8 -e, li+e all other
bu*ers, see+s to get the greatest possible benefit out of the use4)alue of his commodit*8 Suddenl*
the )oice of the labourer, "hich had been stifled in the storm and stress of the process of
production, rises:
'he commodit* that > ha)e sold to *ou differs from the cro"d of other commodities, in that its
use creates )alue, and a )alue greater than its o"n8 'hat is "h* *ou bought it8 'hat "hich on *our
side appears a spontaneous e9pansion of capital, is on mine e9tra e9penditure of labour4po"er8
Nou and > +no" on the mar+et onl* one la", that of the e9change of commodities8 (nd the
consumption of the commodit* belongs not to the seller "ho parts "ith it, but to the bu*er, "ho
acIuires it8 'o *ou, therefore, belongs the use of m* dail* labour4po"er8 /ut b* means of the
price that *ou pa* for it each da*, > must be able to reproduce it dail*, and to sell it again8 (part
from natural e9haustion through age, Pc8, > must be able on the morro" to "or+ "ith the same
normal amount of force, health and freshness as to4da*8 Nou preach to me constantl* the gospel of
@sa)ingA and @abstinence8A GoodQ > "ill, li+e a sensible sa)ing o"ner, husband m* sole "ealth,
labour4po"er, and abstain from all foolish "aste of it8 > "ill each da* spend, set in motion, put
into action onl* as much of it as is compatible "ith its normal duration, and health* de)elopment8
/* an unlimited e9tension of the "or+ing da*, *ou ma* in one da* use up a Iuantit* of labour4
po"er greater than > can restore in three8 Bhat *ou gain in labour > lose in substance8 'he use of
m* labour4po"er and the spoliation of it are Iuite different things8 >f the a)erage time that (doing
a reasonable amount of "or+! an a)erage labourer can li)e, is :7 *ears, the )alue of m* labour4
po"er, "hich *ou pa* me from da* to da* is 1J(:63h:7! or 1J17237 of its total )alue8 /ut if *ou
consume it in 17 *ears, *ou pa* me dail* 1J17237 instead of 1J:637 of its total )alue, i$e8, onl*
1J: of its dail* )alue, and *ou rob me, therefore, e)er* da* of 6J: of the )alue of m* commodit*8
Nou pa* me for one da*?s labour4po"er, "hilst *ou use that of : da*s8 'hat is against our contract
and the la" of e9changes8 > demand, therefore, a "or+ing da* of normal length, and > demand it
"ithout an* appeal to *our heart, for in mone* matters sentiment is out of place8 Nou ma* be a
model citi1en, perhaps a member of the Societ* for the #re)ention of 5ruelt* to (nimals, and in
the odour of sanctit* to boot; but the thing that *ou represent face to face "ith me has no heart in
its breast8 'hat "hich seems to throb there is m* o"n heart4beating8 > demand the normal "or+ing
da* because >, li+e e)er* other seller, demand the )alue of m* commodit*8
6
Be see then, that, apart from e9tremel* elastic bounds, the nature of the e9change of commodities
itself imposes no limit to the "or+ing da*, no limit to surplus labour8 'he capitalist maintains his
1:7 5hapter 17
rights as a purchaser "hen he tries to ma+e the "or+ing da* as long as possible, and to ma+e,
"hene)er possible, t"o "or+ing da*s out of one8 =n the other hand, the peculiar nature of the
commodit* sold implies a limit to its consumption b* the purchaser, and the labourer maintains
his right as seller "hen he "ishes to reduce the "or+ing da* to one of definite normal duration8
'here is here, therefore, an antinom*, right against right, both eIuall* bearing the seal of the la"
of e9changes8 /et"een eIual rights force decides8 -ence is it that in the histor* of capitalist
production, the determination of "hat is a "or+ing da*, presents itself as the result of a struggle, a
struggle bet"een collecti)e capital, i$e$+ the class of capitalists, and collecti)e labour, i$e$+ the
"or+ing4class8
Section ': The 4reed for Surplus"(abor5
$anufacturer and Board
5apital has not in)ented surplus labour8 Bhere)er a part of societ* possesses the monopol* of the
means of production, the labourer, free or not free, must add to the "or+ing4time necessar* for his
o"n maintenance an e9tra "or+ing4time in order to produce the means of subsistence for the
o"ners of the means of production
7
, "hether this proprietor be the (thenian ijkb\ ljijmb\ G"ell4
to4do manH, Etruscan theocrat, civis Romanus G&oman citi1enH, Corman baron, (merican sla)e4
o"ner, Ballachian /o*ard, modern landlord or capitalist8
8
>t is, ho"e)er, clear that in an* gi)en
economic formation of societ*, "here not the e9change4)alue but the use4)alue of the product
predominates, surplus labour "ill be limited b* a gi)en set of "ants "hich ma* be greater or less,
and that here no boundless thirst for surplus labour arises from the nature of the production itself8
-ence in antiIuit* o)er4"or+ becomes horrible onl* "hen the obDect is to obtain e9change4)alue
in its specific independent mone*4form; in the production of gold and sil)er8 5ompulsor*
"or+ing to death is here the recognised form of o)er4"or+8 =nl* read 0iodorus Siculus8
2
Still
these are e9ceptions in antiIuit*8 /ut as soon as people, "hose production still mo)es "ithin the
lo"er forms of sla)e4labour, cor)Re4labour, Pc8, are dra"n into the "hirlpool of an international
mar+et dominated b* the capitalistic mode of production, the sale of their products for e9port
becoming their principal interest, the ci)ilised horrors of o)er4"or+ are grafted on the barbaric
horrors of sla)er*, serfdom, Pc8 -ence the negro labour in the Southern States of the (merican
%nion preser)ed something of a patriarchal character, so long as production "as chiefl* directed
to immediate local consumption8 /ut in proportion, as the e9port of cotton became of )ital
interest to these states, the o)er4"or+ing of the negro and sometimes the using up of his life in 7
*ears of labour became a factor in a calculated and calculating s*stem8 >t "as no longer a
Iuestion of obtaining from him a certain Iuantit* of useful products8 >t "as no" a Iuestion of
production of surplus labour itself: So "as it also "ith the cor)Re, e8g8, in the 0anubian
#rincipalities (no" &oumania!8
'he comparison of the greed for surplus labour in the 0anubian #rincipalities "ith the same
greed in English factories has a special interest, because surplus labour in the cor)Re has an
independent and palpable form8
Suppose the "or+ing da* consists of 6 hours of necessar* labour, and 6 hours of surplus labour8
'hen the free labourer gi)es the capitalist e)er* "ee+ 6 9 6 or :6 hours of surplus labour8 >t is the
same as if he "or+ed : da*s in the "ee+ for himself, and : da*s in the "ee+ gratis for the
capitalist8 /ut this is not e)ident on the surface8 Surplus labour and necessar* labour glide one
into the other8 > can, therefore, e9press the same relationship b* sa*ing, e8g8, that the labourer in
e)er* minute "or+s :7 seconds for himself, and :7 for the capitalist, etc8 >t is other"ise "ith the
cor)Re8 'he necessar* labour "hich the Ballachian peasant does for his o"n maintenance is
distinctl* mar+ed off from his surplus labour on behalf of the /o*ard8 'he one he does on his
1:1 5hapter 17
o"n field, the other on the seignorial estate8 /oth parts of the labour4time e9ist, therefore,
independentl*, side b* side one "ith the other8 >n the cor)Re the surplus labour is accuratel*
mar+ed off from the necessar* labour8 'his, ho"e)er, can ma+e no difference "ith regard to the
Iuantitati)e relation of surplus labour to necessar* labour8 'hree da*s? surplus labour in the "ee+
remain three da*s that *ield no eIui)alent to the labourer himself, "hether it be called cor)Re or
"age4labour8 /ut in the capitalist the greed for surplus labour appears in the straining after an
unlimited e9tension of the "or+ing da*, in the /o*ard more simpl* in a direct hunting after da*s
of cor)Re8
17
>n the 0anubian #rincipalities the cor)Re "as mi9ed up "ith rents in +ind and other
appurtenances of bondage, but it formed the most important tribute paid to the ruling class8
Bhere this "as the case, the cor)Re rarel* arose from serfdom; serfdom much more freIuentl* on
the other hand too+ origin from the cor)Re8
11
'his is "hat too+ place in the &oumanian pro)inces8
'heir original mode of production "as based on communit* of the soil, but not in the Sla)onic or
>ndian form8 #art of the land "as culti)ated in se)eralt* as freehold b* the members of the
communit*, another part F aer publicus 3 "as culti)ated b* them in common8 'he products of
this common labour ser)ed partl* as a reser)e fund against bad har)ests and other accidents,
partl* as a public store for pro)iding the costs of "ar, religion, and other common e9penses8 >n
course of time militar* and clerical dignitaries usurped, along "ith the common land, the labour
spent upon it8 'he labour of the free peasants on their common land "as transformed into cor)Re
for the thie)es of the common land8 'his cor)Re soon de)eloped into a ser)ile relationship
e9isting in point of fact, not in point of la", until &ussia, the liberator of the "orld, made it legal
under presence of abolishing serfdom8 'he code of the cor)Re, "hich the &ussian General
.isseleff proclaimed in 18:1, "as of course dictated b* the /o*ards themsel)es8 'hus &ussia
conIuered "ith one blo" the magnates of the 0anubian pro)inces, and the applause of liberal
cretins throughout Europe8
(ccording to the @&nglement organiIue,A as this code of the cor)Re is called, e)er* Ballachian
peasant o"es to the so4called landlord, besides a mass of detailed pa*ments in +ind: (45, 16 da*s
of general labour; (65, one da* of field labour; (75, one da* of "ood carr*ing8 >n all, 1 da*s in
the *ear8 Bith deep insight into #olitical Econom*, ho"e)er, the "or+ing da* is not ta+en in its
ordinar* sense, but as the "or+ing da* necessar* to the production of an a)erage dail* product;
and that a)erage dail* product is determined in so craft* a "a* that no 5*clops "ould be done
"ith it in 6 hours8 >n dr* "ords, the &Rglement itself declares "ith true &ussian iron* that b* 16
"or+ing da*s one must understand the product of the manual labour of :6 da*s, b* 1 da* of field
labour : da*s, and b* 1 da* of "ood carr*ing in li+e manner three times as much8 >n all, 6
cor)Re da*s8 'o this had to be added the so4called Dobagie, ser)ice due to the lord for
e9traordinar* occasions8 >n proportion to the si1e of its population, e)er* )illage has to furnish
annuall* a definite contingent to the Dobagie8 'his additional cor)Re is estimated at 1 da*s for
each Ballachian peasant8 'hus the prescribed cor)Re amounts to 36 "or+ing da*s *earl*8 /ut the
agricultural *ear in Ballachia numbers in conseIuence of the se)ere climate onl* 617 da*s, of
"hich 7 for Sunda*s and holida*s, :7 on an a)erage for bad "eather, together 77 da*s, do not
count8 17 "or+ing da*s remain8 'he ratio of the cor)Re to the necessar* labour 36J8 or 66 6J:
` gi)es a much smaller rate of surplus )alue than that "hich regulates the labour of the English
agricultural or factor* labourer8 'his is, ho"e)er, onl* the legall* prescribed cor)Re8 (nd in a
spirit *et more @liberalA than the English Factor* (cts, the @&nglement organiIueA has +no"n
ho" to facilitate its o"n e)asion8 (fter it has made 36 da*s out of 16, the nominal da*?s "or+ of
each of the 36 cor)Re da*s is again so arranged that a portion of it must fall on the ensuing da*8 >n
one da*, e8g8, must be "eeded an e9tent of land, "hich, for this "or+, especiall* in mai1e
plantations, needs t"ice as much time8 'he legal da*?s "or+ for some +inds of agricultural labour
1:6 5hapter 17
is interpretable in such a "a* that the da* begins in $a* and ends in =ctober8 >n $olda)ia
conditions are still harder8
@'he 16 cor)Re da*s of the W&nglement organiIue? cried a /o*ard drun+ "ith )ictor*, amount to
:63 da*s in the *ear8A
16
>f the &nglement organiIue of the 0anubian pro)inces "as a positi)e e9pression of the greed for
surplus labour "hich e)er* paragraph legalised, the English Factor* (cts are the negati)e
e9pression of the same greed8 'hese acts curb the passion of capital for a limitless draining of
labour4po"er, b* forcibl* limiting the "or+ing da* b* state regulations, made b* a state that is
ruled b* capitalist4and landlord8 (part from the "or+ing4class mo)ement that dail* gre" more
threatening, the limiting of factor* labour "as dictated b* the same necessit* "hich spread guano
o)er the English fields8 'he same blind eagerness for plunder that in the one case e9hausted the
soil, had, in the other, torn up b* the roots the li)ing force of the nation8 #eriodical epidemics
spea+ on this point as clearl* as the diminishing militar* standard in German* and France8
1:
'he Factor* (ct of 1837 no" in force (1867! allo"s for the a)erage "or+ing da* 17 hours, i8e8,
for the first 3 da*s 16 hours from 6 a8m8 to 6 p8m8, including [ an hour for brea+fast, and an hour
for dinner, and thus lea)ing 17[ "or+ing4hours, and 8 hours for Saturda*, from 6 a8m8 to 6 p8m8,
of "hich [ an hour is subtracted for brea+fast8 67 "or+ing4hours are left, 17[ for each of the
first 3 da*s, 7[ for the last8
1
5ertain guardians of these la"s are appointed, Factor* >nspectors, directl* under the -ome
Secretar*, "hose reports are published half4*earl*, b* order of #arliament8 'he* gi)e regular and
official statistics of the capitalistic greed for surplus labour8
<et us listen, for a moment, to the Factor* >nspectors8
13
@'he fraudulent mill4o"ner begins "or+ a Iuarter of an hour (sometimes more,
sometimes less! before 6 a8m8, and lea)es off a Iuarter of an hour (sometimes
more, sometimes less! after 6 p8m8 -e ta+es 3 minutes from the beginning and
from the end of the half hour nominall* allo"ed for brea+fast, and 17 minutes at
the beginning and end of the hour nominall* allo"ed for dinner8 -e "or+s for a
Iuarter of an hour (sometimes more, sometimes less! after 6 p8m8 on Saturda*8
'hus his gain is F
/efore 6 a8m8, 13 minutes8
(fter 6 p8m8, 13 V
(t brea+fast time, 17 V
(t dinner time, 67 V
Fi)e da*s F :77 minutes, 67 V
=n Saturda* before 6 a8m8, 13 minutes8
(t brea+fast time, 17 V
(fter 6 p8m8, 13 V
7 minutes8
'otal "ee+l*, :7 minutes8
=r 3 hours and 7 minutes "ee+l*, "hich multiplied b* 37 "or+ing "ee+s in the
*ear (allo"ing t"o for holida*s and occasional stoppages! is eIual to 67 "or+ing
da*s8A
16
@Fi)e minutes a da*?s increased "or+, multiplied b* "ee+s, are eIual to t"o and a
half da*s of produce in the *ear8A
17
1:: 5hapter 17
@(n additional hour a da* gained b* small instalments before 6 a8m8, after 6 p8m8,
and at the beginning and end of the times nominall* fi9ed for meals, is nearl*
eIui)alent to "or+ing 1: months in the *ear8A
18
5rises during "hich production is interrupted and the factories "or+ @short time,A i8e8, for onl* a
part of the "ee+, naturall* do not affect the tendenc* to e9tend the "or+ing da*8 'he less business
there is, the more profit has to be made on the business done8 'he less time spent in "or+, the
more of that time has to be turned into surplus labour4time8
'hus the Factor* >nspector?s report on the period of the crisis from 1837 to 1838:
@>t ma* seem inconsistent that there should be an* o)er"or+ing at a time "hen
trade is so bad; but that )er* badness leads to the transgression b* unscrupulous
men, the* get the e9tra profit of it8 888 >n the last half *ear, sa*s <eonard -orner,
166 mills in m* district ha)e been gi)en up; 1: "ere found standing,A *et, o)er4
"or+ is continued be*ond the legal hours8A
12
@For a great part of the time,A sa*s $r8 -o"ell, @o"ing to the depression of trade,
man* factories "ere altogether closed, and a still greater number "ere "or+ing
short time8 > continue, ho"e)er, to recei)e about the usual number of complaints
that half, or three4Iuarters of an hour in the da*, are snatched from the "or+ers b*
encroaching upon the times professedl* allo"ed for rest and refreshment8A
67
'he same phenomenon "as reproduced on a smaller scale during the frightful cotton4crises from
1861 to 18638
61
@>t is sometimes ad)anced b* "a* of e9cuse, "hen persons are found at "or+ in a
factor*, either at a meal hour, or at some illegal time, that the* "ill not lea)e the
mill at the appointed hour, and that compulsion is necessar* to force them to cease
"or+ Gcleaning their machiner*, Pc8H, especiall* on Saturda* afternoons8 /ut, if
the hands remain in a factor* after the machiner* has ceased to re)ol)e 888 the*
"ould not ha)e been so emplo*ed if sufficient time had been set apart speciall*
for cleaning, Pc8, either before 6 a8m8 8sic$!9 or before 6 p8m8 on Saturda*
afternoons8A
66
@'he profit to be gained b* it (o)er4"or+ing in )iolation of the (ct! appears to be,
to man*, a greater temptation than the* can resist; the* calculate upon the chance
of not being found out; and "hen the* see the small amount of penalt* and costs,
"hich those "ho ha)e been con)icted ha)e had to pa*, the* find that if the*
should be detected there "ill still be a considerable balance of gain8888
6:
>n cases
"here the additional time is gained b* a multiplication of small thefts in the
course of the da*, there are insuperable difficulties to the inspectors ma+ing out a
case8A
6
'hese @small theftsA of capital from the labourer?s meal and recreation time, the factor*
inspectors also designate as @pett* pilferings of minutes,A
63
@snatching a fe" minutes,A
66
or, as the
labourers technicall* called them, @nibbling and cribbling at meal4times8A
67
>t is e)ident that in this atmosphere the formation of surplus )alue b* surplus labour, is no secret8
@>f *ou allo" me,A said a highl* respectable master to me, @to "or+ onl* ten
minutes in the da* o)er4time, *ou put one thousand a *ear in m* poc+et8A
68
@$oments are the elements of profit8A
62
Cothing is from this point of )ie" more characteristic than the designation of the "or+ers "ho
"or+ full time as @full4timers,A and the children under 1: "ho are onl* allo"ed to "or+ 6 hours
1: 5hapter 17
as @half4timers8A 'he "or+er is here nothing more than personified labour4time8 (ll indi)idual
distinctions are merged in those of @full4timersA and @half4timersA
:7
Section *: Branches of )n%lish Industr
3ithout (e%al (imits to )+ploitation
Be ha)e hitherto considered the tendenc* to the e9tension of the "or+ing da*, the "ere4"olf?s
hunger for surplus labour in a department "here the monstrous e9actions, not surpassed, sa*s an
English bourgeois economist, b* the cruelties of the Spaniards to the (merican red4s+ins
:1
,
caused capital at last to be bound b* the chains of legal regulations8 Co", let us cast a glance at
certain branches of production in "hich the e9ploitation of labour is either free from fetters to this
da*, or "as so *esterda*8
$r8 /roughton 5harlton, count* magistrate, declared, as chairman of a meeting
held at the (ssembl* &ooms, Cottingham, on the 1th Lanuar*, 1867, @that there
"as an amount of pri)ation and suffering among that portion of the population
connected "ith the lace trade, un+no"n in other parts of the +ingdom, indeed, in
the ci)ilised "orld 8888 5hildren of nine or ten *ears are dragged from their sIualid
beds at t"o, three, or four o?cloc+ in the morning and compelled to "or+ for a
bare subsistence until ten, ele)en, or t"el)e at night, their limbs "earing a"a*,
their frames d"indling, their faces "hitening, and their humanit* absolutel*
sin+ing into a stone4li+e torpor, utterl* horrible to contemplate8888 Be are not
surprised that $r8 $allett, or an* other manufacturer, should stand for"ard and
protest against discussion8888 'he s*stem, as the &e)8 $ontagu ;alp* describes it,
is one of unmitigated sla)er*, sociall*, ph*sicall*, morall*, and spirituall*8888 Bhat
can be thought of a to"n "hich holds a public meeting to petition that the period
of labour for men shall be diminished to eighteen hours a da*E 8888 Be declaim
against the ;irginian and 5arolinian cotton4planters8 >s their blac+4mar+et, their
lash, and their barter of human flesh more detestable than this slo" sacrifice of
humanit* "hich ta+es place in order that )eils and collars ma* be fabricated for
the benefit of capitalistsEA
:6
'he potteries of Staffordshire ha)e, during the last 66 *ears, been the subDect of three
parliamentar* inIuiries8 'he result is embodied in $r8 Scri)en?s &eport of 181 to the @5hildren?s
Emplo*ment 5ommissioners,A in the report of 0r8 Greenho" of 1867 published b* order of the
medical officer of the #ri)* 5ouncil (#ublic -ealth, :rd &eport, 116411:!, lastl*, in the report of
$r8 <onge of 1866 in the @First &eport of the 5hildren?s Emplo*ment 5ommission, of the 1:th
Lune, 186:8A For m* purpose it is enough to ta+e, from the reports of 1867 and 186:, some
depositions of the e9ploited children themsel)es8 From the children "e ma* form an opinion as to
the adults, especiall* the girls and "omen, and that in a branch of industr* b* the side of "hich
cotton4spinning appears an agreeable and healthful occupation8
::
Billiam Bood, 2 *ears old, "as 7 *ears and 17 months "hen he began to "or+8 -e @ran mouldsA
(carried read*4moulded articles into the dr*ing4room, after"ards bringing bac+ the empt* mould!
from the beginning8 -e came to "or+ e)er* da* in the "ee+ at 6 a8m8, and left off about 2 p8m8 @>
"or+ till 2 o?cloc+ at night si9 da*s in the "ee+8 > ha)e done so se)en or eight "ee+s8A
Fifteen hours of labour for a child 7 *ears oldQ L8 $urra*, 16 *ears of age, sa*s: @>
turn Digger, and run moulds8 > come at 68 Sometimes > come at 8 > "or+ed all
night last night, till 6 o?cloc+ this morning8 > ha)e not been in bed since the night
before last8 'here "ere eight or nine other bo*s "or+ing last night8 (ll but one
1:3 5hapter 17
ha)e come this morning8 > get : shillings and si9pence8 > do not get an* more for
"or+ing at night8 > "or+ed t"o nights last "ee+8A
Fern*hough, a bo* of ten:
@> ha)e not al"a*s an hour (for dinner!8 > ha)e onl* half an hour sometimes; on
'hursda*, Frida*, and Saturda*8A
:
0r8 Greenho" states that the a)erage duration of life in the potter* districts of Sto+e4on4'rent,
and Bolstanton is e9traordinaril* short8 (lthough in the district of Sto+e, onl* :686` and in
Bolstanton onl* :78` of the adult male population abo)e 67 are emplo*ed in the potteries,
among the men of that age in the first district more than half, in the second, nearl* 6J3 of the
"hole deaths are the result of pulmonar* diseases among the potters8 0r8 /oothro*d, a medical
practitioner at -anle*, sa*s:
@Each successi)e generation of potters is more d"arfed and less robust than the preceding one8A
>n li+e manner another doctor, $r8 $?/ean:
@Since he began to practice among the potters 63 *ears ago, he had obser)ed a
mar+ed degeneration especiall* sho"n in diminution of stature and breadth8A
'hese statements are ta+en from the report of 0r8 Greenho" in 18678
:3
From the report of the 5ommissioners in 186:, the follo"ing: 0r8 L8 '8 (rledge, senior ph*sician
of the Corth Staffordshire >nfirmar*, sa*s:
@'he potters as a class, both men and "omen, represent a degenerated population,
both ph*sicall* and morall*8 'he* are, as a rule, stunted in gro"th, ill4shaped, and
freIuentl* ill4formed in the chest; the* become prematurel* old, and are certainl*
short4li)ed; the* are phlegmatic and bloodless, and e9hibit their debilit* of
constitution b* obstinate attac+s of d*spepsia, and disorders of the li)er and
+idne*s, and b* rheumatism8 /ut of all diseases the* are especiall* prone to chest4
disease, to pneumonia, phthisis, bronchitis, and asthma8 =ne form "ould appear
peculiar to them, and is +no"n as potter?s asthma, or potter?s consumption8
Scrofula attac+ing the glands, or bones, or other parts of the bod*, is a disease of
t"o4thirds or more of the potters 8888 'hat the Wdegenerescence? of the population
of this district is not e)en greater than it is, is due to the constant recruiting from
the adDacent countr*, and intermarriages "ith more health* races8A
:6
$r8 5harles #arsons, late house surgeon of the same institution, "rites in a letter to 5ommissioner
<onge, amongst other things:
@> can onl* spea+ from personal obser)ation and not from statistical data, but > do
not hesitate to assert that m* indignation has been aroused again and again at the
sight of poor children "hose health has been sacrificed to gratif* the a)arice of
either parents or emplo*ers8A -e enumerates the causes of the diseases of the
potters, and sums them up in the phrase, @long hours8A 'he report of the
5ommission trusts that @a manufacture "hich has assumed so prominent a place
in the "hole "orld, "ill not long be subDect to the remar+ that its great success is
accompanied "ith the ph*sical deterioration, "idespread bodil* suffering, and
earl* death of the "or+people 888 b* "hose labour and s+ill such great results ha)e
been achie)ed8A
:7
(nd all that holds of the potteries in England is true of those in Scotland8
:8
'he manufacture of lucifer matches dates from 18::, from the disco)er* of the method of
appl*ing phosphorus to the match itself8 Since 183 this manufacture has rapidl* de)eloped in
1:6 5hapter 17
England, and has e9tended especiall* amongst the thic+l* populated parts of <ondon as "ell as in
$anchester, /irmingham, <i)erpool, /ristol, Cor"ich, Ce"castle and Glasgo"8 Bith it has
spread the form of loc+Da", "hich a ;ienna ph*sician in 183 disco)ered to be a disease peculiar
to lucifer4matchma+ers8 -alf the "or+ers are children under thirteen, and *oung persons under
eighteen8 'he manufacture is on account of its unhealthiness and unpleasantness in such bad
odour that onl* the most miserable part of the labouring class, half4star)ed "ido"s and so forth,
deli)er up their children to it, @the ragged, half4star)ed, untaught children8A
:2
=f the "itnesses that 5ommissioner Bhite e9amined (186:!, 677 "ere under 18, 37 under 17, 17
onl* 8, and 3 onl* 6 *ears old8 ( range of the "or+ing da* from 16 to 1 or 13 hours, night4
labour, irregular meal4times, meals for the most part ta+en in the )er* "or+rooms that are
pestilent "ith phosphorus8 0ante "ould ha)e found the "orst horrors of his >nferno surpassed in
this manufacture8
>n the manufacture of paper4hangings the coarser sorts are printed b* machine; the finer b* hand
(bloc+4printing!8 'he most acti)e business months are from the beginning of =ctober to the end
of (pril8 0uring this time the "or+ goes on fast and furious "ithout intermission from 6 a8m8 to
17 p8m8 or further into the night8
L8 <each deposes:
@<ast "inter si9 out of nineteen girls "ere a"a* from ill4health at one time from
o)er4"or+8 > ha)e to ba"l at them to +eep them a"a+e8A B8 0uff*: @> ha)e seen
"hen the children could none of them +eep their e*es open for the "or+; indeed,
none of us could8A L8 <ightbourne: @(m 1: Be "or+ed last "inter till 2 (e)ening!,
and the "inter before till 178 > used to cr* "ith sore feet e)er* night last "inter8A
G8 (psden: @'hat bo* of mine "hen he "as 7 *ears old > used to carr* him on m*
bac+ to and fro through the sno", and he used to ha)e 16 hours a da* 888 > ha)e
often +nelt do"n to feed him as he stood b* the machine, for he could not lea)e it
or stop8A Smith, the managing partner of a $anchester factor*: @Be (he means his
@handsA "ho "or+ for @usA! "or+ on "ith no stoppage for meals, so that da*?s
"or+ of 17[ hours is finished b* 8:7 p8m8, and all after that is o)er4time8A
7
(0oes this $r8 Smith ta+e no meals himself during 17[ hoursE! @Be (this same
Smith! seldom lea)e off "or+ing before 6 p8m8 (he means lea)e off the
consumption of @ourA labour4po"er machines!, so that "e (iterum 5rispinus! are
reall* "or+ing o)er4time the "hole *ear round8 For all these, children and adults
ali+e (136 children and *oung persons and 17 adults!, the a)erage "or+ for the
last 18 months has been at the )er* least 7 da*s, 3 hours, or 78 1J6 hours a "ee+8
For the si9 "ee+s ending $a* 6nd this *ear (1866!, the a)erage "as higher F 8
da*s or 8 hours a "ee+8A
Still this same $r8 Smith, "ho is so e9tremel* de)oted to the pluralis ma:estatis Gthe &o*al @"e,A
i8e8, spea+ing on behalf of his subDectsH, adds "ith a smile, V$achine4"or+ is not great8A So the
emplo*ers in the bloc+4printing sa*: @-and labour is more health* than machine "or+8A =n the
"hole, manufacturers declare "ith indignation against the proposal @to stop the machines at least
during meal4times8A
@( clause,A sa*s $r8 =tle*, manager of a "all4paper factor* in the /orough,
@"hich allo"ed "or+ bet"een, sa* 6 a8m8 and 2 p8m8 in "ould suit us (Q! )er*
"ell, but the factor* hours, 6 a8m8 to 6 p8m8, are not suitable8 =ur machine is
al"a*s stopped for dinner8 (Bhat generosit*Q! 'here is no "aste of paper and
colour to spea+ of8 /ut,A he adds s*mpatheticall*, @> can understand the loss of
time not being li+ed8A
1:7 5hapter 17
'he report of the 5ommission opines "ith nao)etR that the fear of some @leading firmsA of losing
time, i$e$+ the time for appropriating the labour of others, and thence losing profit is not a
sufficient reason for allo"ing children under 1:, and *oung persons under 18, "or+ing 16 to 16
hours per da*, to lose their dinner, nor for gi)ing it to them as coal and "ater are supplied to the
steam4engine, soap to "ool, oil to the "heel F as merel* au9iliar* material to the instruments of
labour, during the process of production itself8
1
Co branch of industr* in England ("e do not ta+e into account the ma+ing of bread b* machiner*
recentl* introduced! has preser)ed up to the present da* a method of production so archaic, so F
as "e see from the poets of the &oman Empire F pre4christian, as ba+ing8 /ut capital, as "as said
earlier, is at first indifferent as to the technical character of the labour4process; it begins b* ta+ing
it Dust as it finds it8
'he incredible adulteration of bread, especiall* in <ondon, "as first re)ealed b* the -ouse of
5ommons 5ommittee @on the adulteration of articles of foodA (1833436!, and 0r8 -assall?s "or+,
@(dulterations detected8A
6
'he conseIuence of these re)elations "as the (ct of (ugust 6th,
1867, @for pre)enting the adulteration of articles of food and drin+,A an inoperati)e la", as it
naturall* sho"s the tenderest consideration for e)er* Free4trader "ho determines b* the bu*ing
or selling of adulterated commodities @to turn an honest penn*8A
:
'he 5ommittee itself
formulated more or less nao)el* its con)iction that Free4trade meant essentiall* trade "ith
adulterated, or as the English ingeniousl* put it, @sophisticatedA goods8 >n fact this +ind of
sophistr* +no"s better than #rotagoras ho" to ma+e "hite blac+, and blac+ "hite, and better than
the Eleatics ho" to demonstrate ad oculos Gbefore *our o"n e*esH that e)er*thing is onl*
appearance8
(t all e)ents the 5ommittee had directed the attention of the public to its @dail* bread,A and
therefore to the ba+ing trade8 (t the same time in public meetings and in petitions to #arliament
rose the cr* of the <ondon Dourne*men ba+ers against their o)er4"or+, Pc8 'he cr* "as so urgent
that $r8 -8 S8 'remenheere, also a member of the 5ommission of 186: se)eral times mentioned,
"as appointed &o*al 5ommissioner of >nIuir*8 -is report8
3
together "ith the e)idence gi)en,
roused not the heart of the public but its stomach8 Englishmen, al"a*s "ell up in the /ible, +ne"
"ell enough that man, unless b* electi)e grace a capitalist, or landlord, or sinecurist, is
commanded to eat his bread in the s"eat of his bro", but the* did not +no" that he had to eat
dail* in his bread a certain Iuantit* of human perspiration mi9ed "ith the discharge of abscesses,
cob"ebs, dead blac+4beetles, and putrid German *east, "ithout counting alum, sand, and other
agreeable mineral ingredients8 Bithout an* regard to his holiness, Free4trade, the free ba+ing4
trade "as therefore placed under the super)ision of the State inspectors (5lose of the
#arliamentar* session of 186:!, and b* the same (ct of #arliament, "or+ from 2 in the e)ening to
3 in the morning "as forbidden for Dourne*men ba+ers under 188 'he last clause spea+s )olumes
as to the o)er4"or+ in this old4fashioned, homel* line of business8
@'he "or+ of a <ondon Dourne*man ba+er begins, as a rule, at about ele)en at
night8 (t that hour he Wma+es the dough,? F a laborious process, "hich lasts from
half an hour to three Iuarters of an hour, according to the si1e of the batch or the
labour besto"ed upon it8 -e then lies do"n upon the +neading4board, "hich is
also the co)ering of the trough in "hich the dough is Wmade?; and "ith a sac+
under him, and another rolled up as a pillo", he sleeps for about a couple of hours8
-e is then engaged in a rapid and continuous labour for about fi)e hours F
thro"ing out the dough, Wscaling it off,? moulding it, putting it into the o)en,
preparing and ba+ing rolls and fanc* bread, ta+ing the batch bread out of the o)en,
and up into the shop, Pc8, Pc8 'he temperature of a ba+ehouse ranges from about
1:8 5hapter 17
73 to up"ards of 27 degrees, and in the smaller ba+ehouses appro9imates usuall*
to the higher rather than to the lo"er degree of heat8 Bhen the business of ma+ing
the bread, rolls, Pc8, is o)er, that of its distribution begins, and a considerable
proportion of the Dourne*men in the trade, after "or+ing hard in the manner
described during the night, are upon their legs for man* hours during the da*,
carr*ing bas+ets, or "heeling hand4carts, and sometimes again in the ba+ehouse,
lea)ing off "or+ at )arious hours bet"een 1 and 6 p8m8 according to the season of
the *ear, or the amount and nature of their master?s business; "hile others are
again engaged in the ba+ehouse in Wbringing out? more batches until late in the
afternoon8
6
888 0uring "hat is called Wthe <ondon season,? the operati)es
belonging to the Wfull4priced? ba+ers at the Best End of the to"n, generall* begin
"or+ at 11 p8m8, and are engaged in ma+ing the bread, "ith one or t"o short
(sometimes )er* short! inter)als of rest, up to 8 o?cloc+ the ne9t morning8 'he*
are then engaged all da* long, up to , 3, 6, and as late as 7 o?cloc+ in the e)ening
carr*ing out bread, or sometimes in the afternoon in the ba+ehouse again,
assisting in the biscuit4ba+ing8 'he* ma* ha)e, after the* ha)e done their "or+,
sometimes fi)e or si9, sometimes onl* four or fi)e hours? sleep before the* begin
again8 =n Frida*s the* al"a*s begin sooner, some about ten o?cloc+, and continue
in some cases, at "or+, either in ma+ing or deli)ering the bread up to 8 p8m8 on
Saturda* night, but more generall* up to or 3 o?cloc+, Sunda* morning8 =n
Sunda*s the men must attend t"ice or three times during the da* for an hour or
t"o to ma+e preparations for the ne9t da*?s bread8888 'he men emplo*ed b* the
underselling masters ("ho sell their bread under the Wfull price,? and "ho, as
alread* pointed out, comprise three4fourths of the <ondon ba+ers! ha)e not onl*
to "or+ on the a)erage longer hours, but their "or+ is almost entirel* confined to
the ba+ehouse8 'he underselling masters generall* sell their bread888 in the shop8 >f
the* send it out, "hich is not common, e9cept as suppl*ing chandlers? shops, the*
usuall* emplo* other hands for that purpose8 >t is not their practice to deli)er
bread from house to house8 'o"ards the end of the "ee+ 888 the men begin on
'hursda* night at 17 o?cloc+, and continue on "ith onl* slight intermission until
late on Saturda* e)ening8A
7
E)en the bourgeois intellect understands the position of the @undersellingA masters8 @'he unpaid
labour of the men "as made the source "hereb* the competition "as carried on8A
8
(nd the @full4
pricedA ba+er denounces his underselling competitors to the 5ommission of >nIuir* as thie)es of
foreign labour and adulterators8
@'he* onl* e9ist no" b* first defrauding the public, and ne9t getting 18 hours?
"or+ out of their men for 16 hours? "ages8A
2
'he adulteration of bread and the formation of a class of ba+ers that sells the bread belo" the full
price, date from the beginning of the 18th centur*, from the time "hen the corporate character of
the trade "as lost, and the capitalist in the form of the miller or flour4factor, rises behind the
nominal master ba+er8
37
'hus "as laid the foundation of capitalistic production in this trade, of
the unlimited e9tension of the "or+ing da* and of night4labour, although the latter onl* since
186 gained a serious footing, e)en in <ondon8
31
(fter "hat has Dust been said, it "ill be understood that the &eport of the 5ommission classes
Dourne*men ba+ers among the short4li)ed labourers, "ho, ha)ing b* good luc+ escaped the
normal decimation of the children of the "or+ing4class, rarel* reach the age of 68 Ce)ertheless,
the ba+ing trade is al"a*s o)er"helmed "ith applicants8 'he sources of the suppl* of these
1:2 5hapter 17
labour4po"ers to <ondon are Scotland, the "estern agricultural districts of England, and
German*8
>n the *ears 1838467, the Dourne*men ba+ers in >reland organised at their o"n e9pense great
meetings to agitate against night and Sunda* "or+8 'he public F e8g8, at the 0ublin meeting in
$a*, 1867 F too+ their part "ith >rish "armth8 (s a result of this mo)ement, da*4labour alone
"as successfull* established in Be9ford, .il+enn*, 5lonmel, Baterford, Pc8
@>n <imeric+, "here the grie)ances of the Dourne*men are demonstrated to be
e9cessi)e, the mo)ement has been defeated b* the opposition of the master
ba+ers, the miller ba+ers being the greatest opponents8 'he e9ample of <imeric+
led to a retrogression in Ennis and 'ipperar*8 >n 5or+, "here the strongest
possible demonstration of feeling too+ place, the masters, b* e9ercising their
po"er of turning the men out of emplo*ment, ha)e defeated the mo)ement8 >n
0ublin, the master ba+ers ha)e offered the most determined opposition to the
mo)ement, and b* discountenancing as much as possible the Dourne*men
promoting it, ha)e succeeded in leading the men into acIuiescence in Sunda*
"or+ and night4"or+, contrar* to the con)ictions of the men8A
36
'he 5ommittee of the English Go)ernment, "hich Go)ernment, in >reland, is armed to the teeth,
and generall* +no"s ho" to sho" it, remonstrates in mild, though funereal, tones "ith the
implacable master ba+ers of 0ublin, <imeric+, 5or+, Pc8:
@'he 5ommittee belie)e that the hours of labour are limited b* natural la"s,
"hich cannot be )iolated "ith impunit*8 'hat for master ba+ers to induce their
"or+men, b* the fear of losing emplo*ment, to )iolate their religious con)ictions
and their better feelings, to disobe* the la"s of the land, and to disregard public
opinion (this all refers to Sunda* labour!, is calculated to pro)o+e ill4feeling
bet"een "or+men and masters, 888 and affords an e9ample dangerous to religion,
moralit*, and social order8888 'he 5ommittee belie)e that an* constant "or+
be*ond 16 hours a4da* encroaches on the domestic and pri)ate life of the
"or+ing4man, and so leads to disastrous moral results, interfering "ith each man?s
home, and the discharge of his famil* duties as a son, a brother, a husband, a
father8 'hat "or+ be*ond 16 hours has a tendenc* to undermine the health of the
"or+ingman, and so leads to premature old age and death, to the great inDur* of
families of "or+ing4men, thus depri)ed of the care and support of the head of the
famil* "hen most reIuired8A
3:
So far, "e ha)e dealt "ith >reland8 =n the other side of the channel, in Scotland, the agricultural
labourer, the ploughman, protests against his 1:41 hours? "or+ in the most inclement climate,
"ith hours? additional "or+ on Sunda* (in this land of SabbatariansQ!,
3
"hilst, at the same
time, three rail"a* men are standing before a <ondon coroner?s Dur* F a guard, an engine4dri)er,
a signalman8 ( tremendous rail"a* accident has hurried hundreds of passengers into another
"orld8 'he negligence of the emplo*ee is the cause of the misfortune8 'he* declare "ith one
)oice before the Dur* that ten or t"el)e *ears before, their labour onl* lasted eight hours a4da*8
0uring the last fi)e or si9 *ears it had been scre"ed up to 1, 18, and 67 hours, and under a
speciall* se)ere pressure of holida*4ma+ers, at times of e9cursion trains, it often lasted for 7 or
37 hours "ithout a brea+8 'he* "ere ordinar* men, not 5*clops8 (t a certain point their labour4
po"er failed8 'orpor sei1ed them8 'heir brain ceased to thin+, their e*es to see8 'he thoroughl*
@respectableA /ritish Dur*men ans"ered b* a )erdict that sent them to the ne9t assi1es on a charge
of manslaughter, and, in a gentle @riderA to their )erdict, e9pressed the pious hope that the
capitalistic magnates of the rail"a*s "ould, in future, be more e9tra)agant in the purchase of a
17 5hapter 17
sufficient Iuantit* of labour4po"er, and more @abstemious,A more @self4den*ing,A more @thrift*,A
in the draining of paid labour4po"er8
33
From the motle* cro"d of labourers of all callings, ages, se9es, that press on us more busil* than
the souls of the slain on %l*sses, on "hom F "ithout referring to the /lue boo+s under their arms
F "e see at a glance the mar+ of o)er4"or+, let us ta+e t"o more figures "hose stri+ing contrast
pro)es that before capital all men are ali+e F a milliner and a blac+smith8
>n the last "ee+ of Lune, 186:, all the <ondon dail* papers published a paragraph "ith the
@sensationalA heading, @0eath from simple o)er4"or+8A >t dealt "ith the death of the milliner,
$ar* (nne Bal+le*, 67 *ears of age, emplo*ed in a highl*4respectable dressma+ing
establishment, e9ploited b* a lad* "ith the pleasant name of Elise8 'he old, often4told stor*,
36
"as once more recounted8 'his girl "or+ed, on an a)erage, 16[ hours, during the season often :7
hours, "ithout a brea+, "hilst her failing labour4po"er "as re)i)ed b* occasional supplies of
sherr*, port, or coffee8 >t "as Dust no" the height of the season8 >t "as necessar* to conDure up in
the t"in+ling of an e*e the gorgeous dresses for the noble ladies bidden to the ball in honour of
the ne"l*4imported #rincess of Bales8 $ar* (nne Bal+le* had "or+ed "ithout intermission for
66[ hours, "ith 67 other girls, :7 in one room, that onl* afforded 1J: of the cubic feet of air
reIuired for them8 (t night, the* slept in pairs in one of the stifling holes into "hich the bedroom
"as di)ided b* partitions of board8
37
(nd this "as one of the best milliner* establishments in
<ondon8 $ar* (nne Bal+le* fell ill on the Frida*, died on Sunda*, "ithout, to the astonishment
of $adame Elise, ha)ing pre)iousl* completed the "or+ in hand8 'he doctor, $r8 .e*s, called
too late to the death4bed, dul* bore "itness before the coroner?s Dur* that
@$ar* (nne Bal+le* had died from long hours of "or+ in an o)er4cro"ded "or+4
room, and a too small and badl* )entilated bedroom8A
>n order to gi)e the doctor a lesson in good manners, the coroner?s Dur* thereupon brought in a
)erdict that
@the deceased had died of apople9*, but there "as reason to fear that her death had
been accelerated b* o)er4"or+ in an o)er4cro"ded "or+room, Pc8A
@=ur "hite sla)es,A cried the Mornin ;tar, the organ of the Free4traders, 5obden and /right,
@our "hite sla)es, "ho are toiled into the gra)e, for the most part silentl* pine and die8A
38
@>t is not in dressma+ers? rooms that "or+ing to death is the order of the da*, but
in a thousand other places; in e)er* place > had almost said, "here Wa thri)ing
business? has to be done8888 Be "ill ta+e the blac+smith as a t*pe8 >f the poets "ere
true, there is no man so heart*, so merr*, as the blac+smith; he rises earl* and
stri+es his spar+s before the sun; he eats and drin+s and sleeps as no other man8
Bor+ing in moderation, he is, in fact, in one of the best of human positions,
ph*sicall* spea+ing8 /ut "e follo" him into the cit* or to"n, and "e see the
stress of "or+ on that strong man, and "hat then is his position in the death4rate of
his countr*8 >n $ar*lebone, blac+smiths die at the rate of :1 per thousand per
annum, or 11 abo)e the mean of the male adults of the countr* in its entiret*8 'he
occupation, instincti)e almost as a portion of human art, unobDectionable as a
branch of human industr*, is made b* mere e9cess of "or+, the destro*er of the
man8 -e can stri+e so man* blo"s per da*, "al+ so man* steps, breathe so man*
breaths, produce so much "or+, and li)e an a)erage, sa* of fift* *ears; he is made
to stri+e so man* more blo"s, to "al+ so man* more steps, to breathe so man*
more breaths per da*, and to increase altogether a fourth of his life8 -e meets the
effort; the result is, that producing for a limited time a fourth more "or+, he dies
at :7 for 378A
32
11 5hapter 17
Section ,: -a and 6i%ht 3ork7 The .ela
Sstem
5onstant capital, the means of production, considered from the standpoint of the creation of
surplus )alue, onl* e9ist to absorb labour, and "ith e)er* drop of labour a proportional Iuantit*
of surplus labour8 Bhile the* fail to do this, their mere e9istence causes a relati)e loss to the
capitalist, for the* represent during the time the* lie fallo", a useless ad)ance of capital8 (nd this
loss becomes positi)e and absolute as soon as the intermission of their emplo*ment necessitates
additional outla* at the recommencement of "or+8 'he prolongation of the "or+ing da* be*ond
the limits of the natural da*, into the night, onl* acts as a palliati)e8 >t Iuenches onl* in a slight
degree the )ampire thirst for the li)ing blood of labour8 'o appropriate labour during all the 6
hours of the da* is, therefore, the inherent tendenc* of capitalist production8 /ut as it is ph*sicall*
impossible to e9ploit the same indi)idual labour4po"er constantl* during the night as "ell as the
da*, to o)ercome this ph*sical hindrance, an alternation becomes necessar* bet"een the
"or+people "hose po"ers are e9hausted b* da*, and those "ho are used up b* night8 'his
alternation ma* be effected in )arious "a*s; e8g8, it ma* be so arranged that part of the "or+ers
are one "ee+ emplo*ed on da*4"or+, the ne9t "ee+ on night4"or+8 >t is "ell +no"n that this
rela* s*stem, this alternation of t"o sets of "or+ers, held full s"a* in the full4blooded *outh4time
of the English cotton manufacture, and that at the present time it still flourishes, among others, in
the cotton spinning of the $osco" district8 'his 6 hours? process of production e9ists to4da* as a
s*stem in man* of the branches of industr* of Great /ritain that are still @free,A in the blast4
furnaces, forges, plate4rolling mills, and other metallurgical establishments in England, Bales,
and Scotland8 'he "or+ing4time here includes, besides the 6 hours of the 6 "or+ing da*s, a
great part also of the 6 hours of Sunda*8 'he "or+ers consist of men and "omen, adults and
children of both se9es8 'he ages of the children and *oung persons run through all intermediate
grades, from 8 (in some cases from 6! to 188
67
>n some branches of industr*, the girls and "omen "or+ through the night together "ith the
males8
61
#lacing on one side the generall* inDurious influence of night4labour,
66
the duration of the process
of production, unbro+en during the 6 hours, offers )er* "elcome opportunities of e9ceeding the
limits of the normal "or+ing da*, e8g8, in the branches of industr* alread* mentioned, "hich are
of an e9ceedingl* fatiguing nature; the official "or+ing da* means for each "or+er usuall* 16
hours b* night or da*8 /ut the o)er4"or+ be*ond this amount is in man* cases, to use the "ords
of the English official report, @trul* fearful8A
6:
@>t is impossible,A the report continues, @for an* mind to realise the amount of
"or+ described in the follo"ing passages as being performed b* bo*s of from 2 to
16 *ears of age 888 "ithout coming irresistibl* to the conclusion that such abuses of
the po"er of parents and of emplo*ers can no longer be allo"ed to e9ist8A
6
V'he practice of bo*s "or+ing at all b* da* and night turns either in the usual
course of things, or at pressing times, seems ine)itabl* to open the door to their
not unfreIuentl* "or+ing undul* long hours8 'hese hours are, indeed, in some
cases, not onl* cruell* but e)en incredibl* long for children8 (mongst a number of
bo*s it "ill, of course, not unfreIuentl* happen that one or more are from some
cause absent8 Bhen this happens, their place is made up b* one or more bo*s, "ho
"or+ in the other turn8 'hat this is a "ell understood s*stem is plain 888 from the
ans"er of the manager of some large rolling4mills, "ho, "hen > as+ed him ho"
16 5hapter 17
the place of the bo*s absent from their turn "as made up, W> daresa*, sir, *ou +no"
that as "ell as > do,? and admitted the fact8A
63
@(t a rolling4mill "here the proper hours "ere from 6 a8m8 to 3[ p8m8, a bo*
"or+ed about four nights e)er* "ee+ till 8[ p8m8 at least 888 and this for si9
months8 (nother, at 2 *ears old, sometimes made three 164hour shifts running,
and, "hen 17, has made t"o da*s and t"o nights running8A ( third, @no" 17 888
"or+ed from 6 a8m8 till 16 p8m8 three nights, and till 2 p8m8 the other nights8A
@(nother, no" 1:, 888 "or+ed from 6 p8m8 till 16 noon ne9t da*, for a "ee+
together, and sometimes for three shifts together, e8g8, from $onda* morning till
'uesda* night8A @(nother, no" 16, has "or+ed in an iron foundr* at Sta)el* from
6 a8m8 till 16 p8m8 for a fortnight on end; could not do it an* more8A @George
(llins"orth, age 2, came here as cellar4bo* last Frida*; ne9t morning "e had to
begin at :, so > stopped here all night8 <i)e fi)e miles off8 Slept on the floor of the
furnace, o)er head, "ith an apron under me, and a bit of a Dac+et o)er me8 'he t"o
other da*s > ha)e been here at 6 a8m8 (*eQ it is hot in here8 /efore > came here >
"as nearl* a *ear at the same "or+ at some "or+s in the countr*8 /egan there,
too, at : on Saturda* morning F al"a*s did, but "as )er* gain GnearH home, and
could sleep at home8 =ther da*s > began at 6 in the morning, and gi?en o)er at 6 or
7 in the e)ening,A Pc8
66
<et us no" hear ho" capital itself regards this 6 hours? s*stem8 'he e9treme forms of the
s*stem, its abuse in the @cruel and incredibleA e9tension of the "or+ing da* are naturall* passed
o)er in silence8 5apital onl* spea+s of the s*stem in its @normalA form8
$essrs8 Ca*lor P ;ic+ers, steel manufacturers, "ho emplo* bet"een 677 and 777 persons,
among "hom onl* 17 per cent are under 18, and of those, onl* 67 bo*s under 18 "or+ in night
sets, thus e9press themsel)es:
@'he bo*s do not suffer from the heat8 'he temperature is probabl* from 86p to
27p8888 (t the forges and in the rolling mills the hands "or+ night and da*, in
rela*s, but all the other parts of the "or+ are da*4"or+, i$e$+ from 6 a8m8 to 6 p8m8
>n the forge the hours are from 16 to 168 Some of the hands al"a*s "or+ in the
night, "ithout an* alternation of da* and night "or+8888 Be do not find an*
difference in the health of those "ho "or+ regularl* b* night and those "ho "or+
b* da*, and probabl* people can sleep better if the* ha)e the same period of rest
than if it is changed8888 (bout 67 of the bo*s under the age of 18 "or+ in the night
sets8888 Be could not "ell do "ithout lads under 18 "or+ing b* night8 'he
obDection "ould be the increase in the cost of production8888 S+illed hands and the
heads in e)er* department are difficult to get, but of lads "e could get an*
number8888 /ut from the small proportion of bo*s that "e emplo*, the subDect (i$e8,
of restrictions on night4"or+! is of little importance or interest to us8A
67
$r8 L8 Ellis, one of the firm of $essrs8 Lohn /ro"n P 5o8, steel and iron "or+s, emplo*ing about
:,777 men and bo*s, part of "hose operations, namel*, iron and hea)ier steel "or+, goes on night
and da* b* rela*s, states @that in the hea)ier steel "or+ one or t"o bo*s are emplo*ed to a score
or t"o men8A 'heir concern emplo*s up"ards of 377 bo*s under 18, of "hom about 1J: or 177
are under the age of 1:8 Bith reference to the proposed alteration of the la", $r8 Ellis sa*s:
@> do not thin+ it "ould be )er* obDectionable to reIuire that no person under the
age of 18 should "or+ more than 16 hours in the 68 /ut "e do not thin+ that an*
line could be dra"n o)er the age of 16, at "hich bo*s could be dispensed "ith for
night4"or+8 /ut "e "ould sooner be pre)ented from emplo*ing bo*s under the
1: 5hapter 17
age of 1:, or e)en so high as 1, at all, than not be allo"ed to emplo* bo*s that
"e do ha)e at night8 'hose bo*s "ho "or+ in the da* sets must ta+e their turn in
the night sets also8 because the men could not "or+ in the night sets onl*; it "ould
ruin their health8888 Be thin+, ho"e)er, that night4"or+ in alternate "ee+s is no
harm8A
($essrs8 Ca*lor P ;ic+ers, on the other hand, in conformit* "ith the interest of their business,
considered that periodicall* changed night4labour might possibl* do more harm than continual
night4labour8!
@Be find the men "ho do it, as "ell as the others "ho do other "or+ onl* b*
da*8888 =ur obDections to not allo"ing bo*s under 18 to "or+ at night, "ould be on
account of the increase of e9pense, but this is the onl* reason8A
(Bhat c*nical nao)etRQ! @Be thin+ that the increase "ould be more than the trade,
"ith due regard to its being successfull* carried out, could fairl* bear8 (Bhat
meal*4mouthed phraseolog*Q! <abour is scarce here, and might fall short if there
"ere such a regulation8A (i$e$+ Ellis /ro"n P 5o8 might fall into the fatal
perple9it* of being obliged to pa* labour4po"er its full )alue8!
68
'he @5*clops Steel and >ron Bor+s,A of $essrs8 5ammell P 5o8, are concocted on the same large
scale as those of the abo)e4mentioned Lohn /ro"n P 5o8 'he managing director had handed in
his e)idence to the Go)ernment 5ommissioner, $r8 Bhite, in "riting8 <ater he found it
con)enient to suppress the $S8 "hen it had been returned to him for re)ision8 $r8 Bhite,
ho"e)er, has a good memor*8 -e remembered Iuite clearl* that for the $essrs8 5*clops the
forbidding of the night4labour of children and *oung persons @"ould be impossible, it "ould be
tantamount to stopping their "or+s,A and *et their business emplo*s little more than 6` of bo*s
under 18, and less than 1` under 1:8
62
=n the same subDect $r8 E8 F8 Sanderson, of the firm of Sanderson, /ros8, P 5o8, steel rolling4
mills and forges, (ttercliffe, sa*s:
@Great difficult* "ould be caused b* pre)enting bo*s under 18 from "or+ing at
night8 'he chief "ould be the increase of cost from emplo*ing men instead of
bo*s8 > cannot sa* "hat this "ould be, but probabl* it "ould not be enough to
enable the manufacturers to raise the price of steel, and conseIuentl* it "ould fall
on them, as of course the men ("hat Iueer4headed fol+Q! "ould refuse to pa* it8A
$r8 Sanderson does not +no" ho" much he pa*s the children, but
@perhaps the *ounger bo*s get from s8 to 3s8 a "ee+8888 'he bo*s? "or+ is of a
+ind for "hich the strength of the bo*s is generall* (Wgenerall*,? of course not
al"a*s! Iuite sufficient, and conseIuentl* there "ould be no gain in the greater
strength of the men to counterbalance the loss, or it "ould be onl* in the fe" cases
in "hich the metal is hea)*8 'he men "ould not li+e so "ell not to ha)e bo*s
under them, as men "ould be less obedient8 /esides, bo*s must begin *oung to
learn the trade8 <ea)ing da*4"or+ alone open to bo*s "ould not ans"er this
purpose8A
(nd "h* notE Bh* could not bo*s learn their handicraft in the da*4timeE Nour reasonE
@="ing to the men "or+ing da*s and nights in alternate "ee+s, the men "ould be
separated half the time from their bo*s, and "ould lose half the profit "hich the*
ma+e from them8 'he training "hich the* gi)e to an apprentice is considered as
part of the return for the bo*s? labour, and thus enables the man to get it at a
cheaper rate8 Each man "ould "ant half of this profit8A
1 5hapter 17
>n other "ords, $essrs8 Sanderson "ould ha)e to pa* part of the "ages of the adult men out of
their o"n poc+ets instead of b* the night4"or+ of the bo*s8 $essrs8 Sanderson?s profit "ould thus
fall to some e9tent, and this is the good Sandersonian reason "h* bo*s cannot learn their
handicraft in the da*8
77
>n addition to this, it "ould thro" night4labour on those "ho "or+ed
instead of the bo*s, "hich the* "ould not be able to stand8 'he difficulties in fact "ould be so
great that the* "ould )er* li+el* lead to the gi)ing up of night4"or+ altogether, and @as far as the
"or+ itself is concerned,A sa*s E8 F8 Sanderson, @this "ould suit as "ell, but F @/ut $essrs8
Sanderson ha)e something else to ma+e besides steel8 Steel4ma+ing is simpl* a prete9t for surplus
)alue ma+ing8 'he smelting furnaces, rolling4mills, Pc8, the buildings, machiner*, iron, coal, Pc8,
ha)e something more to do than transform themsel)es into steel8 'he* are there to absorb surplus
labour, and naturall* absorb more in 6 hours than in 168 >n fact the* gi)e, b* grace of God and
la", the Sandersons a cheIue on the "or+ing4time of a certain number of hands for all the 6
hours of the da*, and the* lose their character as capital, are therefore a pure loss for the
Sandersons, as soon as their function of absorbing labour is interrupted8
@/ut then there "ould be the loss from so much e9pensi)e machiner*, l*ing idle
half the time, and to get through the amount of "or+ "hich "e are able to do on
the present s*stem, "e should ha)e to double our premises and plant, "hich
"ould double the outla*8A
/ut "h* should these Sandersons pretend to a pri)ilege not enDo*ed b* the other capitalists "ho
onl* "or+ during the da*, and "hose buildings, machiner*, ra" material, therefore lie @idleA
during the nightE E8 F8 Sanderson ans"ers in the name of all the Sandersons:
@>t is true that there is this loss from machiner* l*ing idle in those manufactories
in "hich "or+ onl* goes on b* da*8 /ut the use of furnaces "ould in)ol)e a
further loss in our case8 >f the* "ere +ept up there "ould be a "aste of fuel
(instead of, as no", a "aste of the li)ing substance of the "or+ers!, and if the*
"ere not, there "ould be loss of time in la*ing the fires and getting the heat up
("hilst the loss of sleeping time, e)en to children of 8 is a gain of "or+ing4time
for the Sanderson tribe!, and the furnaces themsel)es "ould suffer from the
changes of temperature8A (Bhilst those same furnaces suffer nothing from the da*
and night change of labour8!
71
Section 8: The Stru%%le for a 6ormal 3orkin%
-a7 Compulsor (aws for the )+tension of
the 3orkin% -a from the $iddle of the
1,th to the )nd of the 19th Centur
@Bhat is a "or+ing da*E Bhat is the length of time during "hich capital ma* consume the
labour4po"er "hose dail* )alue it bu*sE -o" far ma* the "or+ing da* be e9tended be*ond the
"or+ing4time necessar* for the reproduction of labour4po"er itselfEA >t has been seen that to
these Iuestions capital replies: the "or+ing da* contains the full 6 hours, "ith the deduction of
the fe" hours of repose "ithout "hich labour4po"er absolutel* refuses its ser)ices again8 -ence
it is self4e)ident that the labourer is nothing else, his "hole life through, than labour4po"er, that
therefore all his disposable time is b* nature and la" labour4time, to be de)oted to the self4
e9pansion of capital8 'ime for education, for intellectual de)elopment, for the fulfilling of social
functions and for social intercourse, for the free4pla* of his bodil* and mental acti)it*, e)en the
rest time of Sunda* (and that in a countr* of SabbatariansQ!
76
F moonshineQ /ut in its blind
unrestrainable passion, its "ere4"olf hunger for surplus labour, capital o)ersteps not onl* the
13 5hapter 17
moral, but e)en the merel* ph*sical ma9imum bounds of the "or+ing da*8 >t usurps the time for
gro"th, de)elopment, and health* maintenance of the bod*8 >t steals the time reIuired for the
consumption of fresh air and sunlight8 >t higgles o)er a meal4time, incorporating it "here possible
"ith the process of production itself, so that food is gi)en to the labourer as to a mere means of
production, as coal is supplied to the boiler, grease and oil to the machiner*8 >t reduces the sound
sleep needed for the restoration, reparation, refreshment of the bodil* po"ers to Dust so man*
hours of torpor as the re)i)al of an organism, absolutel* e9hausted, renders essential8 >t is not the
normal maintenance of the labour4po"er "hich is to determine the limits of the "or+ing da*; it is
the greatest possible dail* e9penditure of labour4po"er, no matter ho" diseased, compulsor*, and
painful it ma* be, "hich is to determine the limits of the labourers? period of repose8 5apital cares
nothing for the length of life of labour4po"er8 (ll that concerns it is simpl* and solel* the
ma9imum of labour4po"er, that can be rendered fluent in a "or+ing da*8 >t attains this end b*
shortening the e9tent of the labourer?s life, as a greed* farmer snatches increased produce from
the soil b* robbing it of its fertilit*8
'he capitalistic mode of production (essentiall* the production of surplus )alue, the absorption of
surplus labour!, produces thus, "ith the e9tension of the "or+ing da*, not onl* the deterioration
of human labour4po"er b* robbing it of its normal, moral and ph*sical, conditions of
de)elopment and function8 >t produces also the premature e9haustion and death of this labour4
po"er itself8
7:
>t e9tends the labourer?s time of production during a gi)en period b* shortening his
actual life4time8
/ut the )alue of the labour4po"er includes the )alue of the commodities necessar* for the
reproduction of the "or+er, or for the +eeping up of the "or+ing4class8 >f then the unnatural
e9tension of the "or+ing da*, that capital necessaril* stri)es after in its unmeasured passion for
self4e9pansion, shortens the length of life of the indi)idual labourer, and therefore the duration of
his labour4po"er, the forces used up ha)e to be replaced at a more rapid rate and the sum of the
e9penses for the reproduction of labour4po"er "ill be greater; Dust as in a machine the part of its
)alue to be reproduced e)er* da* is greater the more rapidl* the machine is "orn out8 >t "ould
seem therefore that the interest capital itself points in the direction of a normal "or+ing da*8
'he sla)e4o"ner bu*s his labourer as he bu*s his horse8 >f he loses his sla)e, he loses capital that
can onl* be restored b* ne" outla* in the sla)e4mart8
/ut @the rice4grounds of Georgia, or the s"amps of the $ississippi ma* be fatall*
inDurious to the human constitution; but the "aste of human life "hich the
culti)ation of these districts necessitates, is not so great that it cannot be repaired
from the teeming preser)es of ;irginia and .entuc+*8 5onsiderations of econom*,
moreo)er, "hich, under a natural s*stem, afford some securit* for humane
treatment b* identif*ing the master?s interest "ith the sla)e?s preser)ation, "hen
once trading in sla)es is practiced, become reasons for rac+ing to the uttermost the
toil of the sla)e; for, "hen his place can at once be supplied from foreign
preser)es, the duration of his life becomes a matter of less moment than its
producti)eness "hile it lasts8 >t is accordingl* a ma9im of sla)e management, in
sla)e4importing countries, that the most effecti)e econom* is that "hich ta+es out
of the human chattel in the shortest space of time the utmost amount of e9ertion it
is capable of putting forth8 >t is in tropical culture, "here annual profits often
eIual the "hole capital of plantations, that negro life is most rec+lessl* sacrificed8
>t is the agriculture of the Best >ndies, "hich has been for centuries prolific of
fabulous "ealth, that has engulfed millions of the (frican race8 >t is in 5uba, at
this da*, "hose re)enues are rec+oned b* millions, and "hose planters are
16 5hapter 17
princes, that "e see in the ser)ile class, the coarsest fare, the most e9hausting and
unremitting toil, and e)en the absolute destruction of a portion of its numbers
e)er* *ear8A
7
Mutato nomine de te fabula narratur G>t is of *ou that the stor* is told F -oraceH8 For sla)e4trade
read labour4mar+et, for .entuc+* and ;irginia, >reland and the agricultural districts of England,
Scotland, and Bales, for (frica, German*8 Be heard ho" o)er4"or+ thinned the ran+s of the
ba+ers in <ondon8 Ce)ertheless, the <ondon labour4mar+et is al"a*s o)er4stoc+ed "ith German
and other candidates for death in the ba+eries8 #otter*, as "e sa", is one of the shortest4li)ed
industries8 >s there an* "ant therefore of pottersE Losiah Bedg"ood, the in)entor of modern
potter*, himself originall* a common "or+man, said in 1783 before the -ouse of 5ommons that
the "hole trade emplo*ed from 13,777 to 67,777 people8
73
>n the *ear 1861 the population alone
of the to"n centres of this industr* in Great /ritain numbered 171,:768
@'he cotton trade has e9isted for ninet* *ears8888 >t has e9isted for three
generations of the English race, and > belie)e > ma* safel* sa* that during that
period it has destro*ed nine generations of factor* operati)es8A
76
Co doubt in certain epochs of fe)erish acti)it* the labour4mar+et sho"s significant gaps8 >n 18:,
e$8 /ut then the manufacturers proposed to the #oor <a" 5ommissioners that the* should send
the @surplus4populationA of the agricultural districts to the north, "ith the e9planation @that the
manufacturers "ould absorb and use it up8A
77
(gents "ere appointed "ith the consent of the #oor <a" 5ommissioners8 888 (n
office "as set up in $anchester, to "hich lists "ere sent of those "or+people in
the agricultural districts "anting emplo*ment, and their names "ere registered in
boo+s8 'he manufacturers attended at these offices, and selected such persons as
the* chose; "hen the* had selected such persons as their W"ants reIuired?, the*
ga)e instructions to ha)e them for"arded to $anchester, and the* "ere sent,
tic+eted li+e bales of goods, b* canals, or "ith carriers, others tramping on the
road, and man* of them "ere found on the "a* lost and half4star)ed8 'his s*stem
had gro"n up unto a regular trade8 'his -ouse "ill hardl* belie)e it, but > tell
them, that this traffic in human flesh "as as "ell +ept up, the* "ere in effect as
regularl* sold to these G$anchesterH manufacturers as sla)es are sold to the
cotton4gro"er in the %nited States8888 >n 1867, Wthe cotton trade "as at its
1enith8? 888 'he manufacturers again found that the* "ere short of hands8888 'he*
applied to the Wflesh agents, as the* are called8 'hose agents sent to the southern
do"ns of England, to the pastures of 0orsetshire, to the glades of 0e)onshire, to
the people tending +ine in Biltshire, but the* sought in )ain8 'he surplus4
population "as Wabsorbed8?A
'he <ury =uardian said, on the completion of the French treat*, that @17,777 additional hands
could be absorbed b* <ancashire, and that :7,777 or 7,777 "ill be needed8A (fter the @flesh
agents and sub4agentsA had in )ain sought through the agricultural districts,
@a deputation came up to <ondon, and "aited on the right hon8 gentleman G$r8
;illiers, #resident of the #oor <a" /oardH "ith a )ie" of obtaining poor children
from certain union houses for the mills of <ancashire8A
78
Bhat e9perience sho"s to the capitalist generall* is a constant e9cess of population, i8e8, an
e9cess in relation to the momentar* reIuirements of surplus labour4absorbing capital, although
this e9cess is made up of generations of human beings stunted, short4li)ed, s"iftl* replacing each
other, pluc+ed, so to sa*, before maturit*8
72
(nd, indeed, e9perience sho"s to the intelligent
obser)er "ith "hat s"iftness and grip the capitalist mode of production, dating, historicall*
17 5hapter 17
spea+ing, onl* from *esterda*, has sei1ed the )ital po"er of the people b* the )er* root F sho"s
ho" the degeneration of the industrial population is onl* retarded b* the constant absorption of
primiti)e and ph*sicall* uncorrupted elements from the countr* F sho"s ho" e)en the countr*
labourers, in spite of fresh air and the principle of natural selection, that "or+s so po"erfull*
amongst them, and onl* permits the sur)i)al of the strongest, are alread* beginning to die off8
87
5apital that has such good reasons for den*ing the sufferings of the legions of "or+ers that
surround it, is in practice mo)ed as much and as little b* the sight of the coming degradation and
final depopulation of the human race, as b* the probable fall of the earth into the sun8 >n e)er*
stoc+Dobbing s"indle e)er* one +no"s that some time or other the crash must come, but e)er*
one hopes that it ma* fall on the head of his neighbour, after he himself has caught the sho"er of
gold and placed it in safet*8 Apr>s moi le d?lue! 8After me+ the flood9 is the "atch"ord of e)er*
capitalist and of e)er* capitalist nation8 -ence 5apital is rec+less of the health or length of life of
the labourer, unless under compulsion from societ*8
81
'o the out4cr* as to the ph*sical and mental
degradation, the premature death, the torture of o)er4"or+, it ans"ers: =ught these to trouble us
since the* increase our profitsE /ut loo+ing at things as a "hole, all this does not, indeed, depend
on the good or ill "ill of the indi)idual capitalist8 Free competition brings out the inherent la"s of
capitalist production, in the shape of e9ternal coerci)e la"s ha)ing po"er o)er e)er* indi)idual
capitalist8
86
'he establishment of a normal "or+ing da* is the result of centuries of struggle bet"een capitalist
and labourer8 'he histor* of this struggle sho"s t"o opposed tendencies8 5ompare, e8g8, the
English factor* legislation of our time "ith the English labour Statutes from the 1th centur* to
"ell into the middle of the 18th8
8:
Bhilst the modern Factor* (cts compulsoril* shortened the
"or+ing da*, the earlier statutes tried to lengthen it b* compulsion8 =f course the pretensions of
capital in embr*o F "hen, beginning to gro", it secures the right of absorbing a &uantum sufficit
Gsufficient Iuantit*H of surplus labour, not merel* b* the force of economic relations, but b* the
help of the State F appear )er* modest "hen put face to face "ith the concessions that, gro"ling
and struggling, it has to ma+e in its adult condition8 >t ta+es centuries ere the @freeA labourer,
than+s to the de)elopment of capitalistic production, agrees, i$e$+ is compelled b* social
conditions, to sell the "hole of his acti)e life8 his )er* capacit* for "or+, for the price of the
necessaries of life, his birth4right for a mess of pottage8 -ence it is natural that the lengthening of
the "or+ing da*, "hich capital, from the middle of the 1th to the end of the 17th centur*, tries to
impose b* State4measures on adult labourers, appro9imatel* coincides "ith the shortening of the
"or+ing da* "hich, in the second half of the 12th centur*, has here and there been effected b* the
State to pre)ent the coining of children?s blood into capital8 'hat "hich to4da*, e$8, in the State
of $assachusetts, until recentl* the freest State of the Corth4(merican &epublic, has been
proclaimed as the statutor* limit of the labour of children under 16, "as in England, e)en in the
middle of the 17th centur*, the normal "or+ing da* of able4bodied artisans, robust labourers,
athletic blac+smiths8
8
'he first @Statute of <abourersA (6: Ed"ard >>>8, 1:2! found its immediate prete9t (not its cause,
for legislation of this +ind lasts centuries after the prete9t for it has disappeared! in the great
plague that decimated the people, so that, as a 'or* "riter sa*s, @'he difficult* of getting men to
"or+ on reasonable terms (i$e8, at a price that left their emplo*ers a reasonable Iuantit* of surplus
labour! gre" to such a height as to be Iuite intolerable8A
83
&easonable "ages "ere, therefore,
fi9ed b* la" as "ell as the limits of the "or+ing da*8 'he latter point, the onl* one that here
interests us, is repeated in the Statute of 126 (-enr* ;>>8!8 'he "or+ing da* for all artificers and
field labourers from $arch to September ought, according to this statute ("hich, ho"e)er, could
not be enforced!, to last from 3 in the morning to bet"een 7 and 8 in the e)ening8 /ut the meal4
times consist of 1 hour for brea+fast, 1[ hours for dinner, and [ an hour for @noon4meate,A i8e8,
18 5hapter 17
e9actl* t"ice as much as under the factor* acts no" in force8
86
>n "inter, "or+ "as to last from 3
in the morning until dar+, "ith the same inter)als8 ( statute of Eli1abeth of 1366 lea)es the length
of the "or+ing da* for all labourers @hired for dail* or "ee+l* "ageA untouched, but aims at
limiting the inter)als to 6[ hours in the summer, or to 6 in the "inter8 0inner is onl* to last 1
hour, and the @afternoon4sleep of half an hourA is onl* allo"ed bet"een the middle of $a* and
the middle of (ugust8 For e)er* hour of absence 1d8 is to be subtracted from the "age8 >n
practice, ho"e)er, the conditions "ere much more fa)ourable to the labourers than in the statute4
boo+8 Billiam #ett*, the father of #olitical Econom*, and to some e9tent the founder of Statistics,
sa*s in a "or+ that he published in the last third of the 17th centur*:
@<abouring4men (then meaning field4labourers! "or+ 17 hours per diem, and
ma+e 67 meals per "ee+, )i18, : a da* for "or+ing da*s, and 6 on Sunda*s;
"hereb* it is plain, that if the* could fast on Frida* nights, and dine in one hour
and an half, "hereas the* ta+e t"o, from ele)en to one; thereb* thus "or+ing 1J67
more, and spending 1J67 less, the abo)e4mentioned (ta9! might be raised8A
87
Bas not 0r8 (ndre" %re right in cr*ing do"n the 16 hours? bill of 18:: as a retrogression to the
times of the dar+ agesE >t is true these regulations contained in the statute mentioned b* #ett*,
appl* also to apprentices8 /ut the condition of child4labour, e)en at the end of the 17th centur*, is
seen from the follo"ing complaint:
@?'is not their practice (in German*! as "ith us in this +ingdom, to bind an
apprentice for se)en *ears; three or four is their common standard: and the reason
is, because the* are educated from their cradle to something of emplo*ment,
"hich renders them the more apt and docile, and conseIuentl* the more capable
of attaining to a ripeness and Iuic+er proficienc* in business8 Bhereas our *outh,
here in England, being bred to nothing before the* come to be apprentices, ma+e a
)er* slo" progress and reIuire much longer time "herein to reach the perfection
of accomplished artists8A
88
Still, during the greater part of the 18th centur*, up to the epoch of $odern >ndustr* and
machinism, capital in England had not succeeded in sei1ing for itself, b* the pa*ment of the
"ee+l* )alue of labour4po"er, the "hole "ee+ of the labourer, "ith the e9ception, ho"e)er, of
the agricultural labourers8 'he fact that the* could li)e for a "hole "ee+ on the "age of four
da*s, did not appear to the labourers a sufficient reason that the* should "or+ the other t"o da*s
for the capitalist8 =ne part* of English economists, in the interest of capital, denounces this
obstinac* in the most )iolent manner, another part* defends the labourers8 <et us listen, e$$+ to
the contest bet"een #ostleth"a*t "hose 0ictionar* of 'rade then had the same reputation as the
+indred "or+s of $ac5ulloch and $acGregor to4da*, and the author (alread* Iuoted! of the
@Essa* on 'rade and 5ommerce8A
82
#ostleth"a*t sa*s among other things:
@Be cannot put an end to those fe" obser)ations, "ithout noticing that trite
remar+ in the mouth of too man*; that if the industrious poor can obtain enough to
maintain themsel)es in fi)e da*s, the* "ill not "or+ the "hole si98 Bhence the*
infer the necessit* of e)en the necessaries of life being made dear b* ta9es, or an*
other means, to compel the "or+ing artisan and manufacturer to labour the "hole
si9 da*s in the "ee+, "ithout ceasing8 > must beg lea)e to differ in sentiment from
those great politicians, "ho contend for the perpetual sla)er* of the "or+ing
people of this +ingdom; the* forget the )ulgar adage, all "or+ and no pla*8 -a)e
not the English boasted of the ingenuit* and de9terit* of her "or+ing artists and
manufacturers "hich ha)e heretofore gi)en credit and reputation to /ritish "ares
12 5hapter 17
in generalE Bhat has this been o"ing toE 'o nothing more probabl* than the
rela9ation of the "or+ing people in their o"n "a*8 Bere the* obliged to toil the
*ear round, the "hole si9 da*s in the "ee+, in a repetition of the same "or+,
might it not blunt their ingenuit*, and render them stupid instead of alert and
de9terous; and might not our "or+men lose their reputation instead of maintaining
it b* such eternal sla)er*E 888 (nd "hat sort of "or+manship could "e e9pect from
such hard4dri)en animalsE 888 $an* of them "ill e9ecute as much "or+ in four
da*s as a Frenchman "ill in fi)e or si98 /ut if Englishmen are to be eternal
drudges, Wtis to be feared the* "ill degenerate belo" the Frenchmen8 (s our
people are famed for bra)er* in "ar, do "e not sa* that it is o"ing to good
English roast beef and pudding in their bellies, as "ell as their constitutional spirit
of libert*E (nd "h* ma* not the superior ingenuit* and de9terit* of, our artists
and manufacturers, be o"ing to that freedom and libert* to direct themsel)es in
their o"n "a*, and > hope "e shall ne)er ha)e them depri)ed of such pri)ileges
and that good li)ing from "hence their ingenuit* no less than their courage ma*
proceed8A
27
'hereupon the author of the @Essa* on 'rade and 5ommerceA replies:
@>f the ma+ing of e)er* se)enth da* an holida* is supposed to be of di)ine
institution, as it implies the appropriating the other si9 da*s to labourA (he means
capital as "e shall soon see! @surel* it "ill not be thought cruel to enforce it 8888
'hat man+ind in general, are naturall* inclined to ease and indolence, "e fatall*
e9perience to be true, from the conduct of our manufacturing populace, "ho do
not labour, upon an a)erage, abo)e four da*s in a "ee+, unless pro)isions happen
to be )er* dear8888 #ut all the necessaries of the poor under one denomination; for
instance, call them all "heat, or suppose that 888 the bushel of "heat shall cost fi)e
shillings and that he (a manufacturer! earns a shilling b* his labour, he then "ould
be obliged to "or+ fi)e da*s onl* in a "ee+8 >f the bushel of "heat should cost but
four shillings, he "ould be obliged to "or+ but four da*s; but as "ages in this
+ingdom are much higher in proportion to the price of necessaries 888 the
manufacturer, "ho labours four da*s, has a surplus of mone* to li)e idle "ith the
rest of the "ee+ 8 888 > hope > ha)e said enough to ma+e it appear that the moderate
labour of si9 da*s in a "ee+ is no sla)er*8 =ur labouring people do this, and to all
appearance are the happiest of all our labouring poor,
21
but the 0utch do this in
manufactures, and appear to be a )er* happ* people8 'he French do so, "hen
holida*s do not inter)ene8
26
/ut our populace ha)e adopted a notion, that as
Englishmen the* enDo* a birthright pri)ilege of being more free and independent
than in an* countr* in Europe8 Co" this idea, as far as it ma* affect the bra)er* of
our troops, ma* be of some use; but the less the manufacturing poor ha)e of it,
certainl* the better for themsel)es and for the State8 'he labouring people should
ne)er thin+ themsel)es independent of their superiors8888 >t is e9tremel* dangerous
to encourage mobs in a commercial state li+e ours, "here, perhaps, se)en parts
out of eight of the "hole, are people "ith little or no propert*8 'he cure "ill not be
perfect, till our manufacturing poor are contented to labour si9 da*s for the same
sum "hich the* no" earn in four da*s8A
2:
'o this end, and for @e9tirpating idleness debaucher* and e9cess,A promoting a spirit of industr*,
@lo"ering the price of labour in our manufactories, and easing the lands of the hea)* burden of
poor?s rates,A our @faithful Ec+artA of capital proposes this appro)ed de)ice: to shut up such
labourers as become dependent on public support, in a "ord, paupers, in @an ideal 1or"house$@
137 5hapter 17
Such ideal "or+house must be made a @-ouse of 'error,A and not an as*lum for the poor, @"here
the* are to be plentifull* fed, "arml* and decentl* clothed, and "here the* do but little "or+8A
2
>n this @-ouse of 'error,A this @ideal "or+house, the poor shall "or+ 1 hours in a da*, allo"ing
proper time for meals, in such manner that there shall remain 16 hours of neat4labour8A
23
'"el)e "or+ing4hours dail* in the >deal Bor+house, in the @-ouse of 'errorA of 1777Q 6: *ears
later, in 18::, "hen the English #arliament reduced the "or+ing da* for children of 1: to 18, in
four branches of industr* to 16 full hours, the Dudgment da* of English >ndustr* had da"nedQ >n
1836, "hen <ouis /onaparte sought to secure his position "ith the bourgeoisie b* tampering "ith
the legal "or+ing da*, the French "or+ing people cried out "ith one )oice @the la" that limits the
"or+ing da* to 16 hours is the one good that has remained to us of the legislation of the
&epublicQA
26
(t ,Trich the "or+ of children o)er 17, is limited to 16 hours; in (argau in 1866,
the "or+ of children bet"een 1: and 16, "as reduced from 16[ to 16 hours; in (ustria in 1867,
for children bet"een 1 and 16, the same reduction "as made8
27
@Bhat a progress,A since 1777Q
$acaula* "ould shout "ith e9ultationQ
'he @-ouse of 'errorA for paupers of "hich the capitalistic soul of 1777 onl* dreamed, "as
realised a fe" *ears later in the shape of a gigantic @Bor+houseA for the industrial "or+er
himself8 >t is called the Factor*8 (nd the ideal this time fades before the realit*8
Section :: The Stru%%le for a 6ormal 3orkin%
-a7 Compulsor (imitation b (aw of the
3orkin%"Time7 )n%lish Factor ;cts5 1<**
(fter capital had ta+en centuries in e9tending the "or+ing da* to its normal ma9imum limit, and
then be*ond this to the limit of the natural da* of 16 hours,
28
there follo"ed on the birth of
machinism and modern industr* in the last third of the 18th centur*, a )iolent encroachment li+e
that of an a)alanche in its intensit* and e9tent8 (ll bounds of morals and nature, age and se9, da*
and night, "ere bro+en do"n8 E)en the ideas of da* and night, of rustic simplicit* in the old
statutes, became so confused that an English Dudge, as late as 1867, needed a Iuite 'almudic
sagacit* to e9plain @Dudiciall*A "hat "as da* and "hat "as night8
22
5apital celebrated its orgies8
(s soon as the "or+ing4class, stunned at first b* the noise and turmoil of the ne" s*stem of
production, reco)ered, in some measure, its senses, its resistance began, and first in the nati)e
land of machinism, in England8 For :7 *ears, ho"e)er, the concessions conIuered b* the
"or+people "ere purel* nominal8 #arliament passed 3 labour <a"s bet"een 1876 and 18::, but
"as shre"d enough not to )ote a penn* for their carr*ing out, for the reIuisite officials, Pc8
177
'he* remained a dead letter8 @'he fact is, that prior to the (ct of 18::, *oung
persons and children "ere "or+ed all night, all da*, or both ad libitum8A
171
( normal "or+ing da* for modern industr* onl* dates from the Factor* (ct of 18::, "hich
included cotton, "ool, fla9, and sil+ factories8 Cothing is more characteristic of the spirit of
capital than the histor* of the English Factor* (cts from 18:: to 1868
'he (ct of 18:: declares the ordinar* factor* "or+ing da* to be from half4past fi)e in the
morning to half4past eight in the e)ening and "ithin these limits, a period of 13 hours, it is la"ful
to emplo* *oung persons (i$e8, persons bet"een 1: and 18 *ears of age!, at an* time of the da*,
pro)ided no one indi)idual *oung person should "or+ more than 16 hours in an* one da*, e9cept
in certain cases especiall* pro)ided for8 'he 6th section of the (ct pro)ided8 @'hat there shall be
allo"ed in the course of e)er* da* not less than one and a half hours for meals to e)er* such
person restricted as hereinbefore pro)ided8A 'he emplo*ment of children under 2, "ith e9ceptions
131 5hapter 17
mentioned later "as forbidden; the "or+ of children bet"een 2 and 1: "as limited to 8 hours a
da*, night4"or+, i$e8, according to this (ct, "or+ bet"een 8::7 p8m8 and 3::7 a8m8, "as forbidden
for all persons bet"een 2 and 188
'he la"4ma+ers "ere so far from "ishing to trench on the freedom of capital to e9ploit adult
labour4po"er, or, as the* called it, @the freedom of labour,A that the* created a special s*stem in
order to pre)ent the Factor* (cts from ha)ing a conseIuence so outrageous8
@'he great e)il of the factor* s*stem as at present conducted,A sa*s the first report
of the 5entral /oard of the 5ommission of Lune 68th 18::, @has appeared to us to
be that it entails the necessit* of continuing the labour of children to the utmost
length of that of the adults8 'he onl* remed* for this e)il, short of the limitation of
the labour of adults "hich "ould, in our opinion, create an e)il greater than that
"hich is sought to be remedied, appears to be the plan of "or+ing double sets of
children8A
888 %nder the name of S*stem of &ela*s, this @planA "as therefore carried out, so that, e8g8, from
38:7 a8m8 until 18:7 in the afternoon, one set of children bet"een 2 and 1:, and from 18:7 p8m8 to
88:7 in the e)ening another set "ere @put to,A Pc8
>n order to re"ard the manufacturers for ha)ing, in the most barefaced "a*, ignored all the (cts
as to children?s labour passed during the last t"ent*4t"o *ears, the pill "as *et further gilded for
them8 #arliament decreed that after $arch 1st, 18:, no child under 11, after $arch 1st 18:3, no
child under 16, and after $arch 1st, 18:6, no child under 1: "as to "or+ more than eight hours
in a factor*8 'his @liberalism,A so full of consideration for @capital,A "as the more note"orth* as
0r8 Farre, Sir (8 5arlisle, Sir /8 /rodie, Sir 58 /ell, $r8 Guthrie, Pc8, in a "ord, the most
distinguished ph*sicians and surgeons in <ondon, had declared in their e)idence before the -ouse
of 5ommons, that there "as danger in dela*8 0r8 Farre e9pressed himself still more coarsel*8
@<egislation is necessar* for the pre)ention of death, in an* form in "hich it can
be prematurel* inflicted, and certainl* this (i8e8, the factor* method! must be
)ie"ed as a most cruel mode of inflicting it8A
'hat same @reformedA #arliament, "hich in its delicate consideration for the manufacturers,
condemned children under 1:, for *ears to come, to 76 hours of "or+ per "ee+ in the Factor*
-ell, on the other hand, in the Emancipation (ct, "hich also administered freedom drop b* drop,
forbade the planters, from the outset, to "or+ an* negro sla)e more than 3 hours a "ee+8
/ut in no "ise conciliated, capital no" began a nois* agitation that "ent on for se)eral *ears8 >t
turned chiefl* on the age of those "ho, under the name of children, "ere limited to 8 hours? "or+,
and "ere subDect to a certain amount of compulsor* education8 (ccording to capitalistic
anthropolog*, the age of childhood ended at 17, or at the outside, at 118 'he more nearl* the time
approached for the coming into full force of the Factor* (ct, the fatal *ear 18:6, the more "ildl*
raged the mob of manufacturers8 'he* managed, in fact, to intimidate the go)ernment to such an
e9tent that in 18:3 it proposed to lo"er the limit of the age of childhood from 1: to 168 >n the
meantime the pressure from "ithout gre" more threatening8 5ourage failed the -ouse of
5ommons8 >t refused to thro" children of 1: under the Luggernaut 5ar of capital for more than 8
hours a da*, and the (ct of 18:: came into full operation8 >t remained unaltered until Lune, 188
>n the ten *ears during "hich it regulated factor* "or+, first in part, and then entirel*, the official
reports of the factor* inspectors teem "ith complaints as to the impossibilit* of putting the (ct
into force8 (s the la" of 18:: left it optional "ith the lords of capital during the 13 hours, from
38:7 a8m8 to 88:7 p8m8, to ma+e e)er* @*oung person,A and e)er* @childA begin, brea+ off,
resume, or end his 16 or 8 hours at an* moment the* li+ed, and also permitted them to assign to
different persons, different times for meals, these gentlemen soon disco)ered a ne" @s*stem of
136 5hapter 17
rela*s,A b* "hich the labour4horses "ere not changed at fi9ed stations, but "ere constantl* re4
harnessed at changing stations8 Be do not pause longer on the beaut* of this s*stem, as "e shall
ha)e to return to it later8 /ut this much is clear at the first glance: that this s*stem annulled the
"hole Factor* (ct, not onl* in the spirit, but in the letter8 -o" could factor* inspectors, "ith this
comple9 boo++eeping in respect to each indi)idual child or *oung person, enforce the legall*
determined "or+4time and the granting of the legal mealtimesE >n a great man* of the factories,
the old brutalities soon blossomed out again unpunished8 >n an inter)ie" "ith the -ome Secretar*
(18!, the factor* inspectors demonstrated the impossibilit* of an* control under the ne"l*
in)ented rela* s*stem8
176
>n the meantime, ho"e)er, circumstances had greatl* changed8 'he
factor* hands, especiall* since 18:8, had made the 'en -ours? /ill their economic, as the* had
made the 5harter their political, election4cr*8 Some of the manufacturers, e)en, "ho had managed
their factories in conformit* "ith the (ct of 18::, o)er"helmed #arliament "ith memorials on
the immoral competition of their false brethren "hom greater impudence, or more fortunate local
circumstances, enabled to brea+ the la"8 $oreo)er, ho"e)er much the indi)idual manufacturer
might gi)e the rein to his old lust for gain, the spo+esmen and political leaders of the
manufacturing class ordered a change of front and of speech to"ards the "or+people8 'he* had
entered upon the contest for the repeal of the 5orn <a"s, and needed the "or+ers to help them to
)ictor*8 'he* promised therefore, not onl* a double4si1ed loaf of bread, but the enactment of the
'en -ours? /ill in the Free4trade millennium8
17:
'hus the* still less dared to oppose a measure
intended onl* to ma+e the la" of 18:: a realit*8 'hreatened in their holiest interest, the rent of
land, the 'ories thundered "ith philanthropic indignation against the @nefarious practicesA
17
of
their foes8
'his "as the origin of the additional Factor* (ct of Lune 7th, 188 >t came into effect on
September 17th, 188 >t places under protection a ne" categor* of "or+ers, )i18, the "omen o)er
188 'he* "ere placed in e)er* respect on the same footing as the *oung persons, their "or+ time
limited to t"el)e hours, their night4labour forbidden, Pc8 For the first time, legislation sa" itself
compelled to control directl* and officiall* the labour of adults8 >n the Factor* &eport of 184
183, it is said "ith iron*:
@Co instances ha)e come to m* +no"ledge of adult "omen ha)ing e9pressed an*
regret at their rihts being thus far interfered "ith8A
173
'he "or+ing4time of
children under 1: "as reduced to 61, and in certain circumstances to 7 hours a4
da*8
176
'o get rid of the abuses of the @spurious rela* s*stem,A the la" established besides others the
follo"ing important regulations: F
@'hat the hours of "or+ of children and *oung persons shall be rec+oned from the
time "hen an* child or *oung person shall begin to "or+ in the morning8A
So that if (, e$$+ begins "or+ at 8 in the morning, and / at 17, /?s "or+4da* must ne)ertheless
end at the same hour as (?s8 @'he time shall be regulated b* a public cloc+,A for e9ample, the
nearest rail"a* cloc+, b* "hich the factor* cloc+ is to be set8 'he occupier is to hang up a
@legibleA printed notice stating the hours for the beginning and ending of "or+ and the times
allo"ed for the se)eral meals8 5hildren beginning "or+ before 16 noon ma* not be again
emplo*ed after 1 p8m8 'he afternoon shift must therefore consist of other children than those
emplo*ed in the morning8 =f the hour and a half for meal4times,
@one hour thereof at the least shall be gi)en before three of the cloc+ in the
afternoon 888 and at the same period of the da*8 Co child or *oung person shall be
emplo*ed more than fi)e hours before 1 p8m8 "ithout an inter)al for meal4time of
at least :7 minutes8 Co child or *oung person Gor femaleH shall be emplo*ed or
13: 5hapter 17
allo"ed to remain in an* room in "hich an* manufacturing process is then Gi$e8, at
mealtimesH carried on,A Pc8
>t has been seen that these minutiae, "hich, "ith militar* uniformit*, regulate b* stro+e of the
cloc+ the times, limits, pauses of the "or+ "ere not at all the products of #arliamentar* fanc*8
'he* de)eloped graduall* out of circumstances as natural la"s of the modern mode of
production8 'heir formulation, official recognition, and proclamation b* the State, "ere the result
of a long struggle of classes8 =ne of their first conseIuences "as that in practice the "or+ing da*
of the adult males in factories became subDect to the same limitations, since in most processes of
production the co4operation of the children8 *oung persons, and "omen is indispensable8 =n the
"hole, therefore, during the period from 18 to 187, the 16 hours? "or+ing da* became general
and uniform in all branches of industr* under the Factor* (ct8
'he manufacturers, ho"e)er, did not allo" this @progressA "ithout a compensating
@retrogression8A (t their instigation the -ouse of 5ommons reduced the minimum age for
e9ploitable children from 2 to 8, in order to assure that additional suppl* of factor* children
"hich is due to capitalists, according to di)ine and human la"8
177
'he *ears 18647 are epoch4ma+ing in the economic histor* of England8 'he &epeal of the 5orn
<a"s, and of the duties on cotton and other ra" material; Free4trade proclaimed as the guiding
star of legislation; in a "ord, the arri)al of the millennium8 =n the other hand, in the same *ears,
the 5hartist mo)ement and the 17 hours? agitation reached their highest point8 'he* found allies
in the 'ories panting for re)enge8 0espite the fanatical opposition of the arm* of perDured Free4
traders, "ith /right and 5obden at their head, the 'en -ours? /ill, struggled for so long, "ent
through #arliament8
'he ne" Factor* (ct of Lune 8th, 187, enacted that on Lul* 1st, 187, there should be a
preliminar* shortening of the "or+ing da* for @*oung personsA (from 1: to 18!, and all females
to 11 hours, but that on $a* 1st, 188, there should be a definite limitation of the "or+ing da* to
17 hours8 >n other respects, the (ct onl* amended and completed the (cts of 18:: and 188
5apital no" entered upon a preliminar* campaign in order to hinder the (ct from coming into
full force on $a* 1st, 1888 (nd the "or+ers themsel)es, under the presence that the* had been
taught b* e9perience, "ere to help in the destruction of their o"n "or+8 'he moment "as cle)erl*
chosen8
@>t must be remembered, too, that there has been more than t"o *ears of great
suffering (in conseIuence of the terrible crisis of 18647! among the factor*
operati)es, from man* mills ha)ing "or+ed short time, and man* being altogether
closed8 ( considerable number of the operati)es must therefore be in )er* narro"
circumstances man*, it is to be feared, in debt; so that it might fairl* ha)e been
presumed that at the present time the* "ould prefer "or+ing the longer time, in
order to ma+e up for past losses, perhaps to pa* off debts, or get their furniture out
of pa"n, or replace that sold, or to get a ne" suppl* of clothes for themsel)es and
their families8A
178
'he manufacturers tried to aggra)ate the natural effect of these circumstances b* a general
reduction of "ages b* 17`8 'his "as done so to sa*, to celebrate the inauguration of the ne"
Free4trade era8 'hen follo"ed a further reduction of 8 1J:` as soon as the "or+ing da* "as
shortened to 11, and a reduction of double that amount as soon as it "as finall* shortened to 17
hours8 Bhere)er, therefore, circumstances allo"ed it, a reduction of "ages of at least 63` too+
place8
172
%nder such fa)ourabl* prepared conditions the agitation among the factor* "or+ers for
the repeal of the (ct of 187 "as begun8 Ceither lies, briber*, nor threats "ere spared in this
attempt8 /ut all "as in )ain8 5oncerning the half4do1en petitions in "hich "or+people "ere made
13 5hapter 17
to complain of @their oppression b* the (ct,A the petitioners themsel)es declared under oral
e9amination, that their signatures had been e9torted from them8 @'he* felt themsel)es oppressed,
but not e9actl* b* the Factor* (ct8A
117
/ut if the manufacturers did not succeed in ma+ing the
"or+people spea+ as the* "ished, the* themsel)es shrie+ed all the louder in press and #arliament
in the name of the "or+people8 'he* denounced the Factor* >nspectors as a +ind of re)olutionar*
commissioners li+e those of the French Cational 5on)ention ruthlessl* sacrificing the unhapp*
factor* "or+ers to their humanitarian crotchet8 'his manoeu)re also failed8 Factor* >nspector
<eonard -orner conducted in his o"n person, and through his sub4inspectors, man* e9aminations
of "itnesses in the factories of <ancashire8 (bout 77` of the "or+people e9amined declared in
fa)our of 17 hours, a much smaller percentage in fa)our of 11, and an altogether insignificant
minorit* for the old 16 hours8
111
(nother @friendl*A dodge "as to ma+e the adult males "or+ 16 to 13 hours, and then to bla1on
abroad this fact as the best proof of "hat the proletariat desired in its heart of hearts8 /ut the
@ruthlessA Factor* >nspector <eonard -orner "as again to the fore8 'he maDorit* of the @o)er4
timesA declared:
@'he* "ould much prefer "or+ing ten hours for less "ages, but that the* had no
choice; that so man* "ere out of emplo*ment (so man* spinners getting )er* lo"
"ages b* ha)ing to "or+ as piecers, being unable to do better!, that if the* refused
to "or+ the longer time, others "ould immediatel* get their places, so that it "as a
Iuestion "ith them of agreeing to "or+ the longer time, or of being thro"n out of
emplo*ment altogether8A
116
'he preliminar* campaign of capital thus came to grief, and the 'en -ours? (ct came into force
$a* 1st, 1888 /ut mean"hile the fiasco of the 5hartist part* "hose leaders "ere imprisoned,
and "hose organisation "as dismembered, had sha+en the confidence of the English "or+ing4
class in its o"n strength8 Soon after this the Lune insurrection in #aris and its blood* suppression
united, in England as on the 5ontinent, all fractions of the ruling classes, landlords and capitalists,
stoc+4e9change "ol)es and shop4+eepers, #rotectionists and Freetraders, go)ernment and
opposition, priests and freethin+ers, *oung "hores and old nuns, under the common cr* for the
sal)ation of #ropert*, &eligion, the Famil* and Societ*8 'he "or+ing4class "as e)er*"here
proclaimed, placed under a ban, under a )irtual la" of suspects8 'he manufacturers had no need
an* longer to restrain themsel)es8 'he* bro+e out in open re)olt not onl* against the 'en -ours?
(ct, but against the "hole of the legislation that since 18:: had aimed at restricting in some
measure the @freeA e9ploitation of labour4po"er8 >t "as a pro4sla)er* rebellion in miniature,
carried on for o)er t"o *ears "ith a c*nical rec+lessness, a terrorist energ* all the cheaper
because the rebel capitalist ris+ed nothing e9cept the s+in of his @hands8A
'o understand that "hich follo"s "e must remember that the Factor* (cts of 18::, 18, and
187 "ere all three in force so far as the one did not amend the other: that not one of these limited
the "or+ing da* of the male "or+er o)er 18, and that since 18:: the 13 hours from 38:7 a8m8 to
88:7 p8m8 had remained the legal @da*,A "ithin the limits of "hich at first the 16, and later the 17
hours? labour of *oung persons and "omen had to be performed under the prescribed conditions8
'he manufacturers began b* here and there discharging a part of, in man* cases half of the *oung
persons and "omen emplo*ed b* them, and then, for the adult males, restoring the almost
obsolete night4"or+8 'he 'en -ours? (ct, the* cried, lea)es no other alternati)e8
11:
'heir second step dealt "ith the legal pauses for meals8 <et us hear the Factor* >nspectors8
@Since the restriction of the hours of "or+ to ten, the factor* occupiers maintain,
although the* ha)e not *et practicall* gone the "hole length, that supposing the
hours of "or+ to be from 2 a8m8 to 7 p8m8 the* fulfil the pro)isions of the statutes
133 5hapter 17
b* allo"ing an hour before 2 a8m8 and half an hour after 7 p8m8 Gfor mealsH8 >n
some cases the* no" allo" an hour, or half an hour for dinner, insisting at the
same time, that the* are not bound to allo" an* part of the hour and a half in the
course of the factor* "or+ing da*8A
11
'he manufacturers maintained therefore that
the scrupulousl* strict pro)isions of the (ct of 18 "ith regard to meal4times
onl* ga)e the operati)es permission to eat and drin+ before coming into, and after
lea)ing the factor* F i8e8, at home8 (nd "h* should not the "or+people eat their
dinner before 2 in the morningE 'he cro"n la"*ers, ho"e)er, decided that the
prescribed meal4times
@must be in the inter)al during the "or+ing4hours, and that it "ill not be la"ful to
"or+ for 17 hours continuousl*, from 2 a8m8 to 7 p8m8, "ithout an* inter)al8A
113
(fter these pleasant demonstrations, 5apital preluded its re)olt b* a step "hich agreed "ith the
letter of the la" of 18, and "as therefore legal8
'he (ct of 18 certainl* prohibited the emplo*ment after 1 p8m8 of such children, from 8 to 1:,
as had been emplo*ed before noon8 /ut it did not regulate in an* "a* the 6[ hours? "or+ of the
children "hose "or+4time began at 16 midda* or later8 5hildren of 8 might, if the* began "or+ at
noon, be emplo*ed from 16 to 1, 1 hour; from 6 to in the afternoon, 6 hours; from 3 to 88:7 in
the e)ening, :[ hours; in all, the legal 6[ hours8 =r better still8 >n order to ma+e their "or+
coincide "ith that of the adult male labourers up to 88:7 p8m8, the manufacturers onl* had to gi)e
them no "or+ till 6 in the afternoon, the* could then +eep them in the factor* "ithout
intermission till 88:7 in the e)ening8
@(nd it is no" e9pressl* admitted that the practice e9ists in England from the
desire of mill4o"ners to ha)e their machiner* at "or+ for more than 17 hours a4
da*, to +eep the children at "or+ "ith male adults after all the *oung persons and
"omen ha)e left, and until 88:7 p8m8 if the factor*4o"ners choose8A
116
Bor+men and factor* inspectors protested on h*gienic and moral grounds, but 5apital ans"ered:
@$* deeds upon m* headQ > cra)e the la",
'he penalt* and forfeit of m* bond8A
>n fact, according to statistics laid before the -ouse of 5ommons on Lul* 66th, 1837, in spite of
all protests, on Lul* 13th, 1837, :,76 children "ere subDected to this @practiceA in 637
factories8
117
Still, this "as not enough8 'he <*n9 e*e of 5apital disco)ered that the (ct of 18
did not allo" 3 hours? "or+ before mid4da* "ithout a pause of at least :7 minutes for
refreshment, but prescribed nothing of the +ind for "or+ after mid4da*8 'herefore, it claimed and
obtained the enDo*ment not onl* of ma+ing children of 8 drudge "ithout intermission from 6 to
88:7 p8m8, but also of ma+ing them hunger during that time8
@(*, his breast8
So sa*s the bond8A
'his Sh*loc+4clinging
118
to the letter of the la" of 18, so far as it regulated children?s labour,
"as but to lead up to an open re)olt against the same la", so far as it regulated the labour of
@*oung persons and "omen8A >t "ill be remembered that the abolition of the @false rela* s*stemA
"as the chief aim and obDect of that la"8 'he masters began their re)olt "ith the simple
declaration that the sections of the (ct of 18 "hich prohibited the ad libitum use of *oung
persons and "omen in such short fractions of the da* of 13 hours as the emplo*er chose, "ere
@comparati)el* harmlessA so long as the "or+4time "as fi9ed at 16 hours8 /ut under the 'en
-ours? (ct the* "ere a @grie)ous hardship8A
112
'he* informed the inspectors in the coolest
manner that the* should place themsel)es abo)e the letter of the la", and re4introduce the old
136 5hapter 17
s*stem on their o"n account8
167
'he* "ere acting in the interests of the ill4ad)ised operati)es
themsel)es, @in order to be able to pa* them higher "ages8A
V'his "as the onl* possible plan b* "hich to maintain, under the 'en -ours? (ct,
the industrial supremac* of Great /ritain8A @#erhaps it ma* be a little difficult to
detect irregularities under the rela* s*stem; but "hat of thatE >s the great
manufacturing interest of this countr* to be treated as a secondar* matter in order
to sa)e some little trouble to >nspectors and Sub4>nspectors of FactoriesEA
161
(ll these shifts naturall* "ere of no a)ail8 'he Factor* >nspectors appealed to the <a" 5ourts8
/ut soon such a cloud of dust in the "a* of petitions from the masters o)er"helmed the -ome
Secretar*, Sir George Gre*, that in a circular of (ugust 3th, 188, he recommends the inspectors
not
@to la* informations against mill4o"ners for a breach of the letter of the (ct, or for
emplo*ment of *oung persons b* rela*s in cases in "hich there is no reason to
belie)e that such *oung persons ha)e been actuall* emplo*ed for a longer period
than that sanctioned b* la"8A -ereupon, Factor* >nspector L8 Stuart allo"ed the
so4called rela* s*stem during the 13 hours of the factor* da* throughout Scotland,
"here it soon flourished again as of old8 'he English Factor* >nspectors, on the
other hand, declared that the -ome Secretar* had no po"er dictatoriall* to
suspend the la", and continued their legal proceedings against the pro4sla)er*
rebellion8
/ut "hat "as the good of summoning the capitalists "hen the 5ourts in this case the countr*
magistrates F 5obbett?s @Great %npaidA F acIuitted themE >n these tribunals, the masters sat in
Dudgment on themsel)es (n e9ample8 =ne Es+rigge, cotton4spinner, of the firm of .ersha",
<eese, P 5o8, had laid before the Factor* >nspector of his district the scheme of a rela* s*stem
intended for his mill8 &ecei)ing a refusal, he at first +ept Iuiet8 ( fe" months later, an indi)idual
named &obinson, also a cotton4spinner, and if not his $an Frida*, at all e)ents related to
Es+rigge, appeared before the borough magistrates of Stoc+port on a charge of introducing the
identical plan of rela*s in)ented b* Es+rigge8 Four Lustices sat, among them three cottonspinners,
at their head this same ine)itable Es+rigge8 Es+rigge acIuitted &obinson, and no" "as of opinion
that "hat "as right for &obinson "as fair for Es+rigge8 Supported b* his o"n legal decision, he
introduced the s*stem at once into his o"n factor*8
166
=f course, the composition of this tribunal
"as in itself a )iolation of the la"8
16:
'hese Dudicial farces, e9claims >nspector -o"ell, @urgentl* call for a remed* F
either that the la" should be so altered as to be made to conform to these
decisions, or that it should be administered b* a less fallible tribunal, "hose
decisions "ould conform to the la" 888 "hen these cases are brought for"ard8 >
long for a stipendiar* magistrate8A
16
'he cro"n la"*ers declared the masters? interpretation of the (ct of 188 absurd8 /ut the
Sa)iours of Societ* "ould not allo" themsel)es to be turned from their purpose8 <eonard -orner
reports,
@-a)ing endea)oured to enforce the (ct 888 b* ten prosecutions in se)en
magisterial di)isions, and ha)ing been supported b* the magistrates in one case
onl* 888 > considered it useless to prosecute more for this e)asion of the la"8 'hat
part of the (ct of 188 "hich "as framed for securing uniformit* in the hours of
"or+, 888 is thus no longer in force in m* district (<ancashire!8 Ceither ha)e the
sub4inspectors or m*self an* means of satisf*ing oursel)es, "hen "e inspect a
mill "or+ing b* shifts, that the *oung persons and "omen are not "or+ing more
137 5hapter 17
than 17 hours a4da*8888 >n a return of the :7th (pril, 888 of millo"ners "or+ing b*
shifts, the number amounts to 11, and has been for some time rapidl* increasing8
>n general, the time of "or+ing the mill is e9tended to 1:[ hours? from 6 a8m8 to
7[ p8m8, 8888 in some instances it amounts to 13 hours, from 3[ a8m8 to 8[ p8m8A
163
(lread*, in 0ecember, 188, <eonard -orner had a list of 63 manufacturers and 62 o)erloo+ers
"ho unanimousl* declared that no s*stem of super)ision could, under this rela* s*stem, pre)ent
enormous o)er4"or+8
166
Co", the same children and *oung persons "ere shifted from the
spinning4room to the "ea)ing4room, no", during 13 hours, from one factor* to another8
167
-o"
"as it possible to control a s*stem "hich,
@under the guise of rela*s, is some one of the man* plans for shuffling Wthe hands?
about in endless )ariet*, and shifting the hours of "or+ and of rest for different
indi)iduals throughout the da*, so that *ou ma* ne)er ha)e one complete set of
hands "or+ing together in the same room at the same time8A
168
/ut altogether independentl* of actual o)er4"or+, this so4called rela* s*stem "as an offspring of
capitalistic fantas*, such as Fourier, in his humorous s+etches of @5ourses Seances,A has ne)er
surpassed, e9cept that the @attraction of labourA "as changed into the attraction of capital8 <oo+,
for e9ample, at those schemes of the masters "hich the @respectableA press praised as models of
@"hat a reasonable degree of care and method can accomplish8A 'he personnel of the "or+people
"as sometimes di)ided into from 16 to 1 categories, "hich themsel)es constantl* changed and
recharged their constituent parts8 0uring the 13 hours of the factor* da*, capital dragged in the
labourer no" for :7 minutes, no" for an hour, and then pushed him out again, to drag him into
the factor* and to thrust him out afresh, hounding him hither and thither, in scattered shreds of
time, "ithout e)er losing hold of him until the full 17 hours? "or+ "as done8 (s on the stage, the
same persons had to appear in turns in the different scenes of the different acts8 /ut as an actor
during the "hole course of the pla* belongs to the stage, so the operati)es, during 13 hours,
belonged to the factor*, "ithout rec+oning the time for going and coming8 'hus the hours of rest
"ere turned into hours of enforced idleness, "hich dro)e the *ouths to the pot4house, and the
girls to the brothel8 (t e)er* ne" tric+ that the capitalist, from da* to da*, hit upon for +eeping his
machiner* going 16 or 13 hours "ithout increasing the number of his hands, the "or+er had to
s"allo" his meals no" in this fragment of time, no" in that8 (t the time of the 17 hours?
agitation, the masters cried out that the "or+ing mob petitioned in the hope of obtaining 16 hours?
"ages for 17 hours? "or+8 Co" the* re)ersed the medal8 'he* paid 17 hours? "ages for 16 or 13
hours? lordship o)er labour4po"er8
162
'his "as the gist of the matter, this the masters?
interpretation of the 17 hours? la"Q 'hese "ere the same unctuous Free4traders, perspiring "ith
the lo)e of humanit*, "ho for full 17 *ears, during the (nti45orn <a" agitation, had preached to
the operati)es, b* a rec+oning of pounds, shillings, and pence, that "ith free importation of corn,
and "ith the means possessed b* English industr*, 17 hours? labour "ould be Iuite enough to
enrich the capitalists8
1:7
'his re)olt of capital, after t"o *ears "as at last cro"ned "ith )ictor* b*
a decision of one of the four highest 5ourts of Lustice in England, the 5ourt of E9cheIuer, "hich
in a case brought before it on Februar* 8th, 1837, decided that the manufacturers "ere certainl*
acting against the sense of the (ct of 18, but that this (ct itself contained certain "ords that
rendered it meaningless8 @/* this decision, the 'en -ours? (ct "as abolished8A
1:1
( cro"d of
masters, "ho until then had been afraid of using the rela* s*stem for *oung persons and "omen,
no" too+ it up heart and soul8
1:6
/ut on this apparentl* decisi)e )ictor* of capital, follo"ed at once a re)ulsion8 'he "or+people
had hitherto offered a passi)e, although infle9ible and unremitting resistance8 'he* no" protested
in <ancashire and Nor+shire in threatening meetings8 'he pretended 'en -ours? (ct "as thus
138 5hapter 17
simple humbug, parliamentar* cheating, had ne)er e9istedQ 'he Factor* >nspectors urgentl*
"arned the Go)ernment that the antagonism of classes had arri)ed at an incredible tension8 Some
of the masters themsel)es murmured:
@=n account of the contradictor* decisions of the magistrates, a condition of
things altogether abnormal and anarchical obtains8 =ne la" holds in Nor+shire,
another in <ancashire, one la" in one parish of <ancashire, another in its
immediate neighbourhood8 'he manufacturer in large to"ns could e)ade the la",
the manufacturer in countr* districts could not find the people necessar* for the
rela* s*stem, still less for the shifting of hands from one factor* to another,A Pc8
(nd the first birthright of capital is eIual e9ploitation of labour4po"er b* all capitalists8
%nder these circumstances a compromise bet"een masters and men "as effected that recei)ed
the seal of #arliament in the additional Factor* (ct of (ugust 3th, 18378 'he "or+ing da* for
@*oung persons and "omen,A "as raised from 17 to 17[ hours for the first fi)e da*s of the "ee+,
and shortened to 7[ on the Saturda*8 'he "or+ "as to go on bet"een 6 a8m8 and 6 p8m8
1::
, "ith
pauses of not less than 1[ hours for meal4times, these meal4times to be allo"ed at one and the
same time for all, and conformabl* to the conditions of 188 /* this an end "as put to the rela*
s*stem once for all8
1:
For children?s labour, the (ct of 18 remained in force8
=ne set of masters, this time as before, secured to itself special seigneurial rights o)er the
children of the proletariat8 'hese "ere the sil+ manufacturers8 >n 18:: the* had ho"led out in
threatening fashion, @if the libert* of "or+ing children of an* age for 17 hours a da* "ere ta+en
a"a*, it "ould stop their "or+s8A
1:3
>t "ould be impossible for them to bu* a sufficient number of
children o)er 1:8 'he* e9torted the pri)ilege the* desired8 'he prete9t "as sho"n on subseIuent
in)estigation to be a deliberate lie8
1:6
>t did not, ho"e)er, pre)ent them, during 17 *ears, from
spinning sil+ 17 hours a da* out of the blood of little children "ho had to be placed upon stools
for the performance of their "or+8
1:7
'he (ct of 18 certainl* @robbedA them of the @libert*A of
emplo*ing children under 11 longer than 6[ hours a da*8 /ut it secured to them, on the other
hand, the pri)ilege of "or+ing children bet"een 11 and 1:, 17 hours a da*, and of annulling in
their case the education made compulsor* for all other factor* children8 'his time the prete9t "as
@the delicate te9ture of the fabric in "hich the* "ere emplo*ed, reIuiring a
lightness of touch, onl* to be acIuired b* their earl* introduction to these
factories8A
1:8
'he children "ere slaughtered out4and4out for the sa+e of their delicate fingers, as in Southern
&ussia the horned cattle for the sa+e of their hide and tallo"8 (t length, in 1837, the pri)ilege
granted in 18, "as limited to the departments of sil+4t"isting and sil+4"inding8 /ut here, to
ma+e amends to capital bereft of its @freedom,A the "or+4lime for children from 11 to 1: "as
raised from 17 to 17[ hours8 #rete9t: @<abour in sil+ mills "as lighter than in mills for other
fabrics, and less li+el* in other respects also to be preDudicial to health8A
1:2
=fficial medical
inIuiries pro)ed after"ards that, on the contrar*,
@the a)erage death4rate is e9ceedingl* high in the sil+ districts and amongst the
female part of the population is higher e)en than it is in the cotton districts of
<ancashire8A
17
0espite the protests of the Factor* >nspector, rene"ed e)er* 6 months, the mischief continues to
this hour8
11
'he (ct of 1837 changed the 13 hours? time from 6 a8m8 to 88:7 p8m8, into the 16 hours from 6
a8m8 to 6 p8m8 for @*oung persons and "omenA onl*8 >t did not, therefore, affect children "ho
could al"a*s be emplo*ed for half an hour before and 6[ hours after this period, pro)ided the
132 5hapter 17
"hole of their labour did not e9ceed 6[ hours8 Bhilst the bill "as under discussion, the Factor*
>nspectors laid before #arliament statistics of the infamous abuses due to this anomal*8 'o no
purpose8 >n the bac+ground lur+ed the intention of scre"ing up, during prosperous *ears, the
"or+ing da* of adult males to 13 hours b* the aid of the children8 'he e9perience of the three
follo"ing *ears sho"ed that such an attempt must come to grief against the resistance of the adult
male operati)es8 'he (ct of 1837 "as therefore finall* completed in 183: b* forbidding the
@emplo*ment of children in the morning before and in the e)ening after *oung persons and
"omen8A -enceforth "ith a fe" e9ceptions the Factor* (ct of 1837 regulated the "or+ing da* of
all "or+ers in the branches of industr* that come under it8
16
Since the passing of the first Factor*
(ct half a centur* had elapsed8
1:
Factor* legislation for the first time "ent be*ond its original sphere in the @#rint"or+s? (ct of
1838A 'he displeasure "ith "hich capital recei)ed this ne" @e9tra)aganceA spea+s through
e)er* line of the (ct8 >t limits the "or+ing da* for children from 8 to 1:, and for "omen to 16
hours, bet"een 6 a8m8 and 17 p8m8, "ithout an* legal pause for meal4times8 >t allo"s males o)er
1: to be "or+ed at "ill da* and night8
1
>t is a #arliamentar* abortion8
13
-o"e)er, the principle had triumphed "ith its )ictor* in those great branches of industr* "hich
form the most characteristic creation of the modern mode of production8 'heir "onderful
de)elopment from 183: to 1867, hand4in4hand "ith the ph*sical and moral regeneration of the
factor* "or+ers, struc+ the most purblind8 'he masters from "hom the legal limitation and
regulation had been "rung step b* step after a ci)il "ar of half a centur*, themsel)es referred
ostentatiousl* to the contrast "ith the branches of e9ploitation still @free8A
16
'he #harisees of
@#olitical Econom*A no" proclaimed the discernment of the necessit* of a legall* fi9ed "or+ing
da* as a characteristic ne" disco)er* of their @science8A
17
>t "ill be easil* understood that after
the factor* magnates had resigned themsel)es and become reconciled to the ine)itable, the po"er
of resistance of capital graduall* "ea+ened, "hilst at the same time the po"er of attac+ of the
"or+ing4class gre" "ith the number of its allies in the classes of societ* not immediatel*
interested in the Iuestion8 -ence the comparati)el* rapid ad)ance since 18678
'he d*e4"or+s and bleach4"or+s all came under the Factor* (ct of 1837 in 1867;
18
lace and
stoc+ing manufactures in 18618
>n conseIuence of the first report of the 5ommission on the emplo*ment of children (186:! the
same fate "as shared b* the manufacturers of all earthen"ares (not merel* potter*!, <ucifer4
matches, percussion caps, cartridges, carpets, fustian4cutting, and man* processes included under
the name of @finishing8A >n the *ear 186: bleaching in the open air
12
and ba+ing "ere placed
under special (cts, b* "hich, in the former, the labour of *oung persons and "omen during the
night4time (from 8 in the e)ening to 6 in the morning!, and in the latter, the emplo*ment of
Dourne*men ba+ers under 18, bet"een 2 in the e)ening and 3 in the morning "ere forbidden8 Be
shall return to the later proposals of the same 5ommission, "hich threatened to depri)e of their
@freedomA all the important branches of English >ndustr*, "ith the e9ception of agriculture,
mines, and the means of transport8
137
Section 9: The Stru%%le for a 6ormal 3orkin%
-a7 .eaction of the )n%lish Factor ;cts
on Other Countries
'he reader "ill bear in mind that the production of surplus )alue, or the e9traction of surplus
labour, is the specific end and aim, the sum and substance, of capitalist production, Iuite apart
from an* changes in the mode of production, "hich ma* arise from the subordination of labour to
167 5hapter 17
capital8 -e "ill remember that as far as "e ha)e at present gone onl* the independent labourer,
and therefore onl* the labourer legall* Iualified to act for himself, enters as a )endor of a
commodit* into a contract "ith the capitalist8 >f, therefore, in our historical s+etch, on the one
hand, modern industr*, on the other, the labour of those "ho are ph*sicall* and legall* minors,
pla* important parts, the former "as to us onl* a special department, and the latter onl* a
speciall* stri+ing e9ample of labour e9ploitation8 Bithout, ho"e)er, anticipating the subseIuent
de)elopment of our inIuir*, from the mere conne9ion of the historic facts before us it follo"s:
!irst8 'he passion of capital for an unlimited and rec+less e9tension of the "or+ing da*, is first
gratified in the industries earliest re)olutionised b* "ater4po"er, steam, and machiner*, in those
first creations of the modern mode of production, cotton, "ool, fla9, and sil+ spinning, and
"ea)ing8 'he changes in the material mode of production, and the corresponding changes in the
social relations of the producers
131
ga)e rise first to an e9tra)agance be*ond all bounds, and then
in opposition to this, called forth a control on the part of Societ* "hich legall* limits, regulates,
and ma+es uniform the "or+ing da* and its pauses8 'his control appears, therefore, during the
first half of the nineteenth centur* simpl* as e9ceptional legislation8
136
(s soon as this primiti)e
dominion of the ne" mode of production "as conIuered, it "as found that, in the meantime, not
onl* had man* other branches of production been made to adopt the same factor* s*stem, but that
manufactures "ith more or less obsolete methods, such as potteries, glass4ma+ing, Pc8, that old4
fashioned handicrafts, li+e ba+ing, and, finall*, e)en that the so4called domestic industries, such
as nail4ma+ing,
13:
had long since fallen as completel* under capitalist e9ploitation as the factories
themsel)es8 <egislation "as, therefore, compelled to graduall* get rid of its e9ceptional character,
or "here, as in England, it proceeds after the manner of the &oman 5asuists, to declare an* house
in "hich "or+ "as done to be a factor*8
13
;econd8 'he histor* of the regulation of the "or+ing da* in certain branches of production, and
the struggle still going on in others in regard to this regulation, pro)e conclusi)el* that the
isolated labourer, the labourer as @freeA )endor of his labour4po"er, "hen capitalist production
has once attained a certain stage, succumbs "ithout an* po"er of resistance8 'he creation of a
normal "or+ing da* is, therefore, the product of a protracted ci)il "ar, more or less dissembled,
bet"een the capitalist class and the "or+ing4class8 (s the contest ta+es place in the arena of
modern industr*, it first brea+s out in the home of that industr* F England8
133
'he English factor*
"or+ers "ere the champions, not onl* of the English, but of the modern "or+ing4class generall*,
as their theorists "ere the first to thro" do"n the gauntlet to the theor* of capital8
136
-ence, the
philosopher of the Factor*, %re, denounces as an ineffable disgrace to the English "or+ing4class
that the* inscribed @the sla)er* of the Factor* (ctsA on the banner "hich the* bore against
capital, manfull* stri)ing for @perfect freedom of labour8A
137
France limps slo"l* behind England8 'he Februar* re)olution "as necessar* to bring into the
"orld the 16 hours? la",
138
"hich is much more deficient than its English original8 For all that, the
French re)olutionar* method has its special ad)antages8 >t once for all commands the same limit
to the "or+ing da* in all shops and factories "ithout distinction, "hilst English legislation
reluctantl* *ields to the pressure of circumstances, no" on this point, no" on that, and is getting
lost in a hopelessl* be"ildering tangle of contradictor* enactments8
132
=n the other hand, the
French la" proclaims as a principle that "hich in England "as onl* "on in the name of children,
minors, and "omen, and has been onl* recentl* for the first time claimed as a general right8
167
>n the %nited States of Corth (merica, e)er* independent mo)ement of the "or+ers "as
paral*sed so long as sla)er* disfigured a part of the &epublic8 <abour cannot emancipate itself in
the "hite s+in "here in the blac+ it is branded8 /ut out of the death of sla)er* a ne" life at once
arose8 'he first fruit of the 5i)il Bar "as the eight hours? agitation, that ran "ith the se)en4
161 5hapter 17
leagued boots of the locomoti)e from the (tlantic to the #acific, from Ce" England to 5alifornia8
'he General 5ongress of labour at /altimore ((ugust 16th, 1866! declared:
@'he first and great necessit* of the present, to free the labour of this countr* from
capitalistic sla)er*, is the passing of a la" b* "hich eight hours shall be the
normal "or+ing da* in all States of the (merican %nion8 Be are resol)ed to put
forth all our strength until this glorious result is attained8A
161
(t the same time, the 5ongress of the >nternational Bor+ing $en?s (ssociation at Gene)a, on the
proposition of the <ondon General 5ouncil, resol)ed that @the limitation of the "or+ing da* is a
preliminar* condition "ithout "hich all further attempts at impro)ement and emancipation must
pro)e aborti)e888 the 5ongress proposes eight hours as the legal limit of the "or+ing da*8A
'hus the mo)ement of the "or+ing4class on both sides of the (tlantic, that had gro"n
instincti)el* out of the conditions of production themsel)es, endorsed the "ords of the English
Factor* >nspector, &8 L8 Saunders
@Further steps to"ards a reformation of societ* can ne)er be carried out "ith an*
hope of success, unless the hours of labour be limited, and the prescribed limit
strictl* enforced8A
166
>t must be ac+no"ledged that our labourer comes out of the process of production other than he
entered8 >n the mar+et he stood as o"ner of the commodit* @labour4po"erA face to face "ith
other o"ners of commodities, dealer against dealer8 'he contract b* "hich he sold to the
capitalist his labour4po"er pro)ed, so to sa*, in blac+ and "hite that he disposed of himself freel*8
'he bargain concluded, it is disco)ered that he "as no @free agent,A that the time for "hich he is
free to sell his labour4po"er is the time for "hich he is forced to sell it,
16:
that in fact the )ampire
"ill not lose its hold on him @so long as there is a muscle, a ner)e, a drop of blood to be
e9ploited8A
16
For @protectionA against @the serpent of their agonies,A the labourers must put their
heads together, and, as a class, compel the passing of a la", an all4po"erful social barrier that
shall pre)ent the )er* "or+ers from selling8 b* )oluntar* contract "ith capital, themsel)es and
their families into sla)er* and death8
163
>n place of the pompous catalogue of the @inalienable
rights of manA comes the modest $agna 5harta of a legall* limited "or+ing da*, "hich shall
ma+e clear @"hen the time "hich the "or+er sells is ended, and "hen his o"n begins8A Kuantum
mutatus ab illoQ GBhat a great change from that timeQ F ;irgilH
166
Chapter 11: Rate and Mass of Surplus Value
>n this chapter, as hitherto, the )alue of labour4po"er, and therefore the part of the "or+ing da*
necessar* for the reproduction or maintenance of that labour4po"er, are supposed to be gi)en,
constant magnitudes8
'his premised, "ith the rate, the mass is at the same time gi)en of the surplus )alue that the
indi)idual labourer furnishes to the capitalist in a definite period of time8 >f, e$$, the necessar*
labour amounts to 6 hours dail*, e9pressed in a Iuantum of gold Y : shillings, then :s8 is the dail*
)alue of one labour4po"er or the )alue of the capital ad)anced in the bu*ing of one labour4po"er8
>f, further, the rate of surplus )alue be Y 177`, this )ariable capital of :s8 produces a mass of
surplus )alue of :s8, or the labourer supplies dail* a mass of surplus labour eIual to 6 hours8
/ut the )ariable capital of a capitalist is the e9pression in mone* of the total )alue of all the
labour4po"ers that he emplo*s simultaneousl*8 >ts )alue is, therefore, eIual to the a)erage )alue
of one labour4po"er, multiplied b* the number of labour4po"ers emplo*ed8 Bith a gi)en )alue of
labour4po"er, therefore, the magnitude of the )ariable capital )aries directl* as the number of
labourers emplo*ed simultaneousl*8 >f the dail* )alue of one labour4po"er Y :s8, then a capital of
:77s8 must be ad)anced in order to e9ploit dail* 177 labour4po"ers, of n times :s8, in order to
e9ploit dail* n labour4po"ers8
>n the same "a*, if a )ariable capital of :s8, being the dail* )alue of one labour4po"er, produce a
dail* surplus )alue of :s8, a )ariable capital of :77s8 "ill produce a dail* surplus )alue of :77s8,
and one of n times :s8 a dail* surplus )alue of n h :s8 'he mass of the surplus )alue produced is
therefore eIual to the surplus )alue "hich the "or+ing da* of one labourer supplies multiplied b*
the number of labourers emplo*ed8 /ut as further the mass of surplus )alue "hich a single
labourer produces, the )alue of labour4po"er being gi)en, is determined b* the rate of the surplus
)alue, this la" follo"s: the mass of the surplus )alue produced is eIual to the amount of the
)ariable capital ad)anced, multiplied b* the rate of surplus )alue, in other "ords: it is determined
b* the compound ratio bet"een the number of labour4po"ers e9ploited simultaneousl* b* the
same capitalist and the degree of e9ploitation of each indi)idual labour4po"er8
<et the mass of the surplus )alue be S, the surplus )alue supplied b* the indi)idual labourer in the
a)erage da* s the )ariable capital dail* ad)anced in the purchase of one indi)idual labour4po"er
), the sum total of the )ariable capital ;, the )alue of an a)erage labour4po"er #, its degree of
e9ploitation (aUJa! (surplus labourJnecessar*4labour! and the number of labourers emplo*ed n; "e
"ould ha)e:
S Y
q
(sJ)! h ;
# h (aUJa! h n
>t is al"a*s supposed, not onl* that the )alue of an a)erage labour4po"er is constant, but that the
labourers emplo*ed b* a capitalist are reduced to a)erage labourers8 'here are e9ceptional cases
in "hich the surplus )alue produced does not increase in proportion to the number of labourers
e9ploited, but then the )alue of the labour4po"er does not remain constant8
>n the production of a definite mass of surplus )alue, therefore the decrease of one factor ma* be
compensated b* the increase of the other8 >f the )ariable capital diminishes, and at the same time
the rate of surplus )alue increases in the same ratio, the mass of surplus )alue produced remains
16: 5hapter 11
unaltered8 >f on our earlier assumption the capitalist must ad)ance :77s8, in order to e9ploit 177
labourers a da*, and if the rate of surplus )alue amounts to 37`, this )ariable capital of :77s8
*ields a surplus )alue of 137s8 or of 177 h : "or+ing hours8 >f the rate of surplus )alue doubles,
or the "or+ing da*, instead of being e9tended from 6 to 2, is e9tended from 6 to 16 hours and at
the same time )ariable capital is lessened b* half, and reduced to 137s8, it *ields also a surplus
)alue of 137s8 or 37 h 6 "or+ing hours8 0iminution of the )ariable capital ma* therefore be
compensated b* a proportionate rise in the degree of e9ploitation of labour4po"er, or the decrease
in the number of the labourers emplo*ed b* a proportionate e9tension of the "or+ing da*8 Bithin
certain limits therefore the suppl* of labour e9ploitable b* capital is independent of the suppl* of
labourers8
1
=n the contrar*, a fall in the rate of surplus )alue lea)es unaltered the mass of the
surplus )alue produced, if the amount of the )ariable capital, or number of the labourers
emplo*ed, increases in the same proportion8
Ce)ertheless, the compensation of a decrease in the number of labourers emplo*ed, or of the
amount of )ariable capital ad)anced b* a rise in the rate of surplus )alue, or b* the lengthening of
the "or+ing da*, has impassable limits8 Bhate)er the )alue of labour4po"er ma* be, "hether the
"or+ing time necessar* for the maintenance of the labourer is 6 or 17 hours, the total )alue that a
labourer can produce, da* in, da* out, is al"a*s less than the )alue in "hich 6 hours of labour
are embodied, less than 16s8, if 16s8 is the mone* e9pression for 6 hours of realised labour8 >n
our former assumption, according to "hich 6 "or+ing hours are dail* necessar* in order to
reproduce the labour4po"er itself or to replace the )alue of the capital ad)anced in its purchase, a
)ariable capital of 1,377s8, that emplo*s 377 labourers at a rate of surplus )alue of 177` "ith a
16 hours? "or+ing da*, produces dail* a surplus )alue of 1,377s8 or of 6 h 377 "or+ing hours8 (
capital of :77s8 that emplo*s 177 labourers a da* "ith a rate of surplus )alue of 677` or "ith a
"or+ing da* of 18 hours, produces onl* a mass of surplus )alue of 677s8 or 16 h 177 "or+ing
hours; and its total )alue4product, the eIui)alent of the )ariable capital ad)anced plus the surplus
)alue, can, da* in, da* out, ne)er reach the sum of 1,677s8 or 6 h 177 "or+ing hours8 'he
absolute limit of the a)erage "or+ing da* F this being b* nature al"a*s less than 6 hours F sets
an absolute limit to the compensation of a reduction of )ariable capital b* a higher rate of surplus
)alue, or of the decrease of the number of labourers e9ploited b* a higher degree of e9ploitation
of labour4po"er8 'his palpable la" is of importance for the clearing up of man* phenomena,
arising from a tendenc* (to be "or+ed out later on! of capital to reduce as much as possible the
number of labourers emplo*ed b* it, or its )ariable constituent transformed into labour4po"er, in
contradiction to its other tendenc* to produce the greatest possible mass of surplus )alue8 =n the
other hand, if the mass of labour4po"er emplo*ed, or the amount of )ariable capital, increases,
but not in proportion to the fall in the rate of surplus )alue, the mass of the surplus )alue
produced, falls8
( third la" results from the determination, of the mass of the surplus )alue produced, b* the t"o
factors: rate of surplus )alue and amount of )ariable capital ad)anced8 'he rate of surplus )alue,
or the degree of e9ploitation of labour4po"er, and the )alue of labour4po"er, or the amount of
necessar* "or+ing time being gi)en, it is self e)ident that the greater the )ariable capital, the
greater "ould be the mass of the )alue produced and of the surplus )alue8 >f the limit of the
"or+ing da* is gi)en, and also the limit of its necessar* constituent, the mass of )alue and surplus
)alue that an indi)idual capitalist produces, is clearl* e9clusi)el* dependent on the mass of
labour that he sets in motion8 /ut this, under the conditions supposed abo)e, depends on the mass
of labour4po"er, or the number of labourers "hom he e9ploits, and this number in its turn is
determined b* the amount of the )ariable capital ad)anced8 Bith a gi)en rate of surplus )alue,
and a gi)en )alue of labour4po"er, therefore, the masses of surplus )alue produced )ar* directl*
as the amounts of the )ariable capitals ad)anced8 Co" "e +no" that the capitalist di)ides his
16 5hapter 11
capital into t"o parts8 =ne part he la*s out in means of production8 'his is the constant part of his
capital8 'he other part he la*s out in li)ing labour4po"er8 'his part forms his )ariable capital8 =n
the basis of the same mode of social production, the di)ision of capital into constant and )ariable
differs in different branches of production, and "ithin the same branch of production, too, this
relation changes "ith changes in the technical conditions and in the social combinations of the
processes of production8 /ut in "hate)er proportion a gi)en capital brea+s up into a constant and
a )ariable part, "hether the latter is to the former as 1:6 or 1:17 or 1:9, the la" Dust laid do"n is
not affected b* this8 For, according to our pre)ious anal*sis, the )alue of the constant capital
reappears in the )alue of the product, but does not enter into the ne"l* produced )alue, the ne"l*
created )alue product8 'o emplo* 1,777 spinners, more ra" material, spindles, Pc8, are, of course,
reIuired, than to emplo* 1778 'he )alue of these additional means of production ho"e)er ma*
rise, fall, remain unaltered, be large or small; it has no influence on the process of creation of
surplus )alue b* means of the labour4po"ers that put them in motion8 'he la" demonstrated
abo)e no", therefore, ta+es this form: the masses of )alue and of surplus )alue produced b*
different capitals F the )alue of labour4po"er being gi)en and its degree of e9ploitation being
eIual F )ar* directl* as the amounts of the )ariable constituents of these capitals, i$e$, as their
constituents transformed into li)ing labour4po"er8
'his la" clearl* contradicts all e9perience based on appearance8 E)er*one +no"s that a cotton
spinner, "ho, rec+oning the percentage on the "hole of his applied capital, emplo*s much
constant and little )ariable capital, does not, on account of this, poc+et less profit or surplus )alue
than a ba+er, "ho relati)el* sets in motion much )ariable and little constant capital8 For the
solution of this apparent contradiction, man* intermediate terms are as *et "anted, as from the
standpoint of elementar* algebra man* intermediate terms are "anted to understand that 7J7 ma*
represent an actual magnitude8 5lassical econom*, although not formulating the la", holds
instincti)el* to it, because it is a necessar* conseIuence of the general la" of )alue8 >t tries to
rescue the la" from collision "ith contradictor* phenomena b* a )iolent abstraction8 >t "ill be
seen later
6
ho" the school of &icardo has come to grief o)er this stumbling bloc+8 ;ulgar
econom* "hich, indeed, @has reall* learnt nothing,A here as e)er*"here stic+s to appearances in
opposition to the la" "hich regulates and e9plains them8 >n opposition to Spino1a, it belie)es that
@ignorance is a sufficient reason8A
'he labour "hich is set in motion b* the total capital of a societ*, da* in, da* out, ma* be
regarded as a single collecti)e "or+ing da*8 >f, e$$, the number of labourers is a million, and the
a)erage "or+ing da* of a labourer is 17 hours, the social "or+ing da* consists of ten million
hours8 Bith a gi)en length of this "or+ing da*, "hether its limits are fi9ed ph*sicall* or sociall*,
the mass of surplus )alue can onl* be increased b* increasing the number of labourers, i$e$, of the
labouring population8 'he gro"th of population here forms the mathematical limit to the
production of surplus )alue b* the total social capital8 =n the contrar*, "ith a gi)en amount of
population, this limit is formed b* the possible lengthening of the "or+ingda*8
:
>t "ill, ho"e)er,
be seen in the follo"ing chapter that this la" onl* holds for the form of surplus )alue dealt "ith
up to the present8
From the treatment of the production of surplus )alue, so far, it follo"s that not e)er* sum of
mone*, or of )alue, is at pleasure transformable into capital8 'o effect this transformation, in fact,
a certain minimum of mone* or of e9change4)alue must be presupposed in the hands of the
indi)idual possessor of mone* or commodities8 'he minimum of )ariable capital is the cost price
of a single labour4po"er, emplo*ed the "hole *ear through, da* in, da* out, for the production of
surplus )alue8 >f this labourer "ere in possession of his o"n means of production, and "ere
satisfied to li)e as a labourer, he need not "or+ be*ond the time necessar* for the reproduction of
his means of subsistence, sa* 8 hours a da*8 -e "ould, besides, onl* reIuire the means of
163 5hapter 11
production sufficient for 8 "or+ing hours8 'he capitalist, on the other hand, "ho ma+es him do,
besides these 8 hours, sa* hours? surplus labour, reIuires an additional sum of mone* for
furnishing the additional means of production8 =n our supposition, ho"e)er, he "ould ha)e to
emplo* t"o labourers in order to li)e, on the surplus )alue appropriated dail*, as "ell as, and no
better than a labourer, i8e8, to be able to satisf* his necessar* "ants8 >n this case the mere
maintenance of life "ould be the end of his production, not the increase of "ealth; but this latter
is implied in capitalist production8 'hat he ma* li)e onl* t"ice as "ell as an ordinar* labourer,
and besides turn half of the surplus )alue produced into capital, he "ould ha)e to raise, "ith the
number of labourers, the minimum of the capital ad)anced 8 times8 =f course he can, li+e his
labourer, ta+e to "or+ himself, participate directl* in the process of production, but he is then
onl* a h*brid bet"een capitalist and labourer, a @small master8A ( certain stage of capitalist
production necessitates that the capitalist be able to de)ote the "hole of the time during "hich he
functions as a capitalist, i$e$, as personified capital, to the appropriation and therefore control of
the labour of others, and to the selling of the products of this labour8
<et the necessar* labour4time amount to 17 hours, the )alue of a da*?s labour4po"er to
fi)e shillings, the surplus labour4time to 6 hours, and the dail* surplus )alue to one shilling8 /ut
the capitalist no" produces 6 articles, "hich he sells at tenpence a4piece, ma+ing t"ent*
shillings in all8 Since the )alue of the means of production is t"el)e shillings, 1 6J3 of these
articles merel* replace the constant capital ad)anced8 'he labour of the 16 hours? "or+ing da* is
represented b* the remaining 2 :J3 articles8 Since the price of the labour4po"er is fi)e shillings, 6
articles represent the necessar* labour4time, and : :J3 articles the surplus labour8 'he ratio of the
necessar* labour to the surplus labour, "hich under a)erage social conditions "as 3:1, is no"
onl* 3::8 'he same result ma* be arri)ed at in the follo"ing "a*8 'he )alue of the product of the
"or+ing da* of 16 hours is t"ent* shillings8 =f this sum, t"el)e shillings belong to the )alue of
the means of production, a )alue that merel* re4appears8 'here remain eight shillings, "hich are
the e9pression in mone*, of the )alue ne"l* created during the "or+ing da*8 'his sum is greater
than the sum in "hich a)erage social labour of the same +ind is e9pressed: t"el)e hours of the
latter labour are e9pressed b* si9 shillings onl*8 'he e9ceptionall* producti)e labour operates as
intensified labour; it creates in eIual periods of time greater )alues than a)erage social labour of
the same +ind8 (See 5h8 >8 Sect 68 p8 8! /ut our capitalist still continues to pa* as before onl*
fi)e shillings as the )alue of a da*?s labour4po"er8 -ence, instead of 17 hours, the labourer need
no" "or+ onl* 7[ hours, in order to reproduce this )alue8 -is surplus labour is, therefore,
increased b* 6[ hours, and the surplus )alue he produces gro"s from one, into three shillings8
-ence, the capitalist "ho applies the impro)ed method of production, appropriates to surplus
labour a greater portion of the "or+ing da*, than the other capitalists in the same trade8 -e does
indi)iduall*, "hat the "hole bod* of capitalists engaged in producing relati)e surplus )alue, do
collecti)el*8 =n the other hand, ho"e)er, this e9tra surplus )alue )anishes, so soon as the ne"
method of production has become general, and has conseIuentl* caused the difference bet"een
171 5hapter 16
the indi)idual )alue of the cheapened commodit* and its social )alue to )anish8 'he la" of the
determination of )alue b* labour4time, a la" "hich brings under its s"a* the indi)idual capitalist
"ho applies the ne" method of production, b* compelling him to sell his goods under their social
)alue, this same la", acting as a coerci)e la" of competition, forces his competitors to adopt the
ne" method8
3
'he general rate of surplus )alue is, therefore, ultimatel* affected b* the "hole
process, onl* "hen the increase in the producti)eness of labour, has sei1ed upon those branches
of production that are connected "ith, and has cheapened those commodities that form part of,
the necessar* means of subsistence, and are therefore elements of the )alue of labour4po"er8
'he )alue of commodities is in in)erse ratio to the producti)eness of labour8 (nd so, too, is the
)alue of labour4po"er, because it depends on the )alues of commodities8 &elati)e surplus )alue
is, on the contrar*, directl* proportional to that producti)eness8 >t rises "ith rising and falls "ith
falling producti)eness8 'he )alue of mone* being assumed to be constant, an a)erage social
"or+ing da* of 16 hours al"a*s produces the same ne" )alue, si9 shillings, no matter ho" this
sum ma* be apportioned bet"een surplus )alue and "ages8 /ut if, in conseIuence of increased
producti)eness, the )alue of the necessaries of life fall, and the )alue of a da*?s labour4po"er be
thereb* reduced from fi)e shillings to three, the surplus )alue increases from one shilling to three8
'en hours "ere necessar* for the reproduction of the )alue of the labour4po"er; no" onl* si9 are
reIuired8 Four hours ha)e been set free, and can be anne9ed to the domain of surplus labour8
-ence there is immanent in capital an inclination and constant tendenc*, to heighten the
producti)eness of labour, in order to cheapen commodities, and b* such cheapening to cheapen
the labourer himself8
6
'he )alue of a commodit* is, in itself, of no interest to the capitalist8 Bhat alone interests him, is
the surplus )alue that d"ells in it, and is realisable b* sale8 &ealisation of the surplus )alue
necessaril* carries "ith it the refunding of the )alue that "as ad)anced8 Co", since relati)e
surplus )alue increases in direct proportion to the de)elopment of the producti)eness of labour,
"hile, on the other hand, the )alue of commodities diminishes in the same proportion; since one
and the same process cheapens commodities, and augments the surplus )alue contained in them;
"e ha)e here the solution of the riddle: "h* does the capitalist, "hose sole concern is the
production of e9change4)alue, continuall* stri)e to depress the e9change4)alue of commoditiesE
( riddle "ith "hich Kuesna*, one of the founders of #olitical Econom*, tormented his opponents,
and to "hich the* could gi)e him no ans"er8
@Nou ac+no"ledge,A he sa*s, @that the more e9penses and the cost of labour can, in the
manufacture of industrial products, be reduced "ithout inDur* to production, the more
ad)antageous is such reduction, because it diminishes the price of the finished article8 (nd *et,
*ou belie)e that the production of "ealth, "hich arises from the labour of the "or+people,
consists in the augmentation of the e9change4)alue of their products8A
7
'he shortening of the "or+ing da* is, therefore, b* no means "hat is aimed at, in capitalist
production, "hen labour is economised b* increasing its producti)eness8
8
>t is onl* the shortening
of the labour4time, necessar* for the production of a definite Iuantit* of commodities, that is
aimed at8 'he fact that the "or+man, "hen the producti)eness of his labour has been increased,
produces, sa* 17 times as man* commodities as before, and thus spends one4tenth as much
labour4time on each, b* no means pre)ents him from continuing to "or+ 16 hours as before, nor
from producing in those 16 hours 1,677 articles instead of 1678 Ca*, more, his "or+ing da* ma*
be prolonged at the same time, so as to ma+e him produce, sa* 1,77 articles in 1 hours8 >n the
treatises, therefore, of economists of the stamp of $ac5ulloch, %re, Senior, and tutti &uanti Gthe
li+eH, "e ma* read upon one page, that the labourer o"es a debt of gratitude to capital for
de)eloping his producti)eness, because the necessar* labour4time is thereb* shortened, and on the
176 5hapter 16
ne9t page, that he must pro)e his gratitude b* "or+ing in future for 13 hours instead of 178 'he
obDect of all de)elopment of the producti)eness of labour, "ithin the limits of capitalist
production, is to shorten that part of the "or+ing da*, during "hich the "or+man must labour for
his o"n benefit, and b* that )er* shortening, to lengthen the other part of the da*, during "hich
he is at libert* to "or+ gratis for the capitalist8 -o" far this result is also attainable, "ithout
cheapening commodities, "ill appear from an e9amination of the particular modes of producing
relati)e surplus )alue, to "hich e9amination "e no" proceed8
Chapter 13: Co-operation
5apitalist production onl* then reall* begins, as "e ha)e alread* seen, "hen each indi)idual
capital emplo*s simultaneousl* a comparati)el* large number of labourers; "hen conseIuentl*
the labour4process is carried on on an e9tensi)e scale and *ields, relati)el*, large Iuantities of
products8 ( greater number of labourers "or+ing together, at the same time, in one place (or, if
*ou "ill, in the same field of labour!, in order to produce the same sort of commodit* under the
mastership of one capitalist, constitutes, both historicall* and logicall*, the starting4point of
capitalist production8 Bith regard to the mode of production itself, manufacture, in its strict
meaning, is hardl* to be distinguished, in its earliest stages, from the handicraft trades of the
guilds, other"ise than b* the greater number of "or+men simultaneousl* emplo*ed b* one and
the same indi)idual capital8 'he "or+shop of the medie)al master handicraftsman is simpl*
enlarged8
(t first, therefore, the difference is purel* Iuantitati)e8 Be ha)e sho"n that the surplus )alue
produced b* a gi)en capital is eIual to the surplus )alue produced b* each "or+man multiplied
b* the number of "or+men simultaneousl* emplo*ed8 'he number of "or+men in itself does nor
affect, either the rate of surplus )alue, or the degree of e9ploitation of labour4po"er8 >f a "or+ing
da* of 16 hours be embodied in si9 shillings, 1,677 such da*s "ill be embodied in 1,677 times 6
shillings8 >n one case 16 h 1,677 "or+ing4hours, and in the other 16 such hours are incorporated
in the product8 >n the production of )alue a number of "or+men ran+ merel* as so man*
indi)idual "or+men; and it therefore ma+es no difference in the )alue produced "hether the
1,677 men "or+ separatel*, or united under the control of one capitalist8
Ce)ertheless, "ithin certain limits, a modification ta+es place8 'he labour realised in )alue, is
labour of an a)erage social Iualit*; is conseIuentl* the e9penditure of a)erage labour4po"er8 (n*
a)erage magnitude, ho"e)er, is merel* the a)erage of a number of separate magnitudes all of one
+ind, but differing as to Iuantit*8 >n e)er* industr*, each indi)idual labourer, be he #eter or #aul,
differs from the a)erage labourer8 'hese indi)idual differences, or @errorsA as the* are called in
mathematics, compensate one another, and )anish, "hene)er a certain minimum number of
"or+men are emplo*ed together8 'he celebrated sophist and s*cophant, Edmund /ur+e, goes so
far as to ma+e the follo"ing assertion, based on his practical obser)ations as a farmer; )i18, that
@in so small a platoonA as that of fi)e farm labourers, all indi)idual differences in the labour
)anish, and that conseIuentl* an* gi)en fi)e adult farm labourers ta+en together, "ill in the same
time do as much "or+ as an* other fi)e8
1
/ut, ho"e)er that ma* be, it is clear, that the collecti)e
"or+ing da* of a large number of "or+men simultaneousl* emplo*ed, di)ided b* the number of
these "or+men, gi)es one da* of a)erage social labour8 For e9ample, let the "or+ing da* of each
indi)idual be 16 hours8 'hen the collecti)e "or+ing da* of 16 men simultaneousl* emplo*ed,
consists of 1 hours; and although the labour of each of the do1en men ma* de)iate more or less
from a)erage social labour, each of them reIuiring a different time for the same operation, *et
since the "or+ing da* of each is one4t"elfth of the collecti)e "or+ing da* of 1 hours, it
possesses the Iualities of an a)erage social "or+ing da*8 From the point of )ie", ho"e)er, of the
capitalist "ho emplo*s these 16 men, the "or+ing da* is that of the "hole do1en8 Each indi)idual
man?s da* is an aliIuot part of the collecti)e "or+ing da*, no matter "hether the 16 men assist
one another in their "or+, or "hether the conne9ion bet"een their operations consists merel* in
the fact, that the men are all "or+ing for the same capitalist8 /ut if the 16 men are emplo*ed in
si9 pairs, b* as man* different small masters, it "ill be Iuite a matter of chance, "hether each of
17 5hapter 1:
these masters produces the same )alue, and conseIuentl* "hether he realises the general rate of
surplus )alue8 0e)iations "ould occur in indi)idual cases8 >f one "or+man reIuired considerabl*
more time for the production of a commodit* than is sociall* necessar*, the duration of the
necessar* labour4time "ould, in his case, sensibl* de)iate from the labour4time sociall* necessar*
on an a)erage; and conseIuentl* his labour "ould not count as a)erage labour, nor his labour4
po"er as a)erage labour4po"er8 >t "ould either be not saleable at all, or onl* at something belo"
the a)erage )alue of labour4po"er8 ( fi9ed minimum of efficienc* in all labour is therefore
assumed, and "e shall see, later on, that capitalist production pro)ides the means of fi9ing this
minimum8 Ce)ertheless, this minimum de)iates from the a)erage, although on the other hand the
capitalist has to pa* the a)erage )alue of labour4po"er8 =f the si9 small masters, one "ould
therefore sIuee1e out more than the a)erage rate of surplus )alue, another less8 'he ineIualities
"ould be compensated for the societ* at large, but not for the indi)idual masters8 'hus the la"s of
the production of )alue are onl* full* realised for the indi)idual producer, "hen he produces as a
capitalist, and emplo*s a number of "or+men together, "hose labour, b* its collecti)e nature, is
at once stamped as a)erage social labour8
6
E)en "ithout an alteration in the s*stem of "or+ing, the simultaneous emplo*ment of a large
number of labourers effects a re)olution in the material conditions of the labour4process8 'he
buildings in "hich the* "or+, the store4houses for the ra" material, the implements and utensils
used simultaneousl* or in turns b* the "or+men; in short, a portion of the means of production,
are no" consumed in common8 =n the one hand, the e9change4)alue of these means of
production is not increased; for the e9change4)alue of a commodit* is not raised b* its use4)alue
being consumed more thoroughl* and to greater ad)antage8 =n the other hand, the* are used in
common, and therefore on a larger scale than before8 ( room "here t"ent* "ea)ers "or+ at
t"ent* looms must be larger than the room of a single "ea)er "ith t"o assistants8 /ut it costs
less labour to build one "or+shop for t"ent* persons than to build ten to accommodate t"o
"ea)ers each; thus the )alue of the means of production that are concentrated for use in common
on a large scale does not increase in direct proportion to the e9pansion and to the increased useful
effect of those means8 Bhen consumed in common, the* gi)e up a smaller part of their )alue to
each single product; partl* because the total )alue the* part "ith is spread o)er a greater Iuantit*
of products, and partl* because their )alue, though absolutel* greater, is, ha)ing regard to their
sphere of action in the process, relati)el* less than the )alue of isolated means of production8
="ing to this, the )alue of a part of the constant capital falls, and in proportion to the magnitude
of the fall, the total )alue of the commodit* also falls8 'he effect is the same as if the means of
production had cost less8 'he econom* in their application is entirel* o"ing to their being
consumed in common b* a large number of "or+men8 $oreo)er, this character of being
necessar* conditions of social labour, a character that distinguishes them from the dispersed and
relati)el* more costl* means of production of isolated, independent labourers, or small masters, is
acIuired e)en "hen the numerous "or+men assembled together do not assist one another, but
merel* "or+ side b* side8 ( portion of the instruments of labour acIuires this social character
before the labour4process itself does so8
Econom* in the use of the means of production has to be considered under t"o aspects8 First, as
cheapening commodities, and thereb* bringing about a fall in the )alue of labour4po"er8
Secondl*, as altering the ratio of the surplus )alue to the total capital ad)anced, i8e8, to the sum of
the )alues of the constant and )ariable capital8 'he latter aspect "ill not be considered until "e
come to the third boo+, to "hich, "ith the obDect of treating them in their proper conne9ion, "e
also relegate man* other points that relate to the present Iuestion8 'he march of our anal*sis
compels this splitting up of the subDect4matter, a splitting up that is Iuite in +eeping "ith the spirit
of capitalist production8 For since, in this mode of production, the "or+man finds the instruments
173 5hapter 1:
of labour e9isting independentl* of him as another man?s propert*, econom* in their use appears,
"ith regard to him, to be a distinct operation, one that does not concern him, and "hich,
therefore, has no conne9ion "ith the methods b* "hich his o"n personal producti)eness is
increased8
Bhen numerous labourers "or+ together side b* side, "hether in one and the same process, or in
different but connected processes, the* are said to co4operate, or to "or+ in co4operation8
:
Lust as the offensi)e po"er of a sIuadron of ca)alr*, or the defensi)e po"er of a regiment of
infantr* is essentiall* different from the sum of the offensi)e or defensi)e po"ers of the
indi)idual ca)alr* or infantr* soldiers ta+en separatel*, so the sum total of the mechanical forces
e9erted b* isolated "or+men differs from the social force that is de)eloped, "hen man* hands
ta+e part simultaneousl* in one and the same undi)ided operation, such as raising a hea)* "eight,
turning a "inch, or remo)ing an obstacle8
@'he muslins of 0a++a in fineness, the calicoes and other piece goods of
5oromandel in brilliant and durable colours, ha)e ne)er been surpassed8 Net the*
are produced "ithout capital, machiner*, di)ision of labour, or an* of those means
"hich gi)e such facilities to the manufacturing interest of Europe8 'he "ea)er is
merel* a detached indi)idual, "or+ing a "eb "hen ordered of a customer, and
"ith a loom of the rudest construction, consisting sometimes of a fe" branches or
bars of "ood, put roughl* together8 'here is e)en no e9pedient for rolling up the
"arp; the loom must therefore be +ept stretched to its full length, and becomes so
incon)enientl* large, that it cannot be contained "ithin the hut of the
manufacturer, "ho is therefore compelled to pl* his trade in the open air, "here it
is interrupted b* e)er* )icissitude of the "eather8A
3
>t is onl* the special s+ill accumulated from generation to generation, and transmitted from father
to son, that gi)es to the -indu, as it does to the spider, this proficienc*8 (nd *et the "or+ of such
a -indu "ea)er is )er* complicated, compared "ith that of a manufacturing labourer8
(n artificer, "ho performs one after another the )arious fractional operations in the production of
a finished article, must at one time change his place, at another his tools8 'he transition from one
operation to another interrupts the flo" of his labour, and creates, so to sa*, gaps in his "or+ing
da*8 'hese gaps close up so soon as he is tied to one and the same operation all da* long; the*
)anish in proportion as the changes in his "or+ diminish8 'he resulting increased producti)e
po"er is o"ing either to an increased e9penditure of labour4po"er in a gi)en time i8e8, to
increased intensit* of labour or to a decrease in the amount of labour4po"er unproducti)el*
consumed8 'he e9tra e9penditure of po"er, demanded b* e)er* transition from rest to motion, is
made up for b* prolonging the duration of the normal )elocit* "hen once acIuired8 =n the other
hand, constant labour of one uniform +ind disturbs the intensit* and flo" of a man?s animal
spirits, "hich find recreation and delight in mere change of acti)it*8
'he producti)eness of labour depends not onl* on the proficienc* of the "or+man, but on the
perfection of his tools8 'ools of the same +ind, such as +ni)es, drills, gimlets8 hammers, Pc8, ma*
be emplo*ed in different processes; and the same tool ma* ser)e )arious purposes in a single
process8 /ut so soon as the different operations of a labour4process are disconnected the one from
the other, and each fractional operation acIuires in the hands of the detail labourer a suitable and
peculiar form, alterations become necessar* in the implements that pre)iousl* ser)ed more than
one purpose8 'he direction ta+en b* this change is determined b* the difficulties e9perienced in
conseIuence of the unchanged form of the implement8 $anufacture is characterised b* the
18 5hapter 1
differentiation of the instruments of labour a differentiation "hereb* implements of a gi)en sort
acIuire fi9ed shapes, adapted to each particular application, and b* the specialisation of those
instruments, gi)ing to each special implement its full pla* onl* in the hands of a specific detail
labourer8 >n /irmingham alone 377 )arieties of hammers are produced, and not onl* is each
adapted to one particular process, but se)eral )arieties often ser)e e9clusi)el* for the different
operations in one and the same process8 'he manufacturing period simplifies, impro)es, and
multiplies the implements of labour, b* adapting them to the e9clusi)el* special functions of each
detail labourer8
6
>t thus creates at the same time one of the material conditions for the e9istence of
machiner*, "hich consists of a combination of simple instruments8
'he detail labourer and his implements are the simplest elements of manufacture8 <et us no" turn
to its aspect as a "hole8
Section *: The Two Fundamental Forms of
$anufacture: 1etero%eneous $anufacture5
Serial $anufacture
'he organisation of manufacture has t"o fundamental forms "hich, in spite of occasional
blending, are essentiall* different in +ind, and, moreo)er, pla* )er* distinct parts in the
subseIuent transformation of manufacture into modern industr* carried on b* machiner*8 'his
double character arises from the nature of the article produced8 'his article either results from the
mere mechanical fitting together of partial products made independentl*, or o"es its completed
shape to a series of connected processes and manipulations8
( locomoti)e, for instance, consists of more than 3,777 independent parts8 >t cannot, ho"e)er,
ser)e as an e9ample of the first +ind of genuine manufacture, for it is a structure produced b*
modern mechanical industr*8 /ut a "atch can; and Billiam #ett* used it to illustrate the di)ision
of labour in manufacture8 Formerl* the indi)idual "or+ of a Curemberg artificer, the "atch has
been transformed into the social product of an immense number of detail labourers, such as
mainspring ma+ers, dial ma+ers, spiral spring ma+ers, De"elled hole ma+ers, rub* le)er ma+ers,
hand ma+ers, case ma+ers, scre" ma+ers, gilders, "ith numerous subdi)isions, such as "heel
ma+ers (brass and steel separate!, pin ma+ers, mo)ement ma+ers, ache)eur de pignon (fi9es the
"heels on the a9les, polishes the facets, Pc8!, pi)ot ma+ers, planteur de finissage (puts the "heels
and springs in the "or+s!, finisseur de barillet (cuts teeth in the "heels, ma+es the holes of the
right si1e, Pc8!, escapement ma+ers, c*linder ma+ers for c*linder escapements, escapement "heel
ma+ers, balance "heel ma+ers, raIuette ma+ers (apparatus for regulating the "atch!, the planteur
d?Rchappement (escapement ma+er proper!; then the repasseur de barillet (finishes the bo9 for the
spring, Pc8!, steel polishers, "heel polishers, scre" polishers, figure painters, dial enamellers
(melt the enamel on the copper!, fabricant de pendants (ma+es the ring b* "hich the case is
hung!, finisseur de charninre (puts the brass hinge in the co)er, Pc8!, faiseur de secret (puts in the
springs that open the case!, gra)eur, ciseleur, polisseur de borte, Pc8, Pc8, and last of all the
repasseur, "ho fits together the "hole "atch and hands it o)er in a going state8 =nl* a fe" parts
of the "atch pass through se)eral hands; and all these membra disDecta come together for the first
time in the hand that binds them into one mechanical "hole8 'his e9ternal relation bet"een the
finished product, and its )arious and di)erse elements ma+es it, as "ell in this case as in the case
of all similar finished articles, a matter of chance "hether the detail labourers are brought
together in one "or+shop or not8 'he detail operations ma* further be carried on li+e so man*
independent handicrafts, as the* are in the 5antons of ;aud and CeufchMtel; "hile in Gene)a
there e9ist large "atch manufactories "here the detail labourers directl* co4operate under the
183 5hapter 1
control of a single capitalist8 (nd e)en in the latter case the dial, the springs, and the case, are
seldom made in the factor* itself8 'o carr* on the trade as a manufacture, "ith concentration of
"or+men, is, in the "atch trade, profitable onl* under e9ceptional conditions, because
competition is greater bet"een the labourers "ho desire to "or+ at home, and because the
splitting up of the "or+ into a number of heterogeneous processes, permits but little use of the
instruments of labour in common, and the capitalist, b* scattering the "or+, sa)es the outla* on
"or+shops, Pc8
7
Ce)ertheless the position of this detail labourer "ho, though he "or+s at home,
does so for a capitalist (manufacturer, Rtablisseur!, is )er* different from that of the independent
artificer, "ho "or+s for his o"n customers8
8
'he second +ind of manufacture, its perfected form, produces articles that go through connected
phases of de)elopment, through a series of processes step b* step, li+e the "ire in the
manufacture of needles, "hich passes through the hands of 76 and sometimes e)en 26 different
detail "or+men8
>n so far as such a manufacture, "hen first started, combines scattered handicrafts, it lessens the
space b* "hich the )arious phases of production are separated from each other8 'he time ta+en in
passing from one stage to another is shortened, so is the labour that effectuates this passage8
2
>n
comparison "ith a handicraft, producti)e po"er is gained, and this gain is o"ing to the general
co4operati)e character of manufacture8 =n the other hand, di)ision of labour, "hich is the
distinguishing principle of manufacture, reIuires the isolation of the )arious stages of production
and their independence of each other8 'he establishment and maintenance of a conne9ion bet"een
the isolated functions necessitates the incessant transport of the article from one hand to another,
and from one process to another8 From the standpoint of modern mechanical industr*, this
necessit* stands forth as a characteristic and costl* disad)antage, and one that is immanent in the
principle of manufacture8
17
>f "e confine our attention to some particular lot of ra" materials, of rags, for instance, in paper
manufacture, or of "ire in needle manufacture, "e percei)e that it passes in succession through a
series of stages in the hands of the )arious detail "or+men until completion8 =n the other hand, if
"e loo+ at the "or+shop as a "hole, "e see the ra" material in all the stages of its production at
the same time8 'he collecti)e labourer, "ith one set of his man* hands armed "ith one +ind of
tools, dra"s the "ire, "ith another set, armed "ith different tools, he, at the same time,
straightens it, "ith another, he cuts it, "ith another, points it, and so on8 'he different detail
processes, "hich "ere successi)e in time, ha)e become simultaneous, go on side b* side in space8
-ence, production of a greater Iuantum of finished commodities in a gi)en time8
11
'his
simultaneit*, it is true, is due to the general co4operati)e form of the process as a "hole; but
$anufacture not onl* finds the conditions for co4operation read* to hand, it also, to some e9tent,
creates them b* the sub4di)ision of handicraft labour8 =n the other hand, it accomplishes this
social organisation of the labour4process onl* b* ri)eting each labourer to a single fractional
detail8
Since the fractional product of each detail labourer is, at the same time, onl* a particular stage in
the de)elopment of one and the same finished article, each labourer, or each group of labourers,
prepares the ra" material for another labourer or group8 'he result of the labour of the one is the
starting4point for the labour of the other8 'he one "or+man therefore gi)es occupation directl* to
the other8 'he labour4time necessar* in each partial process, for attaining the desired effect, is
learnt b* e9perience; and the mechanism of $anufacture, as a "hole, is based on the assumption
that a gi)en result "ill be obtained in a gi)en time8 >t is onl* on this assumption that the )arious
supplementar* labour4processes can proceed uninterruptedl*, simultaneousl*, and side b* side8 >t
is clear that this direct dependence of the operations, and therefore of the labourers, on each other,
186 5hapter 1
compels each one of them to spend on his "or+ no more than the necessar* time, and thus a
continuit*, uniformit*, regularit*, order,
16
and e)en intensit* of labour, of Iuite a different +ind, is
begotten than is to be found in an independent handicraft or e)en in simple co4operation8 'he
rule, that the labour4time e9pended on a commodit* should not e9ceed that "hich is sociall*
necessar* for its production, appears, in the production of commodities generall*, to be
established b* the mere effect of competition; since, to e9press oursel)es superficiall*, each
single producer is obliged to sell his commodit* at its mar+et4price8 >n $anufacture, on the
contrar*, the turning out of a gi)en Iuantum of product in a gi)en time is a technical la" of the
process of production itself8
1:
0ifferent operations ta+e, ho"e)er, uneIual periods, and *ield therefore, in eIual times uneIual
Iuantities of fractional products8 >f, therefore, the same labourer has, da* after da*, to perform the
same operation, there must be a different number of labourers for each operation; for instance, in
t*pe manufacture, there are four founders and t"o brea+ers to one rubber: the founder casts 6,777
t*pe an hour, the brea+er brea+s up ,777, and the rubber polishes 8,7778 -ere "e ha)e again the
principle of co4operation in its simplest form, the simultaneous emplo*ment of man* doing the
same thing; onl* no", this principle is the e9pression of an organic relation8 'he di)ision of
labour, as carried out in $anufacture, not onl* simplifies and multiplies the Iualitati)el* different
parts of the social collecti)e labourer, but also creates a fi9ed mathematical relation or ratio "hich
regulates the Iuantitati)e e9tent of those parts i8e8, the relati)e number of labourers, or the relati)e
si1e of the group of labourers, for each detail operation8 >t de)elops, along "ith the Iualitati)e
sub4di)ision of the social labour4process, a Iuantitati)e rule and proportionalit* for that process8
Bhen once the most fitting proportion has been e9perimentall* established for the numbers of the
detail labourers in the )arious groups "hen producing on a gi)en scale, that scale can be e9tended
onl* b* emplo*ing a multiple of each particular group8
1
'here is this to boot, that the same
indi)idual can do certain +inds of "or+ Dust as "ell on a large as on a small scale; for instance,
the labour of superintendence, the carriage of the fractional product from one stage to the ne9t,
Pc8 'he isolation of such functions, their allotment to a particular labourer, does not become
ad)antageous till after an increase in the number of labourers emplo*ed; but this increase must
affect e)er* group proportionall*8
'he isolated group of labourers to "hom an* particular detail function is assigned, is made up of
homogeneous elements, and is one of the constituent parts of the total mechanism8 >n man*
manufactures, ho"e)er, the group itself is an organised bod* of labour, the total mechanism being
a repetition or multiplication of these elementar* organisms8 'a+e, for instance, the manufacture
of glass bottles8 >t ma* be resol)ed into three essentiall* different stages8 First, the preliminar*
stage, consisting of the preparation of the components of the glass, mi9ing the sand and lime, Pc8,
and melting them into a fluid mass of glass8
13
;arious detail labourers are emplo*ed in this first
stage, as also in the final one of remo)ing the bottles from the dr*ing furnace, sorting and pac+ing
them, Pc8 >n the middle, bet"een these t"o stages, comes the glass melting proper, the
manipulation of the fluid mass8 (t each mouth of the furnace, there "or+s a group, called @the
hole,A consisting of one bottlema+er or finisher, one blo"er, one gatherer, one putter4up or
"hetter4off, and one ta+er4in8 'hese fi)e detail "or+ers are so man* special organs of a single
"or+ing organism that acts onl* as a "hole, and therefore can operate onl* b* the direct co4
operation of the "hole fi)e8 'he "hole bod* is paral*sed if but one of its members be "anting8
/ut a glass furnace has se)eral openings (in England from to 6!, each of "hich contains an
earthen"are melting4pot full of molten glass, and emplo*s a similar fi)e4membered group of
"or+ers8 'he organisation of each group is based on di)ision of labour, but the bond bet"een the
different groups is simple co4operation, "hich, b* using in common one of the means of
production, the furnace, causes it to be more economicall* consumed8 Such a furnace, "ith its 46
187 5hapter 1
groups, constitutes a glass house; and a glass manufactor* comprises a number of such glass
houses, together "ith the apparatus and "or+men reIuisite for the preparator* and final stages8
Finall*, Dust as $anufacture arises in part from the combination of )arious handicrafts, so, too, it
de)elops into a combination of )arious manufactures8 'he larger English glass manufacturers, for
instance, ma+e their o"n earthen"are melting4pots, because, on the Iualit* of these depends, to a
great e9tent, the success or failure of the process8 'he manufacture of one of the means of
production is here united "ith that of the product8 =n the other hand, the manufacture of the
product ma* be united "ith other manufactures, of "hich that product is the ra" material, or "ith
the products of "hich it is itself subseIuentl* mi9ed8 'hus, "e find the manufacture of flint glass
combined "ith that of glass cutting and brass founding; the latter for the metal settings of )arious
articles of glass8 'he )arious manufactures so combined form more or less separate departments
of a larger manufacture, but are at the same time independent processes, each "ith its o"n
di)ision of labour8 >n spite of the man* ad)antages offered b* this combination of manufactures,
it ne)er gro"s into a complete technical s*stem on its o"n foundation8 'hat happens onl* on its
transformation into an industr* carried on b* machiner*8
Earl* in the manufacturing period, the principle of lessening the necessar* labour4time in the
production of commodities
16
, "as accepted and formulated: and the use of machines, especiall*
for certain simple first processes that ha)e to be conducted on a )er* large scale, and "ith the
application of great force, sprang up here and there8 'hus, at an earl* period in paper
manufacture, the tearing up of the rags "as done b* paper4mills; and in metal "or+s, the
pounding of the ores "as effected b* stamping mills8
17
'he &oman Empire had handed do"n the
elementar* form of all machiner* in the "ater4"heel8
18
'he handicraft period beIueathed to us the great in)entions of the compass, of gunpo"der, of
t*pe4printing, and of the automatic cloc+8 /ut, on the "hole, machiner* pla*ed that subordinate
part "hich (dam Smith assigns to it in comparison "ith di)ision of labour8
12
'he sporadic use of
machiner* in the 17th centur* "as of the greatest importance, because it supplied the great
mathematicians of that time "ith a practical basis and stimulant to the creation of the science of
mechanics8
'he collecti)e labourer, formed b* the combination of a number of detail labourers, is the
machiner* speciall* characteristic of the manufacturing period8 'he )arious operations that are
performed in turns b* the producer of a commodit*, and coalesce one "ith another during the
progress of production, la* claim to him in )arious "a*s8 >n one operation he must e9ert more
strength, in another more s+ill, in another more attention; and the same indi)idual does not
possess all these Iualities in an eIual degree8 (fter $anufacture has once separated, made
independent, and isolated the )arious operations, the labourers are di)ided, classified, and
grouped according to their predominating Iualities8 >f their natural endo"ments are, on the one
hand, the foundation on "hich the di)ision of labour is built up, on the other hand, $anufacture,
once introduced, de)elops in them ne" po"ers that are b* nature fitted onl* for limited and
special functions8 'he collecti)e labourer no" possesses, in an eIual degree of e9cellence, all the
Iualities reIuisite for production, and e9pends them in the most economical manner, b*
e9clusi)el* emplo*ing all his organs, consisting of particular labourers, or groups of labourers, in
performing their special functions8
67
'he one4sidedness and the deficiencies of the detail labourer
become perfections "hen he is a part of the collecti)e labourer8
61
'he habit of doing onl* one
thing con)erts him into a ne)er failing instrument, "hile his conne9ion "ith the "hole
mechanism compels him to "or+ "ith the regularit* of the parts of a machine8
66
Since the collecti)e labourer has functions, both simple and comple9, both high and lo", his
members, the indi)idual labour4po"ers, reIuire different degrees of training, and must therefore
188 5hapter 1
ha)e different )alues8 $anufacture, therefore, de)elops a hierarch* of labour4po"ers, to "hich
there corresponds a scale of "ages8 >f, on the one hand, the indi)idual labourers are appropriated
and anne9ed for life b* a limited function; on the other hand, the )arious operations of the
hierarch* are parcelled out among the labourers according to both their natural and their acIuired
capabilities8
6:
E)er* process of production, ho"e)er, reIuires certain simple manipulations,
"hich e)er* man is capable of doing8 'he* too are no" se)ered from their conne9ion "ith the
more pregnant moments of acti)it*, and ossified into e9clusi)e functions of speciall* appointed
labourers8 -ence, $anufacture begets, in e)er* handicraft that it sei1es upon, a class of so4called
uns+illed labourers, a class "hich handicraft industr* strictl* e9cluded8 >f it de)elops a one4sided
specialit* into a perfection, at the e9pense of the "hole of a man?s "or+ing capacit*, it also
begins to ma+e a specialit* of the absence of all de)elopment8 (longside of the hierarchic
gradation there steps the simple separation of the labourers into s+illed and uns+illed8 For the
latter, the cost of apprenticeship )anishes; for the former, it diminishes, compared "ith that of
artificers, in conseIuence of the functions being simplified8 >n both cases the )alue of labour4
po"er falls8
6
(n e9ception to this la" holds good "hene)er the decomposition of the labour4
process begets ne" and comprehensi)e functions, that either had no place at all, or onl* a )er*
modest one, in handicrafts8 'he fall in the )alue of labour4po"er, caused b* the disappearance or
diminution of the e9penses of apprenticeship, implies a direct increase of surplus )alue for the
benefit of capital; for e)er*thing that shortens the necessar* labour4time reIuired for the
reproduction of labour4po"er, e9tends the domain of surplus labour8
Section ,: -i=ision of (abour in $anufacture5
and -i=ision of (abour in Societ
Be first considered the origin of $anufacture, then its simple elements, then the detail labourer
and his implements, and finall*, the totalit* of the mechanism8 Be shall no" lightl* touch upon
the relation bet"een the di)ision of labour in manufacture, and the social di)ision of labour,
"hich forms the foundation of all production of commodities8
>f "e +eep labour alone in )ie", "e ma* designate the separation of social production into its
main di)isions or enera F )i18, agriculture, industries, Pc8, as di)ision of labour in general, and
the splitting up of these families into species and sub4species, as di)ision of labour in particular,
and the di)ision of labour "ithin the "or+shop as di)ision of labour in singular or in detail8
63
0i)ision of labour in a societ*, and the corresponding t*ing do"n of indi)iduals to a particular
calling, de)elops itself, Dust as does the di)ision of labour in manufacture, from opposite starting4
points8 Bithin a famil*,
66
and after further de)elopment "ithin a tribe, there springs up naturall* a
di)ision of labour, caused b* differences of se9 and age, a di)ision that is conseIuentl* based on
a purel* ph*siological foundation, "hich di)ision enlarges its materials b* the e9pansion of the
communit*, b* the increase of population, and more especiall*, b* the conflicts bet"een different
tribes, and the subDugation of one tribe b* another8 =n the other hand, as > ha)e before remar+ed,
the e9change of products springs up at the points "here different families, tribes, communities,
come in contact; for, in the beginning of ci)ilisation, it is not pri)ate indi)iduals but families,
tribes, Pc8, that meet on an independent footing8 0ifferent communities find different means of
production, and different means of subsistence in their natural en)ironment8 -ence, their modes
of production, and of li)ing, and their products are different8 >t is this spontaneousl* de)eloped
difference "hich, "hen different communities come in contact, calls forth the mutual e9change of
products, and the conseIuent gradual con)ersion of those products into commodities8 E9change
does not create the differences bet"een the spheres of production, but brings "hat are alread*
different into relation, and thus con)erts them into more or less inter4dependent branches of the
182 5hapter 1
collecti)e production of an enlarged societ*8 >n the latter case, the social di)ision of labour arises
from the e9change bet"een spheres of production, that are originall* distinct and independent of
one another8 >n the former, "here the ph*siological di)ision of labour is the starting4point, the
particular organs of a compact "hole gro" loose, and brea+ off, principall* o"ing to the
e9change of commodities "ith foreign communities, and then isolate themsel)es so far, that the
sole bond, still connecting the )arious +inds of "or+, is the e9change of the products as
commodities8 >n the one case, it is the ma+ing dependent "hat "as before independent; in the
other case, the ma+ing independent "hat "as before dependent8
'he foundation of e)er* di)ision of labour that is "ell de)eloped, and brought about b* the
e9change of commodities, is the separation bet"een to"n and countr*8
67
>t ma* be said, that the
"hole economic histor* of societ* is summed up in the mo)ement of this antithesis8 Be pass it
o)er, ho"e)er, for the present8
Lust as a certain number of simultaneousl* emplo*ed labourers are the material pre4reIuisites for
di)ision of labour in manufacture, so are the number and densit* of the population, "hich here
correspond to the agglomeration in one "or+shop, a necessar* condition for the di)ision of labour
in societ*8
68
Ce)ertheless, this densit* is more or less relati)e8 ( relati)el* thinl* populated
countr*, "ith "ell4de)eloped means of communication, has a denser population than a more
numerousl* populated countr*, "ith badl*4de)eloped means of communication; and in this sense
the Corthern States of the (merican %nion, for instance, are more thic+l* populated than >ndia8
62
Since the production and the circulation of commodities are the general pre4reIuisites of the
capitalist mode of production, di)ision of labour in manufacture demands, that di)ision of labour
in societ* at large should pre)iousl* ha)e attained a certain degree of de)elopment8 >n)ersel*, the
former di)ision reacts upon and de)elops and multiplies the latter8 Simultaneousl*, "ith the
differentiation of the instruments of labour, the industries that produce these instruments, become
more and more differentiated8
:7
>f the manufacturing s*stem sei1e upon an industr*, "hich,
pre)iousl*, "as carried on in conne9ion "ith others, either as a chief or as a subordinate industr*,
and b* one producer, these industries immediatel* separate their conne9ion, and become
independent8 >f it sei1e upon a particular stage in the production of a commodit*, the other stages
of its production become con)erted into so man* independent industries8 >t has alread* been
stated, that "here the finished article consists merel* of a number of parts fitted together, the
detail operations ma* re4establish themsel)es as genuine and separate handicrafts8 >n order to
carr* out more perfectl* the di)ision of labour in manufacture, a single branch of production is,
according to the )arieties of its ra" material, or the )arious forms that one and the same ra"
material ma* assume, split up into numerous, and to some e9tent, entirel* ne" manufactures8
(ccordingl*, in France alone, in the first half of the 18th centur*, o)er 177 different +inds of sil+
stuffs "ere "o)en, and, in ()ignon, it "as la", that @e)er* apprentice should de)ote himself to
onl* one sort of fabrication, and should not learn the preparation of se)eral +inds of stuff at
once8A 'he territorial di)ision of labour, "hich confines special branches of production to special
districts of a countr*, acIuires fresh stimulus from the manufacturing s*stem, "hich e9ploits
e)er* special ad)antage8
:1
'he 5olonial s*stem and the opening out of the mar+ets of the "orld,
both of "hich are included in the general conditions of e9istence of the manufacturing period,
furnish rich material for de)eloping the di)ision of labour in societ*8 >t is not the place, here, to
go on to sho" ho" di)ision of labour sei1es upon, not onl* the economic, but e)er* other sphere
of societ*, and e)er*"here la*s the foundation of that all engrossing s*stem of specialising and
sorting men, that de)elopment in a man of one single facult* at the e9pense of all other faculties,
"hich caused (8 Ferguson, the master of (dam Smith, to e9claim: @Be ma+e a nation of -elots,
and ha)e no free citi1ens8A
:6
127 5hapter 1
/ut, in spite of the numerous analogies and lin+s connecting them, di)ision of labour in the
interior of a societ*, and that in the interior of a "or+shop, differ not onl* in degree, but also in
+ind8 'he analog* appears most indisputable "here there is an in)isible bond uniting the )arious
branches of trade8 For instance the cattle4breeder produces hides, the tanner ma+es the hides into
leather, and the shoema+er, the leather into boots8 -ere the thing produced b* each of them is but
a step to"ards the final form, "hich is the product of all their labours combined8 'here are,
besides, all the )arious industries that suppl* the cattle4breeder, the tanner, and the shoema+er
"ith the means of production8 Co" it is Iuite possible to imagine, "ith (dam Smith, that the
difference bet"een the abo)e social di)ision of labour, and the di)ision in manufacture, is merel*
subDecti)e, e9ists merel* for the obser)er, "ho, in a manufacture, can see "ith one glance, all the
numerous operations being performed on one spot, "hile in the instance gi)en abo)e, the
spreading out of the "or+ o)er great areas, and the great number of people emplo*ed in each
branch of labour, obscure the conne9ion8
::
/ut "hat is it that forms the bond bet"een the
independent labours of the cattle4breeder, the tanner, and the shoema+erE >t is the fact that their
respecti)e products are commodities8 Bhat, on the other hand, characterises di)ision of labour in
manufacturesE 'he fact that the detail labourer produces no commodities8
:
>t is onl* the common
product of all the detail labourers that becomes a commodit*8
:3
0i)ision of labour in societ* is
brought about b* the purchase and sale of the products of different branches of industr*, "hile the
conne9ion bet"een the detail operations in a "or+shop, is due to the sale of the labour4po"er of
se)eral "or+men to one capitalist, "ho applies it as combined labour4po"er8 'he di)ision of
labour in the "or+shop implies concentration of the means of production in the hands of one
capitalist; the di)ision of labour in societ* implies their dispersion among man* independent
producers of commodities8 Bhile "ithin the "or+shop, the iron la" of proportionalit* subDects
definite numbers of "or+men to definite functions, in the societ* outside the "or+shop, chance
and caprice ha)e full pla* in distributing the producers and their means of production among the
)arious branches of industr*8 'he different spheres of production, it is true, constantl* tend to an
eIuilibrium: for, on the one hand, "hile each producer of a commodit* is bound to produce a use4
)alue, to satisf* a particular social "ant, and "hile the e9tent of these "ants differs Iuantitati)el*,
still there e9ists an inner relation "hich settles their proportions into a regular s*stem, and that
s*stem one of spontaneous gro"th; and, on the other hand, the la" of the )alue of commodities
ultimatel* determines ho" much of its disposable "or+ing4time societ* can e9pend on each
particular class of commodities8 /ut this constant tendenc* to eIuilibrium, of the )arious spheres
of production, is e9ercised, onl* in the shape of a reaction against the constant upsetting of this
eIuilibrium8 'he a priori s*stem on "hich the di)ision of labour, "ithin the "or+shop, is
regularl* carried out, becomes in the di)ision of labour "ithin the societ*, an a posteriori, nature4
imposed necessit*, controlling the la"less caprice of the producers, and perceptible in the
barometrical fluctuations of the mar+et4prices8 0i)ision of labour "ithin the "or+shop implies
the undisputed authorit* of the capitalist o)er men, that are but parts of a mechanism that belongs
to him8 'he di)ision of labour "ithin the societ* brings into contact independent commodit*4
producers, "ho ac+no"ledge no other authorit* but that of competition, of the coercion e9erted
b* the pressure of their mutual interests; Dust as in the animal +ingdom, the bellum omnium
contra omnes G"ar of all against all F -obbesH more or less preser)es the conditions of e9istence
of e)er* species8 'he same bourgeois mind "hich praises di)ision of labour in the "or+shop, life4
long anne9ation of the labourer to a partial operation, and his complete subDection to capital, as
being an organisation of labour that increases its producti)eness that same bourgeois mind
denounces "ith eIual )igour e)er* conscious attempt to sociall* control and regulate the process
of production, as an inroad upon such sacred things as the rights of propert*, freedom and
unrestricted pla* for the bent of the indi)idual capitalist8 >t is )er* characteristic that the
121 5hapter 1
enthusiastic apologists of the factor* s*stem ha)e nothing more damning to urge against a general
organisation of the labour of societ*, than that it "ould turn all societ* into one immense factor*8
>f, in a societ* "ith capitalist production, anarch* in the social di)ision of labour and despotism
in that of the "or+shop are mutual conditions the one of the other, "e find, on the contrar*, in
those earlier forms of societ* in "hich the separation of trades has been spontaneousl* de)eloped,
then cr*stallised, and finall* made permanent b* la", on the one hand, a specimen of the
organisation of the labour of societ*, in accordance "ith an appro)ed and authoritati)e plan, and
on the other, the entire e9clusion of di)ision of labour in the "or+shop, or at all e)ents a mere
d"arfli+e or sporadic and accidental de)elopment of the same8
:6
'hose small and e9tremel* ancient >ndian communities, some of "hich ha)e continued do"n to
this da*, are based on possession in common of the land, on the blending of agriculture and
handicrafts, and on an unalterable di)ision of labour, "hich ser)es, "hene)er a ne" communit* is
started, as a plan and scheme read* cut and dried8 =ccup*ing areas of from 177 up to se)eral
thousand acres, each forms a compact "hole producing all it reIuires8 'he chief part of the
products is destined for direct use b* the communit* itself, and does not ta+e the form of a
commodit*8 -ence, production here is independent of that di)ision of labour brought about, in
>ndian societ* as a "hole, b* means of the e9change of commodities8 >t is the surplus alone that
becomes a commodit*, and a portion of e)en that, not until it has reached the hands of the State,
into "hose hands from time immemorial a certain Iuantit* of these products has found its "a* in
the shape of rent in +ind8 'he constitution of these communities )aries in different parts of >ndia8
>n those of the simplest form, the land is tilled in common, and the produce di)ided among the
members8 (t the same time, spinning and "ea)ing are carried on in each famil* as subsidiar*
industries8 Side b* side "ith the masses thus occupied "ith one and the same "or+, "e find the
@chief inhabitant,A "ho is Dudge, police, and ta94gatherer in one; the boo+4+eeper, "ho +eeps the
accounts of the tillage and registers e)er*thing relating thereto; another official, "ho prosecutes
criminals, protects strangers tra)elling through and escorts them to the ne9t )illage; the boundar*
man, "ho guards the boundaries against neighbouring communities; the "ater4o)erseer, "ho
distributes the "ater from the common tan+s for irrigation; the /rahmin, "ho conducts the
religious ser)ices; the schoolmaster, "ho on the sand teaches the children reading and "riting; the
calendar4/rahmin, or astrologer, "ho ma+es +no"n the luc+* or unluc+* da*s for seed4time and
har)est, and for e)er* other +ind of agricultural "or+; a smith and a carpenter, "ho ma+e and
repair all the agricultural implements; the potter, "ho ma+es all the potter* of the )illage; the
barber, the "asherman, "ho "ashes clothes, the sil)ersmith, here and there the poet, "ho in some
communities replaces the sil)ersmith, in others the schoolmaster8 'his do1en of indi)iduals is
maintained at the e9pense of the "hole communit*8 >f the population increases, a ne" communit*
is founded, on the pattern of the old one, on unoccupied land8 'he "hole mechanism discloses a
s*stematic di)ision of labour; but a di)ision li+e that in manufactures is impossible, since the
smith and the carpenter, Pc8, find an unchanging mar+et, and at the most there occur, according to
the si1es of the )illages, t"o or three of each, instead of one8
:7
'he la" that regulates the di)ision
of labour in the communit* acts "ith the irresistible authorit* of a la" of Cature, at the same time
that each indi)idual artificer, the smith, the carpenter, and so on, conducts in his "or+shop all the
operations of his handicraft in the traditional "a*, but independentl*, and "ithout recognising an*
authorit* o)er him8 'he simplicit* of the organisation for production in these self4sufficing
communities that constantl* reproduce themsel)es in the same form, and "hen accidentall*
destro*ed, spring up again on the spot and "ith the same name
:8
this simplicit* supplies the +e*
to the secret of the unchangeableness of (siatic societies, an unchangeableness in such stri+ing
contrast "ith the constant dissolution and refounding of (siatic States, and the ne)er4ceasing
126 5hapter 1
changes of d*nast*8 'he structure of the economic elements of societ* remains untouched b* the
storm4clouds of the political s+*8
'he rules of the guilds, as > ha)e said before, b* limiting most strictl* the number of apprentices
and Dourne*men that a single master could emplo*, pre)ented him from becoming a capitalist8
$oreo)er, he could not emplo* his Dourne*men in man* other handicrafts than the one in "hich
he "as a master8 'he guilds 1ealousl* repelled e)er* encroachment b* the capital of merchants,
the onl* form of free capital "ith "hich the* came in contact8 ( merchant could bu* e)er* +ind
of commodit*, but labour as a commodit* he could not bu*8 -e e9isted onl* on sufferance, as a
dealer in the products of the handicrafts8 >f circumstances called for a further di)ision of labour,
the e9isting guilds split themsel)es up into )arieties, or founded ne" guilds b* the side of the old
ones; all this, ho"e)er, "ithout concentrating )arious handicrafts in a single "or+shop8 -ence,
the guild organisation, ho"e)er much it ma* ha)e contributed b* separating, isolating, and
perfecting the handicrafts, to create the material conditions for the e9istence of manufacture,
e9cluded di)ision of labour in the "or+shop8 =n the "hole, the labourer and his means of
production remained closel* united, li+e the snail "ith its shell, and thus there "as "anting the
principal basis of manufacture, the separation of the labourer from his means of production, and
the con)ersion of these means into capital8
Bhile di)ision of labour in societ* at large, "hether such di)ision be brought about or not b*
e9change of commodities, is common to economic formations of societ* the most di)erse,
di)ision of labour in the "or+shop, as practised b* manufacture, is a special creation of the
capitalist mode of production alone8
Section 8: The Capitalistic Character of
$anufacture
(n increased number of labourers under the control of one capitalist is the natural starting4point,
as "ell of co4operation generall*, as of manufacture in particular8 /ut the di)ision of labour in
manufacture ma+es this increase in the number of "or+men a technical necessit*8 'he minimum
number that an* gi)en capitalist is bound to emplo* is here prescribed b* the pre)iousl*
established di)ision of labour8 =n the other hand, the ad)antages of further di)ision are
obtainable onl* b* adding to the number of "or+men, and this can be done onl* b* adding
multiples of the )arious detail groups8 /ut an increase in the )ariable component of the capital
emplo*ed necessitates an increase in its constant component, too, in the "or+shops, implements,
Pc8, and, in particular, in the ra" material, the call for "hich gro"s Iuic+er than the number of
"or+men8 'he Iuantit* of it consumed in a gi)en time, b* a gi)en amount of labour, increases in
the same ratio as does the producti)e po"er of that labour in conseIuence of its di)ision8 -ence,
it is a la", based on the )er* nature of manufacture, that the minimum amount of capital, "hich is
bound to be in the hands of each capitalist, must +eep increasing; in other "ords, that the
transformation into capital of the social means of production and subsistence must +eep
e9tending8
:2
>n manufacture, as "ell as in simple co4operation, the collecti)e "or+ing organism is a form of
e9istence of capital8 'he mechanism that is made up of numerous indi)idual detail labourers
belongs to the capitalist8 -ence, the producti)e po"er resulting from a combination of labours
appears to be the producti)e po"er of capital8 $anufacture proper not onl* subDects the
pre)iousl* independent "or+man to the discipline and command of capital, but, in addition,
creates a hierarchic gradation of the "or+men themsel)es8 Bhile simple co4operation lea)es the
mode of "or+ing b* the indi)idual for the most part unchanged, manufacture thoroughl*
re)olutionises it, and sei1es labour4po"er b* its )er* roots8 >t con)erts the labourer into a crippled
12: 5hapter 1
monstrosit*, b* forcing his detail de9terit* at the e9pense of a "orld of producti)e capabilities
and instincts; Dust as in the States of <a #lata the* butcher a "hole beast for the sa+e of his hide or
his tallo"8 Cot onl* is the detail "or+ distributed to the different indi)iduals, but the indi)idual
himself is made the automatic motor of a fractional operation,
7
and the absurd fable of $enenius
(grippa, "hich ma+es man a mere fragment of his o"n bod*, becomes realised8
1
>f, at first, the
"or+man sells his labour4po"er to capital, because the material means of producing a commodit*
fail him, no" his )er* labour4po"er refuses its ser)ices unless it has been sold to capital8 >ts
functions can be e9ercised onl* in an en)ironment that e9ists in the "or+shop of the capitalist
after the sale8 /* nature unfitted to ma+e an*thing independentl*, the manufacturing labourer
de)elops producti)e acti)it* as a mere appendage of the capitalist?s "or+shop8
6
(s the chosen
people bore in their features the sign manual of Leho)ah, so di)ision of labour brands the
manufacturing "or+man as the propert* of capital8
'he +no"ledge, the Dudgement, and the "ill, "hich, though in e)er so small a degree, are
practised b* the independent peasant or handicraftsman, in the same "a* as the sa)age ma+es the
"hole art of "ar consist in the e9ercise of his personal cunning these faculties are no" reIuired
onl* for the "or+shop as a "hole8 >ntelligence in production e9pands in one direction, because it
)anishes in man* others8 Bhat is lost b* the detail labourers, is concentrated in the capital that
emplo*s them8
:
>t is a result of the di)ision of labour in manufactures, that the labourer is
brought face to face "ith the intellectual potencies of the material process of production, as the
propert* of another, and as a ruling po"er8 'his separation begins in simple co4operation, "here
the capitalist represents to the single "or+man, the oneness and the "ill of the associated labour8
>t is de)eloped in manufacture "hich cuts do"n the labourer into a detail labourer8 >t is completed
in modern industr*, "hich ma+es science a producti)e force distinct from labour and presses it
into the ser)ice of capital8
>n manufacture, in order to ma+e the collecti)e labourer, and through him capital, rich in social
producti)e po"er, each labourer must be made poor in indi)idual producti)e po"ers8
@>gnorance is the mother of industr* as "ell as of superstition8 &eflection and
fanc* are subDect to err; but a habit of mo)ing the hand or the foot is independent
of either8 $anufactures, accordingl*, prosper most "here the mind is least
consulted, and "here the "or+shop ma* 888 be considered as an engine, the parts of
"hich are men8A
3
(s a matter of fact, some fe" manufacturers in the middle of the 18th centur* preferred, for
certain operations that "ere trade secrets, to emplo* half4idiotic persons8
6
@'he understandings of the greater part of men,A sa*s (dam Smith, @are
necessaril* formed b* their ordinar* emplo*ments8 'he man "hose "hole life is
spent in performing a fe" simple operations 888 has no occasion to e9ert his
understanding888 -e generall* becomes as stupid and ignorant as it is possible for a
human creature to become8A
(fter describing the stupidit* of the detail labourer he goes on:
@'he uniformit* of his stationar* life naturall* corrupts the courage of his mind888
>t corrupts e)en the acti)it* of his bod* and renders him incapable of e9erting his
strength "ith )igour and perse)erance in an* other emplo*ments than that to
"hich he has been bred8 -is de9terit* at his o"n particular trade seems in this
manner to be acIuired at the e9pense of his intellectual, social, and martial
)irtues8 /ut in e)er* impro)ed and ci)ilised societ*, this is the state into "hich the
labouring poor, that is, the great bod* of the people, must necessaril* fall8A
7
12 5hapter 1
For pre)enting the complete deterioration of the great mass of the people b* di)ision of labour, (8
Smith recommends education of the people b* the State, but prudentl*, and in homeopathic doses8
G8 Garnier, his French translator and commentator, "ho, under the first French Empire, Iuite
naturall* de)eloped into a senator, Iuite as naturall* opposes him on this point8 Education of the
masses, he urges, )iolates the first la" of the di)ision of labour, and "ith it
@our "hole social s*stem "ould be proscribed8A V<i+e all other di)isions of
labour,A he sa*s, @that bet"een hand labour and head labour
8
is more pronounced
and decided in proportion as societ* (he rightl* uses this "ord, for capital, landed
propert* and their State! becomes richer8 'his di)ision of labour, li+e e)er* other,
is an effect of past, and a cause of future progress888 ought the go)ernment then to
"or+ in opposition to this di)ision of labour, and to hinder its natural courseE
=ught it to e9pend a part of the public mone* in the attempt to confound and
blend together t"o classes of labour, "hich are stri)ing after di)ision and
separationEA
2
Some crippling of bod* and mind is inseparable e)en from di)ision of labour in societ* as a
"hole8 Since, ho"e)er, manufacture carries this social separation of branches of labour much
further, and also, b* its peculiar di)ision, attac+s the indi)idual at the )er* roots of his life
37
, it is
the first to afford the materials for, and to gi)e a start to, industrial patholog*8
@'o subdi)ide a man is to e9ecute him, if he deser)es the sentence, to assassinate
him if he does not888 'he subdi)ision of labour is the assassination of a people8A
31
5o4operation based on di)ision of labour, in other "ords, manufacture, commences as a
spontaneous formation8 So soon as it attains some consistence and e9tension, it becomes the
recognised methodical and s*stematic form of capitalist production8 -istor* sho"s ho" the
di)ision of labour peculiar to manufacture, strictl* so called, acIuires the best adapted form at
first b* e9perience, as it "ere behind the bac+s of the actors, and then, li+e the guild handicrafts,
stri)es to hold fast that form "hen once found, and here and there succeeds in +eeping it for
centuries8 (n* alteration in this form, e9cept in tri)ial matters, is solel* o"ing to a re)olution in
the instruments of labour8 $odern manufacture "here)er it arises > do not here allude to modern
industr* based on machiner* either finds the disDecta membra poetae read* to hand, and onl*
"aiting to be collected together, as is the case in the manufacture of clothes in large to"ns, or it
can easil* appl* the principle of di)ision, simpl* b* e9clusi)el* assigning the )arious operations
of a handicraft (such as boo+4binding! to particular men8 >n such cases, a "ee+?s e9perience is
enough to determine the proportion bet"een the numbers of the hands necessar* for the )arious
functions8
36
/* decomposition of handicrafts, b* specialisation of the instruments of labour, b* the formation
of detail labourers, and b* grouping and combining the latter into a single mechanism, di)ision of
labour in manufacture creates a Iualitati)e gradation, and a Iuantitati)e proportion in the social
process of production; it conseIuentl* creates a definite organisation of the labour of societ*, and
thereb* de)elops at the same time ne" producti)e forces in the societ*8 >n its specific capitalist
form and under the gi)en conditions, it could ta+e no other form than a capitalistic one
manufacture is but a particular method of begetting relati)e surplus )alue, or of augmenting at the
e9pense of the labourer the self4e9pansion of capital usuall* called social "ealth, @Bealth of
Cations,A Pc8 >t increases the social producti)e po"er of labour, not onl* for the benefit of the
capitalist instead of for that of the labourer, but it does this b* crippling the indi)idual labourers8
>t creates ne" conditions for the lordship of capital o)er labour8 >f, therefore, on the one hand, it
presents itself historicall* as a progress and as a necessar* phase in the economic de)elopment of
societ*, on the other hand, it is a refined and ci)ilised method of e9ploitation8
123 5hapter 1
#olitical Econom*, "hich as an independent science, first sprang into being during the period of
manufacture, )ie"s the social di)ision of labour onl* from the standpoint of manufacture,
3:
and
sees in it onl* the means of producing more commodities "ith a gi)en Iuantit* of labour, and,
conseIuentl*, of cheapening commodities and hurr*ing on the accumulation of capital8 >n most
stri+ing contrast "ith this accentuation of Iuantit* and e9change4)alue, is the attitude of the
"riters of classical antiIuit*, "ho hold e9clusi)el* b* Iualit* and use4)alue8
3
>n conseIuence of
the separation of the social branches of production, commodities are better made, the )arious
bents and talents of men select a suitable field,
33
and "ithout some restraint no important results
can be obtained an*"here8
36
-ence both product and producer are impro)ed b* di)ision of labour8
>f the gro"th of the Iuantit* produced is occasionall* mentioned, this is onl* done "ith reference
to the greater abundance of use4)alues8 'here is not a "ord alluding to e9change4)alue or to the
cheapening of commodities8 'his aspect, from the standpoint of use4)alue alone, is ta+en as "ell
b* #lato,
37
"ho treats di)ision of labour as the foundation on "hich the di)ision of societ* into
classes is based, as b* Oenophon
38
, "ho "ith characteristic bourgeois instinct, approaches more
nearl* to di)ision of labour "ithin the "or+shop8 #lato?s &epublic, in so far as di)ision of labour
is treated in it, as the formati)e principle of the State, is merel* the (thenian idealisation of the
Eg*ptian s*stem of castes, Eg*pt ha)ing ser)ed as the model of an industrial countr* to man* of
his contemporaries also, amongst others to >socrates,
32
and it continued to ha)e this importance to
the Gree+s of the &oman Empire8
67
0uring the manufacturing period proper, i8e8, the period during "hich manufacture is the
predominant form ta+en b* capitalist production, man* obstacles are opposed to the full
de)elopment of the peculiar tendencies of manufacture8 (lthough manufacture creates, as "e
ha)e alread* seen, a simple separation of the labourers into s+illed and uns+illed, simultaneousl*
"ith their hierarchic arrangement in classes, *et the number of the uns+illed labourers, o"ing to
the preponderating influence of the s+illed, remains )er* limited8 (lthough it adapts the detail
operations to the )arious degrees of maturit*, strength, and de)elopment of the li)ing instruments
of labour, thus conducing to e9ploitation of "omen and children, *et this tendenc* as a "hole is
"rec+ed on the habits and the resistance of the male labourers8 (lthough the splitting up of
handicrafts lo"ers the cost of forming the "or+man, and thereb* lo"ers his )alue, *et for the
more difficult detail "or+, a longer apprenticeship is necessar*, and, e)en "here it "ould be
superfluous, is Dealousl* insisted upon b* the "or+men8 >n England, for instance, "e find the la"s
of apprenticeship, "ith their se)en *ears? probation, in full force do"n to the end of the
manufacturing period; and the* are not thro"n on one side till the ad)ent of $odern >ndustr*8
Since handicraft s+ill is the foundation of manufacture, and since the mechanism of manufacture
as a "hole possesses no frame"or+, apart from the labourers themsel)es, capital is constantl*
compelled to "restle "ith the insubordination of the "or+men8
@/* the infirmit* of human nature,A sa*s friend %re, @it happens that the more
s+ilful the "or+man, the more self4"illed and intractable he is apt to become, and
of course the less fit a component of a mechanical s*stem in "hich 888 he ma* do
great damage to the "holeA
61
-ence throughout the "hole manufacturing period there runs the complaint of "ant of discipline
among the "or+men
66
8 (nd had "e not the testimon* of contemporar* "riters, the simple facts,
that during the period bet"een the 16th centur* and the epoch of $odern >ndustr*, capital failed
to become the master of the "hole disposable "or+ing4time of the manufacturing labourers, that
manufactures are short4li)ed, and change their localit* from one countr* to another "ith the
emigrating or immigrating "or+men, these facts "ould spea+ )olumes8 @=rder must in one "a*
or another be established,A e9claims in 1777 the oft4cited author of the @Essa* on 'rade and
5ommerce8A @=rder,A re4echoes 0r8 (ndre" %re 66 *ears later, @=rderA "as "anting in
126 5hapter 1
manufacture based on @the scholastic dogma of di)ision of labour,A and @(r+"right created
order8A
(t the same time manufacture "as unable, either to sei1e upon the production of societ* to its full
e9tent, or to re)olutionise that production to its )er* core8 >t to"ered up as an economic "or+ of
art, on the broad foundation of the to"n handicrafts, and of the rural domestic industries8 (t a
gi)en stage in its de)elopment, the narro" technical basis on "hich manufacture rested, came
into conflict "ith reIuirements of production that "ere created b* manufacture itself8
=ne of its most finished creations "as the "or+shop for the production of the instruments of
labour themsel)es, including especiall* the complicated mechanical apparatus then alread*
emplo*ed8
( machine4factor*, sa*s %re, @displa*ed the di)ision of labour in manifold
gradations the file, the drill, the lathe, ha)ing each its different "or+man in the
order of s+ill8A (#8 618!
'his "or+shop, the product of the di)ision of labour in manufacture, produced in its turn
machines8 >t is the* that s"eep a"a* the handicraftsman?s "or+ as the regulating principle of
social production8 'hus, on the one hand, the technical reason for the life4long anne9ation of the
"or+man to a detail function is remo)ed8 =n the other hand, the fetters that this same principle
laid on the dominion of capital, fall a"a*8
Chapter 15: Machinery and Modern Industry
Section 1 : The -e=elopment of $achiner
Lohn Stuart $ill sa*s in his @#rinciples of #olitical Econom*V:
@>t is Iuestionable if all the mechanical in)entions *et made ha)e lightened the
da*?s toil of an* human being8A
1
'hat is, ho"e)er, b* no means the aim of the capitalistic application of machiner*8 <i+e e)er*
other increase in the producti)eness of labour, machiner* is intended to cheapen commodities,
and, b* shortening that portion of the "or+ing da*, in "hich the labourer "or+s for himself, to
lengthen the other portion that he gi)es, "ithout an eIui)alent, to the capitalist8 >n short, it is a
means for producing surplus )alue8
>n manufacture, the re)olution in the mode of production begins "ith the labour4po"er, in
modern industr* it begins "ith the instruments of labour8 =ur first inIuir* then is, ho" the
instruments of labour are con)erted from tools into machines, or "hat is the difference bet"een a
machine and the implements of a handicraftE Be are onl* concerned here "ith stri+ing and
general characteristics; for epochs in the histor* of societ* are no more separated from each other
b* hard and fast lines of demarcation, than are geological epochs8
$athematicians and mechanicians, and in this the* are follo"ed b* a fe" English economists,
call a tool a simple machine, and a machine a comple9 tool8 'he* see no essential difference
bet"een them, and e)en gi)e the name of machine to the simple mechanical po"ers, the le)er, the
inclined plane, the scre", the "edge, Pc8
6
(s a matter of fact, e)er* machine is a combination of
those simple po"ers, no matter ho" the* ma* be disguised8 From the economic standpoint this
e9planation is "orth nothing, because the historical element is "anting8 (nother e9planation of
the difference bet"een tool and machine is that in the case of a tool, man is the moti)e po"er,
"hile the moti)e po"er of a machine is something different from man, as, for instance, an animal,
"ater, "ind, and so on8
:
(ccording to this, a plough dra"n b* o9en, "hich is a contri)ance
common to the most different epochs, "ould be a machine, "hile 5laussen?s circular loom,
"hich, "or+ed b* a single labourer, "ea)es 26,777 pic+s per minute, "ould be a mere tool8 Ca*,
this )er* loom, though a tool "hen "or+ed b* hand, "ould, if "or+ed b* steam, be a machine8
(nd since the application of animal po"er is one of man?s earliest in)entions, production b*
machiner* "ould ha)e preceded production b* handicrafts8 Bhen in 17:3, Lohn B*att brought
out his spinning machine, and began the industrial re)olution of the 18th centur*, not a "ord did
he sa* about an ass dri)ing it instead of a man, and *et this part fell to the ass8 -e described it as a
machine @to spin "ithout fingers8A
(ll full* de)eloped machiner* consists of three essentiall* different parts, the motor mechanism,
the transmitting mechanism, and finall* the tool or "or+ing machine8 'he motor mechanism is
that "hich puts the "hole in motion8 >t either generates its o"n moti)e po"er, li+e the steam4
engine, the caloric engine, the electromagnetic machine, Pc8, or it recei)es its impulse from some
alread* e9isting natural force, li+e the "ater4"heel from a head of "ater, the "ind4mill from
"ind, Pc8 'he transmitting mechanism, composed of fl*4"heels, shafting, toothed "heels,
pullies, straps, ropes, bands, pinions, and gearing of the most )aried +inds, regulates the motion,
changes its form8 "here necessar*, as for instance, from linear to circular, and di)ides and
distributes it among the "or+ing machines8 'hese t"o first parts of the "hole mechanism are
128 5hapter 13
there, solel* for putting the "or+ing machines in motion, b* means of "hich motion the subDect
of labour is sei1ed upon and modified as desired8 'he tool or "or+ing machine is that part of the
machiner* "ith "hich the industrial re)olution of the 18th centur* started8 (nd to this da* it
constantl* ser)es as such a starting4point, "hene)er a handicraft, or a manufacture, is turned into
an industr* carried on b* machiner*8
=n a closer e9amination of the "or+ing machine proper, "e find in it, as a general rule, though
often, no doubt, under )er* altered forms, the apparatus and tools used b* the handicraftsman or
manufacturing "or+man; "ith this difference, that instead of being human implements, the* are
the implements of a mechanism, or mechanical implements8 Either the entire machine is onl* a
more or less altered mechanical edition of the old handicraft tool, as, for instance, the po"er4
loom,
3
or the "or+ing parts fitted in the frame of the machine are old acIuaintances, as spindles
are in a mule, needles in a stoc+ing4loom, sa"s in a sa"ing4machine, and +ni)es in a chopping
machine8 'he distinction bet"een these tools and the bod* proper of the machine, e9ists from
their )er* birth; for the* continue for the most part to be produced b* handicraft, or b*
manufacture, and are after"ards fitted into the bod* of the machine, "hich is the product of
machiner*8
6
'he machine proper is therefore a mechanism that, after being set in motion,
performs "ith its tools the same operations that "ere formerl* done b* the "or+man "ith similar
tools8 Bhether the moti)e po"er is deri)ed from man, or from some other machine, ma+es no
difference in this respect8 From the moment that the tool proper is ta+en from man, and fitted into
a mechanism, a machine ta+es the place of a mere implement8 'he difference stri+es one at once,
e)en in those cases "here man himself continues to be the prime mo)er8 'he number of
implements that he himself can use simultaneousl*, is limited b* the number of his o"n natural
instruments of production, b* the number of his bodil* organs8 >n German*, the* tried at first to
ma+e one spinner "or+ t"o spinning4"heels, that is, to "or+ simultaneousl* "ith both hands and
both feet8 'his "as too difficult8 <ater, a treddle spinning4"heel "ith t"o spindles "as in)ented,
but adepts in spinning, "ho could spin t"o threads at once, "ere almost as scarce as t"o4headed
men8 'he Lenn*, on the other hand, e)en at its )er* birth, spun "ith 16418 spindles, and the
stoc+ing4loom +nits "ith man* thousand needles at once8 'he number of tools that a machine can
bring into pla* simultaneousl*, is from the )er* first emancipated from the organic limits that
hedge in the tools of a handicraftsman8
>n man* manual implements the distinction bet"een man as mere moti)e po"er, and man as the
"or+man or operator properl* so called, is brought into stri+ing contrast8 For instance, the foot is
merel* the prime mo)er of the spinning4"heel, "hile the hand, "or+ing "ith the spindle, and
dra"ing and t"isting, performs the real operation of spinning8 >t is this last part of the
handicraftsman?s implement that is first sei1ed upon b* the industrial re)olution, lea)ing to the
"or+man, in addition to his ne" labour of "atching the machine "ith his e*es and correcting its
mista+es "ith his hands, the merel* mechanical part of being the mo)ing po"er8 =n the other
hand, implements, in regard to "hich man has al"a*s acted as a simple moti)e po"er, as, for
instance, b* turning the cran+ of a mill,
7
b* pumping, b* mo)ing up and do"n the arm of a
bello"s, b* pounding "ith a mortar, Pc8, such implements soon call for the application of
animals, "ater
8
and "ind as moti)e po"ers8 -ere and there, long before the period of
manufacture, and also, to some e9tent, during that period, these implements pass o)er into
machines, but "ithout creating an* re)olution in the mode of production8 >t becomes e)ident, in
the period of modern industr*, that these implements, e)en under their form of manual tools, are
alread* machines8 For instance, the pumps "ith "hich the 0utch, in 18:647, emptied the <a+e of
-arlem, "ere constructed on the principle of ordinar* pumps; the onl* difference being, that their
pistons "ere dri)en b* c*clopean steam4engines, instead of b* men8 'he common and )er*
imperfect bello"s of the blac+smith is, in England, occasionall* con)erted into a blo"ing4engine,
122 5hapter 13
b* connecting its arm "ith a steam4engine8 'he steam4engine itself, such as it "as at its
in)ention, during the manufacturing period at the close of the 17th centur*, and such as it
continued to be do"n to 1787,
2
did not gi)e rise to an* industrial re)olution8 >t "as, on the
contrar*, the in)ention of machines that made a re)olution in the form of steam4engines
necessar*8 (s soon as man, instead of "or+ing "ith an implement on the subDect of his labour,
becomes merel* the moti)e po"er of an implement4machine, it is a mere accident that moti)e
po"er ta+es the disguise of human muscle; and it ma* eIuall* "ell ta+e the form of "ind, "ater
or steam8 =f course, this does not pre)ent such a change of form from producing great technical
alterations in the mechanism that "as originall* constructed to be dri)en b* man alone8 Co"4a4
da*s, all machines that ha)e their "a* to ma+e, such as se"ing4machines, bread4ma+ing
machines, Pc8, are, unless from their )er* nature their use on a small scale is e9cluded,
constructed to be dri)en both b* human and b* purel* mechanical moti)e po"er8
'he machine, "hich is the starting4point of the industrial re)olution, supersedes the "or+man,
"ho handles a single tool, b* a mechanism operating "ith a number of similar tools, and set in
motion b* a single moti)e po"er, "hate)er the form of that po"er ma* be8
17
-ere "e ha)e the
machine, but onl* as an elementar* factor of production b* machiner*8
>ncrease in the si1e of the machine, and in the number of its "or+ing tools, calls for a more
massi)e mechanism to dri)e it; and this mechanism reIuires, in order to o)ercome its resistance,
a mightier mo)ing po"er than that of man, apart from the fact that man is a )er* imperfect
instrument for producing uniform continued motion8 /ut assuming that he is acting simpl* as a
motor, that a machine has ta+en the place of his tool, it is e)ident that he can be replaced b*
natural forces8 =f all the great motors handed do"n from the manufacturing period, horse4po"er
is the "orst, partl* because a horse has a head of his o"n, partl* because he is costl*, and the
e9tent to "hich he is applicable in factories is )er* restricted8
11
Ce)ertheless the horse "as
e9tensi)el* used during the infanc* of modern industr*8 'his is pro)ed, as "ell b* the complaints
of contemporar* agriculturists, as b* the term @horse4po"er,A "hich has sur)i)ed to this da* as an
e9pression for mechanical force8
Bind "as too inconstant and uncontrollable, and besides, in England, the birthplace of modern
industr*, the use of "ater po"er preponderated e)en during the manufacturing period8 >n the 17th
centur* attempts had alread* been made to turn t"o pairs of millstones "ith a single "ater4"heel8
/ut the increased si1e of the gearing "as too much for the "ater po"er, "hich had no" become
insufficient, and this "as one of the circumstances that led to a more accurate in)estigation of the
la"s of friction8 >n the same "a* the irregularit* caused b* the moti)e po"er in mills that "ere
put in motion b* pushing and pulling a le)er, led to the theor*, and the application, of the fl*4
"heel, "hich after"ards pla*s so important a part in modern industr*8
16
>n this "a*, during the
manufacturing period, "ere de)eloped the first scientific and technical elements of $odern
$echanical >ndustr*8 (r+"right?s throstle spinning mill "as from the )er* first turned b* "ater8
/ut for all that, the use of "ater, as the predominant moti)e po"er, "as beset "ith difficulties8 >t
could not be increased at "ill, it failed at certain seasons of the *ear, and, abo)e all, it "as
essentiall* local8
1:
Cot till the in)ention of Batt?s second and so4called double4acting steam4
engine, "as a prime mo)er found, that begot its o"n force b* the consumption of coal and "ater,
"hose po"er "as entirel* under man?s control, that "as mobile and a means of locomotion, that
"as urban and not, li+e the "ater"heel, rural, that permitted production to be concentrated in
to"ns instead of, li+e the "ater4"heels, being scattered up and do"n the countr*,
1
that "as of
uni)ersal technical application, and, relati)el* spea+ing, little affected in its choice of residence
b* local circumstances8 'he greatness of Batt?s genius sho"ed itself in the specification of the
patent that he too+ out in (pril, 1788 >n that specification his steam4engine is described, not as
an in)ention for a specific purpose, but as an agent uni)ersall* applicable in $echanical >ndustr*8
677 5hapter 13
>n it he points out applications, man* of "hich, as for instance, the steam4hammer, "ere not
introduced till half a centur* later8 Ce)ertheless he doubted the use of steam4engines in
na)igation8 -is successors, /oulton and Batt, sent to the e9hibition of 1831 steam4engines of
colossal si1e for ocean steamers8
(s soon as tools had been con)erted from being manual implements of man into implements of a
mechanical apparatus, of a machine, the moti)e mechanism also acIuired an independent form,
entirel* emancipated from the restraints of human strength8 'hereupon the indi)idual machine,
that "e ha)e hitherto been considering, sin+s into a mere factor in production b* machiner*8 =ne
moti)e mechanism "as no" able to dri)e man* machines at once8 'he moti)e mechanism gro"s
"ith the number of the machines that are turned simultaneousl*, and the transmitting mechanism
becomes a "ide4spreading apparatus8
Be no" proceed to distinguish the co4operation of a number of machines of one +ind from a
comple9 s*stem of machiner*8
>n the one case, the product is entirel* made b* a single machine, "hich performs all the )arious
operations pre)iousl* done b* one handicraftsman "ith his tool; as, for instance, b* a "ea)er
"ith his loom; or b* se)eral handicraftsman successi)el*, either separatel* or as members of a
s*stem of $anufacture8
13
For e9ample, in the manufacture of en)elopes, one man folded the
paper "ith the folder, another laid on the gum, a third turned the flap o)er, on "hich the de)ice is
impressed, a fourth embossed the de)ice, and so on; and for each of these operations the en)elope
had to change hands8 =ne single en)elope machine no" performs all these operations at once,
and ma+es more than :,777 en)elopes in an hour8 >n the <ondon e9hibition of 1866, there "as an
(merican machine for ma+ing paper cornets8 >t cut the paper, pasted, folded, and finished :77 in
a minute8 -ere, the "hole process, "hich, "hen carried on as $anufacture, "as split up into, and
carried out b*, a series of operations, is completed b* a single machine, "or+ing a combination of
)arious tools8 Co", "hether such a machine be merel* a reproduction of a complicated manual
implement, or a combination of )arious simple implements specialised b* $anufacture, in either
case, in the factor*, i$e8, in the "or+shop in "hich machiner* alone is used, "e meet again "ith
simple co4operation; and, lea)ing the "or+man out of consideration for the moment, this co4
operation presents itself to us, in the first instance, as the conglomeration in one place of similar
and simultaneousl* acting machines8 'hus, a "ea)ing factor* is constituted of a number of
po"er4looms, "or+ing side b* side, and a se"ing factor* of a number of se"ing4machines all in
the same building8 /ut there is here a technical oneness in the "hole s*stem, o"ing to all the
machines recei)ing their impulse simultaneousl*, and in an eIual degree, from the pulsations of
the common prime mo)er, b* the intermediar* of the transmitting mechanism; and this
mechanism, to a certain e9tent, is also common to them all, since onl* particular ramifications of
it branch off to each machine8 Lust as a number of tools, then, form the organs of a machine, so a
number of machines of one +ind constitute the organs of the moti)e mechanism8
( real machiner* s*stem, ho"e)er, does not ta+e the place of these independent machines, until
the subDect of labour goes through a connected series of detail processes, that are carried out b* a
chain of machines of )arious +inds, the one supplementing the other8 -ere "e ha)e again the co4
operation b* di)ision of labour that characterises $anufacture; onl* no", it is a combination of
detail machines8 'he special tools of the )arious detail "or+men, such as those of the beaters,
cambers, spinners, Pc8, in the "oollen manufacture, are no" transformed into the tools of
specialised machines, each machine constituting a special organ, "ith a special function, in the
s*stem8 >n those branches of industr* in "hich the machiner* s*stem is first introduced,
$anufacture itself furnishes, in a general "a*, the natural basis for the di)ision, and conseIuent
organisation, of the process of production8
16
Ce)ertheless an essential difference at once manifests
671 5hapter 13
itself8 >n $anufacture it is the "or+men "ho, "ith their manual implements, must, either singl*
or in groups, carr* on each particular detail process8 >f, on the one hand, the "or+man becomes
adapted to the process, on the other, the process "as pre)iousl* made suitable to the "or+man8
'his subDecti)e principle of the di)ision of labour no longer e9ists in production b* machiner*8
-ere, the process as a "hole is e9amined obDecti)el*, in itself, that is to sa*, "ithout regard to the
Iuestion of its e9ecution b* human hands, it is anal*sed into its constituent phases; and the
problem, ho" to e9ecute each detail process, and bind them all into a "hole, is sol)ed b* the aid
of machines, chemistr*, Pc8
17
/ut, of course, in this case also, theor* must be perfected b*
accumulated e9perience on a large scale8 Each detail machine supplies ra" material to the
machine ne9t in order; and since the* are all "or+ing at the same time, the product is al"a*s
going through the )arious stages of its fabrication, and is also constantl* in a state of transition,
from one phase to another8 Lust as in $anufacture, the direct co4operation of the detail labourers
establishes a numerical proportion bet"een the special groups, so in an organised s*stem of
machiner*, "here one detail machine is constantl* +ept emplo*ed b* another, a fi9ed relation is
established bet"een their numbers, their si1e, and their speed8 'he collecti)e machine, no" an
organised s*stem of )arious +inds of single machines, and of groups of single machines, becomes
more and more perfect, the more the process as a "hole becomes a continuous one, i8e8, the less
the ra" material is interrupted in its passage from its first phase to its last; in other "ords, the
more its passage from one phase to another is effected, not b* the hand of man, but b* the
machiner* itself8 >n $anufacture the isolation of each detail process is a condition imposed b* the
nature of di)ision of labour, but in the full* de)eloped factor* the continuit* of those processes is,
on the contrar*, imperati)e8
( s*stem of machiner*, "hether it reposes on the mere co4operation of similar machines, as in
"ea)ing, or on a combination of different machines, as in spinning, constitutes in itself a huge
automaton, "hene)er it is dri)en b* a self4acting prime mo)er8 /ut although the factor* as a
"hole be dri)en b* its steam4engine, *et either some of the indi)idual machines ma* reIuire the
aid of the "or+man for some of their mo)ements (such aid "as necessar* for the running in of
the mule carriage, before the in)ention of the self4acting mule, and is still necessar* in fine4
spinning mills!; or, to enable a machine to do its "or+, certain parts of it ma* reIuire to be
handled b* the "or+man li+e a manual tool; this "as the case in machine4ma+ers? "or+shops,
before the con)ersion of the slide rest into a self4actor8 (s soon as a machine e9ecutes, "ithout
man?s help, all the mo)ements reIuisite to elaborate the ra" material, needing onl* attendance
from him, "e ha)e an automatic s*stem of machiner*, and one that is susceptible of constant
impro)ement in its details8 Such impro)ements as the apparatus that stops a dra"ing frame,
"hene)er a sli)er brea+s, and the self4acting stop, that stops the po"er4loom so soon as the
shuttle bobbin is emptied of "eft, are Iuite modern in)entions8 (s an e9ample, both of continuit*
of production, and of the carr*ing out of the automatic principle, "e ma* ta+e a modern paper
mill8 >n the paper industr* generall*, "e ma* ad)antageousl* stud* in detail not onl* the
distinctions bet"een modes of production based on different means of production, but also the
conne9ion of the social conditions of production "ith those modes: for the old German paper4
ma+ing furnishes us "ith a sample of handicraft production; that of -olland in the 17th and of
France in the 18th centur* "ith a sample of manufacturing in the strict sense; and that of modern
England "ith a sample of automatic fabrication of this article8 /esides these, there still e9ist, in
>ndia and 5hina, t"o distinct antiIue (siatic forms of the same industr*8
(n organised s*stem of machines, to "hich motion is communicated b* the transmitting
mechanism from a central automaton, is the most de)eloped form of production b* machiner*8
-ere "e ha)e, in the place of the isolated machine, a mechanical monster "hose bod* fills "hole
676 5hapter 13
factories, and "hose demon po"er, at first )eiled under the slo" and measured motions of his
giant limbs, at length brea+s out into the fast and furious "hirl of his countless "or+ing organs8
'here "ere mules and steam4engines before there "ere an* labourers, "hose e9clusi)e
occupation it "as to ma+e mules and steam4engines; Dust as men "ore clothes before there "ere
such people as tailors8 'he in)entions of ;aucanson, (r+"right, Batt, and others, "ere, ho"e)er,
practicable, onl* because those in)entors found, read* to hand, a considerable number of s+illed
mechanical "or+men, placed at their disposal b* the manufacturing period8 Some of these
"or+men "ere independent handicraftsman of )arious trades, others "ere grouped together in
manufactures, in "hich, as before4mentioned, di)ision of labour "as strictl* carried out8 (s
in)entions increased in number, and the demand for the ne"l* disco)ered machines gre" larger,
the machine4ma+ing industr* split up, more and more, into numerous independent branches, and
di)ision of labour in these manufactures "as more and more de)eloped8 -ere, then, "e see in
$anufacture the immediate technical foundation of modern industr*8 $anufacture produced the
machiner*, b* means of "hich modern industr* abolished the handicraft and manufacturing
s*stems in those spheres of production that it first sei1ed upon8 'he factor* s*stem "as therefore
raised, in the natural course of things, on an inadeIuate foundation8 Bhen the s*stem attained to a
certain degree of de)elopment, it had to root up this read*4made foundation, "hich in the
meantime had been elaborated on the old lines, and to build up for itself a basis that should
correspond to its methods of production8 Lust as the indi)idual machine retains a d"arfish
character, so long as it is "or+ed b* the po"er of man alone, and Dust as no s*stem of machiner*
could be properl* de)eloped before the steam4engine too+ the place of the earlier moti)e po"ers,
animals, "ind, and e)en "ater; so, too, modern industr* "as crippled in its complete
de)elopment, so long as its characteristic instrument of production, the machine, o"ed its
e9istence to personal strength and personal s+ill, and depended on the muscular de)elopment, the
+eenness of sight, and the cunning of hand, "ith "hich the detail "or+men in manufactures, arid
the manual labourers in handicrafts, "ielded their d"arfish implements8 'hus, apart from the
dearness of the machines made in this "a*, a circumstance that is e)er present to the mind of the
capitalist, the e9pansion of industries carried on b* means of machiner*, and the in)asion b*
machiner* of fresh branches of production, "ere dependent on the gro"th of a class of "or+men,
"ho, o"ing to the almost artistic nature of their emplo*ment, could increase their numbers onl*
graduall*, and not b* leaps and bounds8 /ut besides this, at a certain stage of its de)elopment,
modern industr* became technologicall* incompatible "ith the basis furnished for it b*
handicraft and $anufacture8 'he increasing si1e of the prime mo)ers, of the transmitting
mechanism, and of the machines proper, the greater complication, multiformit* and regularit* of
the details of these machines, as the* more and more departed from the model of those originall*
made b* manual labour, and acIuired a form, untrammelled e9cept b* the conditions under "hich
the* "or+ed,
18
the perfecting of the automatic s*stem, and the use, e)er* da* more una)oidable,
of a more refractor* material, such as iron instead of "ood4the solution of all these problems,
"hich sprang up b* the force of circumstances, e)er*"here met "ith a stumbling4bloc+ in the
personal restrictions, "hich e)en the collecti)e labourer of $anufacture could not brea+ through,
e9cept to a limited e9tent8 Such machines as the modern h*draulic press, the modern po"er4loom,
and the modern carding engine, could ne)er ha)e been furnished b* $anufacture8
( radical change in the mode of production in one sphere of industr* in)ol)es a similar change in
other spheres8 'his happens at first in such branches of industr* as are connected together b*
being separate phases of a process, and *et are isolated b* the social di)ision of labour, in such a
"a*, that each of them produces an independent commodit*8 'hus spinning b* machiner* made
"ea)ing b* machiner* a necessit*, and both together made the mechanical and chemical
re)olution that too+ place in bleaching, printing, and d*eing, imperati)e8 So too, on the other
67: 5hapter 13
hand, the re)olution in cotton4spinning called forth the in)ention of the gin, for separating the
seeds from the cotton fibre; it "as onl* b* means of this in)ention, that the production of cotton
became possible on the enormous scale at present reIuired8
12
/ut more especiall*, the re)olution
in the modes of production of industr* and agriculture made necessar* a re)olution in the general
conditions of the social process of production, i8e8, in the means of communication and of
transport8 >n a societ* "hose pi)ot, to use an e9pression of Fourier, "as agriculture on a small
scale, "ith its subsidiar* domestic industries, and the urban handicrafts, the means of
communication and transport "ere so utterl* inadeIuate to the producti)e reIuirements of the
manufacturing period, "ith its e9tended di)ision of social labour, its concentration of the
instruments of labour, and of the "or+men, and its colonial mar+ets, that the* became in fact
re)olutionised8 >n the same "a* the means of communication and transport handed do"n from
the manufacturing period soon became unbearable trammels on modern industr*, "ith its fe)erish
haste of production, its enormous e9tent, its constant flinging of capital and labour from one
sphere of production into another, and its ne"l*4created conne9ions "ith the mar+ets of the
"hole "orld8 -ence, apart from the radical changes introduced in the construction of sailing
)essels, the means of communication and transport became graduall* adapted to the modes of
production of mechanical industr*, b* the creation of a s*stem of ri)er steamers, rail"a*s, ocean
steamers, and telegraphs8 /ut the huge masses of iron that had no" to be forged, to be "elded, to
be cut, to be bored, and to be shaped, demanded, on their part, c*clopean machines, for the
construction of "hich the methods of the manufacturing period "ere utterl* inadeIuate8
modern industr* had therefore itself to ta+e in hand the machine, its characteristic instrument of
production, and to construct machines b* machines8 >t "as not till it did this, that it built up for
itself a fitting technical foundation, and stood on its o"n feet8 $achiner*, simultaneousl* "ith the
increasing use of it, in the first decades of this centur*, appropriated, b* degrees, the fabrication
of machines proper8 /ut it "as onl* during the decade preceding 1866, that the construction of
rail"a*s and ocean steamers on a stupendous scale called into e9istence the c*clopean machines
no" emplo*ed in the construction of prime mo)ers8
'he most essential condition to the production of machines b* machines "as a prime mo)er
capable of e9erting an* amount of force, and *et under perfect control8 Such a condition "as
alread* supplied b* the steam4engine8 /ut at the same time it "as necessar* to produce the
geometricall* accurate straight lines, planes, circles, c*linders, cones, and spheres, reIuired in the
detail parts of the machines8 'his problem -enr* $audsle* sol)ed in the first decade of this
centur* b* the in)ention of the slide rest, a tool that "as soon made automatic, and in a modified
form "as applied to other constructi)e machines besides the lathe, for "hich it "as originall*
intended8 'his mechanical appliance replaces, not some particular tool, but the hand itself, "hich
produces a gi)en form b* holding and guiding the cutting tool along the iron or other material
operated upon8 'hus it became possible to produce the forms of the indi)idual parts of machiner*
@"ith a degree of ease, accurac*, and speed, that no accumulated e9perience of the
hand of the most s+illed "or+man could gi)e8A
67
>f "e no" fi9 our attention on that portion of the machiner* emplo*ed in the construction of
machines, "hich constitutes the operating tool, "e find the manual implements re4appearing, but
on a c*clopean scale8 'he operating part of the boring machine is an immense drill dri)en b* a
steam4engine; "ithout this machine, on the other hand, the c*linders of large steam4engines and
of h*draulic presses could not be made8 'he mechanical lathe is onl* a c*clopean reproduction of
the ordinar* foot4lathe; the planing machine, an iron carpenter, that "or+s on iron "ith the same
tools that the human carpenter emplo*s on "ood; the instrument that, on the <ondon "har)es,
cuts the )eneers, is a gigantic ra1or; the tool of the shearing machine, "hich shears iron as easil*
67 5hapter 13
as a tailor?s scissors cut cloth, is a monster pair of scissors; and the steam4hammer "or+s "ith an
ordinar* hammer head, but of such a "eight that not 'hor himself could "ield it8
61
'hese steam4
hammers are an in)ention of Casm*th, and there is one that "eighs o)er 6 tons and stri+es "ith a
)ertical fall of 7 feet, on an an)il "eighing :6 tons8 >t is mere child?s4pla* for it to crush a bloc+
of granite into po"der, *et it is no less capable of dri)ing, "ith a succession of light taps, a nail
into a piece of soft "ood8
66
'he implements of labour, in the form of machiner*, necessitate the substitution of natural forces
for human force, and the conscious application of science, instead of rule of thumb8 >n
$anufacture, the organisation of the social labour4process is purel* subDecti)e; it is a combination
of detail labourers; in its machiner* s*stem, modern industr* has a producti)e organism that is
purel* obDecti)e, in "hich the labourer becomes a mere appendage to an alread* e9isting material
condition of production8 >n simple co4operation, and e)en in that founded on di)ision of labour,
the suppression of the isolated, b* the collecti)e, "or+man still appears to be more or less
accidental8 $achiner*, "ith a fe" e9ceptions to be mentioned later, operates onl* b* means of
associated labour, or labour in common8 -ence the co4operati)e character of the labour4process
is, in the latter case, a technical necessit* dictated b* the instrument of labour itself8
Section ': The Value Transferred b $achiner
to the Product
Be sa" that the producti)e forces resulting from co4operation and di)ision of labour cost capital
nothing8 'he* are natural forces of social labour8 So also ph*sical forces, li+e steam, "ater, Pc8,
"hen appropriated to producti)e processes, cost nothing8 /ut Dust as a man reIuires lungs to
breathe "ith, so he reIuires something that is "or+ of man?s hand, in order to consume ph*sical
forces producti)el*8 ( "ater4"heel is necessar* to e9ploit the force of "ater, and a steam4engine
to e9ploit the elasticit* of steam8 =nce disco)ered, the la" of the de)iation of the magnetic
needle in the field of an electric current, or the la" of the magnetisation of iron, around "hich an
electric current circulates, cost ne)er a penn*8
6:
/ut the e9ploitation of these la"s for the purposes
of telegraph*, Pc8, necessitates a costl* and e9tensi)e apparatus8 'he tool, as "e ha)e seen, is not
e9terminated b* the machine8 From being a d"arf implement of the human organism, it e9pands
and multiplies into the implement of a mechanism created b* man8 5apital no" sets the labourer
to "or+, not "ith a manual tool, but "ith a machine "hich itself handles the tools8 (lthough,
therefore, it is clear at the first glance that, b* incorporating both stupendous ph*sical forces, and
the natural sciences, "ith the process of production, modern industr* raises the producti)eness of
labour to an e9traordinar* degree, it is b* no means eIuall* clear, that this increased producti)e
force is not, on the other hand, purchased b* an increased e9penditure of labour8 $achiner*, li+e
e)er* other component of constant capital, creates no ne" )alue, but *ields up its o"n )alue to
the product that it ser)es to beget8 >n so far as the machine has )alue, and, in conseIuence, parts
"ith )alue to the product, it forms an element in the )alue of that product8 >nstead of being
cheapened, the product is made dearer in proportion to the )alue of the machine8 (nd it is clear as
noon4da*, that machines and s*stems of machiner*, the characteristic instruments of labour of
$odern >ndustr*, are incomparabl* more loaded "ith )alue than the implements used in
handicrafts and manufactures8
>n the first place, it must be obser)ed that the machiner*, "hile al"a*s entering as a "hole into
the labour4process, enters into the )alue4begetting process onl* b* bits8 >t ne)er adds more )alue
than it loses, on an a)erage, b* "ear and tear8 -ence there is a great difference bet"een the )alue
of a machine, and the )alue transferred in a gi)en time b* that machine to the product8 'he longer
the life of the machine in the labour4process, the greater is that difference8 >t is true, no doubt, as
673 5hapter 13
"e ha)e alread* seen, that e)er* instrument of labour enters as a "hole into the labour4process,
and onl* piece4meal, proportionall* to its a)erage dail* loss b* "ear and tear, into the )alue4
begetting process8 /ut this difference bet"een the instrument as a "hole and its dail* "ear and
tear, is much greater in a machine than in a tool, because the machine, being made from more
durable material, has a longer life; because its emplo*ment, being regulated b* strictl* scientific
la"s, allo"s of greater econom* in the "ear and tear of its parts, and in the materials it consumes;
and lastl*, because its field of production is incomparabl* larger than that of a tool8 (fter ma+ing
allo"ance, both in the case of the machine and of the tool, for their a)erage dail* cost, that is for
the )alue the* transmit to the product b* their a)erage dail* "ear and tear, and for their
consumption of au9iliar* substance, such as oil, coal, and so on, the* each do their "or+
gratuitousl*, Dust li+e the forces furnished b* Cature "ithout the help of man8 'he greater the
producti)e po"er of the machiner* compared "ith that of the tool, the greater is the e9tent of its
gratuitous ser)ice compared "ith that of the tool8 >n modern industr* man succeeded for the first
time in ma+ing the product of his past labour "or+ on a large scale gratuitousl*, li+e the forces of
Cature8
6
>n treating of 5o4operation and $anufacture, it "as sho"n that certain general factors of
production, such as buildings, are, in comparison "ith the scattered means of production of the
isolated "or+man, economised b* being consumed in common, and that the* therefore ma+e the
product cheaper8 >n a s*stem of machiner*, not onl* is the frame"or+ of the machine consumed in
common b* its numerous operating implements, but the prime mo)er, together "ith a part of the
transmitting mechanism, is consumed in common b* the numerous operati)e machines8
Gi)en the difference bet"een the )alue of the machiner*, and the )alue transferred b* it in a da*
to the product, the e9tent to "hich this latter )alue ma+es the product dearer, depends in the first
instance, upon the si1e of the product; so to sa*, upon its area8 $r8 /a*nes, of /lac+burn, in a
lecture published in 1838, estimates that
@each real mechanical horse4po"er
63
"ill dri)e 37 self4acting mule spindles,
"ith preparation, or 677 throstle spindles, or 13 looms for 7 inch cloth "ith the
appliances for "arping, si1ing, Pc8A
>n the first case, it is the da*?s produce of 37 mule spindles, in the second, of 677 throstle
spindles, in the third, of 13 po"er4looms, o)er "hich the dail* cost of one horse4po"er, and the
"ear and tear of the machiner* set in motion b* that po"er, are spread; so that onl* a )er* minute
)alue is transferred b* such "ear and tear to a pound of *arn or a *ard of cloth8 'he same is the
case "ith the steam4hammer mentioned abo)e8 Since its dail* "ear and tear, its coal4
consumption, Pc8, are spread o)er the stupendous masses of iron hammered b* it in a da*, onl* a
small )alue is added to a hundred "eight of iron; but that )alue "ould be )er* great, if the
c*clopean instrument "ere emplo*ed in dri)ing in nails8
Gi)en a machine?s capacit* for "or+, that is, the number of its operating tools, or, "here it is a
Iuestion of force, their mass, the amount of its product "ill depend on the )elocit* of its "or+ing
parts, on the speed, for instance, of the spindles, or on the number of blo"s gi)en b* the hammer
in a minute8 $an* of these colossal hammers stri+e se)ent* times in a minute, and &*der?s patent
machine for forging spindles "ith small hammers gi)es as man* as 777 stro+es per minute8
Gi)en the rate at "hich machiner* transfers its )alue to the product, the amount of )alue so
transferred depends on the total )alue of the machiner*8
66
'he less labour it contains, the less
)alue it imparts to the product8 'he less )alue it gi)es up, so much the more producti)e it is, and
so much the more its ser)ices appro9imate to those of natural forces8 /ut the production of
machiner* b* machiner* lessens its )alue relati)el* to its e9tension and efficac*8
676 5hapter 13
(n anal*sis and comparison of the prices of commodities produced b* handicrafts or
manufactures, and of the prices of the same commodities produced b* machiner*, sho"s
generall*, that, in the product of machiner*, the )alue due to the instruments of labour increases
relati)el*, but decreases absolutel*8 >n other "ords, its absolute amount decreases, but its amount,
relati)el* to the total )alue of the product, of a pound of *arn, for instance, increases8
67
>t is e)ident that "hene)er it costs as much labour to produce a machine as is sa)ed b* the
emplo*ment of that machine, there is nothing but a transposition of labour; conseIuentl* the total
labour reIuired to produce a commodit* is not lessened or the producti)eness of labour is not
increased8 >t is clear, ho"e)er, that the difference bet"een the labour a machine costs, and the
labour it sa)es, in other "ords, that the degree of its producti)eness does not depend on the
difference bet"een its o"n )alue and the )alue of the implement it replaces8 (s long as the labour
spent on a machine, and conseIuentl* the portion of its )alue added to the product, remains
smaller than the )alue added b* the "or+man to the product "ith his tool, there is al"a*s a
difference of labour sa)ed in fa)our of the machine8 'he producti)eness of a machine is therefore
measured b* the human labour4po"er it replaces8 (ccording to $r8 /a*nes, 6 operati)es are
reIuired for the 37 mule spindles, inclusi)e of preparation machiner*,
68
that are dri)en b* one4
horse po"er; each self4acting mule spindle, "or+ing ten hours, produces 1: ounces of *arn
(a)erage number of thic+ness!; conseIuentl* 6[ operati)es spin "ee+l* :63 3J8 lbs8 of *arn8
-ence, lea)ing "aste on one side, :66 lbs8 of cotton absorb, during their con)ersion into *arn,
onl* 137 hours? labour, or fifteen da*s? labour of ten hours each8 /ut "ith a spinning4"heel,
supposing the hand4spinner to produce thirteen ounces of *arn in si9t* hours, the same "eight of
cotton "ould absorb 6,777 da*s? labour of ten hours each, or 67,777 hours? labour8
62
Bhere
bloc+printing, the old method of printing calico b* hand, has been superseded b* machine
printing, a single machine prints, "ith the aid of one man or bo*, as much calico of four colours
in one hour, as it formerl* too+ 677 men to do8
:7
/efore Eli Bhitne* in)ented the cotton gin in
172:, the separation of the seed from a pound of cotton cost an a)erage da*?s labour8 /* means of
his in)ention one negress "as enabled to clean 177 lbs8 dail*; and since then, the efficac* of the
gin has been considerabl* increased8 ( pound of cotton "ool, pre)iousl* costing 37 cents to
produce, included after that in)ention more unpaid labour, and "as conseIuentl* sold "ith
greater profit, at 17 cents8 >n >ndia the* emplo* for separating the "ool from the seed, an
instrument, half machine, half tool, called a chur+a; "ith this one man and a "oman can clean 68
lbs8 dail*8 Bith the chur+a in)ented some *ears ago b* 0r8 Forbes, one man and a bo* produce
637 lbs8 dail*8 >f o9en, steam, or "ater, be used for dri)ing it, onl* a fe" bo*s and girls as feeders
are reIuired8 Si9teen of these machines dri)en b* o9en do as much "or+ in a da* as formerl* 737
people did on an a)erage8
:1
(s alread* stated, a steam4plough does as much "or+ in one hour at a cost of three4pence, as 66
men at a cost of 13 shillings8 > return to this e9ample in order to clear up an erroneous notion8 'he
13 shillings are b* no means the e9pression in mone* of all the labour e9pended in one hour b*
the 66 men8 >f the ratio of surplus labour to necessar* labour "ere 177`, these 66 men "ould
produce in one hour a )alue of :7 shillings, although their "ages, 13 shillings, represent onl*
their labour for half an hour8 Suppose, then, a machine cost as much as the "ages for a *ear of the
137 men it displaces, sa* ]:,777; this ]:,777 is b* no means the e9pression in mone* of the
labour added to the obDect produced b* these 137 men before the introduction of the machine, but
onl* of that portion of their *ear?s labour "hich "as e9pended for themsel)es and represented b*
their "ages8 =n the other hand, the ]:,777, the mone*4)alue of the machine, e9presses all the
labour e9pended on its production, no matter in "hat proportion this labour constitutes "ages for
the "or+man, and surplus )alue for the capitalist8 'herefore, though a machine cost as much as
677 5hapter 13
the labour4po"er displaced b* it costs, *et the labour materialised in it is e)en then much less
than the li)ing labour it replaces8
:6
'he use of machiner* for the e9clusi)e purpose of cheapening the product, is limited in this "a*,
that less labour must be e9pended in producing the machiner* than is displaced b* the
emplo*ment of that machiner*, For the capitalist, ho"e)er, this use is still more limited8 >nstead
of pa*ing for the labour, he onl* pa*s the )alue of the labour4po"er emplo*ed; therefore, the
limit to his using a machine is fi9ed b* the difference bet"een the )alue of the machine and the
)alue of the labour4po"er replaced b* it8 Since the di)ision of the da*?s "or+ into necessar* and
surplus labour differs in different countries, and e)en in the same countr* at different periods, or
in different branches of industr*; and further, since the actual "age of the labourer at one time
sin+s belo" the )alue of his labour4po"er, at another rises abo)e it, it is possible for the
difference bet"een the price of the machiner* and the price of the labour4po"er replaced b* that
machiner* to )ar* )er* much, although the difference bet"een the Iuantit* of labour reIuisite to
produce the machine and the total Iuantit* replaced b* it, remain constant8
::
/ut it is the former
difference alone that determines the cost, to the capitalist, of producing a commodit*, and,
through the pressure of competition, influences his action8 -ence the in)ention no"4a4da*s of
machines in England that are emplo*ed onl* in Corth (merica; Dust as in the si9teenth and
se)enteenth centuries, machines "ere in)ented in German* to be used onl* in -olland, and Dust
as man* a French in)ention of the eighteenth centur* "as e9ploited in England alone8 >n the older
countries, machiner*, "hen emplo*ed in some branches of industr*, creates such a redundanc* of
labour in other branches that in these latter the fall of "ages belo" the )alue of labour4po"er
impedes the use of machiner*, and, from the standpoint of the capitalist, "hose profit comes, not
from a diminution of the labour emplo*ed, but of the labour paid for, renders that use superfluous
and often impossible8 >n some branches of the "oollen manufacture in England the emplo*ment
of children has during recent *ears been considerabl* diminished, and in some cases has been
entirel* abolished8 Bh*E /ecause the Factor* (cts made t"o sets of children necessar*, one
"or+ing si9 hours, the other four, or each "or+ing fi)e hours8 /ut the parents refused to sell the
@half4timersA cheaper than the @full4timers8A -ence the substitution of machiner* for the @half4
timers8A
:
/efore the labour of "omen and of children under 17 *ears of age "as forbidden in
mines, capitalists considered the emplo*ment of na+ed "omen and girls, often in compan* "ith
men, so far sanctioned b* their moral code, and especiall* b* their ledgers, that it "as onl* after
the passing of the (ct that the* had recourse to machiner*8 'he Nan+ees ha)e in)ented a stone4
brea+ing machine8 'he English do not ma+e use of it, because the @"retchA
:3
"ho does this "or+
gets paid for such a small portion of his labour, that machiner* "ould increase the cost of
production to the capitalist8
:6
>n England "omen are still occasionall* used instead of horses for
hauling canal boats
:7
, because the labour reIuired to produce horses and machines is an
accuratel* +no"n Iuantit*, "hile that reIuired to maintain the "omen of the surplus4population is
belo" all calculation8 -ence no"here do "e find a more shameful sIuandering of human labour4
po"er for the most despicable purposes than in England, the land of machiner*8
Section *: The Pro+imate )>ects of $achiner
on the 3orkman
'he starting4point of modern industr* is, as "e ha)e sho"n, the re)olution in the instruments of
labour, and this re)olution attains its most highl* de)eloped form in the organised s*stem of
machiner* in a factor*8 /efore "e inIuire ho" human material is incorporated "ith this obDecti)e
organism, let us consider some general effects of this re)olution on the labourer himself8
678 5hapter 13
A. Appropriation of )upplementary *a$our'o+er $y
Capital. The Employment of ,omen and Children
>n so far as machiner* dispenses "ith muscular po"er, it becomes a means of emplo*ing
labourers of slight muscular strength, and those "hose bodil* de)elopment is incomplete, but
"hose limbs are all the more supple8 'he labour of "omen and children "as, therefore, the first
thing sought for b* capitalists "ho used machiner*8 'hat might* substitute for labour and
labourers "as forth"ith changed into a means for increasing the number of "age4labourers b*
enrolling, under the direct s"a* of capital, e)er* member of the "or+man?s famil*, "ithout
distinction of age or se98 5ompulsor* "or+ for the capitalist usurped the place, not onl* of the
children?s pla*, but also of free labour at home "ithin moderate limits for the support of the
famil*8
:8
'he )alue of labour4po"er "as determined, not onl* b* the labour4time necessar* to maintain the
indi)idual adult labourer, but also b* that necessar* to maintain his famil*8 $achiner*, b*
thro"ing e)er* member of that famil* on to the labour4mar+et, spreads the )alue of the man?s
labour4po"er o)er his "hole famil*8 >t thus depreciates his labour4po"er8 'o purchase the labour4
po"er of a famil* of four "or+ers ma*, perhaps, cost more than it formerl* did to purchase the
labour4po"er of the head of the famil*, but, in return, four da*s? labour ta+es the place of one,
and their price falls in proportion to the e9cess of the surplus labour of four o)er the surplus
labour of one8 >n order that the famil* ma* li)e, four people must no", not onl* labour, but
e9pend surplus labour for the capitalist8 'hus "e see, that machiner*, "hile augmenting the
human material that forms the principal obDect of capital?s e9ploiting po"er,
:2
at the same time
raises the degree of e9ploitation8
$achiner* also re)olutionises out and out the contract bet"een the labourer and the capitalist,
"hich formall* fi9es their mutual relations8 'a+ing the e9change of commodities as our basis, our
first assumption "as that capitalist and labourer met as free persons, as independent o"ners of
commodities; the one possessing mone* and means of production, the other labour4po"er8 /ut
no" the capitalist bu*s children and *oung persons under age8 #re)iousl*, the "or+man sold his
o"n labour4po"er, "hich he disposed of nominall* as a free agent8 Co" he sells "ife and child8
-e has become a sla)e4dealer8
7
'he demand for children?s labour often resembles in form the
inIuiries for negro sla)es, such as "ere formerl* to be read among the ad)ertisements in
(merican Dournals8
@$* attention,A sa*s an English factor* inspector, @"as dra"n to an ad)ertisement
in the local paper of one of the most important manufacturing to"ns of m*
district, of "hich the follo"ing is a cop*: Banted, 16 to 67 *oung persons, not
*ounger than "hat can pass for 1: *ears8 Bages, shillings a "ee+8 (ppl* Pc8A
1
'he phrase @"hat can pass for 1: *ears,A has reference to the fact, that b* the Factor* (ct,
children under 1: *ears ma* "or+ onl* 6 hours8 ( surgeon officiall* appointed must certif* their
age8 'he manufacturer, therefore, as+s for children "ho loo+ as if the* "e?re alread* 1: *ears
old8 'he decrease, often b* leaps and bounds in the number of children under 1: *ears emplo*ed
in factories, a decrease that is sho"n in an astonishing manner b* the English statistics of the last
67 *ears, "as for the most part, according to the e)idence of the factor* inspectors themsel)es,
the "or+ of the certif*ing surgeons, "ho o)erstated the age of the children, agreeabl* to the
capitalist?s greed for e9ploitation, and the sordid traffic+ing needs of the parents8 >n the notorious
district of /ethnal Green, a public mar+et is held e)er* $onda* and 'uesda* morning, "here
children of both se9es from 2 *ears of age up"ards, hire themsel)es out to the sil+ manufacturers8
V'he usual terms are 1s8 8d8 a "ee+ (this belongs to the parents! and W6d8 for m*self and tea8? 'he
contract is binding onl* for the "ee+8 'he scene and language "hile this mar+et is going on are
672 5hapter 13
Iuite disgraceful8A
6
>t has also occurred in England, that "omen ha)e ta+en @children from the
"or+house and let an* one ha)e them out for 6s8 6d8 a "ee+8A
:
>n spite of legislation, the number
of bo*s sold in Great /ritain b* their parents to act as li)e chimne*4s"eeping machines (although
there e9ist plent* of machines to replace them! e9ceeds 6,7778
Ce)ertheless the grand structures of ancient Eg*pt are less due to the e9tent of its population than
to the large proportion of it that "as freel* disposable8 Lust as the indi)idual labourer can do more
surplus labour in proportion as his necessar* labour4time is less, so "ith regard to the "or+ing
population8 'he smaller the part of it "hich is reIuired for the production of the necessar* means
of subsistence, so much the greater is the part that can be set to do other "or+8
5apitalist production once assumed, then, all other circumstances remaining the same, and gi)en
the length of the "or+ing da*, the Iuantit* of surplus labour "ill )ar* "ith the ph*sical
conditions of labour, especiall* "ith the fertilit* of the soil8 /ut it b* no means follo"s from this
that the most fruitful soil is the most fitted for the gro"th of the capitalist mode of production8
'his mode is based on the dominion of man o)er nature8 Bhere nature is too la)ish, she @+eeps
him in hand, li+e a child in leading4strings8A She does not impose upon him an* necessit* to
de)elop himself8
3
>t is not the tropics "ith their lu9uriant )egetation, but the temperate 1one, that
is the mother4countr* of capital8 >t is not the mere fertilit* of the soil, but the differentiation of the
soil, the )ariet* of its natural products, the changes of the seasons, "hich form the ph*sical basis
for the social di)ision of labour, and "hich, b* changes in the natural surroundings, spur man on
to the multiplication of his "ants, his capabilities, his means and modes of labour8 >t is the
necessit* of bringing a natural force under the control of societ*, of economising, of appropriating
or subduing it on a large scale b* the "or+ of man?s hand, that first pla*s the decisi)e part in the
histor* of industr*8 E9amples are, the irrigation "or+s in Eg*pt,
6
<ombard*, -olland, or in >ndia
and #ersia "here irrigation b* means of artificial canals, not onl* supplies the soil "ith the "ater
indispensable to it, but also carries do"n to it, in the shape of sediment from the hills, mineral
fertilisers8 'he secret of the flourishing state of industr* in Spain and Sicil* under the dominion
of the (rabs la* in their irrigation "or+s8
7
Fa)ourable natural conditions alone, gi)e us onl* the possibilit*, ne)er the realit*, of surplus
labour, nor, conseIuentl*, of surplus )alue and a surplus4product8 'he result of difference in the
natural conditions of labour is this, that the same Iuantit* of labour satisfies, in different
countries, a different mass of reIuirements,
8
conseIuentl*, that under circumstances in other
respects analogous, the necessar* labour4time is different8 'hese conditions affect surplus labour
onl* as natural limits, i$e$, b* fi9ing the points at "hich labour for others can begin8 >n proportion
as industr* ad)ances, these natural limits recede8 >n the midst of our Best European societ*,
"here the labourer purchases the right to "or+ for his o"n li)elihood onl* b* pa*ing for it in
surplus labour, the idea easil* ta+es root that it is an inherent Iualit* of human labour to furnish a
surplus4product8
2
/ut consider, for e9ample, an inhabitant of the eastern islands of the (siatic
(rchipelago, "here sago gro"s "ild in the forests8
@Bhen the inhabitants ha)e con)inced themsel)es, b* boring a hole in the tree,
that the pith is ripe, the trun+ is cut do"n and di)ided into se)eral pieces, the pith
is e9tracted, mi9ed "ith "ater and filtered: it is then Iuite fit for use as sago8 =ne
tree commonl* *ields :77 lbs8, and occasionall* 377 to 677 lbs8 'here, then,
677 5hapter 16
people go into the forests, and cut bread for themsel)es, Dust as "ith us the* cut
fire4"ood8A
17
Suppose no" such an eastern bread4cutter reIuires 16 "or+ing hours a "ee+ for the satisfaction
of all his "ants8 Cature?s direct gift to him is plent* of leisure time8 /efore he can appl* this
leisure time producti)el* for himself, a "hole series of historical e)ents is reIuired; before he
spends it in surplus labour for strangers, compulsion is necessar*8 >f capitalist production "ere
introduced, the honest fello" "ould perhaps ha)e to "or+ si9 da*s a "ee+, in order to
appropriate to himself the product of one "or+ing da*8 'he bount* of Cature does not e9plain
"h* he "ould then ha)e to "or+ 6 da*s a "ee+, or "h* he must furnish 3 da*s of surplus labour8
>t e9plains onl* "h* his necessar* labour4time "ould be limited to one da* a "ee+8 /ut in no
case "ould his surplus4product arise from some occult Iualit* inherent in human labour8
'hus, not onl* does the historicall* de)eloped social producti)eness of labour, but also its natural
producti)eness, appear to be producti)eness of the capital "ith "hich that labour is incorporated8
&icardo ne)er concerns himself about the origin of surplus )alue8 -e treats it as a thing inherent
in the capitalist mode of production, "hich mode, in his e*es, is the natural form of social
production8 Bhene)er he discusses the producti)eness of labour, he see+s in it, not the cause of
surplus )alue, but the cause that determines the magnitude of that )alue8 =n the other hand, his
school has openl* proclaimed the producti)eness of labour to be the originating cause of profit
(read: Surplus )alue!8 'his at all e)ents is a progress as against the mercantilists "ho, on their
side, deri)ed the e9cess of the price o)er the cost of production of the product, from the act of
e9change, from the product being sold abo)e its )alue8 Ce)ertheless, &icardo?s school simpl*
shir+ed the problem, the* did not sol)e it8 >n fact these bourgeois economists instincti)el* sa",
and rightl* so, that it is )er* dangerous to stir too deepl* the burning Iuestion of the origin of
surplus )alue8 /ut "hat are "e to thin+ of Lohn Stuart $ill, "ho, half a centur* after &icardo,
solemnl* claims superiorit* o)er the mercantilists, b* clumsil* repeating the "retched e)asions
of &icardo?s earliest )ulgarisersE
$ill sa*s:
@'he cause of profit is that labour produces more than is reIuired for its support8A
So far, nothing but the old stor*; but $ill "ishing to add something of his o"n, proceeds:
@'o )ar* the form of the theorem; the reason "h* capital *ields a profit, is
because food, clothing, materials and tools, last longer than the time "hich "as
reIuired to produce them8A
-e here confounds the duration of labour4time "ith the duration of its products8 (ccording to this
)ie", a ba+er "hose product lasts onl* a da*, could ne)er e9tract from his "or+people the same
profit, as a machine ma+er "hose products endure for 67 *ears and more8 =f course it is )er*
true, that if a bird?s nest did not last longer than the time it ta+es in building, birds "ould ha)e to
do "ithout nests8
'his fundamental truth once established, $ill establishes his o"n superiorit* o)er the
mercantilists8
@Be thus see,A he proceeds, @that profit arises, not from the incident of e9change,
but from the producti)e po"er of labour; and the general profit of the countr* is
al"a*s "hat the producti)e po"er of labour ma+es it, "hether an* e9change ta+es
place or not8 >f there "ere no di)ision of emplo*ments, there "ould be no bu*ing
or selling, but there "ould still be profit8A
671 5hapter 16
For $ill then, e9change, bu*ing and selling, those general conditions of capitalist production, are
but an incident, and there "ould al"a*s be profits e)en "ithout the purchase and sale of labour4
po"erQ
@>f,A he continues, @the labourers of the countr* collecti)el* produce t"ent* per cent more than
their "ages, profits "ill be t"ent* per cent, "hate)er prices ma* or ma* not be8A 'his is, on the
one hand, a rare bit of tautolog*; for if labourers produce a surplus )alue of 67` for the capitalist,
his profit "ill be to the total "ages of the labourers as 67:1778 =n the other hand, it is absolutel*
false to sa* that @profits "ill be 67`8A 'he* "ill al"a*s be less, because the* are calculated upon
the sum total of the capital ad)anced8 >f, for e9ample, the capitalist ha)e ad)anced ]377, of "hich
]== is laid out in means of production and ]177 in "ages, and if the rate of surplus )alue be
67`, the rate of profit "ill be 67:377, i$e$, ` and not 67`8
'hen follo"s a splendid e9ample of $ill?s method of handling the different historical forms of
social production8
@> assume, throughout, the state of things "hich, "here the labourers and
capitalists are separate classes, pre)ails, "ith fe" e9ceptions, uni)ersall*; namel*,
that the capitalist ad)ances the "hole e9penses, including the entire remuneration
of the labourer8A
Strange optical illusion to see e)er*"here a state of things "hich as *et e9ists onl* e9ceptionall*
on our earth8
11
/ut let us finish F $ill is "illing to concede,
@that he should do so is not a matter of inherent necessit*8A =n the contrar*: @the
labourer might "ait, until the production is complete, for all that part of his "ages
"hich e9ceeds mere necessaries: and e)en for the "hole, if he has funds in hand
sufficient for his temporar* support8 /ut in the latter case, the labourer is to that
e9tent reall* a capitalist in the concern, b* suppl*ing a portion of the funds
necessar* for carr*ing it on8A
$ill might ha)e gone further and ha)e added, that the labourer "ho ad)ances to himself not onl*
the necessaries of life but also the means of production, is in realit* nothing but his o"n "age4
labourer8 -e might also ha)e said that the (merican peasant proprietor is but a serf "ho does
enforced labour for himself instead of for his lord8
(fter thus pro)ing clearl*, that e)en if capitalist production had no e9istence, still it "ould al"a*s
e9ist, $ill is consistent enough to sho", on the contrar*, that it has no e9istence, e)en "hen it
does e9ist8
@(nd e)en in the former caseA ("hen the "or+man is a "age labourer to "hom
the capitalist ad)ances all the necessaries of life, he the labourer!, @ma* be loo+ed
upon in the same light,A (i8e8, as a capitalist!, @since, contributing his labour at less
than the mar+et4price, (Q! he ma* be regarded as lending the difference (E! to his
emplo*er and recei)ing it bac+ "ith interest, Pc8A
16
>n realit*, the labourer ad)ances his labour gratuitousl* to the capitalist during, sa* one "ee+, in
order to recei)e the mar+et price at the end of the "ee+, Pc8, and it is this "hich, according to
$ill, transforms him into a capitalist8 =n the le)el plain, simple mounds loo+ li+e hills; and the
imbecile flatness of the present bourgeoisie is to be measured b* the altitude of its great intellects8
Chapter 17: Changes of Magnitude in the Price
of Labour-Power and in Surplus Value
'he )alue of labour4po"er is determined b* the )alue of the necessaries of life habituall*
reIuired b* the a)erage labourer8 'he Iuantit* of these necessaries is +no"n at an* gi)en epoch
of a gi)en societ*, and can therefore be treated as a constant magnitude8 Bhat changes, is the
)alue of this Iuantit*8 'here are, besides, t"o other factors that enter into the determination of the
)alue of labour4po"er8 =ne, the e9penses of de)eloping that po"er, "hich e9penses )ar* "ith the
mode of production; the other, its natural di)ersit*, the difference bet"een the labour4po"er of
men and "omen, of children and adults8 'he emplo*ment of these different sorts of labour4po"er,
an emplo*ment "hich is, in its turn, made necessar* b* the mode of production, ma+es a great
difference in the cost of maintaining the famil* of the labourer, and in the )alue of the labour4
po"er of the adult male8 /oth these factors, ho"e)er, are e9cluded in the follo"ing
in)estigation8
1
> assume (1! that commodities are sold at their )alue; (6! that the price of labour4po"er rises
occasionall* abo)e its )alue, but ne)er sin+s belo" it8
=n this assumption "e ha)e seen that the relati)e magnitudes of surplus )alue and of price of
labour4po"er are determined b* three circumstances; (1! the length of the "or+ing da*, or the
e9tensi)e magnitude of labour; (6! the normal intensit* of labour, its intensi)e magnitude,
"hereb* a gi)en Iuantit* of labour is e9pended in a gi)en time; (:! the producti)eness of labour,
"hereb* the same Iuantum of labour *ields, in a gi)en time, a greater or less Iuantum of product,
dependent on the degree of de)elopment in the conditions of production8 ;er* different
combinations are clearl* possible, according as one of the three factors is constant and t"o
)ariable, or t"o constant and one )ariable, or lastl*, all three simultaneousl* )ariable8 (nd the
number of these combinations is augmented b* the fact that, "hen these factors simultaneousl*
)ar*, the amount and direction of their respecti)e )ariations ma* differ8 >n "hat follo"s the chief
combinations alone are considered8
Section 1: (en%th of the 3orkin% da and
Intensit of (abour Constant7
Producti=eness of (abour Variable
=n these assumptions the )alue of labour4po"er, and the magnitude of surplus )alue, are
determined b* three la"s8
(4$5 ( "or+ing da* of gi)en length al"a*s creates the same amount of )alue, no matter ho" the
producti)eness of labour, and, "ith it, the mass of the product, and the price of each single
commodit* produced, ma* )ar*8
>f the )alue created b* a "or+ing da* of 16 hours be, sa*, si9 shillings, then, although the mass of
the articles produced )aries "ith the producti)eness of labour, the onl* result is that the )alue
represented b* si9 shillings is spread o)er a greater or less number of articles8
67: 5hapter 17
(6$5 surplus )alue and the )alue of labour4po"er )ar* in opposite directions8 ( )ariation in the
producti)eness of labour, its increase or diminution, causes a )ariation in the opposite direction in
the )alue of labour4po"er, and in the same direction in surplus )alue8
'he )alue created b* a "or+ing da* of 16 hours is a constant Iuantit*, sa*, si9 shillings8 'his
constant Iuantit* is the sum of the surplus )alue plus the )alue of the labour4po"er, "hich latter
)alue the labourer replaces b* an eIui)alent8 >t is self4e)ident, that if a constant Iuantit* consists
of t"o parts, neither of them can increase "ithout the other diminishing8 <et the t"o parts at
starting be eIual; : shillings )alue of labour4po"er, : shillings surplus )alue8 'hen the )alue of
the labour4po"er cannot rise from three shillings to four, "ithout the surplus )alue falling from
three shillings to t"o; and the surplus )alue cannot rise from three shillings to four, "ithout the
)alue of labour4po"er falling from three shillings to t"o8 %nder these circumstances, therefore,
no change can ta+e place in the absolute magnitude, either of the surplus )alue, or of the )alue of
labour4po"er, "ithout a simultaneous change in their relati)e magnitudes, i$e$, relati)el* to each
other8 >t is impossible for them to rise or fall simultaneousl*8
Further, the )alue of labour4po"er cannot fall, and conseIuentl* surplus )alue cannot rise,
"ithout a rise in the producti)eness of labour8 For instance, in the abo)e case, the )alue of the
labour4po"er cannot sin+ from three shillings to t"o, unless an increase in the producti)eness of
labour ma+es it possible to produce in hours the same Iuantit* of necessaries as pre)iousl*
reIuired 6 hours to produce8 =n the other hand, the )alue of the labour4po"er cannot rise from
three shillings to four, "ithout a decrease in the producti)eness of labour, "hereb* eight hours
become reIuisite to produce the same Iuantit* of necessaries, for the production of "hich si9
hours pre)iousl* sufficed8 >t follo"s from this, that an increase in the producti)eness of labour
causes a fall in the )alue of labour4po"er and a conseIuent rise in surplus )alue, "hile, on the
other hand, a decrease in such producti)eness causes a rise in the )alue of labour4po"er, and a
fall in surplus )alue8
>n formulating this la", &icardo o)erloo+ed one circumstance; although a change in the
magnitude of the surplus )alue or surplus labour causes a change in the opposite direction in the
magnitude of the )alue of labour4po"er, or in the Iuantit* of necessar* labour, it b* no means
follo"s that the* )ar* in the same proportion8 'he* do increase or diminish b* the same Iuantit*8
/ut their proportional increase or diminution depends on their original magnitudes before the
change in the producti)eness of labour too+ place8 >f the )alue of the labour4po"er be shillings,
or the necessar* labour time 8 hours, and the surplus )alue be 6 shillings, or the surplus labour
hours, and if, in conseIuence of an increase in the producti)eness of labour, the )alue of the
labour4po"er fall to : shillings, or the necessar* labour to 6 hours, the surplus )alue "ill rise to :
shillings, or the surplus labour to 6 hours8 'he same Iuantit*, 1 shilling or 6 hours, is added in
one case and subtracted in the other8 /ut the proportional change of magnitude is different in each
case8 Bhile the )alue of the labour4po"er falls from shillings to :, i$e$, b* 1J or 63`, the
surplus )alue rises from 6 shillings to :, i$e$, b* 1J6 or 37`8 >t therefore follo"s that the
proportional increase or diminution in surplus )alue, conseIuent on a gi)en change in the
producti)eness of labour, depends on the original magnitude of that portion of the "or+ing da*
"hich embodies itself in surplus )alue; the smaller that portion, the greater is the proportional
change; the greater that portion, the less is the proportional change8
(7$5 >ncrease or diminution in surplus )alue is al"a*s conseIuent on, and ne)er the cause of, the
corresponding diminution or increase in the )alue of labour4po"er8
6
Since the "or+ing da* is constant in magnitude, and is represented b* a )alue of constant
magnitude, since, to e)er* )ariation in the magnitude of surplus )alue, there corresponds an
in)erse )ariation in the )alue of labour4po"er, and since the )alue of labour4po"er cannot
67 5hapter 17
change, e9cept in conseIuence of a change in the producti)eness of labour, it clearl* follo"s,
under these conditions, that e)er* change of magnitude in surplus )alue arises from an in)erse
change of magnitude in the )alue of labour4po"er8 >f, then, as "e ha)e alread* seen, there can be
no change of absolute magnitude in the )alue of labour4po"er, and in surplus )alue,
unaccompanied b* a change in their relati)e magnitudes, so no" it follo"s that no change in their
relati)e magnitudes is possible, "ithout a pre)ious change in the absolute magnitude of the )alue
of labour4po"er8
(ccording to the third la", a change in the magnitude of surplus )alue, presupposes a mo)ement
in the )alue of labour4po"er, "hich mo)ement is brought about b* a )ariation in the
producti)eness of labour8 'he limit of this change is gi)en b* the altered )alue of labour4po"er8
Ce)ertheless, e)en "hen circumstances allo" the la" to operate, subsidiar* mo)ements ma*
occur8 For e9ample: if in conseIuence of the increased producti)eness of labour, the )alue of
labour4po"er falls from shillings to :, or the necessar* labour time from 8 hours to 6, the price
of labour4po"er ma* possibl* not fall belo" :s8 8d8, :s8 6d8, or :s8 6d8, and the surplus )alue
conseIuentl* not rise abo)e :s8 d8, :s8 6d8, or :s8 17d8 'he amount of this fall, the lo"est limit of
"hich is : shillings (the ne" )alue of labour4po"er!, depends on the relati)e "eight, "hich the
pressure of capital on the one side, and the resistance of the labourer on the other, thro"s into the
scale8
'he )alue of labour4po"er is determined b* the )alue of a gi)en Iuantit* of necessaries8 >t is the
)alue and not the mass of these necessaries that )aries "ith the producti)eness of labour8 >t is,
ho"e)er, possible that, o"ing to an increase of producti)eness, both the labourer and the
capitalist ma* simultaneousl* be able to appropriate a greater Iuantit* of these necessaries,
"ithout an* change in the price of labour4po"er or in surplus )alue8 >f the )alue of labour4po"er
be : shillings, and the necessar* labour time amount to 6 hours, if the surplus )alue li+e"ise be :
shillings, and the surplus labour 6 hours, then if the producti)eness of labour "ere doubled
"ithout altering the ratio of necessar* labour to surplus labour, there "ould be no change of
magnitude in surplus )alue and price of labour4po"er8 'he onl* result "ould be that each of them
"ould represent t"ice as man* use4)alues as before; these use4)alues being t"ice as cheap as
before8 (lthough labour4po"er "ould be unchanged in price, it "ould be abo)e its )alue8 >f,
ho"e)er, the price of labour4po"er had fallen, not to 1s8 6d8, the lo"est possible point consistent
"ith its ne" )alue, but to 6s8 17d8 or 6s8 6d8, still this lo"er price "ould represent an increased
mass of necessaries8 >n this "a* it is possible "ith an increasing producti)eness of labour, for the
price of labour4po"er to +eep on falling, and *et this fall to be accompanied b* a constant gro"th
in the mass of the labourerUs means of subsistence8 /ut e)en in such case, the fall in the )alue of
labour4po"er "ould cause a corresponding rise of surplus )alue, and thus the ab*ss bet"een the
labourerUs position and that of the capitalist "ould +eep "idening8
:
&icardo "as the first "ho accuratel* formulated the three la"s "e ha)e abo)e stated8 /ut he falls
into the follo"ing errors: (1! he loo+s upon the special conditions under "hich these la"s hold
good as the general and sole conditions of capitalist production8 -e +no"s no change, either in
the length of the "or+ing da*, or in the intensit* of labour; conseIuentl* "ith him there can be
onl* one )ariable factor, )i18, the producti)eness of labour; (6!, and this error )itiates his anal*sis
much more than (1!, he has not, an* more than ha)e the other economists, in)estigated surplus
)alue as such, i$e$, independentl* of its particular forms, such as profit, rent, Pc8 -e therefore
confounds together the la"s of the rate of surplus )alue and the la"s of the rate of profit8 'he rate
of profit is, as "e ha)e alread* said, the ratio of the surplus )alue to the total capital ad)anced;
the rate of surplus )alue is the ratio of the surplus )alue to the )ariable part of that capital8
(ssume that a capital 5 of ]377 is made up of ra" material, instruments of labour, Pc8 (c! to the
amount of ]77; and of "ages ()! to the amount of ]177; and further, that the surplus )alue (s! Y
673 5hapter 17
]1778 'hen "e ha)e rate of surplus )alue sJ) Y ]177J]177 Y 177`8 /ut the rate of profit sJc Y
]177J]377 Y 67`8 >t is, besides, ob)ious that the rate of profit ma* depend on circumstances that
in no "a* affect the rate of surplus )alue8 > shall sho" in /oo+ >>>8 that, "ith a gi)en rate of
surplus )alue, "e ma* ha)e an* number of rates of profit, and that )arious rates of surplus )alue
ma*, under gi)en conditions, e9press themsel)es in a single rate of profit8
Section ': 3orkin% da Constant7
Producti=eness of (abour Constant7
Intensit of (abour Variable
>ncreased intensit* of labour means increased e9penditure of labour in a gi)en time8 -ence a
"or+ing da* of more intense labour is embodied in more products than is one of less intense
labour, the length of each da* being the same8 >ncreased producti)eness of labour also, it is true,
"ill suppl* more products in a gi)en "or+ing da*8 /ut in this latter case, the )alue of each single
product falls, for it costs less labour than before; in the former case, that )alue remains
unchanged, for each article costs the same labour as before8 -ere "e ha)e an increase in the
number of products, unaccompanied b* a fall in their indi)idual prices: as their number increases,
so does the sum of their prices8 /ut in the case of increased producti)eness, a gi)en )alue is
spread o)er a greater mass of products8 -ence the length of the "or+ing da* being constant, a
da*Us labour of increased intensit* "ill be incorporated in an increased )alue, and, the )alue of
mone* remaining unchanged, in more mone*8 'he )alue created )aries "ith the e9tent to "hich
the intensit* of labour de)iates from its normal intensit* in the societ*8 ( gi)en "or+ing da*,
therefore, no longer creates a constant, but a )ariable )alue; in a da* of 16 hours of ordinar*
intensit*, the )alue created is, sa* 6 shillings, but "ith increased intensit*, the )alue created ma*
be 7, 8, or more shillings8 >t is clear that, if the )alue created b* a da*Us labour increases from, sa*,
6 to 8 shillings then the t"o parts into "hich this )alue is di)ided, )i18, price of labour4po"er and
surplus )alue, ma* both of them increase simultaneousl*, and either eIuall* or uneIuall*8 'he*
ma* both simultaneousl* increase from : shillings to 8 -ere, the rise in the price of labour4po"er
does not necessaril* impl* that the price has risen abo)e the )alue of labour4po"er8 =n the
contrar*, the rise in price ma* be accompanied b* a fall in )alue8 'his occurs "hene)er the rise in
the price of labour4po"er does not compensate for its increased "ear and tear8
Be +no" that, "ith transitor* e9ceptions, a change in the producti)eness of labour does not cause
an* change in the )alue of labour4po"er, nor conseIuentl* in the magnitude of surplus )alue,
unless the products of the industries affected are articles habituall* consumed b* the labourers8 >n
the present case this condition no longer applies8 For "hen the )ariation is either in the duration
or in the intensit* of labour, there is al"a*s a corresponding change in the magnitude of the )alue
created, independentl* of the nature of the article in "hich that )alue is embodied8
>f the intensit* of labour "ere to increase simultaneousl* and eIuall* in e)er* branch of industr*,
then the ne" and higher degree of intensit* "ould become the normal degree for the societ*, and
"ould therefore cease to be ta+en account of8 /ut still, e)en then, the intensit* of labour "ould be
different in different countries, and "ould modif* the international application of the la" of
)alue8 'he more intense "or+ing da* of one nation "ould be represented b* a greater sum of
mone* than "ould the less intense da* of another nation8
676 5hapter 17
Section *: Producti=eness and Intensit of
(abour Constant7 (en%th of the 3orkin%
da Variable
'he "or+ing da* ma* )ar* in t"o "a*s8 >t ma* be made either longer or shorter8 From our
present data, and "ithin the limits of the assumptions made abo)e "e obtain the follo"ing la"s:
(4$5 'he "or+ing da* creates a greater or less amount of )alue in proportion to its length F thus, a
)ariable and not a constant Iuantit* of )alue8
(6$5 E)er* change in the relation bet"een the magnitudes of surplus )alue and of the )alue of
labour4po"er arises from a change in the absolute magnitude of the surplus labour, and
conseIuentl* of the surplus )alue8
(7$5 'he absolute )alue of labour4po"er can change onl* in conseIuence of the reaction e9ercised
b* the prolongation of surplus labour upon the "ear and tear of labour4po"er8 E)er* change in
this absolute )alue is therefore the effect, but ne)er the cause, of a change in the magnitude of
surplus )alue8
Be begin "ith the case in "hich the "or+ing da* is shortened8
(4$5 ( shortening of the "or+ing da* under the conditions gi)en abo)e, lea)es the )alue of labour4
po"er, and "ith it, the necessar* labour time, unaltered8 >t reduces the surplus labour and surplus
)alue8 (long "ith the absolute magnitude of the latter, its relati)e magnitude also falls, i$e$+ its
magnitude relati)el* to the )alue of labour4po"er "hose magnitude remains unaltered8 =nl* b*
lo"ering the price of labour4po"er belo" its )alue could the capitalist sa)e himself harmless8
(ll the usual arguments against the shortening of the "or+ing da*, assume that it ta+es place
under the conditions "e ha)e here supposed to e9ist; but in realit* the )er* contrar* is the case: a
change in the producti)eness and intensit* of labour either precedes, or immediatel* follo"s, a
shortening of the "or+ing da*8
3
(6$5 <engthening of the "or+ing da*8 <et the necessar* labour time be 6 hours, or the )alue of
labour4po"er : shillings; also let the surplus labour be 6 hours or the surplus )alue : shillings8
'he "hole "or+ing da* then amounts to 16 hours and is embodied in a )alue of 6 shillings8 >f,
no", the "or+ing da* be lengthened b* 6 hours and the price of labour4po"er remain unaltered,
the surplus )alue increases both absolutel* and relati)el*8 (lthough there is no absolute change in
the )alue of labour4po"er, it suffers a relati)e fall8 %nder the conditions assumed in 18 there could
not be a change of relati)e magnitude in the )alue of labour4po"er "ithout a change in its
absolute magnitude8 -ere, on the contrar*, the change of relati)e magnitude in the )alue of
labour4po"er is the result of the change of absolute magnitude in surplus )alue8
Since the )alue in "hich a da*Us labour is embodied, increases "ith the length of that da*, it is
e)ident that the surplus )alue and the price of labour4po"er ma* simultaneousl* increase, either
b* eIual or uneIual Iuantities8 'his simultaneous increase is therefore possible in t"o cases, one,
the actual lengthening of the "or+ing da*, the other, an increase in the intensit* of labour
unaccompanied b* such lengthening8
Bhen the "or+ing da* is prolonged, the price of labour4po"er ma* fall belo" its )alue, although
that price be nominall* unchanged or e)en rise8 'he )alue of a da*Us labour4po"er is, as "ill be
remembered, estimated from its normal a)erage duration, or from the normal duration of life
among the labourers, and from corresponding normal transformations of organised bodil* matter
into motion,
6
in conformit* "ith the nature of man8 %p to a certain point, the increased "ear and
tear of labour4po"er, inseparable from a lengthened "or+ing da*, ma* be compensated b* higher
"ages8 /ut be*ond this point the "ear and tear increases in geometrical progression, and e)er*
677 5hapter 17
condition suitable for the normal reproduction and functioning of labour4po"er is suppressed8
'he price of labour4po"er and the degree of its e9ploitation cease to be commensurable
Iuantities8
Section ,: Simultaneous Variations in the
-uration5 Producti=eness5 and Intensit of
(abour
>t is ob)ious that a large number of combinations are here possible8 (n* t"o of the factors ma*
)ar* and the third remain constant, or all three ma* )ar* at once8 'he* ma* )ar* either in the
same or in different degrees, in the same or in opposite directions, "ith the result that the
)ariations counteract one another, either "holl* or in part8 Ce)ertheless the anal*sis of e)er*
possible case is eas* in )ie" of the results gi)en in >8, >>8, and >>>8 'he effect of e)er* possible
combination ma* be found b* treating each factor in turn as )ariable, and the other t"o constant
for the time being8 Be shall, therefore, notice, and that briefl*, but t"o important cases8
A. Dimini#hin& 'roductivene## of *a$our +ith a
)imultaneou# *en&thenin& of the ,or-in& day
>n spea+ing of diminishing producti)eness of labour, "e here refer to diminution in those
industries "hose products determine the )alue of labour4po"er; such a diminution, for e9ample,
as results from decreasing fertilit* of the soil, and from the corresponding dearness of its
products8 'a+e the "or+ing da* at 16 hours and the )alue created b* it at 6 shillings, of "hich one
half replaces the )alue of the labour4po"er, the other forms the surplus )alue8 Suppose, in
conseIuence of the increased dearness of the products of the soil, that the )alue of labour4po"er
rises from : shillings to , and therefore the necessar* labour time from 6 hours to 88 >f there be
no change in the length of the "or+ing da*, the surplus labour "ould fall from 6 hours to , the
surplus )alue from : shillings to 68 >f the da* be lengthened b* 6 hours, i$e$, from 16 hours to 1,
the surplus labour remains at 6 hours, the surplus )alue at : shillings
Z
, but the surplus )alue
decreases compared "ith the )alue of labour4po"er, as measured b* the necessar* labour time8 >f
the da* be lengthened b* hours, )i18, from 16 hours to 16, the proportional magnitudes of
surplus )alue and )alue of labour4po"er, of surplus labour and necessar* labour, continue
unchanged, but the absolute magnitude of surplus )alue rises from : shillings to , that of the
surplus labour from 6 hours to 8, an increment of :: 1J:`8 'herefore, "ith diminishing
producti)eness of labour and a simultaneous lengthening of the "or+ing da*, the absolute
magnitude of surplus )alue ma* continue unaltered, at the same time that its relati)e magnitude
diminishes; its relati)e magnitude ma* continue unchanged, at the same time that its absolute
magnitude increases; and, pro)ided the lengthening of the da* be sufficient, both ma* increase8
>n the period bet"een 1722 and 1813 the increasing price of pro)isions led in England to a
nominal rise in "ages, although the real "ages, e9pressed in the necessaries of life, fell8 From
this fact Best and &icardo dre" the conclusion, that the diminution in the producti)eness of
agricultural labour had brought about a fall in the rate of surplus )alue, and the* made this
assumption of a fact that e9isted onl* in their imaginations, the starting4point of important
in)estigations into the relati)e magnitudes of "ages, profits, and rent8 /ut, as a matter of fact,
surplus )alue had at that time, than+s to the increased intensit* of labour, and to the prolongation
of the "or+ing da*, increased both in absolute and relati)e magnitude8 'his "as the period in
Z
Earlier English translations ha)e @6 sh8A instead of : shillings8 'his error "as pointed out to us b* a reader, "e ha)e
in)estigated and chec+ed "ith the 1876 German Edition and dul* corrected an ob)ious error8
678 5hapter 17
"hich the right to prolong the hours of labour to an outrageous e9tent "as established;
7
the
period that "as especiall* characterised b* an accelerated accumulation of capital here, b*
pauperism there8
8
B. .ncrea#in& .nten#ity and 'roductivene## of *a$our +ith
)imultaneou# )hortenin& of the ,or-in& day
>ncreased producti)eness and greater intensit* of labour, both ha)e a li+e effect8 'he* both
augment the mass of articles produced in a gi)en time8 /oth, therefore, shorten that portion of the
"or+ing da* "hich the labourer needs to produce his means of subsistence or their eIui)alent8
'he minimum length of the "or+ing da* is fi9ed b* this necessar* but contractile portion of it8 >f
the "hole "or+ing da* "ere to shrin+ to the length of this portion, surplus labour "ould )anish, a
consummation utterl* impossible under the rRgime of capital8 =nl* b* suppressing the capitalist
form of production could the length of the "or+ing da* be reduced to the necessar* labour time8
/ut, e)en in that case, the latter "ould e9tend its limits8 =n the one hand, because the notion of
@means of subsistenceA "ould considerabl* e9pand, and the labourer "ould la* claim to an
altogether different standard of life8 =n the other hand, because a part of "hat is no" surplus
labour, "ould then count as necessar* labour; > mean the labour of forming a fund for reser)e and
accumulation8
'he more the producti)eness of labour increases, the more can the "or+ing da* be shortened; and
the more the "or+ing da* is shortened, the more can the intensit* of labour increase8 From a
social point of )ie", the producti)eness increases in the same ratio as the econom* of labour,
"hich, in its turn, includes not onl* econom* of the means of production, but also the a)oidance
of all useless labour8 'he capitalist mode of production, "hile on the one hand, enforcing
econom* in each indi)idual business, on the other hand, begets, b* its anarchical s*stem of
competition, the most outrageous sIuandering of labour4po"er and of the social means of
production, not to mention the creation of a )ast number of emplo*ments, at present
indispensable, but in themsel)es superfluous8
'he intensit* and producti)eness of labour being gi)en, the time "hich societ* is bound to de)ote
to material production is shorter, and as a conseIuence, the time at its disposal for the free
de)elopment, intellectual and social, of the indi)idual is greater, in proportion as the "or+ is more
and more e)enl* di)ided among all the able4bodied members of societ*, and as a particular class
is more and more depri)ed of the po"er to shift the natural burden of labour from its o"n
shoulders to those of another la*er of societ*8 >n this direction, the shortening of the "or+ing da*
finds at last a limit in the generalisation of labour8 >n capitalist societ* spare time is acIuired for
one class b* con)erting the "hole life4time of the masses into labour time8
Chapter 18: Various Formula for the rate of
Surplus value
Be ha)e seen that the rate of surplus )alue is represented b* the follo"ing formulae:
.+
Surplus )alue
(
s
!
Y
Surplus )alue
Y
Surplus labour
;ariable 5apital ) ;alue of labor4po"er Cecessar* labor
'he t"o first of these formulae represent, as a ratio of )alues, that "hich, in the third, is
represented as a ratio of the times during "hich those )alues are produced8 'hese formulae,
supplementar* the one to the other, are rigorousl* definite and correct8 Be therefore find them
substantiall*, but not consciousl*, "or+ed out in classical #olitical Econom*8 'here "e meet "ith
the follo"ing deri)ati)e formulae8
..+
Surplus4labor
Y
Surplus )alue
Y
Surplus4product
Bor+ing da* ;alue of the #roduct 'otal #roduct
=ne and the same ratio is here e9pressed as a ratio of labor4times, of the )alues in "hich those
labor4times are embodied, and of the products in "hich those )alues e9ist8 >t is of course
understood that, b* @;alue of the #roduct,A is meant onl* the )alue ne"l* created in a "or+ing
da*, the constant part of the )alue of the product being e9cluded8
>n all of these formulae (>>8!, the actual degree of e9ploitation of labor, or the rate of surplus
)alue, is falsel* e9pressed8 <et the "or+ing da* be 16 hours8 'hen, ma+ing the same assumptions
as in former instances, the real degree of e9ploitation of labor "ill be represented in the follo"ing
proportions8
6 hours surplus4labor
Y
Surplus )alue of : sh8
Y 177`
6 hours necessar* labor ;ariable 5apital of : sh8
From formulae >>8 "e get )er* differentl*,
6 hours surplus4labor
Y
Surplus )alue of : sh8
Y 37`
Bor+ing da* of 16 hours ;alue created of 6 sh8
'hese deri)ati)e formulae e9press, in realit*, onl* the proportion in "hich the "or+ing da*, or the
)alue produced b* it, is di)ided bet"een capitalist and laborer8 >f the* are to be treated as direct
e9pressions of the degree of self4e9pansion of capital, the follo"ing erroneous la" "ould hold
good: Surplus4labor or surplus )alue can ne)er reach 177`8
1
Since the surplus4labor is onl* an
aliIuot part of the "or+ing da*, or since surplus )alue is onl* an aliIuot part of the )alue created,
the surplus4labor must necessaril* be al"a*s less than the "or+ing da*, or the surplus )alue
al"a*s less than the total )alue created8 >n order, ho"e)er, to attain the ratio of 177:177 the* must
be eIual8 >n order that the surplus4labor ma* absorb the "hole da* (i8e8, an a)erage da* of an*
"ee+ or *ear!, the necessar* labor must sin+ to 1ero8 /ut if the necessar* labor )anish, so too
does the surplus4labor, since it is onl* a function of the former8 'he ratio
Surplus4labor or Surplus )alue
Bor+ing da* ;alue created
687 5hapter 18
can therefore ne)er reach the limit 177J177, still less rise to 177 _ 9J1778 /ut not so the rate of
surplus )alue, the real degree of e9ploitation of labor8 'a+e, e8g8, the estimate of <8 de <a)ergne,
according to "hich the English agricultural laborer gets onl* 1J, the capitalist (farmer! on the
other hand :J of the product
6
or its )alue, apart from the Iuestion of ho" the boot* is
subseIuentl* di)ided bet"een the capitalist, the landlord, and others8 (ccording to this, this
surplus4labor of the English agricultural laborer is to his necessar* labor as ::1, "hich gi)es a rate
of e9ploitation of :77`8
'he fa)orite method of treating the "or+ing da* as constant in magnitude became, through the
use of formulae >>8, a fi9ed usage, because in them surplus4labor is al"a*s compared "ith a
"or+ing da* of gi)en length8 'he same holds good "hen the repartition of the )alue produced is
e9clusi)el* +ept insight8 'he "or+ing da* that has alread* been reali1ed in gi)en )alue, must
necessaril* be a da* of gi)en length8
'he habit of representing surplus )alue and )alue of labor4po"er as fractions of the )alue created
F a habit that originates in the capitalist mode of production itself, and "hose import "ill
hereafter be disclosed F conceals the )er* transaction that characteri1es capital, namel* the
e9change of )ariable capital for li)ing labor4po"er, and the conseIuent e9clusion of the laborer
from the product8 >nstead of the real fact, "e ha)e false semblance of an association, in "hich
laborer and capitalist di)ide the product in proportion to the different elements "hich the*
respecti)el* contribute to"ards its formation8
:
$oreo)er, the formulae >>8 can at an* time be recon)erted into formulae >8 >f, for instance, "e
ha)e
Surplus4labor of 6 hours
Bor+ing da* of 16 hours
then the necessar* labor4time being 16 hours less the surplus4labor of 6 hours, "e get the
follo"ing result,
Surplus4labor of 6 hours
Y
177
Cecessar* labor of 6 hours 177
'here is a third formula "hich > ha)e occasionall* alread* anticipated; it is
...+
Surplus )alue
Y
Surplus4labor
Y
%npaid labor
;alue of labor4po"er Cecessar* labor #aid labor
(fter the in)estigations "e ha)e gi)en abo)e, it is no longer possible to be misled, b* the formula
%npaid labor,
#aid labor
into concluding, that the capitalist pa*s for labor and not for labor4po"er8 'his formula is onl* a
popular e9pression for
Surplus4labor,
Cecessar* labor
'he capitalist pa*s the )alue, so far as price coincides "ith )alue, of the labor4po"er, and
recei)es in e9change the disposal of the li)ing labor4po"er itself8 -is usufruct is spread o)er t"o
periods8 0uring one the laborer produces a )alue that is onl* eIual to the )alue of his labor4
po"er; he produces its eIui)alent8 'his the capitalist recei)es in return for his ad)ance of the
price of the labor4po"er, a product read* made in the mar+et8 0uring the other period, the period
of surplus4labor, the usufruct of the labor4po"er creates a )alue for the capitalist, that costs him
681 5hapter 18
no eIui)alent8
'his e9penditure of labor4po"er comes to him gratis8 >n this sense it is that
surplus4labor can be called unpaid labor8
5apital, therefore, it not onl*, as (dam Smith sa*s, the command o)er labor8 >t is essentiall* the
command o)er unpaid labor8 (ll surplus )alue, "hate)er particular form (profit, interest, or rent!,
it ma* subseIuentl* cr*stalli1e into, is in substance the materiali1ation of unpaid labor8 'he secret
of the self4e9pansion of capital resol)es itself into ha)ing the disposal of a definite Iuantit* of
other people?s unpaid labor8
686
Part #: $a%es
Chapter 19: The Transformation of the Value
(and Respective Price) of Labour-Power into
Wages
=n the surface of bourgeois societ* the "age of the labourer appears as the price of labour, a
certain Iuantit* of mone* that is paid for a certain Iuantit* of labour8 'hus people spea+ of the
)alue of labour and call its e9pression in mone* its necessar* or natural price8 =n the other hand
the* spea+ of the mar+et4prices of labour, i8e8, prices oscillating abo)e or belo" its natural price8
/ut "hat is the )alue of a commodit*E 'he obDecti)e form of the social labour e9pended in its
production8 (nd ho" do "e measure the Iuantit* of this )alueE /* the Iuantit* of the labour
contained in it8 -o" then is the )alue, e8g8, of a 16 hour "or+ing da* to be determinedE8 /* the
16 "or+ing4hours contained in a "or+ing da* of 16 hours, "hich is an absurd tautolog*8
1
>n order to be sold as a commodit* in the mar+et, labour must at all e)ents e9ist before it is sold8
/ut, could the labourer gi)e it an independent obDecti)e e9istence, he "ould sell a commodit* and
not labour8
6
(part from these contradictions, a direct e9change of mone*, i8e8, of reali1ed labour, "ith li)ing
labour "ould either do a"a* "ith the la" of )alue "hich onl* begins to de)elop itself freel* on
the basis of capitalist production, or do a"a* "ith capitalist production itself, "hich rests directl*
on "age4labour8 'he "or+ing da* of 16 hours embodies itself, e8g8, in a mone*4)alue of 6s8 Either
eIui)alents are e9changed, and then the labourer recei)es 6s, for 16 hours? labour; the price of his
labour "ould be eIual to the price of his product8 >n this case he produces no surplus )alue for the
bu*er of his labour, the 6s8 are not transformed into capital, the basis of capitalist production
)anishes8 /ut it is on this )er* basis that he sells his labour and that his labour is "age4labour8 =r
else he recei)es for 16 hours? labour less than 6s8, i8e8, less than 16 hours? labour8 '"el)e hours?
labour are e9changed against 17, 6, Pc8, hours? labour8 'his eIuali1ation of uneIual Iuantities not
merel* does a"a* "ith the determination of )alue8 Such a self4destructi)e contradiction cannot
be in an* "a* e)en enunciated or formulated as a la"8
:
>t is of no a)ail to deduce the e9change of more labour against less, from their difference of form,
the one being reali1ed, the other li)ing8
687 5hapter 67
(s a general la" it follo"s that, gi)en the amount of dail* or "ee+l* labour, Pc8, the dail* or
"ee+l* "ages depend on the price of labour "hich itself )aries either "ith the )alue of labour4
po"er, or "ith the difference bet"een its price and its )alue8 Gi)en, on the other hand, the price
of labour, the dail* or "ee+l* "ages depend on the Iuantit* of the dail* or "ee+l* labour8
'he unit4measure for time4"ages, the price of the "or+ing4hour, is the Iuotient of the )alue of a
da*?s labour4po"er, di)ided b* the number of hours of the a)erage "or+ing da*8 <et the latter be
16 hours, and the dail* )alue of labour4po"er : shillings, the )alue of the product of 6 hours of
labour8 %nder these circumstances the price of a "or+ing hour is :d8; the )alue produced in it is
6d8 >f the labourer is no" emplo*ed less than 16 hours (or less than 6 da*s in the "ee+!, e8g8, onl*
6 or 8 hours, he recei)es, "ith this price of labour, onl* 6s8 or 1s8 6d8 a da*8
3
(s on our h*pothesis
he must "or+ on the a)erage 6 hours dail*, in order to produce a da*?s "age corresponding
merel* to the )alue of his labour po"er, as according to the same h*pothesis he "or+s onl* half
of e)er* hour for himself, and half for the capitalist, it is clear that he cannot obtain for himself
the )alue of the product of 6 hours if he is emplo*ed less than 16 hours8 >n pre)ious chapters "e
sa" the destructi)e conseIuences of o)er4"or+; here "e find the sources of the sufferings that
result to the labourer from his insufficient emplo*ment8
>f the hour?s "age is fi9ed so that the capitalist does not bind himself to pa* a da*?s or a "ee+?s
"age, but onl* to pa* "ages for the hours during "hich he chooses to emplo* the labourer, he
can emplo* him for a shorter time than that "hich is originall* the basis of the calculation of the
hour4"age, or the unit4measure of the price of labour8 Since this unit is determined b* the ratio
dail* )alue of labour4po"er
"or+ing da* of a gi)en number of hours?
it, of course, loses all meaning as soon as the "or+ing da* ceases to contain a definite number of
hours8 'he connection bet"een the paid and the unpaid labour is destro*ed8 'he capitalist can
no" "ring from the labour a certain Iuantit* of surplus labour "ithout allo"ing him the labour4
time necessar* for his o"n subsistence8 -e can annihilate all regularit* of emplo*ment, and
according to his o"n con)enience, caprice, and the interest of the moment, ma+e the most
enormous o)er"or+ alternate "ith relati)e or absolute cessation of "or+8 -e can, under the
pretense of pa*ing @the normal price of labour,A abnormall* lengthen the "or+ing da* "ithout
an* corresponding compensation to the labourer8 -ence the perfectl* rational re)olt in 1867 of
the <ondon labourers, emplo*ed in the building trades, against the attempt of the capitalists to
impose on them this sort of "age b* the hour8 'he legal limitation of the "or+ing da* puts an end
to such mischief, although not, of course, to the diminution of emplo*ment caused b* the
competition of machiner*, b* changes in the Iualit* of the labourers emplo*ed, and b* crises
partial or general8
Bith an increasing dail* or "ee+l* "age the price of labour ma* remain nominall* constant, and
*et ma* fall belo" its normal le)el8 'his occurs e)er* time that, the price of labour (rec+oned per
"or+ing4hour! remaining constant, the "or+ing da* is prolonged be*ond its customar* length8 >f
in the fraction:
dail* )alue of labour po"er
"or+ing da*
the denominator increases, the numerator increases *et more rapidl*8 'he )alue of labour4po"er,
as dependent on its "ear and tear, increases "ith the duration of its functioning, and in more rapid
proportion than the increase of that duration8 >n man* branches of industr* "here time4"age is
the general rule "ithout legal limits to the "or+ing4time, the habit has, therefore, spontaneousl*
gro"n up of regarding the "or+ing da* as normal onl* up to a certain point, e8g8, up to the
688 5hapter 67
e9piration of the tenth hour (@normal "or+ing da*,A @the da*?s "or+,A @the regular hours of
"or+A!8 /e*ond this limit the "or+ing4time is o)er4time, and is, ta+ing the hour as unit4measure,
paid better (@e9tra pa*A!, although often in a proportion ridiculousl* small8
6
'he normal "or+ing
da* e9ists here as a fraction of the actual "or+ing da*, and the latter, often during the "hole *ear,
lasts longer than the former8
7
'he increase in the price of labour "ith the e9tension of the "or+ing
da* be*ond a certain normal limit, ta+es such a shape in )arious /ritish industries that the lo"
price of labour during the so4called normal time compels the labourer to "or+ during the better
paid o)er4time, if he "ishes to obtain a sufficient "age at all8
8
<egal limitation of the "or+ing da*
puts an end to these amenities8
2
>t is a fact generall* +no"n that, the longer the "or+ing da*s, in an* branch of industr*, the lo"er
are the "ages8
17
(8 &edgra)e, factor* inspector, illustrates this b* a comparati)e re)ie" of the 67
*ears from 18:241832, according to "hich "ages rose in the factories under the 17 -ours <a",
"hilst the* fell in the factories in "hich the "or+ lasted 1 to 13 hours dail*8
11
From the la", @the price of labour being gi)en, the dail* or "ee+l* "age depends on the Iuantit*
of labour e9pended,A it follo"s, first of all, that the lo"er the price of labour, the greater must be
the Iuantit* of labour, or the longer must be the "or+ing da* for the labourer to secure e)en a
miserable a)erage "age8 'he lo"ness of the price of labour acts here as a stimulus to the
e9tension of the labour4time8
16
=n the other hand, the e9tension of the "or+ing4time produces, in its turn, a fall in the price of
labour, and "ith this a fall in the da*?s or "ee+?s "ages8
'he determination of the price of labour b*:
dail* )alue of labour po"er
"or+ing da* of a gi)en number of hours
sho"s that a mere prolongation of the "or+ing da* lo"ers the price of labour, if no compensation
steps in8 /ut the same circumstances "hich allo" the capitalist in the long run to prolong the
"or+ing da*, also allo" him first, and compel him finall*, to nominall* lo"er the price of labour
until the total price of the increased number of hours is lo"ered, and, therefore, the dail* or
"ee+l* "age8 &eference to t"o circumstances is sufficient here8 >f one man does the "or+ of 1[
or 6 men, the suppl* of labour increases, although the suppl* of labour4po"er on the mar+et
remains constant8 'he competition thus created bet"een the labourers allo"s the capitalist to beat
do"n the price of labour, "hilst the falling price of labour allo"s him, on the other hand, to scre"
up still further the "or+ing4time8
1:
Soon, ho"e)er, this command o)er abnormal Iuantities of
unpaid labour, i8e8, Iuantities in e9cess of the a)erage social amount, becomes a source of
competition amongst the capitalists themsel)es8 ( part of the price of the commodit* consists of
the price of labour8 'he unpaid part of the labour4price need not be rec+oned in the price of the
commodit*8 >t ma* be presented to the bu*er8 'his is the first step to "hich competition leads8
'he second step to "hich it dri)es is to e9clude also from the selling price of the commodit* at
least a part of the abnormal surplus )alue created b* the e9tension of the "or+ing da*8 >n this
"a*, an abnormall* lo" selling price of the commodit* arises, at first sporadicall*, and becomes
fi9ed b* degrees; a lo"er selling price "hich hencefor"ard becomes the constant basis of a
miserable "age for an e9cessi)e "or+ing4time, as originall* it "as the product of these )er*
circumstances8 'his mo)ement is simpl* indicated here, as the anal*sis of competition does not
belong to this part of our subDect8 Ce)ertheless, the capitalist ma*, for a moment, spea+ for
himself8 @>n /irmingham there is so much competition of masters one against another that man*
are obliged to do things as emplo*ers that the* "ould other"ise be ashamed of; and *et no more
mone* is made, but onl* the public gets the benefit8A
1
'he reader "ill remember the t"o sorts of
<ondon ba+ers, of "hom one sold the bread at its full price (the @full4pricedA ba+ers!, the other
682 5hapter 67
belo" its normal price (@the under4priced,A @the undersellersA!8 'he @full4pricedA denounced their
ri)als before the #arliamentar* 5ommittee of >nIuir*: @'he* onl* e9ist no" b* first defrauding
the public, and ne9t getting 18 hours? "or+ out of their men for 16 hours? "ages8888 'he unpaid
labour of the men "as made 888 the source "hereb* the competition "as carried on, and continues
so to this da*8888 'he competition among the master ba+ers is the cause of the difficult* in getting
rid of night4"or+8 (n underseller, "ho sells his bread belo" the cost4price according to the price
of flour, must ma+e it up b* getting more out of the labour of the men8888 >f > got onl* 16 hours?
"or+ out of m* men, and m* neighbor got 18 or 67, he must beat me in the selling price8 >f the
men could insist on pa*ment for o)er4"or+, this "ould be set right8888 ( large number of those
emplo*ed b* the undersellers are foreigners and *ouths, "ho are obliged to accept almost an*
"ages the* can obtain8A
13
'his Deremiad is also interesting because it sho"s ho" the appearance onl* of the relations of
production mirrors itself in the brain of the capitalist8 'he capitalist does not +no" that the
normal price of labour also includes a definite Iuantit* of unpaid labour, and that this )er* unpaid
labour is the normal source of his gain8 'he categor* of surplus labour4time does not e9ist at all
for him, since it is included in the normal "or+ing da*, "hich he thin+s he has paid for in the
da*?s "ages8 /ut o)er4time does e9ist for him, the prolongation of the "or+ing da* be*ond the
limits corresponding "ith the usual price of labour8 Face to face "ith his underselling competitor,
he e)en insists upon e9tra pa* for this o)er4time8 -e again does not +no" that this e9tra pa*
includes unpaid labour, Dust as "ell as does the price of the customar* hour of labour8 For
e9ample, the price of one hour of the 16 hours? "or+ing da* is :d8, sa* the )alue4product of half a
"or+ing4hour, "hilst the price of the o)er4time "or+ing4hour is d8, or the )alue4product of 6J:
of a "or+ing hour8 >n the first case the capitalist appropriates to himself one4half, in the second,
one4third of the "or+ing4hour "ithout pa*ing for it8
Chapter 21: Piece Wages
Bages b* the piece are nothing else than a con)erted form of "ages b* time, Dust as "ages b*
time are a con)erted form of the )alue or price of labour4po"er8
>n piece "ages it seems at first sight as if the use4)alue bought from the labourer "as, not
the function of his labour4po"er, li)ing labour, but labour alread* reali1ed in the product,
and as if the price of this labour "as determined, not as "ith time4"ages, b* the fraction
dail* )alue of labour4po"er
the "or+ing da* of a gi)en number of hours
but b* the capacit* for "or+ of producer8
1
'he confidence that trusts in this appearance ought to recei)e a first se)ere shoc+ from
the fact that both forms of "ages e9ist side b* side, simultaneousl*, in the same branches
of industr*; e8g8,
@the compositors of <ondon, as a general rule, "or+ b* the piece, time4"or+ being
the e9ception, "hile those in the countr* "or+ b* the da*, the e9ception being
"or+ b* the piece8 'he ship"rights of the port of <ondon "or+ b* the Dob or
piece, "hile those of all other parts "or+ b* the da*8A
6
>n the same saddler* shops of <ondon, often for the same "or+, piece "ages are paid to the
French, time4"ages to the English8 >n the regular factories in "hich throughout piece "ages
predominate, particular +inds of "or+ are unsuitable to this form of "age, and are therefore paid
b* time8
:
/ut it is, moreo)er, self4e)ident that the difference of form in the pa*ment of "ages
alters in no "a* their essential nature, although the one form ma* be more fa)orable to the
de)elopment of capitalist production than the other8
<et the ordinar* "or+ing da* contain 16 hours of "hich 6 are paid, 6 unpaid8 <et its )alue4
product be 6 shillings, that of one hour?s labour therefore 6d8 <et us suppose that, as the result of
e9perience, a labourer "ho "or+s "ith the a)erage amount of intensit* and s+ill, "ho, therefore,
gi)es in fact onl* the time sociall* necessar* to the production of an article, supplies in 16 hours
6 pieces, either distinct products or measurable parts of a continuous "hole8 'hen the )alue of
these 6 pieces, after8 subtraction of the portion of constant capital contained in them, is 6
shillings, and the )alue of a single piece :d8 'he labourer recei)es 1 [d8 per piece, and thus earns
in 16 hours : shillings8 Lust as, "ith time4"ages, it does not matter "hether "e assume that the
labourer "or+s 6 hours for himself and 6 hours for the capitalist, or half of e)er* hour for
himself, and the other half for the capitalist, so here it does not matter "hether "e sa* that each
indi)idual piece is half paid, and half unpaid for, or that the price of 16 pieces is the eIui)alent
onl* of the )alue of the labour4po"er, "hilst in the other 16 pieces surplus )alue is incorporated8
'he form of piece "ages is Dust as irrational as that of time4"ages8 Bhilst in our e9ample t"o
pieces of a commodit*, after subtraction of the )alue of the means of production consumed in
them, are "orth 6d8 as being the product of one hour, the labourer recei)es for them a price of :d8
piece "ages do not, in fact, distinctl* e9press an* relation of )alue8 >t is not, therefore, a Iuestion
of measuring the )alue of the piece b* the "or+ing4time incorporated in it, but on the contrar*, of
measuring the "or+ing4time the labourer has e9pended b* the number of pieces he has produced8
>n time4"ages, the labour is measured b* its immediate duration; in piece "ages, b* the Iuantit*
621 5hapter 61
of products in "hich the labour has embodied itself during a gi)en time8
'he English Factor* >nspector, (le9ander &edgra)e, in his report of =ct8 :1st, 1866, pro)es b*
comparati)e statistics "ith continental states, that in spite of lo"er "ages and much longer
"or+ing4time, continental labour is, in proportion to the product, dearer than English8 (n English
manager of a cotton factor* in =ldenburg declares that the "or+ing time there lasted from 3::7
a8m8 to 8 p8m8, Saturda*s included, and that the "or+people there, "hen under English
o)erloo+ers, did not suppl* during this time Iuite so much product as the English in 17 hours, but
under German o)erloo+ers much less8 Bages are much lo"er than in England, in man* cases
37`, but the number of hands in proportion to the machiner* "as much greater, in certain
departments in the proportion of 3::8
$r8 &edgra)e gi)es )er* full details as to the &ussian cotton factories8 'he data "ere gi)en him
b* an English manager until recentl* emplo*ed there8 =n this &ussian soil, so fruitful of all
infamies, the old horrors of the earl* da*s of English factories are in full s"ing8 'he managers
are, of course, English, as the nati)e &ussian capitalist is of no use in factor* business8 0espite all
o)er4"or+, continued da* and night, despite the most shameful under4pa*ment of the "or+people,
&ussian manufacture manages to )egetate onl* b* prohibition of foreign competition8
> gi)e, in conclusion, a comparati)e table of $r8 &edgra)e?s, on the a)erage number of spindles
per factor* and per spinner in the different countries of Europe8 -e himself remar+s that he had
collected these figures a fe" *ears ago, and that since that time the si1e of the factories and the
number of spindles per labourer in England has increased8 -e supposes, ho"e)er, an
appro9imatel* eIual progress in the continental countries mentioned, so that the numbers gi)en
"ould still ha)e their )alue for purposes of comparison8
AV(A3( *4M5( )2 SP.*67(S P( 2ACT)8
(n%land, averae of spindles per factory 16,677
2rance, averae of spindles per factory 1,377
Prussia, averae of spindles per factory 1,377
5el%ium, averae of spindles per factory ,777
Sa9ony, averae of spindles per factory ,377
Austria, averae of spindles per factory 7,777
S-it:erland, averae of spindles per factory 8,777
AV(A3( *4M5( )2 P(S)*S (MP7)8(6 T) SP.*67(S
2rance one person to 1 spindles
ussia one person to 68 spindles
Prussia one person to :7 spindles
5a!aria one person to 6 spindles
Austria one person to 2 spindles
5el%ium one person to 37 spindles
Sa9ony one person to 37 spindles
S-it:erland one person to 33 spindles
626 5hapter 66
Smaller States of 3ermany one person to 33 spindles
3reat 5ritain one person to 7 spindles
@'his comparison,A sa*s $r8 &edgra)e, @is *et more unfa)orable to Great /ritain, inasmuch as
there is so large a number of factories in "hich "ea)ing b* po"er is carried on in conDunction
"ith spinningA ("hilst in the table the "ea)ers are not deducted!, @and the factories abroad are
chiefl* spinning factories; if it "ere possible to compare li+e "ith li+e, strictl*, > could find man*
cotton spinning factories in m* district in "hich mules containing 6,677 spindles are minded b*
one man (the minder! and t"o assistants onl*, turning off dail* 667 lbs8 of *arn, measuring 77
miles in length8A
3
>t is "ell +no"n that in Eastern Europe, as "ell as in (sia, English companies ha)e underta+en
the construction of rail"a*s, and ha)e, in ma+ing them, emplo*ed side b* side "ith the nati)e
labourers, a certain number of English "or+ing4men8 5ompelled b* practical necessit*, the* thus
ha)e had to ta+e into account the national difference in the intensit* of labour, but this has
brought them no loss8 'heir e9perience sho"s that e)en if the height of "ages corresponds more
or less "ith the a)erage intensit* of labour, the relati)e price of labour )aries generall* in the
in)erse direction8
>n an @Essa* on the &ate of Bages,A
6
one of his first economic "ritings, -8 5are* tries to pro)e
that the "ages of the different nations are directl* proportional to the degree of producti)eness of
the national "or+ing da*s, in order to dra" from this international relation the conclusion that
"ages e)er*"here rise and fall in proportion to the producti)eness of labour8 'he "hole of our
anal*sis of the production of surplus )alue sho"s the absurdit* of this conclusion, e)en if 5are*
himself had pro)ed his premises instead of, after his usual uncritical and superficial fashion,
shuffling to and fro a confused mass of statistical materials8 'he best of it is that he does not
assert that things actuall* are as the* ought to be according to his theor*8 For State inter)ention
has falsified the natural economic relations8 'he different national "ages must be rec+oned,
therefore, as if that part of each that goes to the State in the form of ta9es, came to the labourer
himself8 =ught not $r8 5are* to consider further "hether those @State e9pensesA are not the
@naturalA fruits of capitalistic de)elopmentE 'he reasoning is Iuite "orth* of the man "ho first
declared the relations of capitalist production to be eternal la"s of nature and reason, "hose free,
harmonious "or+ing is onl* disturbed b* the inter)ention of the State, in order after"ards to
disco)er that the diabolical influence of England on the "orld mar+et (an influence "hich, it
appears, does not spring from the natural la"s of capitalist production! necessitates State
inter)ention, i8e8, the protection of those la"s of nature and reason b* the State, alias the S*stem
of #rotection8 -e disco)ered further that the theorems of &icardo and others, in "hich e9isting
social antagonisms and contradictions are formulated, are not the ideal product of the real
economic mo)ement, but on the contrar*, that the real antagonisms of capitalist production in
England and else"here are the result of the theories of &icardo and othersQ Finall* he disco)ered
that it is, in the last resort, commerce that destro*s the inborn beauties and harmonies of the
capitalist mode of production8 ( step further and he "ill, perhaps, disco)er that the one e)il in
capitalist production is capital itself8 =nl* a man "ith such atrocious "ant of the critical facult*
and such spurious erudition deser)ed, in spite of his #rotectionist heres*, to become the secret
source of the harmonious "isdom of a /astiat, and of all the other Free4trade optimists of toda*8
Part &: The Accumulation of Capital
'he con)ersion of a sum of mone* into means of production and labour4po"er, is the first step
ta+en b* the Iuantum of )alue that is going to function as capital8 'his con)ersion ta+es place in
the mar+et, "ithin the sphere of circulation8 'he second step, the process of production, is
complete so soon as the means of production ha)e been con)erted into commodities "hose )alue
e9ceeds that of their component parts, and, therefore, contains the capital originall* ad)anced,
plus a surplus )alue8 'hese commodities must then be thro"n into circulation8 'he* must be sold,
their )alue realised in mone*, this mone* afresh con)erted into capital, and so o)er and o)er
again8 'his circular mo)ement, in "hich the same phases are continuall* gone through in
succession, forms the circulation of capital8
'he first condition of accumulation is that the capitalist must ha)e contri)ed to sell his
commodities, and to recon)ert into capital the greater part of the mone* so recei)ed8 >n the
follo"ing pages "e shall assume that capital circulates in its normal "a*8 'he detailed anal*sis of
the process "ill be found in /oo+ >>8
'he capitalist "ho produces surplus )alue F i$e8, "ho e9tracts unpaid labour directl* from the
labourers, and fi9es it in commodities, is, indeed, the first appropriator, but b* no means the
ultimate o"ner, of this surplus )alue8 -e has to share it "ith capitalists, "ith lando"ners, Pc8,
"ho fulfil other functions in the comple9 of social production8 Surplus )alue, therefore, splits up
into )arious parts8 >ts fragments fall to )arious categories of persons, and ta+e )arious forms,
independent the one of the other, such as profit, interest, merchants? profit, rent, Pc8 >t is onl* in
/oo+ >>>8 that "e can ta+e in hand these modified forms of surplus )alue8
=n the one hand, then, "e assume that the capitalist sells at their )alue the commodities he has
produced, "ithout concerning oursel)es either about the ne" forms that capital assumes "hile in
the sphere of circulation, or about the concrete conditions of reproduction hidden under these
forms8 =n the other hand, "e treat the capitalist producer as o"ner of the entire surplus )alue, or,
better perhaps, as the representati)e of all the sharers "ith him in the boot*8 Be, therefore, first of
all consider accumulation from an abstract point of )ie" F i$e8, as a mere phase in the actual
process of production8
So far as accumulation ta+es place, the capitalist must ha)e succeeded in selling his commodities,
and in recon)erting the sale4mone* into capital8 $oreo)er, the brea+ing4up of surplus )alue into
fragments neither alters its nature nor the conditions under "hich it becomes an element of
accumulation8 Bhate)er be the proportion of surplus )alue "hich the industrial capitalist retains
for himself, or *ields up to others, he is the one "ho, in the first instance, appropriates it8 Be,
therefore, assume no more than "hat actuall* ta+es place8 =n the other hand, the simple
fundamental form of the process of accumulation is obscured b* the incident of the circulation
"hich brings it about, and b* the splitting up of surplus )alue8 (n e9act anal*sis of the process,
therefore, demands that "e should, for a time, disregard all phenomena that hide the pla* of its
inner mechanism8
Chapter 23: Simple Reproduction
Bhate)er the form of the process of production in a societ*, it must be a continuous process, must
continue to go periodicall* through the same phases8 ( societ* can no more cease to produce than
628 5hapter 6:
it can cease to consume8 Bhen )ie"ed, therefore, as a connected "hole, and as flo"ing on "ith
incessant rene"al, e)er* social process of production is, at the same time, a process of
reproduction8
'he conditions of production are also those of reproduction8 Co societ* can go on producing, in
other "ords, no societ* can reproduce, unless it constantl* recon)erts a part of its products into
means of production, or elements of fresh products8 (ll other circumstances remaining the same,
the onl* mode b* "hich it can reproduce its "ealth, and maintain it at one le)el, is b* replacing
the means of production F i$e$+ the instruments of labour, the ra" material, and the au9iliar*
substances consumed in the course of the *ear F b* an eIual Iuantit* of the same +ind of articles;
these must be separated from the mass of the *earl* products, and thro"n afresh into the process
of production8 -ence, a definite portion of each *ear?s product belongs to the domain of
production8 0estined for producti)e consumption from the )er* first, this portion e9ists, for the
most part, in the shape of articles totall* unfitted for indi)idual consumption8
>f production be capitalistic in form, so, too, "ill be reproduction8 Lust as in the former the labour
process figures but as a means to"ards the self4e9pansion of capital, so in the latter it figures but
as a means of reproducing as capital F i$e8, as self4e9panding )alue F the )alue ad)anced8 >t is
onl* because his mone* constantl* functions as capital that the economic guise of a capitalist
attaches to a man8 >f, for instance, a sum of ]177 has this *ear been con)erted into capital8 and
produced a surplus )alue of ]67, it must continue during ne9t *ear, and subseIuent *ears, to
repeat the same operation8 (s a periodic increment of the capital ad)anced, or periodic fruit of
capital in process, surplus )alue acIuires the form of a re)enue flo"ing out of capital8
1
>f this re)enue ser)e the capitalist onl* as a fund to pro)ide for his consumption, and be spent as
periodicall* as it is gained, then, caeteris paribus+ simple reproduction "ill ta+e place8 (nd
although this reproduction is a mere repetition of the process of production on the old scale, *et
this mere repetition, or continuit*, gi)es a ne" character to the process, or, rather, causes the
disappearance of some apparent characteristics "hich it possessed as an isolated discontinuous
process8
'he purchase of labour4po"er for a fi9ed period is the prelude to the process of production; and
this prelude is constantl* repeated "hen the stipulated term comes to an end, "hen a definite
period of production, such as a "ee+ or a month, has elapsed8 /ut the labourer is not paid until
after he has e9pended his labour4po"er, and realised in commodities not onl* its )alue, but
surplus )alue8 -e has, therefore, produced not onl* surplus )alue, "hich "e for the present regard
as a fund to meet the pri)ate consumption of the capitalist, but he has also produced, before it
flo"s bac+ to him in the shape of "ages, the fund out of "hich he himself is paid, the )ariable
capital; and his emplo*ment lasts onl* so long as he continues to reproduce this fund8 -ence, that
formula of the economists, referred to in 5hapter O;>>>, "hich represents "ages as a share in the
product itself8
6
Bhat flo"s bac+ to the labourer in the shape of "ages is a portion of the product
that is continuousl* reproduced b* him8 'he capitalist, it is true, pa*s him in mone*, but this
mone* is merel* the transmuted form of the product of his labour8 Bhile he is con)erting a F
portion of the means of production into products, a portion of his former product is being turned
into mone*8 >t is his labour of last "ee+, or of last *ear, that pa*s for his labour4po"er this "ee+
or this *ear8 'he illusion begotten b* the inter)ention of mone* )anishes immediatel*, if, instead
of ta+ing a single capitalist and a single labourer, "e ta+e the class of capitalists and the class of
labourers as a "hole8 'he capitalist class is constantl* gi)ing to the labouring class order4notes, in
the form of mone*, on a portion of the commodities produced b* the latter and appropriated b*
the former8 'he labourers gi)e these order4notes bac+ Dust as constantl* to the capitalist class, and
622 5hapter 6:
in this "a* get their share of their o"n product8 'he transaction is )eiled b* the commodit* form
of the product and the mone* form of the commodit*8
;ariable capital is therefore onl* a particular historical form of appearance of the fund for
pro)iding the necessaries of life, or the labour4fund "hich the labourer reIuires for the
maintenance of himself and famil*, and "hich, "hate)er be the s*stem of social production, he
must himself produce and reproduce8 >f the labour4fund constantl* flo"s to him in the form of
mone* that pa*s for his labour, it is because the product he has created mo)es constantl* a"a*
from him in the form of capital8 /ut all this does not alter the fact, that it is the labourer?s o"n
labour, realised in a product, "hich is ad)anced to him b* the capitalist8
:
<et us ta+e a peasant
liable to do compulsor* ser)ice for his lord8 -e "or+s on his o"n land, "ith his o"n means of
production, for, sa*, : da*s a "ee+8 'he : other da*s he does forced "or+ on the lord?s domain8
-e constantl* reproduces his o"n labour4fund, "hich ne)er, in his case, ta+es the form of a
mone* pa*ment for his labour, ad)anced b* another person8 /ut in return, his unpaid forced
labour for the lord, on its side, ne)er acIuires the character of )oluntar* paid labour8 >f one fine
morning the lord appropriates to himself the land, the cattle, the seed, in a "ord, the, means of
production of this peasant, the latter "ill thenceforth be obliged to sell his labour4po"er to the
lord8 -e "ill, ceteris paribus+ labour 6 da*s a "ee+ as before, : for himself, : for his lord, "ho
thenceforth becomes a "ages4pa*ing capitalist8 (s before, he "ill use up the means of production
as means of production, and transfer their )alue to the product8 (s before, a definite portion of the
product "ill be de)oted to reproduction8 /ut from the moment that the forced labour is changed
into "age labour, from that moment the labour4fund, "hich the peasant himself continues as
before to produce and reproduce, ta+es the form of a capital ad)anced in the form of "ages b* the
lord8 'he bourgeois economist "hose narro" mind is unable to separate the form of appearance
from the thing that appears, shuts his e*es to the fact, that it is but here and there on the face of
the earth, that e)en no"ada*s the labour fund crops up in the form of capital8
;ariable capital, it is true, onl* then loses its character of a )alue ad)anced out of the capitalist?s
funds,
3
"hen "e )ie" the process of capitalist production in the flo" of its constant rene"al8 /ut
that process must ha)e had a beginning of some +ind8 From our present standpoint it therefore
seems li+el* that the capitalist, once upon a time, became possessed of mone*, b* some
accumulation that too+ place independentl* of the unpaid labour of others, and that this "as,
therefore, ho" he "as enabled to freIuent the mar+et as a bu*er of labour4po"er8 -o"e)er this
ma* be, the mere continuit* of the process, the simple reproduction, brings about some other
"onderful changes, "hich affect not onl* the )ariable, but the total capital8
>f a capital of ]1,777 beget *earl* a surplus )alue of ]677, and if this surplus )alue be consumed
e)er* *ear, it is clear that at the end of 3 *ears the surplus )alue consumed "ill amount to 3 h
]677 or the ]1,777 originall* ad)anced8 >f onl* a part, sa* one half, "ere consumed, the same
result "ould follo" at the end of 17 *ears, since 17 h ]177Y ]1,7778 General &ule: 'he )alue of
the capital ad)anced di)ided b* the surplus )alue annuall* consumed, gi)es the number of *ears,
or reproduction periods, at the e9piration of "hich the capital originall* ad)anced has been
consumed b* the capitalist and has disappeared8 'he capitalist thin+s, that he is consuming the
produce of the unpaid labour of others, i$e8, the surplus )alue, and is +eeping intact his original
capital; but "hat he thin+s cannot alter facts8 (fter the lapse of a certain number of *ears, the
capital )alue he then possesses is eIual to the sum total of the surplus )alue appropriated b* him
during those *ears, and the total )alue he has consumed is eIual to that of his original capital8 >t is
true, he has in hand a capital "hose amount has not changed, and of "hich a part, )i18, the
buildings, machiner*, Pc8, "ere alread* there "hen the "or+ of his business began8 /ut "hat "e
ha)e to do "ith here, is not the material elements, but the )alue, of that capital8 Bhen a person
gets through all his propert*, b* ta+ing upon himself debts eIual to the )alue of that propert*, it is
:77 5hapter 6:
clear that his propert* represents nothing but the sum total of his debts8 (nd so it is "ith the
capitalist; "hen he has consumed the eIui)alent of his original capital, the )alue of his present
capital represents nothing but the total amount of the surplus )alue appropriated b* him "ithout
pa*ment8 Cot a single atom of the )alue of his old capital continues to e9ist8
(part then from all accumulation, the mere continuit* of the process of production, in other
"ords simple reproduction, sooner or later, and of necessit*, con)erts e)er* capital into
accumulated capital, or capitalised surplus )alue8 E)en if that capital "as originall* acIuired b*
the personal labour of its emplo*er, it sooner or later becomes )alue appropriated "ithout an
eIui)alent, the unpaid labour of others materialised either in mone* or in some other obDect8 Be
sa" in 5hapt8 >;84;>8 that in order to con)ert mone* into capital something more is reIuired than
the production and circulation of commodities8 Be sa" that on the one side the possessor of )alue
or mone*, on the other, the possessor of the )alue4creating substance; on the one side, the
possessor of the means of production and subsistence, on the other, the possessor of nothing but
labour4po"er, must confront one another as bu*er and seller8 'he separation of labour from its
product, of subDecti)e labour4po"er from the obDecti)e conditions of labour, "as therefore the
real foundation in fact, and the starting4point of capitalist production8
/ut that "hich at first "as but a starting4point, becomes, b* the mere continuit* of the process, b*
simple reproduction, the peculiar result, constantl* rene"ed and perpetuated, of capitalist
production8 =n the one hand, the process of production incessantl* con)erts material "ealth into
capital, into means of creating more "ealth and means of enDo*ment for the capitalist8 =n the
other hand, the labourer, on Iuitting the process, is "hat he "as on entering it, a source of "ealth,
but de)oid of all means of ma+ing that "ealth his o"n8 Since, before entering on the process, his
o"n labour has alread* been alienated from himself b* the sale of his labour4po"er, has been
appropriated b* the capitalist and incorporated "ith capital, it must, during the process, be
realised in a product that does not belong to him8 Since the process of production is also the
process b* "hich the capitalist consumes labour4po"er, the product of the labourer is incessantl*
con)erted, not onl* into commodities, but into capital, into )alue that suc+s up the )alue4creating
po"er, into means of subsistence that bu* the person of the labourer, into means of production
that command the producers8
6
'he labourer therefore constantl* produces material, obDecti)e
"ealth, but in the form of capital, of an alien po"er that dominates and e9ploits him; and the
capitalist as constantl* produces labour4po"er, but in the form of a subDecti)e source of "ealth,
separated from the obDects in and b* "hich it can alone be realised; in short he produces the
labourer, but as a "age labourer8
7
'his incessant reproduction, this perpetuation of the labourer, is
the sine IuM non of capitalist production8
'he labourer consumes in a t"o4fold "a*8 Bhile producing he consumes b* his labour the means
of production, and con)erts them into products "ith a higher )alue than that of the capital
ad)anced8 'his is his producti)e consumption8 >t is at the same time consumption of his labour4
po"er b* the capitalist "ho bought it8 =n the other hand, the labourer turns the mone* paid to
him for his labour4po"er, into means of subsistence: this is his indi)idual consumption8 'he
labourer?s producti)e consumption, and his indi)idual consumption, are therefore totall* distinct8
>n the former, he acts as the moti)e po"er of capital, and belongs to the capitalist8 >n the latter, he
belongs to himself, and performs his necessar* )ital functions outside the process of production8
'he result of the one is, that the capitalist li)es; of the other, that the labourer li)es8
Bhen treating of the "or+ing da*, "e sa" that the labourer is often compelled to ma+e his
indi)idual consumption a mere incident of production8 >n such a case, he supplies himself "ith
necessaries in order to maintain his labour4po"er, Dust as coal and "ater are supplied to the
steam4engine and oil to the "heel8 -is means of consumption, in that case, are the mere means of
:71 5hapter 6:
consumption reIuired b* a means of production; his indi)idual consumption is directl*
producti)e consumption8 'his, ho"e)er, appears to be an abuse not essentiall* appertaining to
capitalist production8
8
'he matter ta+es Iuite another aspect, "hen "e contemplate, not the single capitalist, and the
single labourer, but the capitalist class and the labouring class, not an isolated process of
production, but capitalist production in full s"ing, and on its actual social scale8 /* con)erting
part of his capital into labour4po"er, the capitalist augments the )alue of his entire capital8 -e
+ills t"o birds "ith one stone8 -e profits, not onl* b* "hat he recei)es from, but b* "hat he
gi)es to, the labourer8 'he capital gi)en in e9change for labour4po"er is con)erted into
necessaries, b* the consumption of "hich the muscles, ner)es, bones, and brains of e9isting
labourers are reproduced, and ne" labourers are begotten8 Bithin the limits of "hat is strictl*
necessar*, the indi)idual consumption of the "or+ing class is, therefore, the recon)ersion of the
means of subsistence gi)en b* capital in e9change for labour4po"er, into fresh labour4po"er at
the disposal of capital for e9ploitation8 >t is the production and reproduction of that means of
production so indispensable to the capitalist: the labourer himself8 'he indi)idual consumption of
the labourer, "hether it proceed "ithin the "or+shop or outside it, "hether it be part of the
process of production or not, forms therefore a factor of the production and reproduction of
capital; Dust as cleaning machiner* does, "hether it be done "hile the machiner* is "or+ing or
"hile it is standing8 'he fact that the labourer consumes his means of subsistence for his o"n
purposes, and not to please the capitalist, has no bearing on the matter8 'he consumption of food
b* a beast of burden is none the less a necessar* factor in the process of production, because the
beast enDo*s "hat it eats8 'he maintenance and reproduction of the "or+ing class is, and must
e)er be, a necessar* condition to the reproduction of capital8 /ut the capitalist ma* safel* lea)e
its fulfilment to the labourer?s instincts of self4preser)ation and of propagation8 (ll the capitalist
cares for, is to reduce the labourer?s indi)idual consumption as far as possible to "hat is strictl*
necessar*, and he is far a"a* from imitating those brutal South (mericans, "ho force their
labourers to ta+e the more substantial, rather than the less substantial, +ind of food8
2
-ence both the capitalist and his ideological representati)e, the political economist, consider that
part alone of the labourer?s indi)idual consumption to be producti)e, "hich is reIuisite for the
perpetuation of the class, and "hich therefore must ta+e place in order that the capitalist ma*
ha)e labour4po"er to consume; "hat the labourer consumes for his o"n pleasure be*ond that
part, is unproducti)e consumption8
17
>f the accumulation of capital "ere to cause a rise of "ages
and an increase in the labourer?s consumption, unaccompanied b* increase in the consumption of
labour4po"er b* capital, the additional capital "ould be consumed unproducti)el*8
11
>n realit*,
the indi)idual consumption of the labourer is unproducti)e as regards himself, for it reproduces
nothing but the need* indi)idual; it is producti)e to the capitalist and to the State, since it is the
production of the po"er that creates their "ealth8
16
From a social point of )ie", therefore, the "or+ing class, e)en "hen not directl* engaged in the
labour process, is Dust as much an appendage of capital as the ordinar* instruments of labour8
E)en its indi)idual consumption is, "ithin certain limits, a mere factor in the process of
production8 'hat process, ho"e)er, ta+es good care to pre)ent these self4conscious instruments
from lea)ing it in the lurch, for it remo)es their product, as fast as it is made, from their pole to
the opposite pole of capital8 >ndi)idual consumption pro)ides, on the one hand, the means for
their maintenance and reproduction: on the other hand, it secures b* the annihilation of the
necessaries of life, the continued re4appearance of the "or+man in the labour4mar+et8 'he &oman
sla)e "as held b* fetters: the "age labourer is bound to his o"ner b* in)isible threads8 'he
appearance of independence is +ept up b* means of a constant change of emplo*ers, and b* the
fictio Duris of a contract8
:76 5hapter 6:
>n former times, capital resorted to legislation, "hene)er necessar*, to enforce its proprietar*
rights o)er the free labourer8 For instance, do"n to 1813, the emigration of mechanics emplo*ed
in machine ma+ing "as, in England, forbidden, under grie)ous pains and penalties8
'he reproduction of the "or+ing class carries "ith it the accumulation of s+ill, that is handed
do"n from one generation to another8
1:
'o "hat e9tent the capitalist rec+ons the e9istence of such
a s+illed class among the factors of production that belong to him b* right, and to "hat e9tent he
actuall* regards it as the realit* of his )ariable capital, is seen so soon as a crisis threatens him
"ith its loss8 >n conseIuence of the ci)il "ar in the %nited States and of the accompan*ing cotton
famine, the maDorit* of the cotton operati)es in <ancashire "ere, as is "ell +no"n, thro"n out of
"or+8 /oth from the "or+ing class itself, and from other ran+s of societ*, there arose a cr* for
State aid, or for )oluntar* national subscriptions, in order to enable the @superfluousA hands to
emigrate to the colonies or to the %nited States8 'hereupon, /he /imes published on the 6th
$arch, 186:, a letter from Edmund #otter, a former president of the $anchester 5hamber of
5ommerce8 'his letter "as rightl* called in the -ouse of 5ommons, the manufacturers?
manifesto8
1
Be cull here a fe" characteristic passages, in "hich the proprietar* rights of capital
o)er labour4po"er are unblushingl* asserted8
@-eA (the man out of "or+! @ma* be told the suppl* of cotton4"or+ers is too large
888 and 888 must 888 in fact be reduced b* a third, perhaps, and that then there "ill be
a health* demand for the remaining t"o4thirds8888 #ublic opinion888 urges
emigration8888 'he master cannot "illingl* see his labour suppl* being remo)ed;
he ma* thin+, and perhaps Dustl*, that it is both "rong and unsound8888 /ut if the
public funds are to be de)oted to assist emigration, he bas a right to be heard, and
perhaps to protest8A
$r8 #otter then sho"s ho" useful the cotton trade is, ho" the @trade has undoubtedl* dra"n the
surplus4population from >reland and from the agricultural districts,A ho" immense is its e9tent,
ho" in the *ear 1867 it *ielded 3J1: ths of the total English e9ports, ho", after a fe" *ears, it "ill
again e9pand b* the e9tension of the mar+et, particularl* of the >ndian mar+et, and b* calling
forth a plentiful suppl* of cotton at 6d8 per lb8 -e then continues:
@Some time 888,one, t"o, or three *ears, it ma* be, "ill produce the Iuantit*8888 'he
Iuestion > "ould put then is this F >s the trade "orth retainingE >s it "orth "hile to
+eep the machiner* (he means the li)ing labour machines! in order, and is it not
the greatest foll* to thin+ of parting "ith thatE > thin+ it is8 > allo" that the "or+ers
are not a propert*, not the propert* of <ancashire and the masters; but the* are the
strength of both; the* are the mental and trained po"er "hich cannot be8 replaced
for a generation; the mere machiner* "hich the* "or+ might much of it be
beneficiall* replaced, na* impro)ed, in a t"el)emonth
13
Encourage or allo" (Q!
the "or+ing4po"er to emigrate, and "hat of the capitalistE888 'a+e a"a* the cream
of the "or+ers, and fi9ed capital "ill depreciate in a great degree, and the floating
"ill not subDect itself to a struggle "ith the short suppl* of inferior labour8888 Be
are told the "or+ers "ish itA (emigration!8 @;er* natural it is that the* should do
so8888 &educe, compress the cotton trade b* ta+ing a"a* its "or+ing po"er and
reducing their "ages e9penditure, sa* one4fifth, or fi)e millions, and "hat then
"ould happen to the class abo)e, the small shop+eepers; and "hat of the rents, the
cottage rents8888 'race out the effects up"ards to the small farmer, the better
householder, and 888 the lando"ner, and sa* if there could be an* suggestion more
suicidal to all classes of the countr* than b* enfeebling a nation b* e9porting the
best of its manufacturing population, and destro*ing the )alue of some of its most
:7: 5hapter 6:
producti)e capital and enrichment 8888 > ad)ise a loan (of fi)e or si9 millions
sterling!, 888 e9tending it ma* be o)er t"o or three *ears, administered b* special
commissioners added to the /oards of Guardians in the cotton districts, under
special legislati)e regulations, enforcing some occupation or labour, as a means of
+eeping up at least the moral standard of the recipients of the loan888 can an*thing
be "orse for lando"ners or masters than parting "ith the best of the "or+ers, and
demoralising and disappointing the rest b* an e9tended depleti)e emigration, a
depletion of capital and )alue in an entire pro)inceEA
#otter, the chosen mouthpiece of the manufacturers, distinguishes t"o sorts of @machiner*,A each
of "hich belongs to the capitalist, and of "hich one stands in his factor*, the other at night4time
and on Sunda*s is housed outside the factor*, in cottages8 'he one is inanimate, the other li)ing8
'he inanimate machiner* not onl* "ears out and depreciates from da* to da*, but a great part of
it becomes so Iuic+l* superannuated, b* constant technical progress, that it can be replaced "ith
ad)antage b* ne" machiner* after a fe" months8 'he li)ing machiner*, on the contrar* gets
better the longer it lasts, and in proportion as the s+ill, handed from one generation to another,
accumulates8 /he /imes ans"ered the cotton lord as follo"s:
@$r8 Edmund #otter is so impressed "ith the e9ceptional and supreme importance
of the cotton masters that, in order to preser)e this class and perpetuate their
profession, he "ould +eep half a million of the labouring class confined in a great
moral "or+house against their "ill8 W>s the trade "orth retainingE? as+s $r8 #otter8
W5ertainl* b* all honest means it is,? "e ans"er8 W>s it "orth "hile +eeping the
machiner* in orderE? again as+s $r8 #otter8 -ere "e hesitate8 /* the Wmachiner*?
$r8 #otter means the human machiner*, for he goes on to protest that he does not
mean to use them as an absolute propert*8 Be must confess that "e do not thin+ it
W"orth "hile,? or e)en possible, to +eep the human machiner* in order F that is to
shut it up and +eep it oiled till it is "anted8 -uman machiner* "ill rust under
inaction, oil and rub it as *ou ma*8 $oreo)er, the human machiner* "ill, as "e
ha)e Dust seen, get the steam up of its o"n accord, and burst or run amuc+ in our
great to"ns8 >t might, as $r8 #otter sa*s, reIuire some time to reproduce the
"or+ers, but, ha)ing machinists and capitalists at hand, "e could al"a*s find
thrift*, hard, industrious men "here"ith to impro)ise more master manufacturers
than "e can e)er "ant8 $r8 #otter tal+s of the trade re)i)ing Win one, t"o, or three
*ears,? and he as+s us not Wto encourage or allo" (Q! the "or+ing po"er to
emigrate8?
16
-e sa*s that it is )er* natural the "or+ers should "ish to emigrate;
but he thin+s that in spite of their desire, the nation ought to +eep this half million
of "or+ers "ith their 777,777 dependents, shut up in the cotton districts; and as a
necessar* conseIuence, he must of course thin+ that the nation ought to +eep
do"n their discontent b* force, and sustain them b* alms F and upon the chance
that the cotton masters ma* some da* "ant them8888 'he time is come "hen the
great public opinion of these islands must operate to sa)e this W"or+ing po"er?
from those "ho "ould deal "ith it as the* "ould deal "ith iron, and coal, and
cotton8A
/he /imesC article "as onl* a Deu d?esprit8 'he @great public opinionA "as, in fact, of $r8 #otter?s
opinion, that the factor* operati)es are part of the mo)able fittings of a factor*8 'heir emigration
"as pre)ented8 'he* "ere loc+ed up in that @moral "or+house,A the cotton districts, and the*
form, as before, @the strengthA of the cotton manufacturers of <ancashire8
:7 5hapter 6:
5apitalist production, therefore, of itself reproduces the separation bet"een labour4po"er and the
means of labour8 >t thereb* reproduces and perpetuates the condition for e9ploiting the labourer8 >t
incessantl* forces him to sell his labour4po"er in order to li)e, and enables the capitalist to
purchase labour4po"er in order that he ma* enrich himself8
17
>t is no longer a mere accident, that
capitalist and labourer confront each other in the mar+et as bu*er and seller8 >t is the process itself
that incessantl* hurls bac+ the labourer on to the mar+et as a )endor of his labour4po"er, and that
incessantl* con)erts his o"n product into a means b* "hich another man can purchase him8 >n
realit*, the labourer belongs to capital before he has sold himself to capital8 -is economic
bondage
18
is both brought about and concealed b* the periodic sale of himself, b* his change of
masters, and b* the oscillations in the mar+et4price of labour4po"er8
12
5apitalist production, therefore, under its aspect of a continuous connected process, of a process
of reproduction, produces not onl* commodities, not onl* surplus )alue, but it also produces and
reproduces the capitalist relation; on the one side the capitalist, on the other the "age labourer8
67
Chapter 24: Conversion of Surplus value into
Capital
Section 1: Capitalist Production on a
Pro%ressi=el Increasin% Scale7 Transition
of the (aws of Propert that Characterise
Production of Commodities into (aws of
Capitalist ;ppropriation
-itherto "e ha)e in)estigated ho" surplus )alue emanates from capital; "e ha)e no" to see ho"
capital arises from surplus )alue8 Emplo*ing surplus )alue as capital, recon)erting it into capital,
is called accumulation of capital8
1
First let us consider this transaction from the standpoint of the indi)idual capitalist8 Suppose a
spinner to ha)e ad)anced a capital of ]17,777, of "hich four4fifths (]8,777! are laid out in cotton,
machiner*, Pc8, and one4fifth (]6,777! in "ages8 <et him produce 67,777 lbs8 of *arn annuall*,
ha)ing a )alue of ]6,7778 'he rate of surplus )alue being 177`, the surplus )alue lies in the
surplus or net product of 7,777 lbs8 of *arn, one4si9th of the gross product, "ith a )alue of
]6,777 "hich "ill be realised b* a sale8 ]6,777 is ]6,7778 Be can neither see nor smell in this
sum of mone* a trace of surplus )alue8 Bhen "e +no" that a gi)en )alue is surplus )alue, "e
+no" ho" its o"ner came b* it; but that does not alter the nature either of )alue or of mone*8
>n order to con)ert this additional sum of ]6,777 into capital, the master4spinner "ill, all
circumstances remaining as before, ad)ance four4fifths of it (]1,677! in the purchase of cotton,
Pc8, and one4fifth (]77! in the purchase of additional spinners, "ho "ill find in the mar+et the
necessaries of life "hose )alue the master has ad)anced to them8
'hen the ne" capital of ]6,777 functions in the spinning mill, and brings in, in its turn, a surplus
)alue of ]778
'he capital )alue "as originall* ad)anced in the mone* form8 'he surplus )alue on the contrar*
is, originall*, the )alue of a definite portion of the gross product8 >f this gross product be sold,
con)erted into mone*, the capital )alue regains its original form8 From this moment the capital
)alue and the surplus )alue are both of them sums of mone*, and their recon)ersion into capital
ta+es place in precisel* the same "a*8 'he one, as "ell as the other, is laid out b* the capitalist in
the purchase of commodities that place him in a position to begin afresh the fabrication of his
goods, and this time, on an e9tended scale8 /ut in order to be able to bu* those commodities, he
must find them read* in the mar+et8
-is o"n *arns circulate, onl* because he brings his annual product to mar+et, as all other
capitalists li+e"ise do "ith their commodities8 /ut these commodities, before coming to mar+et,
"ere part of the general annual product, part of the total mass of obDects of e)er* +ind, into "hich
the sum of the indi)idual capitals, i$e8, the total capital of societ*, had been con)erted in the
course of the *ear, and of "hich each capitalist had in hand onl* an aliIuot part8 'he transactions
in the mar+et effectuate onl* the interchange of the indi)idual components of this annual product,
:76 5hapter 6
transfer them from one hand to another, but can neither augment the total annual production, nor
alter the nature of the obDects produced8 -ence the use that can be made of the total annual
product, depends entirel* upon its o"n composition, but in no "a* upon circulation8
'he annual production must in the first place furnish all those obDects (use )alues! from "hich the
material components of capital, used up in the course of the *ear, ha)e to be replaced8 0educting
these there remains the net or surplus4product, in "hich the surplus )alue lies8 (nd of "hat does
this surplus4product consistE =nl* of things destined to satisf* the "ants and desires of the
capitalist class, things "hich, conseIuentl*, enter into the consumption fund of the capitalistsE
Bere that the case, the cup of surplus )alue "ould be drained to the )er* dregs, and nothing but
simple reproduction "ould e)er ta+e place8
'o accumulate it is necessar* to con)ert a portion of the surplus4product into capital8 /ut "e
cannot, e9cept b* a miracle, con)ert into capital an*thing but such articles as can be emplo*ed in
the labour process (i$e8, means of production!, and such further articles as are suitable for the
sustenance of the labourer (i$e8, means of subsistence!8 5onseIuentl*, a part of the annual surplus
labour must ha)e been applied to the production of additional means of production and
subsistence, o)er and abo)e the Iuantit* of these things reIuired to replace the capital ad)anced8
>n one "ord, surplus )alue is con)ertible into capital solel* because the surplus4product, "hose
)alue it is, alread* comprises the material elements of ne" capital8
6
Co" in order to allo" of these elements actuall* functioning as capital, the capitalist class
reIuires additional labour8 >f the e9ploitation of the labourers alread* emplo*ed do not increase,
either e9tensi)el* or intensi)el*, then additional labour4po"er must be found8 For this the
mechanism of capitalist production pro)ides beforehand, b* con)erting the "or+ing class into a
class dependent on "ages, a class "hose ordinar* "ages suffice, not onl* for its maintenance, but
for its increase8 >t is onl* necessar* for capital to incorporate this additional labour4po"er,
annuall* supplied b* the "or+ing class in the shape of labourers of all ages, "ith the surplus
means of production comprised in the annual produce, and the con)ersion of surplus )alue into
capital is complete8 From a concrete point of )ie", accumulation resol)es itself into the
reproduction of capital on a progressi)el* increasing scale8 'he circle in "hich simple
reproduction mo)es, alters its form, and, to use Sismondi?s e9pression, changes into a spiral8
:
<et us no" return to our illustration8 >t is the old stor*: (braham begat >saac, >saac begat Lacob,
and so on8 'he original capital of ]17,777 brings in a surplus )alue of ]6,777, "hich is
capitalised8 'he ne" capital of ]6,777 brings in a surplus )alue of ]77, and this, too, is
capitalised, con)erted into a second additional capital, "hich, in its turn, produces a further
surplus )alue of ]878 (nd so the ball rolls on8
Be here lea)e out of consideration the portion of the surplus )alue consumed b* the capitalist8
Lust as little does it concern us, for the moment, "hether the additional capital is Doined on to the
original capital, or is separated from it to function independentl*; "hether the same capitalist,
"ho accumulated it, emplo*s it, or "hether he hands it o)er to another8 'his onl* "e must not
forget, that b* the side of the ne"l*4formed capital, the original capital continues to reproduce
itself, and to produce surplus )alue, and that this is also true of all accumulated capital, and the
additional capital engendered b* it8
'he original capital "as formed b* the ad)ance of ]17,7778 -o" did the o"ner become
possessed of itE @/* his o"n labour and that of his forefathers,A ans"er unanimousl* the
spo+esmen of #olitical Econom*8
"hich ha)e
recognised that indi)iduals ma* acIuire propert* b* )arious other means besides
the e9ertion of labour8888 #ersons of independent fortune 888 o"e their superior
ad)antages b* no means to an* superior abilities of their o"n, but almost
entirel* 888 to the industr* of others8 >t is not the possession of land, or of mone*,
but the command of labour "hich distinguishes the opulent from the labouring
part of the communit* 8888 'his Gscheme appro)ed b* EdenH "ould gi)e the people
of propert* sufficient (but b* no means too much! influence and authorit* o)er
those "ho 888 "or+ for them; and it "ould place such labourers, not in an abDect or
ser)ile condition, but in such a state of eas* and liberal dependence as all "ho
+no" human nature, and its histor*, "ill allo" to be necessar* for their o"n
comfort8A
3
Sir F8 $8 Eden, it ma* be remar+ed in passing, is the onl* disciple of (dam Smith during the
eighteenth centur* that produced an* "or+ of importance8
6
%nder the conditions of accumulation supposed thus far, "hich conditions are those most
fa)ourable to the labourers, their relation of dependence upon capital ta+es on a form endurable
or, as Eden sa*s: @eas* and liberal8A >nstead of becoming more intensi)e "ith the gro"th of
capital, this relation of dependence onl* becomes more e9tensi)e, i$e8, the sphere of capital?s
e9ploitation and rule merel* e9tends "ith its o"n dimensions and the number of its subDects8 (
larger part of their o"n surplus4product, al"a*s increasing and continuall* transformed into
additional capital, comes bac+ to them in the shape of means of pa*ment, so that the* can e9tend
the circle of their enDo*ments; can ma+e some additions to their consumption4fund of clothes,
furniture, Pc8, and can la* b* small reser)e funds of mone*8 /ut Dust as little as better clothing,
food, and treatment, and a larger peculium, do a"a* "ith the e9ploitation of the sla)e, so little do
the* set aside that of the "age "or+er8 ( rise in the price of labour, as a conseIuence of
accumulation of capital, onl* means, in fact, that the length and "eight of the golden chain the
"age "or+er has alread* forged for himself, allo" of a rela9ation of the tension of it8 >n the
contro)ersies on this subDect the chief fact has generall* been o)erloo+ed, )i18, the differentia
specifica Gdefining characteristicH of capitalistic production8 labour po"er is sold toda*, not "ith a
)ie" of satisf*ing, b* its ser)ice or b* its product, the personal needs of the bu*er8 -is aim is
augmentation of his capital, production of commodities containing more labour than he pa*s for,
containing therefore a portion of )alue that costs him nothing, and that is ne)ertheless realised
"hen the commodities are sold8 #roduction of surplus )alue is the absolute la" of this mode of
production8 labour po"er is onl* saleable so far as it preser)es the means of production in their
capacit* of capital, reproduces its o"n )alue as capital, and *ields in unpaid labour a source of
additional capital8
7
'he conditions of its sale, "hether more or less fa)ourable to the labourer,
include therefore the necessit* of its constant re4selling, and the constantl* e9tended reproduction
:66 5hapter 63
of all "ealth in the shape of capital8 Bages, as "e ha)e seen, b* their )er* nature, al"a*s impl*
the performance of a certain Iuantit* of unpaid labour on the part of the labourer8 (ltogether,
irrespecti)e of the case of a rise of "ages "ith a falling price of labour, Pc8, such an increase onl*
means at best a Iuantitati)e diminution of the unpaid labour that the "or+er has to suppl*8 'his
diminution can ne)er reach the point at "hich it "ould threaten the s*stem itself8 (part from
)iolent conflicts as to the rate of "ages (and (dam Smith has alread* sho"n that in such a
conflict, ta+en on the "hole, the master is al"a*s master!, a rise in the price of labour resulting
from accumulation of capital implies the follo"ing alternati)e:
Either the price of labour +eeps on rising, because its rise does not interfere "ith the progress of
accumulation8 >n this there is nothing "onderful, for, sa*s (dam Smith, @after these (profits! are
diminished, stoc+ ma* not onl* continue to increase, but to increase much faster than before8888 (
great stoc+, though "ith small profits, generall* increases faster than a small stoc+ "ith great
profits8A (l8 c8, ii, p8 1828! >n this case it is e)ident that a diminution in the unpaid labour in no "a*
interferes "ith the e9tension of the domain of capital8 F =r, on the other hand, accumulation
slac+ens in conseIuence of the rise in the price of labour, because the stimulus of gain is blunted8
'he rate of accumulation lessens; but "ith its lessening, the primar* cause of that lessening
)anishes, i$e8, the disproportion bet"een capital and e9ploitable labour po"er8 'he mechanism of
the process of capitalist production remo)es the )er* obstacles that it temporaril* creates8 'he
price of labour falls again to a le)el corresponding "ith the needs of the self4e9pansion of capital,
"hether the le)el be belo", the same as, or abo)e the one "hich "as normal before the rise of
"ages too+ place8 Be see thus: >n the first case, it is not the diminished rate either of the absolute,
or of the proportional, increase in labour po"er, or labouring population, "hich causes capital to
be in e9cess, but con)ersel* the e9cess of capital that ma+es e9ploitable labour po"er
insufficient8 >n the second case, it is not the increased rate either of the absolute, or of the
proportional, increase in labour po"er, or labouring population, that ma+es capital insufficient;
but, con)ersel*, the relati)e diminution of capital that causes the e9ploitable labour po"er, or
rather its price, to be in e9cess8 >t is these absolute mo)ements of the accumulation of capital
"hich are reflected as relati)e mo)ements of the mass of e9ploitable labour po"er, and therefore
seem produced b* the latter?s o"n independent mo)ement8 'o put it mathematicall*: the rate of
accumulation is the independent, not the dependent, )ariable; the rate of "ages, the dependent,
not the independent, )ariable8 'hus, "hen the industrial c*cle is in the phase of crisis, a general
fall in the price of commodities is e9pressed as a rise in the )alue of mone*, and, in the phase of
prosperit*, a general rise in the price of commodities, as a fall in the )alue of mone*8 'he so4
called currenc* school concludes from this that "ith high prices too much, "ith lo" prices too
little
8
mone* is in circulation8 'heir ignorance and complete misunderstanding of facts
2
are
"orthil* paralleled b* the economists, "ho interpret the abo)e phenomena of accumulation b*
sa*ing that there are no" too fe", no" too man* "age labourers8
'he la" of capitalist production, that is at the bottom of the pretended @natural la" of
population,A reduces itself simpl* to this: 'he correlation bet"een accumulation of capital and
rate of "ages is nothing else than the correlation bet"een the unpaid labour transformed into
capital, and the additional paid labour necessar* for the setting in motion of this additional
capital8 >t is therefore in no "a* a relation bet"een t"o magnitudes, independent one of the other:
on the one hand, the magnitude of the capital; on the other, the number of the labouring
population; it is rather, at bottom, onl* the relation bet"een the unpaid and the paid labour of the
same labouring population8 >f the Iuantit* of unpaid labour supplied b* the "or+ing class, and
accumulated b* the capitalist class, increases so rapidl* that its con)ersion into capital reIuires an
e9traordinar* addition of paid labour, then "ages rise, and, all other circumstances remaining
eIual, the unpaid labour diminishes in proportion8 /ut as soon as this diminution touches the
:67 5hapter 63
point at "hich the surplus labour that nourishes capital is no longer supplied in normal Iuantit*, a
reaction sets in: a smaller part of re)enue is capitalised, accumulation lags, and the mo)ement of
rise in "ages recei)es a chec+8 'he rise of "ages therefore is confined "ithin limits that not onl*
lea)e intact the foundations of the capitalistic s*stem, but also secure its reproduction on a
progressi)e scale8 'he la" of capitalistic accumulation, metamorphosed b* economists into
pretended la" of Cature, in realit* merel* states that the )er* nature of accumulation e9cludes
e)er* diminution in the degree of e9ploitation of labour, and e)er* rise in the price of labour,
"hich could seriousl* imperil the continual reproduction, on an e)er4enlarging scale, of the
capitalistic relation8 >t cannot be other"ise in a mode of production in "hich the labourer e9ists to
satisf* the needs of self4e9pansion of e9isting )alues, instead of, on the contrar*, material "ealth
e9isting to satisf* the needs of de)elopment on the part of the labourer8 (s, in religion, man is
go)erned b* the products of his o"n brain, so in capitalistic production, he is go)erned b* the
products of his o"n hand8
17
Section ': .elati=e -iminution of the Variable
Part of Capital Simultaneousl with the
Pro%ress of ;ccumulation and of the
Concentration that ;ccompanies it
(ccording to the economists themsel)es, it is neither the actual e9tent of social "ealth, nor the
magnitude of the capital alread* functioning, that lead to a rise of "ages, but onl* the constant
gro"th of accumulation and the degree of rapidit* of that gro"th8 ((dam Smith, /oo+ >8, chapter
88! So far, "e ha)e onl* considered one special phase of this process, that in "hich the increase of
capital occurs along "ith a constant technical composition of capital8 /ut the process goes
be*ond this phase8
=nce gi)en the general basis of the capitalistic s*stem, then, in the course of accumulation, a
point is reached at "hich the de)elopment of the producti)it* of social labour becomes the most
po"erful le)er of accumulation8
@'he same cause,A sa*s (dam Smith, @"hich raises the "ages of labour, the
increase of stoc+, tends to increase its producti)e po"ers, and to ma+e a smaller
Iuantit* of labour produce a greater Iuantit* of "or+8A
11
(part from natural conditions, such as fertilit* of the soil, Pc8, and from the s+ill of independent
and isolated producers (sho"n rather Iualitati)el* in the goodness than Iuantitati)el* in the mass
of their products!, the degree of producti)it* of labour, in a gi)en societ*, is e9pressed in the
relati)e e9tent of the means of production that one labourer, during a gi)en time, "ith the same
tension of labour po"er, turns into products8 'he mass of the means of production "hich he thus
transforms, increases "ith the producti)eness of his labour8 /ut those means of production pla* a
double part8 'he increase of some is a conseIuence, that of the others a condition of the
increasing producti)it* of labour8 E$$+ "ith the di)ision of labour in manufacture, and "ith the
use of machiner*, more ra" material is "or+ed up in the same time, and, therefore, a greater mass
of ra" material and au9iliar* substances enter into the labour process8 'hat is the conseIuence of
the increasing producti)it* of labour8 =n the other hand, the mass of machiner*, beasts of burden,
mineral manures, drain4pipes, Pc8, is a condition of the increasing producti)it* of labour8 So also
is it "ith the means of production concentrated in buildings, furnaces, means of transport, Pc8
/ut "hether condition or conseIuence, the gro"ing e9tent of the means of production, as
compared "ith the labour po"er incorporated "ith them, is an e9pression of the gro"ing
producti)eness of labour8 'he increase of the latter appears, therefore, in the diminution of the
:68 5hapter 63
mass of labour in proportion to the mass of means of production mo)ed b* it, or in the diminution
of the subDecti)e factor of the labour process as compared "ith the obDecti)e factor8
'his change in the technical composition of capital, this gro"th in the mass of means of
production, as compared "ith the mass of the labour po"er that )i)ifies them, is reflected again
in its )alue composition, b* the increase of the constant constituent of capital at the e9pense of its
)ariable constituent8 'here ma* be, e$$+ originall* 37 per cent8 of a capital laid out in means of
production, and 37 per cent8 in labour po"er; later on, "ith the de)elopment of the producti)it*
of labour, 87 per cent8 in means of production, 67 per cent8 in labour po"er, and so on8 'his la"
of the progressi)e increase in constant capital, in proportion to the )ariable, is confirmed at e)er*
step (as alread* sho"n! b* the comparati)e anal*sis of the prices of commodities, "hether "e
compare different economic epochs or different nations in the same epoch8 'he relati)e
magnitude of the element of price, "hich represents the )alue of the means of production onl*, or
the constant part of capital consumed, is in direct, the relati)e magnitude of the other element of
price that pa*s labour (the )ariable part of capital! is in in)erse proportion to the ad)ance of
accumulation8
'his diminution in the )ariable part of capital as compared "ith the constant, or the altered )alue4
composition of the capital, ho"e)er, onl* sho"s appro9imatel* the change in the composition of
its material constituents8 >f, e$$+ the capital4)alue emplo*ed toda* in spinning is 7J8 constant and
1J8 )ariable, "hilst at the beginning of the 18th centur* it "as [ constant and [ )ariable, on the
other hand, the mass of ra" material, instruments of labour, Pc8, that a certain Iuantit* of
spinning labour consumes producti)el* toda*, is man* hundred times greater than at the
beginning of the 18th centur*8 'he reason is simpl* that, "ith the increasing producti)it* of
labour, not onl* does the mass of the means of production consumed b* it increase, but their
)alue compared "ith their mass diminishes8 'heir )alue therefore rises absolutel*, but not in
proportion to their mass8 'he increase of the difference bet"een constant and )ariable capital, is,
therefore, much less than that of the difference bet"een the mass of the means of production into
"hich the constant, and the mass of the labour po"er into "hich the )ariable, capital is con)erted8
'he former difference increases "ith the latter, but in a smaller degree8
/ut, if the progress of accumulation lessens the relati)e magnitude of the )ariable part of capital,
it b* no means, in doing this, e9cludes the possibilit* of a rise in its absolute magnitude8 Suppose
that a capital4)alue at first is di)ided into 37 per cent8 of constant and 37 per cent8 of )ariable
capital; later into 87 per cent8 of constant and 67 per cent8 of )ariable8 >f in the meantime the
original capital, sa* ]6,777, has increased to ]18,777, its )ariable constituent has also increased8
>t "as ]:,777, it is no" ]:,6778 /ut "here as formerl* an increase of capital b* 67 per cent8
"ould ha)e sufficed to raise the demand for labour 67 per cent8, no" this latter rise reIuires a
tripling of the original capital8
>n #art >;, it "as sho"n, ho" the de)elopment of the producti)eness of social labour presupposes
co4operation on a large scale; ho" it is onl* upon this supposition that di)ision and combination
of labour can be organised, and the means of production economised b* concentration on a )ast
scale; ho" instruments of labour "hich, from their )er* nature, are onl* fit for use in common,
such as a s*stem of machiner*, can be called into being; ho" huge natural forces can be pressed
into the ser)ice of production; and ho" the transformation can be effected of the process of
production into a technological application of science8 =n the basis of the production of
commodities, "here the means of production are the propert* of pri)ate persons, and "here the
artisan therefore either produces commodities, isolated from and independent of others, or sells
his labour po"er as a commodit*, because he lac+s the means for independent industr*, co4
operation on a large scale can realise itself onl* in the increase of indi)idual capitals, onl* in
:62 5hapter 63
proportion as the 4means of social production and the means of subsistence are transformed into
the pri)ate propert* of capitalists8 'he basis of the production of commodities can admit of
production on a large scale in the capitalistic form alone8 ( certain accumulation of capital, in the
hands of indi)idual producers of commodities, forms therefore the necessar* preliminar* of the
specificall* capitalistic mode of production8 Be had, therefore, to assume that this occurs during
the transition from handicraft to capitalistic industr*8 >t ma* be called primiti)e accumulation,
because it is the historic basis, instead of the historic result of specificall* capitalist production8
-o" it itself originates, "e need not here inIuire as *et8 >t is enough that it forms the starting
point8 /ut all methods for raising the social producti)e po"er of labour that are de)eloped on this
basis, are at the same time methods for the increased production of surplus )alue or surplus4
product, "hich in its turn is the formati)e element of accumulation8 'he* are, therefore, at the
same time methods of the production of capital b* capital, or methods of its accelerated
accumulation8 'he continual re4transformation of surplus )alue into capital no" appears in the
shape of the increasing magnitude of the capital that enters into the process of production8 'his in
turn is the basis of an e9tended scale of production, of the methods for raising the producti)e
po"er of labour that accompan* it, and of accelerated production of surplus )alue8 >f, therefore, a
certain degree of accumulation of capital appears as a condition of the specificall* capitalist mode
of production, the latter causes con)ersel* an accelerated accumulation of capital8 Bith the
accumulation of capital, therefore, the specificall* capitalistic mode of production de)elops, and
"ith the capitalist mode of production the accumulation of capital8 /oth these economic factors
bring about, in the compound ratio of the impulses the* reciprocall* gi)e one another, that change
in the technical composition of capital b* "hich the )ariable constituent becomes al"a*s smaller
and smaller as compared "ith the constant8
E)er* indi)idual capital is a larger or smaller concentration of means of production, "ith a
corresponding command o)er a larger or smaller labour4arm*8 E)er* accumulation becomes the
means of ne" accumulation8 Bith the increasing mass of "ealth "hich functions as capital,
accumulation increases the concentration of that "ealth in the hands of indi)idual capitalists, and
thereb* "idens the basis of production on a large scale and of the specific methods of capitalist
production8 'he gro"th of social capital is effected b* the gro"th of man* indi)idual capitals8 (ll
other circumstances remaining the same, indi)idual capitals, and "ith them the concentration of
the means of production, increase in such proportion as the* form aliIuot parts of the total social
capital8 (t the same time portions of the original capitals disengage themsel)es and function as
ne" independent capitals8 /esides other causes, the di)ision of propert*, "ithin capitalist
families, pla*s a great part in this8 Bith the accumulation of capital, therefore, the number of
capitalists gro"s to a greater or less e9tent8 '"o points characterise this +ind of concentration
"hich gro"s directl* out of, or rather is identical "ith, accumulation8 First: 'he increasing
concentration of the social means of production in the hands of indi)idual capitalists is, other
things remaining eIual, limited b* the degree of increase of social "ealth8 Second: 'he part of
social capital domiciled in each particular sphere of production is di)ided among man* capitalists
"ho face one another as independent commodit*4producers competing "ith each other8
(ccumulation and the concentration accompan*ing it are, therefore, not onl* scattered o)er man*
points, but the increase of each functioning capital is th"arted b* the formation of ne" and the
sub4di)ision of old capitals8 (ccumulation, therefore, presents itself on the one hand as increasing
concentration of the means of production, and of the command o)er labour; on the other, as
repulsion of man* indi)idual capitals one from another8
'his splitting4up of the total social capital into man* indi)idual capitals or the repulsion of its
fractions one from another, is counteracted b* their attraction8 'his last does not mean that simple
concentration of the means of production and of the command o)er labour, "hich is identical
::7 5hapter 63
"ith accumulation8 >t is concentration of capitals alread* formed, destruction of their indi)idual
independence, e9propriation of capitalist b* capitalist, transformation of man* small into fe"
large capitals8 'his process differs from the former in this, that it onl* presupposes a change in the
distribution of capital alread* to hand, and functioning; its field of action is therefore not limited
b* the absolute gro"th of social "ealth, b* the absolute limits of accumulation8 5apital gro"s in
one place to a huge mass in a single hand, because it has in another place been lost b* man*8 'his
is centralisation proper, as distinct from accumulation and concentration8
'he la"s of this centralisation of capitals, or of the attraction of capital b* capital, cannot be
de)eloped here8 ( brief hint at a fe" facts must suffice8 'he battle of competition is fought b*
cheapening of commodities8 'he cheapness of commodities demands, caeteris paribus+ on the
producti)eness of labour, and this again on the scale of production8 'herefore, the larger capitals
beat the smaller8 >t "ill further be remembered that, "ith the de)elopment of the capitalist mode
of production, there is an increase in the minimum amount of indi)idual capital necessar* to carr*
on a business under its normal conditions8 'he smaller capitals, therefore, cro"d into spheres of
production "hich $odern >ndustr* has onl* sporadicall* or incompletel* got hold of8 -ere
competition rages in direct proportion to the number, and in in)erse proportion to the magnitudes,
of the antagonistic capitals8 >t al"a*s ends in the ruin of man* small capitalists, "hose capitals
partl* pass into the hands of their conIuerors, partl* )anish8 (part from this, "ith capitalist
production an altogether ne" force comes into pla* F the credit s*stem, "hich in its first stages
furti)el* creeps in as the humble assistant of accumulation, dra"ing into the hands of indi)idual
or associated capitalists, b* in)isible threads, the mone* resources "hich lie scattered, o)er the
surface of societ*, in larger or smaller amounts; but it soon becomes a ne" and terrible "eapon in
the battle of competition and is finall* transformed into an enormous social mechanism for the
centralisation of capitals8
5ommensuratel* "ith the de)elopment of capitalist production and accumulation there de)elop
the t"o most po"erful le)ers of centralisation F competition and credit8 (t the same time the
progress of accumulation increases the material amenable to centralisation, i$e8, the indi)idual
capitals, "hilst the e9pansion of capitalist production creates, on the one hand, the social "ant,
and, on the other, the technical means necessar* for those immense industrial underta+ings "hich
reIuire a pre)ious centralisation of capital for their accomplishment8 toda*, therefore, the force of
attraction, dra"ing together indi)idual capitals, and the tendenc* to centralisation are stronger
than e)er before8 /ut if the relati)e e9tension and energ* of the mo)ement to"ards centralisation
is determined, in a certain degree, b* the magnitude of capitalist "ealth and superiorit* of
economic mechanism alread* attained, progress in centralisation does not in an* "a* depend
upon a positi)e gro"th in the magnitude of social capital8 (nd this is the specific difference
bet"een centralisation and concentration, the latter being onl* another name for reproduction on
an e9tended scale8 5entralisation ma* result from a mere change in the distribution of capitals
alread* e9isting, from a simple alteration in the Iuantitati)e grouping of the component parts of
social capital8 -ere capital can gro" into po"erful masses in a single hand because there it has
been "ithdra"n from man* indi)idual hands8 >n an* gi)en branch of industr* centralisation
"ould reach its e9treme limit if all the indi)idual capitals in)ested in it "ere fused into a single
capital8
16
>n a gi)en societ* the limit "ould be reached onl* "hen the entire social capital "as
united in the hands of either a single capitalist or a single capitalist compan*8
5entralisation completes the "or+ of accumulation b* enabling industrial capitalists to e9tend the
scale of their operations8 Bhether this latter result is the conseIuence of accumulation or
centralisation, "hether centralisation is accomplished b* the )iolent method of anne9ation F
"hen certain capitals become such preponderant centres of attraction for others that the* shatter
the indi)idual cohesion of the latter and then dra" the separate fragments to themsel)es F or
::1 5hapter 63
"hether the fusion of a number of capitals alread* formed or in process of formation ta+es place
b* the smoother process of organising Doint4stoc+ companies F the economic effect remains the
same8 E)er*"here the increased scale of industrial establishments is the starting point for a more
comprehensi)e organisation of the collecti)e "or+ of man*, for a "ider de)elopment of their
material moti)e forces F in other "ords, for the progressi)e transformation of isolated processes
of production, carried on b* customar* methods, into processes of production sociall* combined
and scientificall* arranged8
/ut accumulation, the gradual increase of capital b* reproduction as it passes from the circular to
the spiral form, is clearl* a )er* slo" procedure compared "ith centralisation, "hich has onl* to
change the Iuantitati)e groupings of the constituent parts of social capital8 'he "orld "ould still
be "ithout rail"a*s if it had had to "ait until accumulation had got a fe" indi)idual capitals far
enough to be adeIuate for the construction of a rail"a*8 5entralisation, on the contrar*,
accomplished this in the t"in+ling of an e*e, b* means of Doint4stoc+ companies8 (nd "hilst
centralisation thus intensifies and accelerates the effects of accumulation, it simultaneousl*
e9tends and speeds those re)olutions in the technical composition of capital "hich raise its
constant portion at the e9pense of its )ariable portion, thus diminishing the relati)e demand for
labour8
'he masses of capital fused together o)ernight b* centralisation reproduce and multipl* as the
others do, onl* more rapidl*, thereb* becoming ne" and po"erful le)ers in social accumulation8
'herefore, "hen "e spea+ of the progress of social accumulation "e tacitl* include F toda* F the
effects of centralisation8
'he additional capitals formed in the normal course of accumulation (see 5hapter OO>;, Section
1! ser)e particularl* as )ehicles for the e9ploitation of ne" in)entions and disco)eries, and
industrial impro)ements in general8 /ut in time the old capital also reaches the moment of
rene"al from top to toe, "hen it sheds its s+in and is reborn li+e the others in a perfected
technical form, in "hich a smaller Iuantit* of labour "ill suffice to set in motion a larger Iuantit*
of machiner* and ra" materials8 'he absolute reduction in the demand for labour "hich
necessaril* follo"s from this is ob)iousl* so much the greater the higher the degree in "hich the
capitals undergoing this process of rene"al are alread* massed together b* )irtue of the
centralisation mo)ement8
=n the one hand, therefore, the additional capital formed in the course of accumulation attracts
fe"er and fe"er labourers in proportion to its magnitude8 =n the other hand, the old capital
periodicall* reproduced "ith change of composition, repels more and more of the labourers
formerl* emplo*ed b* it8
Section *: Pro%ressi=e Production of a .elati=e
surplus population or Industrial .eser=e
;rm
'he accumulation of capital, though originall* appearing as its Iuantitati)e e9tension onl*, is
effected, as "e ha)e seen, under a progressi)e Iualitati)e change in its composition, under a
constant increase of its constant, at the e9pense of its )ariable constituent8
1:
'he specificall* capitalist mode of production, the de)elopment of the producti)e po"er of
labour corresponding to it, and the change thence resulting in the organic composition of capital,
do not merel* +eep pace "ith the ad)ance of accumulation, or "ith the gro"th of social "ealth8
'he* de)elop at a much Iuic+er rate, because mere accumulation, the absolute increase of the
total social capital, is accompanied b* the centralisation of the indi)idual capitals of "hich that
::6 5hapter 63
total is made up; and because the change in the technological composition of the additional
capital goes hand in hand "ith a similar change in the technological composition of the original
capital8 Bith the ad)ance of accumulation, therefore, the proportion of constant to )ariable capital
changes8 >f it "as originall* sa* 1:1, it no" becomes successi)el* 6:1, ::1, :1, 3:1, 7:1, Pc8, so
that, as the capital increases, instead of [ of its total )alue, onl* 1J:, 1J, 1J3, 1J6, 1J8, Pc8, is
transformed into labour4po"er, and, on the other hand, 6J:, :J, J3, 3J6, 7J8 into means of
production8 Since the demand for labour is determined not b* the amount of capital as a "hole,
but b* its )ariable constituent alone, that demand falls progressi)el* "ith the increase of the total
capital, instead of, as pre)iousl* assumed, rising in proportion to it8 >t falls relati)el* to the
magnitude of the total capital, and at an accelerated rate, as this magnitude increases8 Bith the
gro"th of the total capital, its )ariable constituent or the labour incorporated in it, also does
increase, but in a constantl* diminishing proportion8 'he intermediate pauses are shortened, in
"hich accumulation "or+s as simple e9tension of production, on a gi)en technical basis8 >t is not
merel* that an accelerated accumulation of total capital, accelerated in a constantl* gro"ing
progression, is needed to absorb an additional number of labourers, or e)en, on account of the
constant metamorphosis of old capital, to +eep emplo*ed those alread* functioning8 >n its turn,
this increasing accumulation and centralisation becomes a source of ne" changes in the
composition of capital, of a more accelerated diminution of its )ariable, as compared "ith its
constant constituent8 'his accelerated relati)e diminution of the )ariable constituent, that goes
along "ith the accelerated increase of the total capital, and mo)es more rapidl* than this increase,
ta+es the in)erse form, at the other pole, of an apparentl* absolute increase of the labouring
population, an increase al"a*s mo)ing more rapidl* than that of the )ariable capital or the means
of emplo*ment8 /ut in fact, it is capitalistic accumulation itself that constantl* produces, and
produces in the direct ratio of its o"n energ* and e9tent, a relati)it* redundant population of
labourers, i$e8, a population of greater e9tent than suffices for the a)erage needs of the self4
e9pansion of capital, and therefore a surplus population8
5onsidering the social capital in its totalit*, the mo)ement of its accumulation no" causes
periodical changes, affecting it more or less as a "hole, no" distributes its )arious phases
simultaneousl* o)er the different spheres of production8 >n some spheres a change in the
composition of capital occurs "ithout increase of its absolute magnitude, as a conseIuence of
simple centralisation; in others the absolute gro"th of capital is connected "ith absolute
diminution of its )ariable constituent, or of the labour po"er absorbed b* it; in others again,
capital continues gro"ing for a time on its gi)en technical basis, and attracts additional labour
po"er in proportion to its increase, "hile at other times it undergoes organic change, and lessens
its )ariable constituent; in all spheres, the increase of the )ariable part of capital, and therefore of
the number of labourers emplo*ed b* it, is al"a*s connected "ith )iolent fluctuations and
transitor* production of surplus population, "hether this ta+es the more stri+ing form of the
repulsion of labourers alread* emplo*ed, or the less e)ident but not less real form of the more
difficult absorption of the additional labouring population through the usual channels8
1
Bith the
magnitude of social capital alread* functioning, and the degree of its increase, "ith the e9tension
of the scale of production, and the mass of the labourers set in motion, "ith the de)elopment of
the producti)eness of their labour, "ith the greater breadth and fulness of all sources of "ealth,
there is also an e9tension of the scale on "hich greater attraction of labourers b* capital is
accompanied b* their greater repulsion; the rapidit* of the change in the organic composition of
capital, and in its technical form increases, and an increasing number of spheres of production
becomes in)ol)ed in this change, no" simultaneousl*, no" alternatel*8 'he labouring population
therefore produces, along "ith the accumulation of capital produced b* it, the means b* "hich it
itself is made relati)el* superfluous, is turned into a relati)e surplus population; and it does this to
::: 5hapter 63
an al"a*s increasing e9tent8
13
'his is a la" of population peculiar to the capitalist mode of
production; and in fact e)er* special historic mode of production has its o"n special la"s of
population, historicall* )alid "ithin its limits and onl* in so far as man has not interfered "ith
them8
/ut if a surplus labouring population is a necessar* product of accumulation or of the
de)elopment of "ealth on a capitalist basis, this surplus population becomes, con)ersel*, the
le)er of capitalistic accumulation, na*, a condition of e9istence of the capitalist mode of
production8 >t forms a disposable industrial reser)e arm*, that belongs to capital Iuite as
absolutel* as if the latter had bred it at its o"n cost8 >ndependentl* of the limits of the actual
increase of population, it creates, for the changing needs of the self4e9pansion of capital, a mass
of human material al"a*s read* for e9ploitation8 Bith accumulation, and the de)elopment of the
producti)eness of labour that accompanies it, the po"er of sudden e9pansion of capital gro"s
also; it gro"s, not merel* because the elasticit* of the capital alread* functioning increases, not
merel* because the absolute "ealth of societ* e9pands, of "hich capital onl* forms an elastic
part, not merel* because credit, under e)er* special stimulus, at once places an unusual part of
this "ealth at the disposal of production in the form of additional capital; it gro"s, also, because
the technical conditions of the process of production themsel)es F machiner*, means of transport,
Pc8 F no" admit of the rapidest transformation of masses of surplus4product into additional
means of production8 'he mass of social "ealth, o)erflo"ing "ith the ad)ance of accumulation,
and transformable into additional capital, thrusts itself franticall* into old branches of production,
"hose mar+et suddenl* e9pands, or into ne"l* formed branches, such as rail"a*s, Pc8, the need
for "hich gro"s out of the de)elopment of the old ones8 >n all such cases, there must be the
possibilit* of thro"ing great masses of men suddenl* on the decisi)e points "ithout inDur* to the
scale of production in other spheres8 =)erpopulation supplies these masses8 'he course
characteristic of modern industr*, viF8, a decennial c*cle (interrupted b* smaller oscillations!, of
periods of a)erage acti)it*, production at high pressure, crisis and stagnation, depends on the
constant formation, the greater or less absorption, and the re4formation of the industrial reser)e
arm* or surplus population8 >n their turn, the )ar*ing phases of the industrial c*cle recruit the
surplus population, and become one of the most energetic agents of its reproduction8 'his peculiar
course of modern industr*, "hich occurs in no earlier period of human histor*, "as also
impossible in the childhood of capitalist production8 'he composition of capital changed but )er*
slo"l*8 Bith its accumulation, therefore, there +ept pace, on the "hole, a corresponding gro"th in
the demand for labour8 Slo" as "as the ad)ance of accumulation compared "ith that of more
modern times, it found a chec+ in the natural limits of the e9ploitable labouring population, limits
"hich could onl* be got rid of b* forcible means to be mentioned later8 'he e9pansion b* fits and
starts of the scale of production is the preliminar* to its eIuall* sudden contraction; the latter
again e)o+es the former, but the former is impossible "ithout disposable human material, "ithout
an increase, in the number of labourers independentl* of the absolute gro"th of the population8
'his increase is effected b* the simple process that constantl* @sets freeA a part of the labourers;
b* methods "hich lessen the number of labourers emplo*ed in proportion to the increased
production8 'he "hole form of the mo)ement of modern industr* depends, therefore, upon the
constant transformation of a part of the labouring population into unemplo*ed or half4emplo*ed
hands8 'he superficialit* of #olitical Econom* sho"s itself in the fact that it loo+s upon the
e9pansion and contraction of credit, "hich is a mere s*mptom of the periodic changes of the
industrial c*cle, as their cause8 (s the hea)enl* bodies, once thro"n into a certain definite
motion, al"a*s repeat this, so is it "ith social production as soon as it is once thro"n into this
mo)ement of alternate e9pansion and contraction8 Effects, in their turn, become causes, and the
)ar*ing accidents of the "hole process, "hich al"a*s reproduces its o"n conditions, ta+e on the
:: 5hapter 63
form of periodicit*8 Bhen this periodicit* is once consolidated, e)en #olitical Econom* then sees
that the production of a relati)e surplus population F i$e8, surplus "ith regard to the a)erage needs
of the self4e9pansion of capital F is a necessar* condition of modern industr*8
@Suppose,A sa*s -8 $eri)ale, formerl* #rofessor of #olitical Econom* at =9ford,
subseIuentl* emplo*ed in the English 5olonial =ffice, @suppose that, on the
occasion of some of these crises, the nation "ere to rouse itself to the effort of
getting rid b* emigration of some hundreds of thousands of superfluous arms,
"hat "ould be the conseIuenceE 'hat, at the first returning demand for labour,
there "ould be a deficienc*8 -o"e)er rapid reproduction ma* be, it ta+es, at all
e)ents, the space of a generation to replace the loss of adult labour8 Co", the
profits of our manufacturers depend mainl* on the po"er of ma+ing use of the
prosperous moment "hen demand is bris+, and thus compensating themsel)es for
the inter)al during "hich it is slac+8 'his po"er is secured to them onl* b* the
command of machiner* and of manual labour8 'he* must ha)e hands read* b*
them, the* must be able to increase the acti)it* of their operations "hen reIuired,
and to slac+en it again, according to the state of the mar+et, or the* cannot
possibl* maintain that pre4eminence in the race of competition on "hich the
"ealth of the countr* is founded8A
16
E)en $althus recognises o)erpopulation as a necessit* of modern industr*, though, after his
narro" fashion, he e9plains it b* the absolute o)er4gro"th of the labouring population, not b*
their becoming relati)el* supernumerar*8 -e sa*s:
@#rudential habits "ith regard to marriage, carried to a considerable e9tent among
the labouring class of a countr* mainl* depending upon manufactures and
commerce, might inDure it8888 From the nature of a population, an increase of
labourers cannot be brought into mar+et in conseIuence of a particular demand till
after the lapse of 16 or 18 *ears, and the con)ersion of re)enue into capital, b*
sa)ing, ma* ta+e place much more rapidl*: a countr* is al"a*s liable to an
increase in the Iuantit* of the funds for the maintenance of labour faster than the
increase of population8A
17
(fter #olitical Econom* has thus demonstrated the constant production of a relati)e surplus
population of labourers to be a necessit* of capitalistic accumulation, she )er* aptl*, in the guise
of an old maid, puts in the mouth of her @beau idealA of a capitalist the follo"ing "ords addressed
to those supernumeraries thro"n on the streets b* their o"n creation of additional capital: F
@Be manufacturers do "hat "e can for *ou, "hilst "e are increasing that capital
on "hich *ou must subsist, and *ou must do the rest b* accommodating *our
numbers to the means of subsistence8A
18
5apitalist production can b* no means content itself "ith the Iuantit* of disposable labour po"er
"hich the natural increase of population *ields8 >t reIuires for its free pla* an industrial reser)e
arm* independent of these natural limits8
%p to this point it has been assumed that the increase or diminution of the )ariable capital
corresponds rigidl* "ith the increase or diminution of the number of labourers emplo*ed8
'he number of labourers commanded b* capital ma* remain the same, or e)en fall, "hile the
)ariable capital increases8 'his is the case if the indi)idual labourer *ields more labour, and
therefore his "ages increase, and this although the price of labour remains the same or e)en falls,
onl* more slo"l* than the mass of labour rises8 >ncrease of )ariable capital, in this case, becomes
an inde9 of more labour, but not of more labourers emplo*ed8 >t is the absolute interest of e)er*
capitalist to press a gi)en Iuantit* of labour out of a smaller, rather than a greater number of
::3 5hapter 63
labourers, if the cost is about the same8 >n the latter case, the outla* of constant capital increases
in proportion to the mass of labour set in action; in the former that increase is much smaller8 'he
more e9tended the scale of production, the stronger this moti)e8 >ts force increases "ith the
accumulation of capital8
Be ha)e seen that the de)elopment of the capitalist mode of production and of the producti)e
po"er of labour F at once the cause and effect of accumulation F enables the capitalist, "ith the
same outla* of )ariable capital, to set in action more labour b* greater e9ploitation (e9tensi)e or
intensi)e! of each indi)idual labour po"er8 Be ha)e further seen that the capitalist bu*s "ith the
same capital a greater mass of labour po"er, as he progressi)el* replaces s+illed labourers b* less
s+illed, mature labour po"er b* immature, male b* female, that of adults b* that of *oung
persons or children8
=n the one hand, therefore, "ith the progress of accumulation, a larger )ariable capital sets more
labour in action "ithout enlisting more labourers; on the other, a )ariable capital of the same
magnitude sets in action more labour "ith the same mass of labour po"er; and, finall*, a greater
number of inferior labour po"ers b* displacement of higher8
'he production of a relati)e surplus population, or the setting free of labourers, goes on therefore
*et more rapidl* than the technical re)olution of the process of production that accompanies, and
is accelerated b*, the ad)ance of accumulation; and more rapidl* than the corresponding
diminution of the )ariable part of capital as compared "ith the constant8 >f the means of
production, as the* increase in e9tent and effecti)e po"er, become to a less e9tent means of
emplo*ment of labourers, this state of things is again modified b* the fact that in proportion as
the producti)eness of labour increases, capital increases its suppl* of labour more Iuic+l* than its
demand for labourers8 'he o)er"or+ of the emplo*ed part of the "or+ing class s"ells the ran+s
of the reser)e, "hilst con)ersel* the greater pressure that the latter b* its competition e9erts on
the former, forces these to submit to o)er"or+ and to subDugation under the dictates of capital8
'he condemnation of one part of the "or+ing class to enforced idleness b* the o)er"or+ of the
other part, and the con)erse, becomes a means of enriching the indi)idual capitalists,
12
and
accelerates at the same time the production of the industrial reser)e arm* on a scale
corresponding "ith the ad)ance of social accumulation8 -o" important is this element in the
formation of the relati)e surplus population, is sho"n b* the e9ample of England8 -er technical
means for sa)ing labour are colossal8 Ce)ertheless, if to4morro" morning labour generall* "ere
reduced to a rational amount, and proportioned to the different sections of the "or+ing class
according to age and se9, the "or+ing population to hand "ould be absolutel* insufficient for the
carr*ing on of national production on its present scale8 'he great maDorit* of the labourers no"
@unproducti)eA "ould ha)e to be turned into @producti)eA ones8
'a+ing them as a "hole, the general mo)ements of "ages are e9clusi)el* regulated b* the
e9pansion and contraction of the industrial reser)e arm*, and these again correspond to the
periodic changes of the industrial c*cle8 'he* are, therefore, not determined b* the )ariations of
the absolute number of the "or+ing population, but b* the )ar*ing proportions in "hich the
"or+ing class is di)ided into acti)e and reser)e arm*, b* the increase or diminution in the relati)e
amount of the surplus population, b* the e9tent to "hich it is no" absorbed, no" set free8 For
$odern >ndustr* "ith its decennial c*cles and periodic phases, "hich, moreo)er, as accumulation
ad)ances, are complicated b* irregular oscillations follo"ing each other more and more Iuic+l*8
that "ould indeed be a beautiful la", "hich pretends to ma+e the action of capital dependent on
the absolute )ariation of the population, instead of regulating the demand and suppl* of labour b*
the alternate e9pansion and contraction of capital, the labour4mar+et no" appearing relati)el*
under4full, because capital is e9panding, no" again o)er4full, because it is contracting8 Net this is
::6 5hapter 63
the dogma of the economists8 (ccording to them, "ages rise in conseIuence of accumulation of
capital8 'he higher "ages stimulate the "or+ing population to more rapid multiplication, and this
goes on until the labour4mar+et becomes too full, and therefore capital, relati)el* to the suppl* of
labour, becomes insufficient8 Bages fall, and no" "e ha)e the re)erse of the medal8 'he "or+ing
population is little b* little decimated as the result of the fall in "ages, so that capital is again in
e9cess relati)el* to them, or, as others e9plain it, falling "ages and the corresponding increase in
the e9ploitation of the labourer again accelerates accumulation, "hilst, at the same time, the
lo"er "ages hold the increase of the "or+ing class in chec+8 'hen comes again the time, "hen
the suppl* of labour is less than the demand, "ages rise, and so on8 ( beautiful mode of motion
this for de)eloped capitalist productionQ /efore, in conseIuence of the rise of "ages, an* positi)e
increase of the population reall* fit for "or+ could occur, the time "ould ha)e been passed again
and again, during "hich the industrial campaign must ha)e been carried through, the battle fought
and "on8
/et"een 182 and 1832, a rise of "ages practicall* insignificant, though accompanied b* falling
prices of corn, too+ place in the English agricultural districts8 >n Biltshire, e$8, the "ee+l* "ages
rose from 7s8 to 8s8; in 0orsetshire from 7s8 or 8s8, to 2s8, Pc8 'his "as the result of an unusual
e9odus of the agricultural surplus population caused b* the demands of "ar, the )ast e9tension of
railroads, factories, mines, Pc8 'he lo"er the "ages, the higher is the proportion in "hich e)er so
insignificant a rise of them e9presses itself8 >f the "ee+l* "age, e$8, is 67s8 and it rises to 66s8,
that is a rise of 17 per cent8; but if it is onl* 7s8 and it rises to 2s8, that is a rise of 68 J7 per cent8,
"hich sounds )er* fine8 E)er*"here the farmers "ere ho"ling, and the <ondon Economist+ "ith
reference to these star)ation4"ages, prattled Iuite seriousl* of @a general and substantial
ad)ance8A
67
Bhat did the farmers do no"E 0id the* "ait until, in conseIuence of this brilliant
remuneration, the agricultural labourers had so increased and multiplied that their "ages must fall
again, as prescribed b* the dogmatic economic brainE 'he* introduced more machiner*, and in a
moment the labourers "ere redundant again in a proportion satisfactor* e)en to the farmers8
'here "as no" @more capitalA laid out in agriculture than before, and in a more producti)e form8
Bith this the demand for labour fell, not onl* relati)el*, but absolutel*8
'he abo)e economic fiction confuses the la"s that regulate the general mo)ement of "ages, or
the ratio bet"een the "or+ing class F i$e8, the total labour po"er F and the total social capital,
"ith the la"s that distribute the "or+ing population o)er the different spheres of production8 >f,
e$$+ in conseIuence of fa)ourable circumstances, accumulation in a particular sphere of
production becomes especiall* acti)e, and profits in it, being greater than the a)erage profits,
attract additional capital, of course the demand for labour rises and "ages also rise8 'he higher
"ages dra" a larger part of the "or+ing population into the more fa)oured sphere, until it is
glutted "ith labour po"er, and "ages at length fall again to their a)erage le)el or belo" it, if the
pressure is too great8 'hen, not onl* does the immigration of labourers into the branch of industr*
in Iuestion cease; it gi)es place to their emigration8 -ere the political economist thin+s he sees
the "h* and "herefore of an absolute increase of "or+ers accompan*ing an increase of "ages,
and of a diminution of "ages accompan*ing an absolute increase of labourers8 /ut he sees reall*
onl* the local oscillation of the labour4mar+et in a particular sphere of production F he sees onl*
the phenomena accompan*ing the distribution of the "or+ing population into the different
spheres of outla* of capital, according to its )ar*ing needs8
'he industrial reser)e arm*, during the periods of stagnation and a)erage prosperit*, "eighs
do"n the acti)e labour4arm*; during the periods of o)er4production and paro9*sm, it holds its
pretensions in chec+8 &elati)e surplus population is therefore the pi)ot upon "hich the la" of
demand and suppl* of labour "or+s8 >t confines the field of action of this la" "ithin the limits
absolutel* con)enient to the acti)it* of e9ploitation and to the domination of capital8
::7 5hapter 63
'his is the place to return to one of the grand e9ploits of economic apologetics8 >t "ill be
remembered that if through the introduction of ne", or the e9tension of old, machiner*, a portion
of )ariable capital is transformed into constant, the economic apologist interprets this operation
"hich @fi9esA capital and b* that )er* act sets labourers @free,A in e9actl* the opposite "a*,
pretending that it sets free capital for the labourers8 =nl* no" can one full* understand the
effronter* of these apologists8 Bhat are set free are not onl* the labourers immediatel* turned out
b* the machines, but also their future substitutes in the rising generation, and the additional
contingent, that "ith the usual e9tension of trade on the old basis "ould be regularl* absorbed8
'he* are no" all @set free,A and e)er* ne" bit of capital loo+ing out for emplo*ment can dispose
of them8 Bhether it attracts them or others, the effect on the general labour demand "ill be nil, if
this capital is Dust sufficient to ta+e out of the mar+et as man* labourers as the machines thre"
upon it8 >f it emplo*s a smaller number, that of the supernumeraries increases; if it emplo*s a
greater, the general demand for labour onl* increases to the e9tent of the e9cess of the emplo*ed
o)er those @set free8A 'he impulse that additional capital, see+ing an outlet, "ould other"ise ha)e
gi)en to the general demand for labour, is therefore in e)er* case neutralised to the e9tent of the
labourers thro"n out of emplo*ment b* the machine8 'hat is to sa*, the mechanism of capitalistic
production so manages matters that the absolute increase of capital is accompanied b* no
corresponding rise in the general demand for labour8 (nd this the apologist calls a compensation
for the miser*, the sufferings, the possible death of the displaced labourers during the transition
period that banishes them into the industrial reser)e arm*Q 'he demand for labour is not identical
"ith increase of capital, nor suppl* of labour "ith increase of the "or+ing class8 >t is not a case of
t"o independent forces "or+ing on one another8 <es dRs sont pipRs8
5apital "or+s on both sides at the same time8 >f its accumulation, on the one hand, increases the
demand for labour, it increases on the other the suppl* of labourers b* the @setting freeA of them,
"hilst at the same time the pressure of the unemplo*ed compels those that are emplo*ed to
furnish more labour, and therefore ma+es the suppl* of labour, to a certain e9tent, independent of
the suppl* of labourers8 'he action of the la" of suppl* and demand of labour on this basis
completes the despotism of capital8 (s soon, therefore, as the labourers learn the secret, ho" it
comes to pass that in the same measure as the* "or+ more, as the* produce more "ealth for
others, and as the producti)e po"er of their labour increases, so in the same measure e)en their
function as a means of the self4e9pansion of capital becomes more and more precarious for them;
as soon as the* disco)er that the degree of intensit* of the competition among themsel)es
depends "holl* on the pressure of the relati)e surplus population; as soon as, b* 'rades? %nions,
Pc8, the* tr* to organise a regular co4operation bet"een emplo*ed and unemplo*ed in order to
destro* or to "ea+en the ruinous effects of this natural la" of capitalistic production on their
class, so soon capital and its s*cophant, #olitical Econom*, cr* out at the infringement of the
@eternalA and so to sa* @sacredA la" of suppl* and demand8 E)er* combination of emplo*ed and
unemplo*ed disturbs the @harmoniousA action of this la"8 /ut, on the other hand, as soon as (in
the colonies, e$8! ad)erse circumstances pre)ent the creation of an industrial reser)e arm* and,
"ith it, the absolute dependence of the "or+ing class upon the capitalist class, capital, along "ith
its commonplace Sancho #an1a, rebels against the @sacredA la" of suppl* and demand, and tries
to chec+ its incon)enient action b* forcible means and State interference8
::8 5hapter 63
Section ,: -i>erent Forms of the .elati=e
surplus population7 The 4eneral (aw of
Capitalistic ;ccumulation
'he relati)e surplus population e9ists in e)er* possible form8 E)er* labourer belongs to it during
the time "hen he is onl* partiall* emplo*ed or "holl* unemplo*ed8 Cot ta+ing into account the
great periodicall* recurring forms that the changing phases of the industrial c*cle impress on it,
no" an acute form during the crisis, then again a chronic form during dull times F it has al"a*s
three forms, the floating, the latent, the stagnant8
>n the centres of modern industr* F factories, manufactures, iron"or+s, mines, Pc8 F the labourers
are sometimes repelled, sometimes attracted again in greater masses, the number of those
emplo*ed increasing on the "hole, although in a constantl* decreasing proportion to the scale of
production8 -ere the surplus population e9ists in the floating form8
>n the automatic factories, as in all the great "or+shops, "here machiner* enters as a factor, or
"here onl* the modern di)ision of labour is carried out, large numbers of bo*s are emplo*ed up
to the age of maturit*8 Bhen this term is once reached, onl* a )er* small number continue to find
emplo*ment in the same branches of industr*, "hilst the maDorit* are regularl* discharged8 'his
maDorit* forms an element of the floating surplus population, gro"ing "ith the e9tension of those
branches of industr*8 #art of them emigrates, follo"ing in fact capital that has emigrated8 =ne
conseIuence is that the female population gro"s more rapidl* than the male, teste England8 'hat
the natural increase of the number of labourers does not satisf* the reIuirements of the
accumulation of capital, and *et all the time is in e9cess of them, is a contradiction inherent to the
mo)ement of capital itself8 >t "ants larger numbers of *outhful labourers, a smaller number of
adults8 'he contradiction is not more glaring than that other one that there is a complaint of the
"ant of hands, "hile at the same time man* thousands are out of "or+, because the di)ision of
labour chains them to a particular branch of industr*8
61
'he consumption of labour po"er b* capital is, besides, so rapid that the labourer, half4"a*
through his life, has alread* more or less completel* li)ed himself out8 -e falls into the ran+s of
the supernumeraries, or is thrust do"n from a higher to a lo"er step in the scale8 >t is precisel*
among the "or+4people of modern industr* that "e meet "ith the shortest duration of life8 0r8
<ee, $edical =fficer of -ealth for $anchester, stated
@that the a)erage age at death of the $anchester 888 upper middle class "as :8
*ears, "hile the a)erage age at death of the labouring class "as 17; "hile at
<i)erpool those figures "ere represented as :3 against 138 >t thus appeared that
the "ell4to4do classes had a lease of life "hich "as more than double the )alue of
that "hich fell to the lot of the less fa)oured citi1ens8A
66
>n order to conform to these circumstances, the absolute increase of this section of the proletariat
must ta+e place under conditions that shall s"ell their numbers, although the indi)idual elements
are used up rapidl*8 -ence, rapid rene"al of the generations of labourers (this la" does not hold
for the other classes of the population!8 'his social need is met b* earl* marriages, a necessar*
conseIuence of the conditions in "hich the labourers of modern industr* li)e, and b* the
premium that the e9ploitation of children sets on their production8
(s soon as capitalist production ta+es possession of agriculture, and in proportion to the e9tent to
"hich it does so, the demand for an agricultural labouring population falls absolutel*, "hile the
accumulation of the capital emplo*ed in agriculture ad)ances, "ithout this repulsion being, as in
non4agricultural industries, compensated b* a greater attraction8 #art of the agricultural
::2 5hapter 63
population is therefore constantl* on the point of passing o)er into an urban or manufacturing
proletariat8 and on the loo+4out for circumstances fa)ourable to this transformation8 ($anufacture
is used here in the sense of all nonagricultural industries8!
6:
'his source of relati)e surplus
population is thus constantl* flo"ing8 /ut the constant flo" to"ards the to"ns pre4supposes, in
the countr* itself, a constant latent surplus population, the e9tent of "hich becomes e)ident onl*
"hen its channels of outlet open to e9ceptional "idth8 'he agricultural labourer is therefore
reduced to the minimum of "ages, and al"a*s stands "ith one foot alread* in the s"amp of
pauperism8
'he third categor* of the relati)e surplus population, the stagnant, forms a part of the acti)e
labour arm*, but "ith e9tremel* irregular emplo*ment8 -ence it furnishes to capital an
ine9haustible reser)oir of disposable labour po"er8 >ts conditions of life sin+ belo" the a)erage
normal le)el of the "or+ing class; this ma+es it at once the broad basis of special branches of
capitalist e9ploitation8 >t is characterised b* ma9imum of "or+ing4time, and minimum of "ages8
Be ha)e learnt to +no" its chief form under the rubric of @domestic industr*8A >t recruits itself
constantl* from the supernumerar* forces of modern industr* and agriculture, and speciall* from
those deca*ing branches of industr* "here handicraft is *ielding to manufacture, manufacture to
machiner*8 >ts e9tent gro"s, as "ith the e9tent and energ* of accumulation, the creation of a
surplus population ad)ances8 /ut it forms at the same time a self4reproducing and self4
perpetuating element of the "or+ing class, ta+ing a proportionall* greater part in the general
increase of that class than the other elements8 >n fact, not onl* the number of births and deaths,
but the absolute si1e of the families stand in in)erse proportion to the height of "ages, and
therefore to the amount of means of subsistence of "hich the different categories of labourers
dispose8 'his la" of capitalistic societ* "ould sound absurd to sa)ages, or e)en ci)ilised
colonists8 >t calls to mind the boundless reproduction of animals indi)iduall* "ea+ and constantl*
hunted do"n8
6
'he lo"est sediment of the relati)e surplus population finall* d"ells in the sphere of pauperism8
E9clusi)e of )agabonds, criminals, prostitutes, in a "ord, the @dangerousA classes, this la*er of
societ* consists of three categories8 First, those able to "or+8 =ne need onl* glance superficiall*
at the statistics of English pauperism to find that the Iuantit* of paupers increases "ith e)er*
crisis, and diminishes "ith e)er* re)i)al of trade8 Second, orphans and pauper children8 'hese are
candidates for the industrial reser)e arm*, and are, in times of great prosperit*, as 1867, e$8,
speedil* and in large numbers enrolled in the acti)e arm* of labourers8 'hird, the demoralised and
ragged, and those unable to "or+, chiefl* people "ho succumb to their incapacit* for adaptation,
due to the di)ision of labour; people "ho ha)e passed the normal age of the labourer; the )ictims
of industr*, "hose number increases "ith the increase of dangerous machiner*, of mines,
chemical "or+s, Pc8, the mutilated, the sic+l*, the "ido"s, Pc8 #auperism is the hospital of the
acti)e labour4arm* and the dead "eight of the industrial reser)e arm*8 >ts production is included
in that of the relati)e surplus population, its necessit* in theirs; along "ith the surplus population,
pauperism forms a condition of capitalist production, and of the capitalist de)elopment of "ealth8
>t enters into the faux frais of capitalist production; but capital +no"s ho" to thro" these, for the
most part, from its o"n shoulders on to those of the "or+ing class and the lo"er middle class8
'he greater the social "ealth, the functioning capital, the e9tent and energ* of its gro"th, and,
therefore, also the absolute mass of the proletariat and the producti)eness of its labour, the greater
is the industrial reser)e arm*8 'he same causes "hich de)elop the e9pansi)e po"er of capital,
de)elop also the labour po"er at its disposal8 'he relati)e mass of the industrial reser)e arm*
increases therefore "ith the potential energ* of "ealth8 /ut the greater this reser)e arm* in
proportion to the acti)e labour arm*, the greater is the mass of a consolidated surplus population,
"hose miser* is in in)erse ratio to its torment of labour8 'he more e9tensi)e, finall*, the la1arus
:7 5hapter 63
la*ers of the "or+ing class, and the industrial reser)e arm*, the greater is official pauperism8 /his
is the absolute eneral la1 of capitalist accumulation$ <i+e all other la"s it is modified in its
"or+ing b* man* circumstances, the anal*sis of "hich does not concern us here8
'he foll* is no" patent of the economic "isdom that preaches to the labourers the
accommodation of their number to the reIuirements of capital8 'he mechanism of capitalist
production and accumulation constantl* effects this adDustment8 'he first "ord of this adaptation
is the creation of a relati)e surplus population, or industrial reser)e arm*8 >ts last "ord is the
miser* of constantl* e9tending strata of the acti)e arm* of labour, and the dead "eight of
pauperism8
'he la" b* "hich a constantl* increasing Iuantit* of means of production, than+s to the ad)ance
in the producti)eness of social labour, ma* be set in mo)ement b* a progressi)el* diminishing
e9penditure of human po"er, this la", in a capitalist societ* F "here the labourer does not
emplo* the means of production, but the means of production emplo* the labourer F undergoes a
complete in)ersion and is e9pressed thus: the higher the producti)eness of labour, the greater is
the pressure of the labourers on the means of emplo*ment, the more precarious, therefore,
becomes their condition of e9istence, viF8, the sale of their o"n labour po"er for the increasing of
another?s "ealth, or for the self4e9pansion of capital8 'he fact that the means of production, and
the producti)eness of labour, increase more rapidl* than the producti)e population, e9presses
itself, therefore, capitalisticall* in the in)erse form that the labouring population al"a*s increases
more rapidl* than the conditions under "hich capital can emplo* this increase for its o"n self4
e9pansion8
Be sa" in #art >;8, "hen anal*sing the production of relati)e surplus )alue: "ithin the capitalist
s*stem all methods for raising the social producti)eness of labour are brought about at the cost of
the indi)idual labourer; all means for the de)elopment of production transform themsel)es into
means of domination o)er, and e9ploitation of, the producers; the* mutilate the labourer into a
fragment of a man, degrade him to the le)el of an appendage of a machine, destro* e)er* remnant
of charm in his "or+ and turn it into a hated toil; the* estrange from him the intellectual
potentialities of the labour process in the same proportion as science is incorporated in it as an
independent po"er; the* distort the conditions under "hich he "or+s, subDect him during the
labour process to a despotism the more hateful for its meanness; the* transform his life4time into
"or+ing4time, and drag his "ife and child beneath the "heels of the Luggernaut of capital8 /ut all
methods for the production of surplus )alue are at the same time methods of accumulation; and
e)er* e9tension of accumulation becomes again a means for the de)elopment of those methods8 >t
follo"s therefore that in proportion as capital accumulates, the lot of the labourer, be his pa*ment
high or lo", must gro" "orse8 'he la", finall*, that al"a*s eIuilibrates the relati)e surplus
population, or industrial reser)e arm*, to the e9tent and energ* of accumulation, this la" ri)ets
the labourer to capital more firml* than the "edges of ;ulcan did #rometheus to the roc+8 >t
establishes an accumulation of miser*, corresponding "ith accumulation of capital8 (ccumulation
of "ealth at one pole is, therefore, at the same time accumulation of miser*, agon* of toil sla)er*,
ignorance, brutalit*, mental degradation, at the opposite pole, i$e$+ on the side of the class that
produces its o"n product in the form of capital8
63
'his antagonistic character of capitalistic
accumulation is enunciated in )arious forms b* political economists, although b* them it is
confounded "ith phenomena, certainl* to some e9tent analogous, but ne)ertheless essentiall*
distinct, and belonging to pre4capitalistic modes of production8
'he ;enetian mon+ =rtes, one of the great economic "riters of the 18th centur*, regards the
antagonism of capitalist production as a general natural la" of social "ealth8
:1 5hapter 63
@>n the econom* of a nation, ad)antages and e)ils al"a*s balance one another (il
bene ed il male economico in una na1ione sempre all, istessa misura!: the
abundance of "ealth "ith some people, is al"a*s eIual to the "ant of it "ith
others (la copia dei beni in alcuni sempre euale alia mancanFa di essi in altri!:
the great riches of a small number are al"a*s accompanied b* the absolute
pri)ation of the first necessaries of life for man* others8 'he "ealth of a nation
corresponds "ith its population, and its miser* corresponds "ith its "ealth8
0iligence in some compels idleness in others8 'he poor and idle are a necessar*
conseIuence of the rich and acti)e,A Pc8
66
>n a thoroughl* brutal "a* about 17 *ears after =rtes, the 5hurch of England parson, 'o"nsend,
glorified miser* as a necessar* condition of "ealth8
@<egal constraint (to labour! is attended "ith too much trouble, )iolence, and
noise, "hereas hunger is not onl* a peaceable, silent, unremitted pressure, but as
the most natural moti)e to industr* and labour, it calls forth the most po"erful
e9ertions8A
E)er*thing therefore depends upon ma+ing hunger permanent among the "or+ing class, and for
this, according to 'o"nsend, the principle of population, especiall* acti)e among the poor,
pro)ides8
@>t seems to be a la" of Cature that the poor should be to a certain degree
impro)identA Gi$e8, so impro)ident as to be born 1ithout a sil)er spoon in the
mouthH, @that there ma* al"a*s be some to fulfil the most ser)ile, the most sordid,
and the most ignoble offices in the communit*8 'he stoc+ of human happiness is
thereb* much increased, "hilst the more delicate are not onl* relie)ed from
drudger* 888 but are left at libert* "ithout interruption to pursue those callings
"hich are suited to their )arious dispositions 888 itA Gthe #oor <a"H @tends to
destro* the harmon* and beaut*, the s*mmetr* and order of that s*stem "hich
God and Cature ha)e established in the "orld8
67
>f the ;enetian mon+ found in the
fatal destin* that ma+es miser* eternal, the raison dCGtre of 5hristian charit*,
celibac*, monasteries and hol* houses, the #rotestant prebendar* finds in it a
prete9t for condemning the la"s in )irtue of "hich the poor possessed a right to a
miserable public relief8
@'he progress of social "ealth,A sa*s Storch, @begets this useful class of societ* 888
"hich performs the most "earisome, the )ilest, the most disgusting functions,
"hich ta+es, in a "ord, on its shoulders all that is disagreeable and ser)ile in life,
and procures thus for other classes leisure, serenit* of mind and con)entionalA
Gc?est bonQH @dignit* of character8A
68
Storch as+s himself in "hat then reall* consists the progress of this capitalistic ci)ilisation "ith
its miser* and its degradation of the masses, as compared "ith barbarism8 -e finds but one
ans"er: securit*Q
@'han+s to the ad)ance of industr* and science,A sa*s Sismondi, @e)er* labourer
can produce e)er* da* much more than his consumption reIuires8 /ut at the same
time, "hilst his labour produces "ealth, that "ealth "ould, "ere he called on to
consume it himself, ma+e him less fit for labour8A (ccording to him, @menA Gi$e8,
non4"or+ersH @"ould probabl* prefer to do "ithout all artistic perfection, and all
the enDo*ments that manufacturers procure for us, if it "ere necessar* that all
should bu* them b* constant toil li+e that of the labourer8888 E9ertion toda* is
separated from its recompense; it is not the same man that first "or+s, and then
:6 5hapter 63
reposes; but it is because the one "or+s that the other rests8888 'he indefinite
multiplication of the producti)e po"ers of labour can then onl* ha)e for result the
increase of lu9ur* and enDo*ment of the idle rich8A
62
Finall* 0estutt de 'rac*, the fish4blooded bourgeois doctrinaire, blurts out brutall*:
@>n poor nations the people are comfortable, in rich nations the* are generall*
poor8A
:7
Section 8: Illustrations of the 4eneral (aw of
Capitalist ;ccumulation
A. En&land from 123"12""
Co period of modern societ* is so fa)ourable for the stud* of capitalist accumulation as the
period of the last 67 *ears8 >t is as if this period had found Fortunatus? purse8 /ut of all countries
England again furnishes the classical e9ample, because it holds the foremost place in the "orld4
mar+et, because capitalist production is here alone completel* de)eloped, and lastl*, because the
introduction of the Free4trade millennium since 186 has cut off the last retreat of )ulgar
econom*8 'he titanic ad)ance of production F the latter half of the 67 *ears? period again far
surpassing the former F has been alread* pointed out sufficientl* in #art >;8
(lthough the absolute increase of the English population in the last half centur* "as )er* great,
the relati)e increase or rate of gro"th fell constantl*, as the follo"ing table borro"ed from the
census sho"s8
(nnual increase per cent8 of the population of England and Bales in decimal numbers:
181141861
183:: per
cent$
1861418:1
186 per
cent$
18:14181
18:66 per
cent$
18141831
18616 per
cent$
183141861
1811 per
cent$
<et us no", on the other hand, consider the increase of "ealth8 -ere the mo)ement of profit, rent
of land, Pc8, that come under the income ta98 furnishes the surest basis8 'he increase of profits
liable to income ta9 (farmers and some other categories not included! in Great /ritain from 183:
to 186 amounted to 3787` or 838` as the annual a)erage,
:1
that of the population during the
same period to about 16`8 'he augmentation of the rent of land subDect to ta9ation (including
houses, rail"a*s, mines, fisheries, Pc8!, amounted for 183: to 186 to :8` or : 3J16` annuall*8
%nder this head the follo"ing categories sho" the greatest increase:
:: 5hapter 63
E9cess of annual income
of 186 o)er that of 183:
>ncrease
per *ear
-ouses :8867` :837`
Kuarries 8876` 7877`
$ines 68883` 6866`
>ron"or+s :2826` :86:`
Fisheries 378:7` 3861`
Gas"or+s 166876` 1183`
&ail"a*s 8:862` 7837`
>f "e compare the *ears from 183: to 186 in three sets of four consecuti)e *ears each, the rate
of augmentation of the income increases constantl*8
:6
>t is, e$$+ for that arising from profits
bet"een 183: to 1837, 187:` *earl*; 183741861, 687`, and for 186146, 28:7` *earl*8 'he
sum of the incomes of the %nited .ingdom that come under the income ta9 "as in 1836,
]:77,768,828; in 1832, ]:68,167,16; in 18668 ]:31,73,61; in 186:, ]:32,16,827; in 186,
]:66,66,672; in 1863, ]:83,3:7,7678
::
'he accumulation of capital "as attended at the same time b* its concentration and centralisation8
(lthough no official statistics of agriculture e9isted for England (the* did for >reland!, the* "ere
)oluntaril* gi)en in 17 counties8 'hese statistics ga)e the result that from 1831 to 1861 the
number of farms of less than 177 acres had fallen from :1,38: to 66,327, so that 3,716 had been
thro"n together into larger farms8
:
From 1813 to 1863 no personal estate of more than
]1,777,777 came under the succession dut*; from 1863 to 1833, ho"e)er, 8 did; and from 1836
to Lune, 1832, i$e$+ in [ *ears8
:3
'he centralisation "ill, ho"e)er, be best seen from a short
anal*sis of the >ncome 'a9 Schedule 0 (profits, e9clusi)e of farms, Pc8!, in the *ears 186 and
18638 > note beforehand that incomes from this source pa* income ta9 on e)er*thing o)er ]678
'hese incomes liable to ta9ation in England, Bales and Scotland, amounted in 186 to
]23,8,6668 in 1863 to ]173,:3,3728
:6
'he number of persons ta9ed "ere in 186, :78,16, out
of a population of 6:,821,772; in 1863, ::6,:1 out of a population of 6,167,77:8 'he follo"ing
table sho"s the distribution of these incomes in the t"o *ears:
Near ending
(pril 3th, 1868
Near ending
(pril 3th, 18638
>ncome from
#rofits
>ncome from
#eople
>ncome from
#rofits
>ncome from
#eople
'otal >ncome ]23,8,666 :78,16 173,:3,7:8 ::6,:1
of these 37,768,682 6:,:: 6,33,627 6,663
of these :6,13,663 :,612 6,3:3,376 ,761
of these 66,872,781 8:6 67,333,:1: 27:
of these 8,7,766 21 11,777,6:8 177
>n 1833 there "ere produced in the %nited .ingdom 61,3:,772 tons of coal, of )alue
]16,11:,167; in 186, 26,787,87: tons, of )alue ]6:,127,268; in 1833, :,618,13 tons of pig4iron,
of )alue ]8,73,:83; 186, ,767,231 tons, of )alue ]11,212,8778 >n 183 the length of the
railroads "or+ed in the %nited .ingdom "as 8,73 miles, "ith a paid4up capital of
]686,768,72; in 186 the length "as 16,782 miles, "ith capital paid up of ]63,712,61:8 >n
: 5hapter 63
183 the total sum of the e9ports and imports of the %nited .ingdom "as ]668,617,13; in 1863,
]82,26:,6838 'he follo"ing table sho"s the mo)ement of the e9ports:
186 ]38,86,:77
182 6:,326,736
1836 113,866,28
1867 1:3,86,817
1863 163,866,76
1866
:7
188,217,36:
(fter these fe" e9amples one understands the cr* of triumph of the &egistrar4General of the
/ritish people:
@&apidl* as the population has increased, it has not +ept pace "ith the progress of
industr* and "ealth8A
:8
<et us turn no" to the direct agents of this industr*, or the producers of this "ealth, to the
"or+ing class8
@>t is one of the most melanchol* features in the social state of this countr*,A sa*s
Gladstone, @that "hile there "as a decrease in the consuming po"ers of the
people, and "hile there "as an increase in the pri)ations and distress of the
labouring class and operati)es, there "as at the same time a constant accumulation
of "ealth in the upper classes, and a constant increase of capital8A
:2
'hus spa+e this unctuous minister in the -ouse of 5ommons of Februar* 1:th, 18:8 =n (pril
16th, 186:, 67 *ears later, in the speech in "hich he introduced his /udget:
@From 186 to 1836 the ta9able income of the countr* increased b* 6 per cent8888
>n the 8 *ears from 183: to 1861 it had increased from the basis ta+en in 183: b*
67 per cent8Q 'he fact is so astonishing as to be almost incredible 888 this
into9icating augmentation of "ealth and po"er 888 entirel* confined to classes of
propert* 888 must be of indirect benefit to the labouring population, because it
cheapens the commodities of general consumption8 Bhile the rich ha)e been
gro"ing richer, the poor ha)e been gro"ing less poor8 (t an* rate, "hether the
e9tremes of po)ert* are less, > do not presume to sa*8A
7
-o" lame an anti4clima9Q >f the "or+ing class has remained @poor,A onl* @less poorA in
proportion as it produces for the "ealth* class @an into9icating augmentation of "ealth and
po"er,A then it has remained relati)el* Dust as poor8 >f the e9tremes of po)ert* ha)e not lessened,
the* ha)e increased, because the e9tremes of "ealth ha)e8 (s to the cheapening of the means of
subsistence, the official statistics, e$$+ the accounts of the <ondon =rphan (s*lum, sho" an
increase in price of 67` for the a)erage of the three *ears 186741866, compared "ith 18314183:8
>n the follo"ing three *ears, 186:41863, there "as a progressi)e rise in the price of meat, butter,
mil+, sugar, salt, coals, and a number of other necessar* means of subsistence8
1
Gladstone?s ne9t
/udget speech of (pril 7th, 186, is a #indaric dith*rambus on the ad)ance of surplus )alue4
ma+ing and the happiness of the people @tempered b* po)ert*8A -e spea+s of masses @on the
borderA of pauperism, of branches of trade in "hich @"ages ha)e not increased,A and finall* sums
up the happiness of the "or+ing class in the "ords:
@human life is but, in nine cases out of ten, a struggle for e9istence8A
6
#rofessor Fa"cett, not bound li+e Gladstone b* official considerations, declares roundl*:
:3 5hapter 63
@> do not, of course, den* that mone* "ages ha)e been augmented b* this increase
of capital (in the last ten *ears!, but this apparent ad)antage is to a great e9tent
lost, because man* of the necessaries of life are becoming dearerA (he belie)es
because of the fall in )alue of the precious metals!888Vthe rich gro" rapidl* richer,
"hilst there is no perceptible ad)ance in the comfort enDo*ed b* the industrial
classes8888 'he* (the labourers! become almost the sla)es of the tradesman, to
"hom the* o"e mone*8A
:
>n the chapters on the @"or+ing da*A and @machiner*,A the reader has seen under "hat
circumstances the /ritish "or+ing class created an @into9icating augmentation of "ealth and
po"erA for the propertied classes8 'here "e "ere chiefl* concerned "ith the social functioning of
the labourer8 /ut for a full elucidation of the la" of accumulation, his condition outside the
"or+shop must also be loo+ed at, his condition as to food and d"elling8 'he limits of this boo+
compel us to concern oursel)es chiefl* "ith the "orst paid part of the industrial proletariat, and
"ith the agricultural labourers, "ho together form the maDorit* of the "or+ing class8
/ut first, one "ord on official pauperism, or on that part of the "or+ing class "hich has forfeited
its condition of e9istence (the sale of labour po"er!, and )egetates upon public alms8 'he official
list of paupers numbered in England
'he cr* of the people and the legislation directed, for 137 *ears after -enr*
;>>8, against the e9propriation of the small farmers and peasants, "ere ali+e fruitless8 'he secret
of their inefficienc* /acon, "ithout +no"ing it, re)eals to us8 @'he de)ice of .ing -enr* ;>>8,A
sa*s /acon, in his @Essa*s, 5i)il and $oral,A Essa* 62, @"as profound and admirable, in ma+ing
farms and houses of husbandr* of a standard; that is, maintained "ith such a proportion of land
unto them as ma* breed a subDect to li)e in con)enient plent*, and no ser)ile condition, and to
+eep the plough in the hands of the o"ners and not mere hirelings8A
3
Bhat the capitalist s*stem
demanded "as, on the other hand, a degraded and almost ser)ile condition of the mass of the
people, the transformation of them into mercenaries, and of their means of labour into capital8
0uring this transformation period, legislation also stro)e to retain the acres of land b* the
cottage of the agricultural "age labourer, and forbad him to ta+e lodgers into his cottage8 >n the
reign of Lames >8, 1667, &oger 5roc+er of Front $ill, "as condemned for ha)ing built a cottage
on the manor of Front $ill "ithout acres of land attached to the same in perpetuit*8 (s late as
5harles >8?s reign, 16:8, a ro*al commission "as appointed to enforce the carr*ing out of the old
la"s, especiall* that referring to the acres of land8 E)en in 5rom"ell?s time, the building of a
house "ithin miles of <ondon "as forbidden unless it "as endo"ed "ith acres of land8 (s
late as the first half of the 18th centur* complaint is made if the cottage of the agricultural
labourer has not an adDunct of one or t"o acres of land8 Co"ada*s he is luc+* if it is furnished
"ith a little garden, or if he ma* rent, far a"a* from his cottage, a fe" roods8 @<andlords and
farmers,A sa*s 0r8 -unter, @"or+ here hand in hand8 ( fe" acres to the cottage "ould ma+e the
labourers too independent8A
6
'he process of forcible e9propriation of the people recei)ed in the 16th centur* a ne" and
frightful impulse from the &eformation, and from the conseIuent colossal spoliation of the
church propert*8 'he 5atholic church "as, at the time of the &eformation, feudal proprietor of a
:83 5hapter 67
great part of the English land8 'he suppression of the monasteries, Pc8, hurled their inmates into
the proletariat8 'he estates of the church "ere to a large e9tent gi)en a"a* to rapacious ro*al
fa)ourites, or sold at a nominal price to speculating farmers and citi1ens, "ho dro)e out, en
masse+ the hereditar* sub4tenants and thre" their holdings into one8 'he legall* guaranteed
propert* of the poorer fol+ in a part of the church?s tithes "as tacitl* confiscated8
7
@#auper ubiIue
Dacet,A cried Kueen Eli1abeth, after a Dourne* through England8 >n the :rd *ear of her reign the
nation "as obliged to recognise pauperism officiall* b* the introduction of a poor4rate8 @'he
authors of this la" seem to ha)e been ashamed to state the grounds of it, for Gcontrar* to
traditional usageH it has no preamble "hate)er8A
8
/* the 16th of 5harles >8, ch8 , it "as declared
perpetual, and in fact onl* in 18: did it ta+e a ne" and harsher form8
2
'hese immediate results of
the &eformation "ere not its most lasting ones8 'he propert* of the church formed the religious
bul"ar+ of the traditional conditions of landed propert*8 Bith its fall these "ere no longer
tenable8
17
E)en in the last decade of the 17th centur*, the *eomanr*, the class of independent peasants, "ere
more numerous than the class of farmers8 'he* had formed the bac+bone of 5rom"ell?s strength,
and, e)en according to the confession of $acaula*, stood in fa)ourable contrast to the drun+en
sIuires and to their ser)ants, the countr* clerg*, "ho had to marr* their masters? cast4off
mistresses8 (bout 1737, the *eomanr* had disappeared,
11
and so had, in the last decade of the
18th centur*, the last trace of the common land of the agricultural labourer8 Be lea)e on one side
here the purel* economic causes of the agricultural re)olution8 Be deal onl* "ith the forcible
means emplo*ed8
(fter the restoration of the Stuarts, the landed proprietors carried, b* legal means, an act of
usurpation, effected e)er*"here on the 5ontinent "ithout an* legal formalit*8 'he* abolished the
feudal tenure of land, i$e$, the* got rid of all its obligations to the State, @indemnifiedA the State
b* ta9es on the peasantr* and the rest of the mass of the people, )indicated for themsel)es the
rights of modern pri)ate propert* in estates to "hich the* had onl* a feudal title, and, finall*,
passed those la"s of settlement, "hich, mutatis mutandis, had the same effect on the English
agricultural labourer, as the edict of the 'artar /oris Godunof on the &ussian peasantr*8
'he @glorious &e)olutionA brought into po"er, along "ith Billiam of =range, the landlord and
capitalist appropriators of surplus )alue8
16
'he* inaugurated the ne" era b* practising on a
colossal scale thefts of state lands, thefts that had been hitherto managed more modestl*8 'hese
estates "ere gi)en a"a*, sold at a ridiculous figure, or e)en anne9ed to pri)ate estates b* direct
sei1ure8
1:
(ll this happened "ithout the slightest obser)ation of legal etiIuette8 'he 5ro"n lands
thus fraudulentl* appropriated, together "ith the robber* of the 5hurch estates, as far as these had
not been lost again during the republican re)olution, form the basis of the toda* princel* domains
of the English oligarch*8
1
'he bourgeois capitalists fa)oured the operation "ith the )ie", among
others, to promoting free trade in land, to e9tending the domain of modern agriculture on the
large farm4s*stem, and to increasing their suppl* of the free agricultural proletarians read* to
hand8 /esides, the ne" landed aristocrac* "as the natural all* of the ne" ban+ocrac*, of the
ne"l*4hatched haute finance+ and of the large manufacturers, then depending on protecti)e
duties8 'he English bourgeoisie acted for its o"n interest Iuite as "isel* as did the S"edish
bourgeoisie "ho, re)ersing the process, hand in hand "ith their economic allies, the peasantr*,
helped the +ings in the forcible resumption of the 5ro"n lands from the oligarch*8 'his happened
since 167 under 5harles O8 and 5harles O>8
5ommunal propert* F al"a*s distinct from the State propert* Dust dealt "ith F "as an old
'eutonic institution "hich li)ed on under co)er of feudalism8 Be ha)e seen ho" the forcible
usurpation of this, generall* accompanied b* the turning of arable into pasture land, begins at the
:86 5hapter 67
end of the 13th and e9tends into the 16th centur*8 /ut, at that time, the process "as carried on b*
means of indi)idual acts of )iolence against "hich legislation, for a hundred and fift* *ears,
fought in )ain8 'he ad)ance made b* the 18th centur* sho"s itself in this, that the la" itself
becomes no" the instrument of the theft of the people?s land, although the large farmers ma+e use
of their little independent methods as "ell8
13
'he parliamentar* form of the robber* is that of (cts
for enclosures of 5ommons, in other "ords, decrees b* "hich the landlords grant themsel)es the
people?s land as pri)ate propert*, decrees of e9propriation of the people8 Sir F8 $8 Eden refutes
his o"n craft* special pleading, in "hich he tries to represent communal propert* as the pri)ate
propert* of the great landlords "ho ha)e ta+en the place of the feudal lords, "hen he, himself,
demands a @general (ct of #arliament for the enclosure of 5ommonsA (admitting thereb* that a
parliamentar* coup dC?tat is necessar* for its transformation into pri)ate propert*!, and moreo)er
calls on the legislature for the indemnification for the e9propriated poor8
16
Bhilst the place of the independent *eoman "as ta+en b* tenants at "ill, small farmers on *earl*
leases, a ser)ile rabble dependent on the pleasure of the landlords, the s*stematic robber* of the
5ommunal lands helped especiall*, ne9t to the theft of the State domains, to s"ell those large
farms, that "ere called in the 18th centur* capital farms
17
or merchant farms,
18
and to @set freeA
the agricultural population as proletarians for manufacturing industr*8
'he 18th centur*, ho"e)er, did not *et recognise as full* as the 12th, the identit* bet"een
national "ealth and the po)ert* of the people8 -ence the most )igorous polemic, in the economic
literature of that time, on the @enclosure of commons8A From the mass of materials that lie before
me, > gi)e a fe" e9tracts that "ill thro" a strong light on the circumstances of the time8 @>n
se)eral parishes of -ertfordshire,A "rites one indignant person, @6 farms, numbering on the
a)erage 374137 acres, ha)e been melted up into three farms8A
12
@>n Corthamptonshire and
<eicestershire the enclosure of common lands has ta+en place on a )er* large scale, and most of
the ne" lordships, resulting from the enclosure, ha)e been turned into pasturage, in conseIuence
of "hich man* lordships ha)e not no" 37 acres ploughed *earl*, in "hich 1,377 "ere ploughed
formerl*8 'he ruins of former d"elling4houses, barns, stables, Pc8,A are the sole traces of the
former inhabitants8 @(n hundred houses and families ha)e in some open4field )illages d"indled
to eight or ten8888 'he landholders in most parishes that ha)e been enclosed onl* 13 or 67 *ears,
are )er* fe" in comparison of the numbers "ho occupied them in their open4field state8 >t is no
uncommon thing for or 3 "ealth* gra1iers to engross a large enclosed lordship "hich "as
before in the hands of 67 or :7 farmers, and as man* smaller tenants and proprietors8 (ll these are
hereb* thro"n out of their li)ings "ith their families and man* other families "ho "ere chiefl*
emplo*ed and supported b* them8A
67
>t "as not onl* the land that la* "aste, but often land
culti)ated either in common or held under a definite rent paid to the communit*, that "as anne9ed
b* the neighbouring landlords under prete9t of enclosure8 @> ha)e here in )ie" enclosures of open
fields and lands alread* impro)ed8 >t is ac+no"ledged b* e)en the "riters in defence of
enclosures that these diminished )illages increase the monopolies of farms, raise the prices of
pro)isions, and produce depopulation 888 and e)en the enclosure of "aste lands (as no" carried
on! bears hard on the poor, b* depri)ing them of a part of their subsistence, and onl* goes
to"ards increasing farms alread* too large8A
61
@Bhen,A sa*s 0r8 #rice, @this land gets into the
hands of a fe" great farmers, the conseIuence must be that the little farmersA (earlier designated
b* him @a multitude of little proprietors and tenants, "ho maintain themsel)es and families b* the
produce of the ground the* occup* b* sheep +ept on a common, b* poultr*, hogs, Pc8, and "ho
therefore ha)e little occasion to purchase an* of the means of subsistenceA! @"ill be con)erted
into a bod* of men "ho earn their subsistence b* "or+ing for others, and "ho "ill be under a
necessit* of going to mar+et for all the* "ant8888 'here "ill, perhaps, be more labour, because
there "ill be more compulsion to it8888 'o"ns and manufactures "ill increase, because more "ill
:87 5hapter 67
be dri)en to them in Iuest of places and emplo*ment8 'his is the "a* in "hich the engrossing of
farms naturall* operates8 (nd this is the "a* in "hich, for man* *ears, it has been actuall*
operating in this +ingdom8A
66
-e sums up the effect of the enclosures thus: @%pon the "hole, the
circumstances of the lo"er ran+s of men are altered in almost e)er* respect for the "orse8 From
little occupiers of land, the* are reduced to the state of da*4labourers and hirelings; and, at the
same time, their subsistence in that state has become more difficult8A
6:
>n fact, usurpation of the
common lands and the re)olution in agriculture accompan*ing this, told so acutel* on the
agricultural labourers that, e)en according to Eden, bet"een 1763 and 1787, their "ages began to
fall belo" the minimum, and to be supplemented b* official poor4la" relief8 'heir "ages, he sa*s,
@"ere not more than enough for the absolute necessaries of life8A
<et us hear for a moment a defender of enclosures and an opponent of 0r8 #rice8 @Cot is it a
conseIuence that there must be depopulation, because men are not seen "asting their labour in
the open field8888 >f, b* con)erting the little farmers into a bod* of men "ho must "or+ for others,
more labour is produced, it is an ad)antage "hich the nationA (to "hich, of course, the
@con)ertedA ones do not belong! @should "ish for 888 the produce being greater "hen their Doint
labours are emplo*ed on one farm, there "ill be a surplus for manufactures, and b* this means
manufactures, one of the mines of the nation, "ill increase, in proportion to the Iuantit* of corn
produced8A
6
'he stoical peace of mind "ith "hich the political economist regards the most shameless
)iolation of the @sacred rights of propert*A and the grossest acts of )iolence to persons, as soon as
the* are necessar* to la* the foundations of the capitalistic mode of production, is sho"n b* Sir F8
$8 Eden, philanthropist and tor*, to boot8 'he "hole series of thefts, outrages, and popular
miser*, that accompanied the forcible e9propriation of the people, from the last third of the 13th
to the end of the 18th centur*, lead him merel* to the comfortable conclusion: @'he due
proportion bet"een arable land and pasture had to be established8 0uring the "hole of the 1th
and the greater part of the 13th centur*, there "as one acre of pasture to 6, :, and e)en of arable
land8 (bout the middle of the 16th centur* the proportion "as changed of 6 acres of pasture to 6,
later on, of 6 acres of pasture to one of arable, until at last the Dust proportion of : acres of pasture
to one of arable land "as attained8A
>n the 12th centur*, the )er* memor* of the conne9ion bet"een the agricultural labourer and the
communal propert* had, of course, )anished8 'o sa* nothing of more recent times, ha)e the
agricultural population recei)ed a farthing of compensation for the :,311,777 acres of common
land "hich bet"een 1871 and 18:1 "ere stolen from them and b* parliamentar* de)ices
presented to the landlords b* the landlordsE
'he last process of "holesale e9propriation of the agricultural population from the soil is, finall*,
the so4called clearing of estates, i$e$, the s"eeping men off them8 (ll the English methods hitherto
considered culminated in @clearing8A (s "e sa" in the picture of modern conditions gi)en in a
former chapter, "here there are no more independent peasants to get rid of, the @clearingA of
cottages begins; so that the agricultural labourers do not find on the soil culti)ated b* them e)en
the spot necessar* for their o"n housing8 /ut "hat @clearing of estatesA reall* and properl*
signifies, "e learn onl* in the promised land of modern romance, the -ighlands of Scotland8
'here the process is distinguished b* its s*stematic character, b* the magnitude of the scale on
"hich it is carried out at one blo" (in >reland landlords ha)e gone to the length of s"eeping a"a*
se)eral )illages at once; in Scotland areas as large as German principalities are dealt "ith!, finall*
b* the peculiar form of propert*, under "hich the embe11led lands "ere held8
'he -ighland 5elts "ere organised in clans, each of "hich "as the o"ner of the land on "hich it
"as settled8 'he representati)e of the clan, its chief or @great man,A "as onl* the titular o"ner of
:88 5hapter 67
this propert*, Dust as the Kueen of England is the titular o"ner of all the national soil8 Bhen the
English go)ernment succeeded in suppressing the intestine "ars of these @great men,A and their
constant incursions into the <o"land plains, the chiefs of the clans b* no means ga)e up their
time4honoured trade as robbers; the* onl* changed its form8 =n their o"n authorit* the*
transformed their nominal right into a right of pri)ate propert*, and as this brought them into
collision "ith their clansmen, resol)ed to dri)e them out b* open force8 @( +ing of England might
as "ell claim to dri)e his subDects into the sea,A sa*s #rofessor Ce"man8
63
'his re)olution, "hich
began in Scotland after the last rising of the follo"ers of the #retender, can be follo"ed through
its first phases in the "ritings of Sir Lames Steuart
66
and Lames (nderson8
67
>n the 18th centur*
the hunted4out Gaels "ere forbidden to emigrate from the countr*, "ith a )ie" to dri)ing them b*
force to Glasgo" and other manufacturing to"ns8
68
(s an e9ample of the method
62
obtaining in
the 12th centur*, the @clearingA made b* the 0uchess of Sutherland "ill suffice here8 'his person,
"ell instructed in econom*, resol)ed, on entering upon her go)ernment, to effect a radical cure,
and to turn the "hole countr*, "hose population had alread* been, b* earlier processes of the li+e
+ind, reduced to 13,777, into a sheep4"al+8 From 181 to 1867 these 13,777 inhabitants, about
:,777 families, "ere s*stematicall* hunted and rooted out8 (ll their )illages "ere destro*ed and
burnt, all their fields turned into pasturage8 /ritish soldiers enforced this e)iction, and came to
blo"s "ith the inhabitants8 =ne old "oman "as burnt to death in the flames of the hut, "hich she
refused to lea)e8 'hus this fine lad* appropriated 72,777 acres of land that had from time
immemorial belonged to the clan8 She assigned to the e9pelled inhabitants about 6,777 acres on
the sea4shore F 6 acres per famil*8 'he 6,777 acres had until this time lain "aste, and brought in
no income to their o"ners8 'he 0uchess, in the nobilit* of her heart, actuall* "ent so far as to let
these at an a)erage rent of 6s8 6d8 per acre to the clansmen, "ho for centuries had shed their blood
for her famil*8 'he "hole of the stolen clanland she di)ided into 62 great sheep farms, each
inhabited b* a single famil*, for the most part imported English farm4ser)ants8 >n the *ear 18:3
the 13,777 Gaels "ere alread* replaced b* 1:1,777 sheep8 'he remnant of the aborigines flung on
the sea4shore tried to li)e b* catching fish8 'he* became amphibious and li)ed, as an English
author sa*s, half on land and half on "ater, and "ithal onl* half on both8
:7
/ut the bra)e Gaels must e9piate *et more bitterl* their idolatr*, romantic and of the mountains,
for the @great menA of the clan8 'he smell of their fish rose to the noses of the great men8 'he*
scented some profit in it, and let the sea4shore to the great fishmongers of <ondon8 For the second
time the Gaels "ere hunted out8
:1
/ut, finall*, part of the sheep4"al+s are turned into deer preser)es8 E)er* one +no"s that there
are no real forests in England8 'he deer in the par+s of the great are demurel* domestic cattle, fat
as <ondon aldermen8 Scotland is therefore the last refuge of the @noble passion8A @>n the
-ighlands,A sa*s Somers in 188, @ne" forests are springing up li+e mushrooms8 -ere, on one
side of Gaic+, *ou ha)e the ne" forest of Glenfeshie; and there on the other *ou ha)e the ne"
forest of (rd)eri+ie8 >n the same line *ou ha)e the /lac+ $ount, an immense "aste also recentl*
erected8 From east to "est F from the neighbourhood of (berdeen to the crags of =ban F *ou
ha)e no" a continuous line of forests; "hile in other parts of the -ighlands there are the ne"
forests of <och (rchaig, Glengarr*, Glenmoriston, Pc8 Sheep "ere introduced into glens "hich
had been the seats of communities of small farmers; and the latter "ere dri)en to see+ subsistence
on coarser and more sterile trac+s of soil8 Co" deer are supplanting sheep; and these are once
more dispossessing the small tenants, "ho "ill necessaril* be dri)en do"n upon still coarser land
and to more grinding penur*8 0eer4forests
:6
and the people cannot co4e9ist8 =ne or other of the
t"o must *ield8 <et the forests be increased in number and e9tent during the ne9t Iuarter of a
centur*, as the* ha)e been in the last, and the Gaels "ill perish from their nati)e soil888 'his
mo)ement among the -ighland proprietors is "ith some a matter of ambition888 "ith some lo)e of
:82 5hapter 67
sport888 "hile others, of a more practical cast, follo" the trade in deer "ith an e*e solel* to profit8
For it is a fact, that a mountain range laid out in forest is, in man* cases, more profitable to the
proprietor than "hen let as a sheep4"al+8 888 'he huntsman "ho "ants a deer4forest limits his
offers b* no other calculation than the e9tent of his purse8888 Sufferings ha)e been inflicted in the
-ighlands scarcel* less se)ere than those occasioned b* the polic* of the Corman +ings8 0eer
ha)e recei)ed e9tended ranges, "hile men ha)e been hunted "ithin a narro"er and still narro"er
circle8888 =ne after one the liberties of the people ha)e been clo)en do"n8888 (nd the oppressions
are dail* on the increase8888 'he clearance and dispersion of the people is pursued b* the
proprietors as a settled principle, as an agricultural necessit*, Dust as trees and brush"ood are
cleared from the "astes of (merica or (ustralia; and the operation goes on in a Iuiet, business4
li+e "a*, Pc8A
::
'he spoliation of the church?s propert*, the fraudulent alienation of the State domains, the
robber* of the common lands, the usurpation of feudal and clan propert*, and its transformation
into modern pri)ate propert* under circumstances of rec+less terrorism, "ere Dust so man* id*llic
methods of primiti)e accumulation8 'he* conIuered the field for capitalistic agriculture, made the
soil part and parcel of capital, and created for the to"n industries the necessar* suppl* of a @freeA
and outla"ed proletariat8
Chapter 28: Bloody Legislation Against the
Expropriated, from the End of the 15th
Century. Forcing Down of Wages by Acts of
Parliament
'he proletariat created b* the brea+ing up of the bands of feudal retainers and b* the forcible
e9propriation of the people from the soil, this @freeA proletariat could not possibl* be absorbed b*
the nascent manufactures as fast as it "as thro"n upon the "orld8 =n the other hand, these men,
suddenl* dragged from their "onted mode of life, could not as suddenl* adapt themsel)es to the
discipline of their ne" condition8 'he* "ere turned en masse into beggars, robbers, )agabonds,
partl* from inclination, in most cases from stress of circumstances8 -ence at the end of the 13th
and during the "hole of the 16th centur*, throughout Bestern Europe a blood* legislation against
)agabondage8 'he fathers of the present "or+ing class "ere chastised for their enforced
transformation into )agabonds and paupers8 <egislation treated them as @)oluntar*A criminals,
and assumed that it depended on their o"n good "ill to go on "or+ing under the old conditions
that no longer e9isted8
>n England this legislation began under -enr* ;>>8
<enry V...+ 1"3,: /eggars old and unable to "or+ recei)e a beggar?s licence8 =n the other hand,
"hipping and imprisonment for sturd* )agabonds8 'he* are to be tied to the cart4tail and "hipped
until the blood streams from their bodies, then to s"ear an oath to go bac+ to their birthplace or to
"here the* ha)e li)ed the last three *ears and to @put themsel)es to labour8A Bhat grim iron*Q >n
67 -enr* ;>>>8 the former statute is repeated, but strengthened "ith ne" clauses8 For the second
arrest for )agabondage the "hipping is to be repeated and half the ear sliced off; but for the third
relapse the offender is to be e9ecuted as a hardened criminal and enem* of the common "eal8
(d-ard V.+: ( statute of the first *ear of his reign, 137, ordains that if an*one refuses to "or+,
he shall be condemned as a sla)e to the person "ho has denounced him as an idler8 'he master
shall feed his sla)e on bread and "ater, "ea+ broth and such refuse meat as he thin+s fit8 -e has
the right to force him to do an* "or+, no matter ho" disgusting, "ith "hip and chains8 >f the
sla)e is absent a fortnight, he is condemned to sla)er* for life and is to be branded on forehead or
bac+ "ith the letter S; if he runs a"a* thrice, he is to be e9ecuted as a felon8 'he master can sell
him, beIueath him, let him out on hire as a sla)e, Dust as an* other personal chattel or cattle8 >f the
sla)es attempt an*thing against the masters, the* are also to be e9ecuted8 Lustices of the peace, on
information, are to hunt the rascals do"n8 >f it happens that a )agabond has been idling about for
three da*s, he is to be ta+en to his birthplace, branded "ith a red4hot iron "ith the letter ; on the
breast and be set to "or+, in chains, in the streets or at some other labour8 >f the )agabond gi)es a
false birthplace, he is then to become the sla)e for life of this place, of its inhabitants, or its
corporation, and to be branded "ith an S8 (ll persons ha)e the right to ta+e a"a* the children of
the )agabonds and to +eep them as apprentices, the *oung men until the 6th *ear, the girls until
the 67th8 >f the* run a"a*, the* are to become up to this age the sla)es of their masters, "ho can
:21 5hapter 68
put them in irons, "hip them, Pc8, if the* li+e8 E)er* master ma* put an iron ring round the nec+,
arms or legs of his sla)e, b* "hich to +no" him more easil* and to be more certain of him8
1
'he
last part of this statute pro)ides, that certain poor people ma* be emplo*ed b* a place or b*
persons, "ho are "illing to gi)e them food and drin+ and to find them "or+8 'his +ind of parish
sla)es "as +ept up in England until far into the 12th centur* under the name of @roundsmen8A
(li:abeth= 1"&2: %nlicensed beggars abo)e 1 *ears of age are to be se)erel* flogged and
branded on the left ear unless some one "ill ta+e them into ser)ice for t"o *ears; in case of a
repetition of the offence, if the* are o)er 18, the* are to be e9ecuted, unless some one "ill ta+e
them into ser)ice for t"o *ears; but for the third offence the* are to be e9ecuted "ithout merc* as
felons8 Similar statutes: 18 Eli1abeth, c8 1:, and another of 13278
6
>ames 1: (n* one "andering about and begging is declared a rogue and a )agabond8 Lustices of
the peace in pett* sessions are authorised to ha)e them publicl* "hipped and for the first offence
to imprison them for 6 months, for the second for 6 *ears8 Bhilst in prison the* are to be "hipped
as much and as often as the Dustices of the peace thin+ fit888 >ncorrigible and dangerous rogues are
to be branded "ith an & on the left shoulder and set to hard labour, and if the* are caught begging
again, to be e9ecuted "ithout merc*8 'hese statutes, legall* binding until the beginning of the
18th centur*, "ere onl* repealed b* 16 (nne, c8 6:8
Similar la"s in France, "here b* the middle of the 17th centur* a +ingdom of )agabonds
(truands! "as established in #aris8 E)en at the beginning of <ouis O;>8?s reign (=rdinance of Lul*
1:th, 1777! e)er* man in good health from 16 to 67 *ears of age, if "ithout means of subsistence
and not practising a trade, is to be sent to the galle*s8 =f the same nature are the statute of 5harles
;8 for the Cetherlands (=ctober, 13:7!, the first edict of the States and 'o"ns of -olland ($arch
17, 161!, the @#la+aatA of the %nited #ro)inces (Lune 66, 162!, Pc8
'hus "ere the agricultural people, first forcibl* e9propriated from the soil, dri)en from their
homes, turned into )agabonds, and then "hipped, branded, tortured b* la"s grotesIuel* terrible,
into the discipline necessar* for the "age s*stem8
>t is not enough that the conditions of labour are concentrated in a mass, in the shape of capital, at
the one pole of societ*, "hile at the other are grouped masses of men, "ho ha)e nothing to sell
but their labour4po"er8 Ceither is it enough that the* are compelled to sell it )oluntaril*8 'he
ad)ance of capitalist production de)elops a "or+ing class, "hich b* education, tradition, habit,
loo+s upon the conditions of that mode of production as self4e)ident la"s of Cature8 'he
organisation of the capitalist process of production, once full* de)eloped, brea+s do"n all
resistance8 'he constant generation of a relati)e surplus4population +eeps the la" of suppl* and
demand of labour, and therefore +eeps "ages, in a rut that corresponds "ith the "ants of capital8
'he dull compulsion of economic relations completes the subDection of the labourer to the
capitalist8 0irect force, outside economic conditions, is of course still used, but onl*
e9ceptionall*8 >n the ordinar* run of things, the labourer can be left to the @natural la"s of
production,A i$e$, to his dependence on capital, a dependence springing from, and guaranteed in
perpetuit* b*, the conditions of production themsel)es8 >t is other"ise during the historic genesis
of capitalist production8 'he bourgeoisie, at its rise, "ants and uses the po"er of the state to
@regulateA "ages, i$e$, to force them "ithin the limits suitable for surplus )alue ma+ing, to
lengthen the "or+ing da* and to +eep the labourer himself in the normal degree of dependence8
'his is an essential element of the so4called primiti)e accumulation8
'he class of "age labourers, "hich arose in the latter half of the 1th centur*, formed then and in
the follo"ing centur* onl* a )er* small part of the population, "ell protected in its position b*
the independent peasant proprietar* in the countr* and the guild4organisation in the to"n8 >n
countr* and to"n master and "or+men stood close together sociall*8 'he subordination of labour
:26 5hapter 68
to capital "as onl* formal F i$e$, the mode of production itself had as *et no specific capitalistic
character8 ;ariable capital preponderated greatl* o)er constant8 'he demand for "age labour
gre", therefore, rapidl* "ith e)er* accumulation of capital, "hilst the suppl* of "age labour
follo"ed but slo"l*8 ( large part of the national product, changed later into a fund of capitalist
accumulation, then still entered into the consumption4fund of the labourer8
<egislation on "age labour (from the first, aimed at the e9ploitation of the labourer and, as it
ad)anced, al"a*s eIuall* hostile to him!,
:
is started in England b* the Statute of <abourers, of
Ed"ard >>>8, 1:28 'he ordinance of 1:37 in France, issued in the name of .ing Lohn,
corresponds "ith it8 English and French legislation run parallel and are identical in purport8 So far
as the labour4statutes aim at compulsor* e9tension of the "or+ing da*, > do not return to them, as
this point "as treated earlier (5hap8 O8, Section 3!8
'he Statute of <abourers "as passed at the urgent instance of the -ouse of 5ommons8 ( 'or*
sa*s nai)el*:
@Formerl* the poor demanded such hih "ages as to threaten industr* and "ealth8
Ce9t, their "ages are so lo1 as to threaten industr* and "ealth eIuall* and
perhaps more, but in another "a*8A
( tariff of "ages "as fi9ed b* la" for to"n
and countr*, for piece "or+ and da* "or+8 'he agricultural labourers "ere to hire
themsel)es out b* the *ear, the to"n ones @in open mar+et8A >t "as forbidden,
under pain of imprisonment, to pa* higher "ages than those fi9ed b* the statute,
but the ta+ing of higher "ages "as more se)erel* punished than the gi)ing them8
GSo also in Sections 18 and 12 of the Statute of (pprentices of Eli1abeth, ten da*s?
imprisonment is decreed for him that pa*s the higher "ages, but t"ent*4one da*s
for him that recei)es them8H ( statute of 1:67 increased the penalties and
authorised the masters to e9tort labour at the legal rate of "ages b* corporal
punishment8 (ll combinations, contracts, oaths, Pc8, b* "hich masons and
carpenters reciprocall* bound themsel)es, "ere declared null and )oid8 5oalition
of the labourers is treated as a heinous crime from the 1th centur* to 1863, the
*ear of the repeal of the la"s against 'rades? %nions8 'he spirit of the Statute of
<abourers of 1:2 and of its offshoots comes out clearl* in the fact, that indeed a
ma9imum of "ages is dictated b* the State, but on no account a minimum8
>n the 16th centur*, the condition of the labourers had, as "e +no", become much "orse8 'he
mone* "age rose, but not in proportion to the depreciation of mone* and the corresponding rise
in the prices of commodities8 Bages, therefore, in realit* fell8 Ce)ertheless, the la"s for +eeping
them do"n remained in force, together "ith the ear4clipping and branding of those @"hom no one
"as "illing to ta+e into ser)ice8A /* the Statute of (pprentices 3 Eli1abeth, c8 :, the Dustices of
the peace "ere empo"ered to fi9 certain "ages and to modif* them according to the time of the
*ear and the price of commodities8 Lames >8 e9tended these regulations of labour also to "ea)ers,
spinners, and all possible categories of "or+ers8
3
George >>8 e9tended the la"s against coalitions
of labourers to manufactures8 >n the manufacturing period par excellence, the capitalist mode of
production had become sufficientl* strong to render legal regulation of "ages as impracticable as
it "as unnecessar*; but the ruling classes "ere un"illing in case of necessit* to be "ithout the
"eapons of the old arsenal8 Still, 8 George >>8 forbade a higher da*?s "age than 6s8 7[d8 for
Dourne*men tailors in and around <ondon, e9cept in cases of general mourning; still, 1: George
>>>8, c8 68, ga)e the regulation of the "ages of sil+4"ea)ers to the Dustices of the peace; still, in
1776, it reIuired t"o Dudgments of the higher courts to decide, "hether the mandates of Dustices
of the peace as to "ages held good also for non4agricultural labourers; still, in 1722, an act of
#arliament ordered that the "ages of the Scotch miners should continue to be regulated b* a
:2: 5hapter 68
statute of Eli1abeth and t"o Scotch acts of 1661 and 16718 -o" completel* in the meantime
circumstances had changed, is pro)ed b* an occurrence unheard4of before in the English <o"er
-ouse8 >n that place, "here for more than 77 *ears la"s had been made for the ma9imum,
be*ond "hich "ages absolutel* must not rise, Bhitbread in 1726 proposed a legal minimum
"age for agricultural labourers8 #itt opposed this, but confessed that the @condition of the poor
"as cruel8A Finall*, in 181:, the la"s for the regulation of "ages "ere repealed8 'he* "ere an
absurd anomal*, since the capitalist regulated his factor* b* his pri)ate legislation, and could b*
the poor4rates ma+e up the "age of the agricultural labourer to the indispensable minimum8 'he
pro)isions of the labour statutes as to contracts bet"een master and "or+man, as to gi)ing notice
and the li+e, "hich onl* allo" of a ci)il action against the contract4brea+ing master, but on the
contrar* permit a criminal action against the contract4brea+ing "or+man, are to this hour (187:!
in full force8 'he barbarous la"s against 'rades? %nions fell in 1863 before the threatening
bearing of the proletariat8 0espite this, the* fell onl* in part8 5ertain beautiful fragments of the
old statute )anished onl* in 18328 Finall*, the act of #arliament of Lune 62, 1871, made a pretence
of remo)ing the last traces of this class of legislation b* legal recognition of 'rades? %nions8 /ut
an act of #arliament of the same date (an act to amend the criminal la" relating to )iolence,
threats, and molestation!, re4established, in point of fact, the former state of things in a ne"
shape8 /* this #arliamentar* escamotage the means "hich the labourers could use in a stri+e or
loc+4out "ere "ithdra"n from the la"s common to all citi1ens, and placed under e9ceptional
penal legislation, the interpretation of "hich fell to the masters themsel)es in their capacit* as
Dustices of the peace8 '"o *ears earlier, the same -ouse of 5ommons and the same $r8 Gladstone
in the "ell4+no"n straightfor"ard fashion brought in a bill for the abolition of all e9ceptional
penal legislation against the "or+ing class8 /ut this "as ne)er allo"ed to go be*ond the second
reading, and the matter "as thus protracted until at last the @great <iberal part*,A b* an alliance
"ith the 'ories, found courage to turn against the )er* proletariat that had carried it into po"er8
Cot content "ith this treacher*, the @great <iberal part*A allo"ed the English Dudges, e)er
complaisant in the ser)ice of the ruling classes, to dig up again the earlier la"s against
@conspirac*,A and to appl* them to coalitions of labourers8 Be see that onl* against its "ill and
under the pressure of the masses did the English #arliament gi)e up the la"s against Stri+es and
'rades? %nions, after it had itself, for 377 *ears, held, "ith shameless egoism, the position of a
permanent 'rades? %nion of the capitalists against the labourers8
0uring the )er* first storms of the re)olution, the French bourgeoisie dared to ta+e a"a* from the
"or+ers the right of association but Dust acIuired8 /* a decree of Lune 1, 1721, the* declared all
coalition of the "or+ers as @an attempt against libert* and the declaration of the rights of man,A
punishable b* a fine of 377 li)res, together "ith depri)ation of the rights of an acti)e citi1en for
one *ear8
6
'his la" "hich, b* means of State compulsion, confined the struggle bet"een capital
and labour "ithin limits comfortable for capital, has outli)ed re)olutions and changes of
d*nasties8 E)en the &eign of 'error left it untouched8 >t "as but Iuite recentl* struc+ out of the
#enal 5ode8 Cothing is more characteristic than the prete9t for this bourgeois coup dC?tat$
@Granting,A sa*s 5hapelier, the reporter of the Select 5ommittee on this la", @that "ages ought to
be a little higher than the* are, 888 that the* ought to be high enough for him that recei)es them, to
be free from that state of absolute dependence due to the "ant of the necessaries of life, and
"hich is almost that of sla)er*,A *et the "or+ers must not be allo"ed to come to an*
understanding about their o"n interests, nor to act in common and thereb* lessen their @absolute
dependence, "hich is almost that of sla)er*;A because, forsooth, in doing this the* inDure @the
freedom of their cide)ant masters, the present entrepreneurs,A and because a coalition against the
despotism of the Iuondam masters of the corporations is F guess "hatQ F is a restoration of the
corporations abolished b* the French constitution8
7
Chapter Twenty-Nine: Genesis of the Capitalist
Farmer
Co" that "e ha)e considered the forcible creation of a class of outla"ed proletarians, the blood*
discipline that turned them into "age labourers, the disgraceful action of the State "hich
emplo*ed the police to accelerate the accumulation of capital b* increasing the degree of
e9ploitation of labour, the Iuestion remains: "hence came the capitalists originall*E For the
e9propriation of the agricultural population creates, directl*, none but the greatest landed
proprietors8 (s far, ho"e)er, as concerns the genesis of the farmer, "e can, so to sa*, put our hand
on it, because it is a slo" process e)ol)ing through man* centuries8 'he serfs, as "ell as the free
small proprietors, held land under )er* different tenures, and "ere therefore emancipated under
)er* different economic conditions8 >n England the first form of the farmer is the bailiff, himself a
serf8 -is position is similar to that of the old &oman villicus, onl* in a more limited sphere of
action8 0uring the second half of the 1th centur* he is replaced b* a farmer, "hom the landlord
pro)ided "ith seed, cattle and implements8 -is condition is not )er* different from that of the
peasant8 =nl* he e9ploits more "age labour8 Soon he becomes a meta*er, a half4farmer8 -e
ad)ances one part of the agricultural stoc+, the landlord the other8 'he t"o di)ide the total
product in proportions determined b* contract8 'his form Iuic+l* disappears in England, to gi)e
the place to the farmer proper, "ho ma+es his o"n capital breed b* emplo*ing "age labourers,
and pa*s a part of the surplus4product, in mone* or in +ind, to the landlord as rent8 So long,
during the 13th centur*, as the independent peasant and the farm4labourer "or+ing for himself as
"ell as for "ages, enriched themsel)es b* their o"n labour, the circumstances of the farmer, and
his field of production, "ere eIuall* mediocre8 'he agricultural re)olution "hich commenced in
the last third of the 13th centur*, and continued during almost the "hole of the 16th (e9cepting,
ho"e)er, its last decade!, enriched him Dust as speedil* as it impo)erished the mass of the
agricultural people8
1
'he usurpation of the common lands allo"ed him to augment greatl* his stoc+ of cattle, almost
"ithout cost, "hilst the* *ielded him a richer suppl* of manure for the tillage of the soil8 'o this
"as added in the 16th centur* a )er* important element8 (t that time the contracts for farms ran
for a long time, often for 22 *ears8 'he progressi)e fall in the )alue of the precious metals, and
therefore of mone*, brought the farmers golden fruit8 (part from all the other circumstances
discussed abo)e, it lo"ered "ages8 ( portion of the latter "as no" added to the profits of the
farm8 'he continuous rise in the price of corn, "ool, meat, in a "ord of all agricultural produce,
s"elled the mone* capital of the farm "ithout an* action on his part, "hilst the rent he paid
(being calculated on the old )alue of mone*! diminished in realit*8
6
'hus the* gre" rich at the
e9pense both of their labourers and their landlords8 Co "onder, therefore, that England, at the end
of the 16th centur*, had a class of capitalist farmers, rich, considering the circumstances of the
time8
:
Chapter 30: Reaction of the Agricultural
Revolution on Industry. Creation of the
Home-Market for Industrial Capital
'he e9propriation and e9pulsion of the agricultural population, intermittent but rene"ed again
and again, supplied, as "e sa", the to"n industries "ith a mass of proletarians entirel* connected
"ith the corporate guilds and unfettered b* them; a fortunate circumstance that ma+es old (8
(nderson (not to be confounded "ith Lames (nderson!, in his @-istor* of 5ommerce,A belie)e in
the direct inter)ention of #ro)idence8 Be must still pause a moment on this element of primiti)e
accumulation8 'he thinning4out of the independent, self4supporting peasants not onl* brought
about the cro"ding together of the industrial proletariat, in the "a* that Geoffre* Saint -ilaire
e9plained the condensation of cosmical matter at one place, b* its rarefaction at another8
1
>n spite
of the smaller number of its culti)ators, the soil brought forth as much or more produce, after as
before, because the re)olution in the conditions of landed propert* "as accompanied b*
impro)ed methods of culture, greater co4operation, concentration of the means of production,
Pc8, and because not onl* "ere the agricultural "age labourers put on the strain more intensel*
6
,
but the field of production on "hich the* "or+ed for themsel)es became more and more
contracted8 Bith the setting free of a part of the agricultural population, therefore, their former
means of nourishment "ere also set free8 'he* "ere no" transformed into material elements of
)ariable capital8 'he peasant, e9propriated and cast adrift, must bu* their )alue in the form of
"ages, from his ne" master, the industrial capitalist8 'hat "hich holds good of the means of
subsistence holds "ith the ra" materials of industr* dependent upon home agriculture8 'he* "ere
transformed into an element of constant capital8 Suppose, e$8, a part of the Bestphalian peasants,
"ho, at the time of Frederic+ >>, all span fla9, forcibl* e9propriated and hunted from the soil; and
the other part that remained, turned into da* labourers of large farmers8 (t the same time arise
large establishments for fla94spinning and "ea)ing, in "hich the men @set freeA no" "or+ for
"ages8 'he fla9 loo+s e9actl* as before8 Cot a fibre of it is changed, but a ne" social soul has
popped into its bod*8 >t forms no" a part of the constant capital of the master manufacturer8
Formerl* di)ided among a number of small producers, "ho culti)ated it themsel)es and "ith
their families spun it in retail fashion, it is no" concentrated in the hand of one capitalist, "ho
sets others to spin and "ea)e it for him8 'he e9tra labour e9pended in fla94spinning realised itself
formerl* in e9tra income to numerous peasant families, or ma*be, in Frederic+ >>?s time, in ta9es
pour le roi de #russe8 >t realises itself no" in profit for a fe" capitalists8 'he spindles and looms,
formerl* scattered o)er the face of the countr*, are no" cro"ded together in a fe" great labour4
barrac+s, together "ith the labourers and the ra" material8 (nd spindles, looms, ra" material, are
no" transformed from means of independent e9istence for the spinners and "ea)ers, into means
for commanding them and suc+ing out of them unpaid labour8
:
=ne does not percei)e, "hen
loo+ing at the large manufactories and the large farms, that the* ha)e originated from the
thro"ing into one of man* small centres of production, and ha)e been built up b* the
e9propriation of man* small independent producers8 Ce)ertheless, the popular intuition "as not
at fault8 >n the time of $irabeau, the lion of the &e)olution, the great manufactories "ere still
:26 5hapter :7
called manufactures reunies, "or+shops thro"n into one, as "e spea+ of field thro"n into one8
Sa*s $irabeau:
@Be are onl* pa*ing attention to the grand manufactories, in "hich hundreds of
men "or+ under a director and "hich are commonl* called manufactures r?unies8
'hose "here a )er* large number of labourers "or+, each separatel* and on his
o"n account, are hardl* considered; the* are placed at an infinite distance from
the others8 'his is a great error, as the latter alone ma+e a reall* important obDect
of national prosperit*8888 'he large "or+shop (manufacture rRunie! "ill enrich
prodigiousl* one or t"o entrepreneurs, but the labourers "ill onl* be Dourne*men,
paid more or less, and "ill not ha)e an* share in the success of the underta+ing8 >n
the discrete "or+shop (manufacture separRe!, on the contrar*, no one "ill become
rich, but man* labourers "ill be comfortable; the sa)ing and the industrious "ill
be able to amass a little capital, to put b* a little for a birth of a child, for an
illness, for themsel)es or their belongings8 'he number of sa)ing and industrious
labourers "ill increase, because the* "ill see in good conduct, in acti)it*, a means
of essentiall* bettering their condition, and not of obtaining a small rise in "ages
that can ne)er be of an* importance of the future, and "hose sole result is to place
men in the position to li)e a little better, but onl* from da* to da*8888 'he large
"or+shops, underta+ings of certain pri)ate persons "ho pa* labourers from da* to
da* to "or+ for their gain, ma* be able to put these pri)ate indi)iduals at their
ease, but the* "ill ne)er be an obDect "orth the attention of go)ernments8 0iscrete
"or+shops, for the most part combined "ith culti)ation of small holdings, are the
onl* free ones8A
&e1epte F translated as @&eceipt,A "hich in the 12th 5entur*, meant @recipeA and /en Fo"+es, for e9ample
translates this as @recipe8A G$>( footnoteH8
1
@<e 5apital,A par .arl $ar98 'raduction de $8 L8 &o*, entierement re)isRe par lUauteur8 #aris8 <achMtre8 'his
translation, especiall* in the latter part of the boo+, contains considerable alterations in and additions to the te9t of the
second German edition8
6
(t the Iuarterl* meeting of the $anchester 5hamber of commerce, held this afternoon a "arm discussion too+ place
on the subDect of Free 'rade8 ( resolution "as mo)ed to the effect that @ha)ing "aited in )ain 7 *ears for other
nations to follo" the Free 'rade e9ample of England, this 5hamber thin+s the time has no" arri)ed to reconsider that
position8 'he resolution "as reDected b* a maDorit* of one onl*, the figures being 61 for, and 66 against8 F E)ening
Standard, Co)8 1, 18868
i
>n the English edition of 1887 this addition "as made b* Engels himself8 F Ed8
6
>n the present edition the* are put into sIuare brac+ets and mar+ed "ith the initials
:
$ar9 "as not mista+en in the title of the boo+ but in the page8 -e put do"n :6 instead of :78 (See pp8 367461 of the
present edition8! F Ed8
1
.arl $ar9, @,ur .riti+ der #olitischen =e+onomie8A /erlin, 1832, p8 :8
6
@0esire implies "ant, it is the appetite of the mind, and as natural as hunger to the bod*888 'he greatest number (of
things! ha)e their )alue from suppl*ing the "ants of the mind8A Cicholas /arbon: @( 0iscourse 5oncerning 5oining
the Ce" $one* <ighter8 >n (ns"er to $r8 <oc+e?s 5onsiderations, Pc8A, <ondon, 1626, pp8 6, :8
:
@'hings ha)e an intrinsic+ )ertueA (this is /arbon?s special term for )alue in use! @"hich in all places ha)e the same
)ertue; as the loadstone to attract ironA (l8c8, p8 6!8 'he propert* "hich the magnet possesses of attracting iron, became
of use onl* after b* means of that propert* the polarit* of the magnet had been disco)ered8
@'he natural "orth of an*thing consists in its fitness to suppl* the necessities, or ser)e the con)eniencies of human
life8A (Lohn <oc+e, @Some 5onsiderations on the 5onseIuences of the <o"ering of >nterest, 1621,A in Bor+s Edit8
<ond8, 1777, ;ol8 >>8, p8 688! >n English "riters of the 17th centur* "e freIuentl* find @"orthA in the sense of )alue in
use, and @)alueA in the sense of e9change )alue8 'his is Iuite in accordance "ith the spirit of a language that li+es to
use a 'eutonic "ord for the actual thing, and a &omance "ord for its refle9ion8
3
>n bourgeois societies the economic fictio :uris pre)ails, that e)er* one, as a bu*er, possesses an enc*clopedic
+no"ledge of commodities8
6
@<a )aleur consiste dans le rapport d?Rchange Iui se trou)e entre telle chose et telle autre entre telle mesure d?une
production et telle mesure d?une autre8A G@;alue consists in the e9change relation bet"een one thing and another,
bet"een a gi)en amount of one product and a gi)en amount of anotherAH (<e 'rosne: @0e l?>ntRrdt Social8A
#h*siocrates, Ed8 0aire8 #aris, 1868 p8 8828!
7
@Cothing can ha)e an intrinsic+ )alue8A (C8 /arbon, t8 c8, p8 6!; or as /utler sa*s F @'he )alue of a thing is Dust as
much as it "ill bring8A
8
C8 /arbon, l8c8, p8 3: and 78
2
@'he )alue of them (the necessaries of life!, "hen the* are e9changed the one for another, is regulated b* the
Iuantit* of labour necessaril* reIuired, and commonl* ta+en in producing them8A (@Some 'houghts on the >nterest of
$one* in General, and #articularl* in the #ublic+ Funds, P8A <ond8, p8 :6! 'his remar+able anon*mous "or+ "ritten
in the last centur*, bears no date8 >t is clear, ho"e)er, from internal e)idence that it appeared in the reign of George >>,
about 17:2 or 1778
17
@'outes les productions d?un mdme genre ne forment proprement Iu?une masse, dont le pri9 se dRtermine en
gRnRral et sans Rgard au9 circonstances particulinres8A G@#roperl* spea+ing, all products of the same +ind form a single
mass, and their price is determined in general and "ithout regard to particular circumstancesAH (<e 'rosne, l8c8, p8
82:8!
11
.8 $ar98 l8c8, p86
16
> am inserting the parenthesis because its omission has often gi)en rise to the misunderstanding that e)er* product
that is consumed b* some one other than its producer is considered in $ar9 a commodit*8 GEngels, th German
EditionH
1:
'utti i fenomeni dell?uni)erso, sieno essi prodotti della mano dell?uomo, o))ero delle uni)ersali leggi della fisica,
non ci danno idea di attuale crea1ione, ma unicamente di una modifica1ione della materia8 (ccostare e separare sono
gli unici elementi che l?ingegno umano ritro)a anali11ando l?idea della riprodu1ione: e tanto e riprodu1ione di )alore
()alue in use, although ;erri in this passage of his contro)ers* "ith the #h*siocrats is not himself Iuite certain of the
+ind of )alue he is spea+ing of! e di ricche11e se la terra, l?aria e l?acIua ne? campi si trasmutino in grano, come se
colla mano dell?uomo il glutine di un insetto si trasmuti in )elluto o))ero alcuni pe11etti di metalio si organi11ino a
formare una ripeti1ione8A G@(ll the phenomena of the uni)erse, "hether produced b* the hand of man or through the
uni)ersal la"s of ph*sics, are not actual ne" creations, but merel* a modification of matter8 Loining together and
separating are the onl* elements "hich the human mind al"a*s finds on anal*sing the concept of reproduction and it
is Dust the same "ith the reproduction of )alueA ()alue in use, although ;erri in this passage of his contro)ers* "ith
the #h*siocrats is not himself Iuite certain of the +ind of )alue he is spea+ing of! @and of "ealth, "hen earth, air and
"ater in the fields are transformed into corn, or "hen the hand of man transforms the secretions of an insect into sil+,
or some pieces of metal are arranged to ma+e the mechanism of a "atch8AH F #ietro ;erri, @$edita1ioni sulla
Economia #oliticaA Gfirst printed in 177:H in 5ustodi?s edition of the >talian Economists, #arte $oderna, t8 O;8, p8 668
1
5omp8 -egel, @#hilosophie des &echts8A /erlin, 1878 p8 6378
13
'he reader must note that "e are not spea+ing here of the "ages or )alue that the labourer gets for a gi)en labour
time, but of the )alue of the commodit* in "hich that labour time is materialised8 Bages is a categor* that, as *et, has
no e9istence at the present stage of our in)estigation8
16
>n order to pro)e that labour alone is that all4sufficient and real measure, b* "hich at all times the )alue of all
commodities can be estimated and compared, (dam Smith sa*s, @EIual Iuantities of labour must at all times and in
all places ha)e the same )alue for the labourer8 >n his normal state of health, strength, and acti)it*, and "ith the
a)erage degree of s+ill that he ma* possess, he must al"a*s gi)e up the same portion of his rest his freedom, and his
happiness8A (@Bealth of Cations,A b8 >8 ch8 ;8! =n the one hand (dam Smith here (but not e)er*"here! confuses the
determination of )alue b* means of the Iuantit* of labour e9pended in the production of commodities, "ith the
determination of the )alues of commodities b* means of the )alue of labour, and see+s in conseIuence to pro)e that
eIual Iuantities of labour ha)e al"a*s the same )alue8 =n the other hand he has a presentiment, that labour, so far as
it manifests itself in the )alue of commodities, counts onl* as e9penditure of labour po"er, but he treats this
e9penditure as the mere sacrifice of rest, freedom, and happiness, not as at the same time the normal acti)it* of li)ing
beings8 /ut then, he has the modern "age4labourer in his e*e8 $uch more aptl*, the anon*mous predecessor of (dam
Smith, Iuoted abo)e in note 2, this chapter, sa*s @one man has emplo*ed himself a "ee+ in pro)iding this necessar*
of life 888 and he that gi)es him some other in e9change cannot ma+e a better estimate of "hat is a proper eIui)alent,
than b* computing "hat cost him Dust as much labour and time "hich in effect is no more than e9changing one man?s
labour in one thing for a time certain, for another man?s labour in another thing for the same time8A (l8c8, p8 :28! G'he
English language has the ad)antage of possessing different "ords for the t"o aspects of labour here considered8 'he
labour "hich creates use )alue, and counts Iualitati)el*, is Bor+, as distinguished from <abour, that "hich creates
;alue and counts Iuantitati)el*, is <abour as distinguished from Bor+ 4 EngelsH
17
'he fe" economists, amongst "hom is S8 /aile*, "ho ha)e occupied themsel)es "ith the anal*sis of the form of
)alue, ha)e been unable to arri)e at an* result, first, because the* confuse the form of )alue "ith )alue itself; and
second, because, under the coarse influence of the practical bourgeois, the* e9clusi)el* gi)e their attention to the
Iuantitati)e aspect of the Iuestion8 @'he command of Iuantit* 888 constitutes )alue8A (@$one* and its ;icissitudes8A
<ondon, 18:7, p8 118 /* S8 /aile*8!
18
'he celebrated Fran+lin, one of the first economists, after Bm8 #ett*, "ho sa" through the nature of )alue, sa*s:
@'rade in general being nothing else but the e9change of labour for labour, the )alue of all things is 888 most Dustl*
measured b* labour8A (@'he "or+s of /8 Fran+lin, Pc8,A edited b* Spar+s8 /oston, 18:6, ;ol8 >>8, p8 6678! Fran+lin is
unconscious that b* estimating the )alue of e)er*thing in labour, he ma+es abstraction from an* difference in the sorts
of labour e9changed, and thus reduces them all to eIual human labour8 /ut although ignorant of this, *et he sa*s it8 -e
spea+s first of @the one labour,A then of @the other labour,A and finall* of @labour,A "ithout further Iualification, as the
substance of the )alue of e)er*thing8
12
>n a sort of "a*, it is "ith man as "ith commodities8 Since he comes into the "orld neither "ith a loo+ing glass in
his hand, nor as a Fichtian philosopher, to "hom @> am >A is sufficient, man first sees and recognises himself in other
men8 #eter onl* establishes his o"n identit* as a man b* first comparing himself "ith #aul as being of li+e +ind8 (nd
thereb* #aul, Dust as he stands in his #auline personalit*, becomes to #eter the t*pe of the genus homo8
67
;alue is here, as occasionall* in the preceding pages, used in sense of )alue determined as to Iuantit*, or of
magnitude of )alue8
61
'his incongruit* bet"een the magnitude of )alue and its relati)e e9pression has, "ith customar* ingenuit*, been
e9ploited b* )ulgar economists8 For e9ample F @=nce admit that ( falls, because /, "ith "hich it is e9changed, rises,
"hile no less labour is besto"ed in the meantime on (, and *our general principle of )alue falls to the ground888 >f he
G&icardoH allo"ed that "hen ( rises in )alue relati)el* to /, / falls in )alue relati)el* to (, he cut a"a* the ground on
"hich he rested his grand proposition, that the )alue of a commodit* is e)er determined b* the labour embodied in it,
for if a change in the cost of ( alters not onl* its o"n )alue in relation to /, for "hich it is e9changed, but also the
)alue of / relati)el* to that of (, though no change has ta+en place in the Iuantit* of labour to produce /, then not
onl* the doctrine falls to the ground "hich asserts that the Iuantit* of labour besto"ed on an article regulates its
)alue, but also that "hich affirms the cost of an article to regulate its )alue? (L8 /roadhurst: @#olitical Econom*,A
<ondon, 186, pp8 11 and 18! $r8 /roadhurst might Dust as "ell sa*: consider the fractions 17J67, 17J37, 17J177, Pc8,
the number 17 remains unchanged, and *et its proportional magnitude, its magnitude relati)el* to the numbers 67, 37,
177 Pc8, continuall* diminishes8 'herefore the great principle that the magnitude of a "hole number, such as 17, is
@regulatedA b* the number of times unit* is contained in it, falls to the ground8 G'he author e9plains in section of
this chapter, pp8 87481, note 6 (note :: of this document!, "hat he understands b* @;ulgar Econom*8A F EngelsH
66
Such e9pressions of relations in general, called b* -egel refle9 categories, form a )er* curious class8 For instance,
one man is +ing onl* because other men stand in the relation of subDects to him8 'he*, on the contrar*, imagine that
the* are subDects because he is +ing8
6:
F8 <8 (8 Ferrier, sous4inspecteur des douanes, @0u gou)ernement considRrR dans ses rapports a)ec le commerce,A
#aris, 1873; and 5harles Ganilh, @0es S*stnmes d?Economie #olitiIue, F 6nd ed8, #aris, 18618
6
>n -omer, for instance, the )alue of an article is e9pressed in a series of different things >>8 ;>>8 764738
63
For this reason, "e can spea+ of the coat )alue of the linen "hen its )alue is e9pressed in coats, or of its corn )alue
"hen e9pressed in corn, and so on8 E)er* such e9pression tells us, that "hat appears in the use )alues, cost, corn, Pc8,
is the )alue of the linen8 @'he )alue of an* commodit* denoting its relation in e9change, "e ma* spea+ of it as 888 corn
)alue, cloth )alue, according to the commodit* "ith "hich it is compared; and hence there are a thousand different
+inds of )alue, as man* +inds of )alue as there are commodities in e9istence, and all are eIuall* real and eIuall*
nominal8A (@( 5ritical 0issertation on the Cature, $easures and 5auses of ;alue: chiefl* in reference to the "ritings
of $r8 &icardo and his follo"ers8A /* the author of @Essa*s on the Formation, Pc8, of =pinions8A <ondon, 1863, p8
:28! S8 /aile*, the author of this anon*mous "or+, a "or+ "hich in its da* created much stir in England, fancied that,
b* thus pointing out the )arious relati)e e9pressions of one and the same )alue, he had pro)ed the impossibilit* of an*
determination of the concept of )alue8 -o"e)er narro" his o"n )ie"s ma* ha)e been, *et, that he laid his finger on
some serious defects in the &icardian 'heor*, is pro)ed b* the animosit* "ith "hich he "as attac+ed b* &icardo?s
follo"ers8 See the Bestminster &e)ie" for e9ample8
66
>t is b* no means self4e)ident that this character of direct and uni)ersal e9changeabilit* is, so to spea+, a polar one,
and as intimatel* connected "ith its opposite pole, the absence of direct e9changeabilit*, as the positi)e pole of the
magnet is "ith its negati)e counterpart8 >t ma* therefore be imagined that all commodities can simultaneousl* ha)e
this character impressed upon them, Dust as it can be imagined that all 5atholics can be popes together8 >t is, of course,
highl* desirable in the e*es of the petit bourgeois, for "hom the production of commodities is the nec plus ultra of
human freedom and indi)idual independence, that the incon)eniences resulting from this character of commodities
not being directl* e9changeable, should be remo)ed8 #roudhon?s socialism is a "or+ing out of this #hilistine %topia, a
form of socialism "hich, as > ha)e else"here sho"n, does not possess e)en the merit of originalit*8 <ong before his
time, the tas+ "as attempted "ith much better success b* Gra*, /ra*, and others8 /ut, for all that, "isdom of this +ind
flourishes e)en no" in certain circles under the name of @science8A Ce)er has an* school pla*ed more tric+s "ith the
"ord science, than that of #roudhon, for @"o /egriffe fehlen, 0a stellt 1ur rechten ,eit ein Bort sich ein8A G@Bhere
thoughts are absent, Bords are brought in as con)enient replacements,A Goethe?s, Faust, See #roudhon?s #hilosoph*
of #o)ert*H
66a
>n the German edition, there is the follo"ing footnote here: @=ne ma* recall that 5hina and the tables began to
dance "hen the rest of the "orld appeared to be standing still F pour encourager les autres Gto encourage the othersH8A
'he defeat of the 18842 re)olutions "as follo"ed b* a period of dismal political reaction in Europe8 (t that time,
spiritualism, especiall* table4turning, became the rage among the European aristocrac*8 >n 183746, 5hina "as s"ept
b* an anti4feudal liberation mo)ement in the form of a large4scale peasant "ar, the 'aiping &e)olt8 F Cote b* editors
of $E5B8
67
(mong the ancient Germans the unit for measuring land "as "hat could be har)ested in a da*, and "as called
'ag"er+, 'ag"anne (Durnale, or terra Durnalis, or diornalis!, $annsmaad, Pc8 (See G8 <8 )on $aurer, @Einleitung 1ur
Geschichte der $ar+, Pc8 ;erfassung,A $unchen, 183, p8 162 sI8!
68
Bhen, therefore, Galiani sa*s: ;alue is a relation bet"een persons F @<a &icche11a e una ragione tra due persone,A
F he ought to ha)e added: a relation bet"een persons e9pressed as a relation bet"een things8 (Galiani: 0ella $oneta,
p8 661, ;8 >>>8 of 5ustodi?s collection of @Scrittori 5lassici >taliani di Economia #olitica8A #arte $oderna, $ilano
187:8!
62
Bhat are "e to thin+ of a la" that asserts itself onl* b* periodical re)olutionsE >t is Dust nothing but a la" of Cature,
founded on the "ant of +no"ledge of those "hose action is the subDect of it8A (Friedrich Engels: @%mrisse 1u einer
.riti+ der Cationalu+onomie,A in the @0eutsch4Fran1usische LahrbTcher,A edited b* (rnold &uge and .arl $ar98
#aris8 188!
:7
E)en &icardo has his stories X la &obinson8 @-e ma+es the primiti)e hunter and the primiti)e fisher straight"a*, as
o"ners of commodities, e9change fish and game in the proportion in "hich labour time is incorporated in these
e9change )alues8 =n this occasion he commits the anachronism of ma+ing these men appl* to the calculation, so far
as their implements ha)e to be ta+en into account, the annuit* tables in current use on the <ondon E9change in the
*ear 18178 'he parallelograms of $r8 ="en appear to be the onl* form of societ*, besides the bourgeois form, "ith
"hich he "as acIuainted8A (.arl $ar9: @,ur .riti+, Pc88A pp8 :8, :2!
:1
( ridiculous presumption has latterl* got abroad that common propert* in its primiti)e form is specificall* a
Sla)onian, or e)en e9clusi)el* &ussian form8 >t is the primiti)e form that "e can pro)e to ha)e e9isted amongst
&omans, 'eutons, and 5elts, and e)en to this da* "e find numerous e9amples, ruins though the* be, in >ndia8 ( more
e9hausti)e stud* of (siatic, and especiall* of >ndian forms of common propert*, "ould sho" ho" from the different
forms of primiti)e common propert*, different forms of its dissolution ha)e been de)eloped8 'hus, for instance, the
)arious original t*pes of &oman and 'eutonic pri)ate propert* are deducible from different forms of >ndian common
propert*8A (.arl $ar9, @,ur .riti+, Pc8,A p8 178!
:6
'he insufficienc* of &icardo?s anal*sis of the magnitude of )alue, and his anal*sis is b* far the best, "ill appear
from the :rd and th boo+s of this "or+8 (s regards )alue in general, it is the "ea+ point of the classical school of
#olitical Econom* that it no"here e9pressl* and "ith full consciousness, distinguishes bet"een labour, as it appears
in the )alue of a product, and the same labour, as it appears in the use )alue of that product8 =f course the distinction
is practicall* made, since this school treats labour, at one time under its Iuantitati)e aspect, at another under its
Iualitati)e aspect8 /ut it has not the least idea, that "hen the difference bet"een )arious +inds of labour is treated as
purel* Iuantitati)e, their Iualitati)e unit* or eIualit*, and therefore their reduction to abstract human labour, is
implied8 For instance, &icardo declares that he agrees "ith 0estutt de 'rac* in this proposition: @(s it is certain that
our ph*sical and moral faculties are alone our original riches, the emplo*ment of those faculties, labour of some +ind,
is our onl* original treasure, and it is al"a*s from this emplo*ment that all those things are created "hich "e call
riches888 >t is certain, too, that all those things onl* represent the labour "hich has created them, and if the* ha)e a
)alue, or e)en t"o distinct )alues, the* can onl* deri)e them from that (the )alue! of the labour from "hich the*
emanate8A (&icardo, @'he #rinciples of #ol8 Econ8,A : Ed8 <ond8 1861, p8 ::8! Be "ould here onl* point out, that
&icardo puts his o"n more profound interpretation upon the "ords of 0estutt8 Bhat the latter reall* sa*s is, that on
the one hand all things "hich constitute "ealth represent the labour that creates them, but that on the other hand, the*
acIuire their @t"o different )aluesA (use )alue and e9change )alue! from @the )alue of labour8A -e thus falls into the
commonplace error of the )ulgar economists, "ho assume the )alue of one commodit* (in this case labour! in order to
determine the )alues of the rest8 /ut &icardo reads him as if he had said, that labour (not the )alue of labour! is
embodied both in use )alue and e9change )alue8 Ce)ertheless, &icardo himself pa*s so little attention to the t"ofold
character of the labour "hich has a t"ofold embodiment, that he de)otes the "hole of his chapter on @;alue and
&iches, 'heir 0istincti)e #roperties,A to a laborious e9amination of the tri)ialities of a L8/8 Sa*8 (nd at the finish he is
Iuite astonished to find that 0estutt on the one hand agrees "ith him as to labour being the source of )alue, and on the
other hand "ith L8 /8 Sa* as to the notion of )alue8
::
>t is one of the chief failings of classical econom* that it has ne)er succeeded, b* means of its anal*sis of
commodities, and, in particular, of their )alue, in disco)ering that form under "hich )alue becomes e9change )alue8
E)en (dam Smith and &icardo, the best representati)es of the school, treat the form of )alue as a thing of no
importance, as ha)ing no connection "ith the inherent nature of commodities8 'he reason for this is not solel* because
their attention is entirel* absorbed in the anal*sis of the magnitude of )alue8 >t lies deeper8 'he )alue form of the
product of labour is not onl* the most abstract, but is also the most uni)ersal form, ta+en b* the product in bourgeois
production and stamps that production as a particular species of social production, and thereb* gi)es it its special
historical character8 >f then "e treat this mode of production as one eternall* fi9ed b* Cature for e)er* state of societ*,
"e necessaril* o)erloo+ that "hich is the differentia specifica of the )alue form, and conseIuentl* of the commodit*
form, and of its further de)elopments, mone* form, capital form, Pc8 Be conseIuentl* find that economists, "ho are
thoroughl* agreed as to labour time being the measure of the magnitude of )alue, ha)e the most strange and
contradictor* ideas of mone*, the perfected form of the general eIui)alent8 'his is seen in a stri+ing manner "hen
the* treat of ban+ing, "here the commonplace definitions of mone* "ill no longer hold "ater8 'his led to the rise of a
restored mercantile s*stem (Ganilh, Pc8!, "hich sees in )alue nothing but a social form, or rather the unsubstantial
ghost of that form8 =nce for all > ma* here state, that b* classical #olitical Econom*, > understand that econom*
"hich, since the time of B8 #ett*, has in)estigated the real relations of production in bourgeois societ* in
contradistinction to )ulgar econom*, "hich deals "ith appearances onl*, ruminates "ithout ceasing on the materials
long since pro)ided b* scientific econom*, and there see+s plausible e9planations of the most obtrusi)e phenomena,
for bourgeois dail* use, but for the rest, confines itself to s*stematising in a pedantic "a*, and proclaiming for
e)erlasting truths, the trite ideas held b* the self4complacent bourgeoisie "ith regard to their o"n "orld, to them the
best of all possible "orlds8
:
@<es Rconomistes ont une singulinre maninre de procRder8 >l n?* a pour eu9 Iue deu9 sortes d?institutions, celles de
l?art et celles de la nature8 <es institutions de la fRodalitR sont des institutions artificielles celles de la bourgeoisie sont
des institutions naturelles8 >ls ressemblent en ceci au9 thRologiens, Iui eu9 aussi Rtablissent deu9 sortes de religions8
'oute religion Iui n?est pas la leur, est une in)ention des hommes tandis Iue leur propre religion est une Rmanation de
0ieu 4(insi il * a eu de l?histoire, mais il n?* en a plus8A G@Economists ha)e a singular method of procedure8 'here are
onl* t"o +inds of institutions for them, artificial and natural8 'he institutions of feudalism are artificial institutions,
those of the bourgeoisie are natural institutions8 >n this the* resemble the theologians, "ho li+e"ise establish t"o
+inds of religion8 E)er* religion "hich is not theirs is an in)ention of men, "hile their o"n is an emanation from God8
888 'hus there has been histor*, but there is no longer an*AH (.arl $ar98 $isnre de la #hilosophie8 &Rponse a la
#hilosophie de la $isnre par $8 #roudhon, 187, p8 11:8! 'rul* comical is $8 /astiat, "ho imagines that the ancient
Gree+s and &omans li)ed b* plunder alone8 /ut "hen people plunder for centuries, there must al"a*s be something at
hand for them to sei1e; the obDects of plunder must be continuall* reproduced8 >t "ould thus appear that e)en Gree+s
and &omans had some process of production, conseIuentl*, an econom*, "hich Dust as much constituted the material
basis of their "orld, as bourgeois econom* constitutes that of our modern "orld8 =r perhaps /astiat means, that a
mode of production based on sla)er* is based on a s*stem of plunder8 >n that case he treads on dangerous ground8 >f a
giant thin+er li+e (ristotle erred in his appreciation of sla)e labour, "h* should a d"arf economist li+e /astiat be
right in his appreciation of "age labourE > sei1e this opportunit* of shortl* ans"ering an obDection ta+en b* a German
paper in (merica, to m* "or+, @,ur .riti+ der #ol8 =e+onomie, 18328A >n the estimation of that paper, m* )ie" that
each special mode of production and the social relations corresponding to it, in short, that the economic structure of
societ*, is the real basis on "hich the Duridical and political superstructure is raised and to "hich definite social forms
of thought correspond; that the mode of production determines the character of the social, political, and intellectual
life generall*, all this is )er* true for our o"n times, in "hich material interests preponderate, but not for the middle
ages, in "hich 5atholicism, nor for (thens and &ome, "here politics, reigned supreme8 >n the first place it stri+es one
as an odd thing for an* one to suppose that these "ell4"orn phrases about the middle ages and the ancient "orld are
un+no"n to an*one else8 'his much, ho"e)er, is clear, that the middle ages could not li)e on 5atholicism, nor the
ancient "orld on politics8 =n the contrar*, it is the mode in "hich the* gained a li)elihood that e9plains "h* here
politics, and there 5atholicism, pla*ed the chief part8 For the rest, it reIuires but a slight acIuaintance "ith the histor*
of the &oman republic, for e9ample, to be a"are that its secret histor* is the histor* of its landed propert*8 =n the
other hand, 0on Kui9ote long ago paid the penalt* for "rongl* imagining that +night errantr* "as compatible "ith all
economic forms of societ*8
:3
@=bser)ations on certain )erbal disputes in #ol8 Econ8, particularl* relating to )alue and to demand and suppl*A
<ond8, 1861, p8 168
:6
S8 /aile*, l8c8, p8 1638
:7
'he author of @=bser)ationsA and S8 /aile* accuse &icardo of con)erting e9change )alue from something relati)e
into something absolute8 'he opposite is the fact8 -e has e9plained the apparent relation bet"een obDects, such as
diamonds and pearls, in "hich relation the* appear as e9change )alues, and disclosed the true relation hidden behind
the appearances, namel*, their relation to each other as mere e9pressions of human labour8 >f the follo"ers of &icardo
ans"er /aile* some"hat rudel*, and b* no means con)incingl*, the reason is to be sought in this, that the* "ere
unable to find in &icardo?s o"n "or+s an* +e* to the hidden relations e9isting bet"een )alue and its form, e9change
)alue8
1
>n the 16th centur*, so reno"ned for its piet*, the* included amongst commodities some )er* delicate things8 'hus a
French poet of the period enumerates amongst the goods to be found in the mar+et of <andit, not onl* clothing shoes,
leather, agricultural implements, Pc8, but also @femmes folles de leur corps8A
6
#roudhon begins b* ta+ing his ideal of Lustice, of @Dustice Rternelle,A from the Duridical relations that correspond to
the production of commodities: thereb*, it ma* be noted, he pro)es, to the consolation of all good citi1ens, that the
production of commodities is a form of production as e)erlasting as Dustice8 'hen he turns round and see+s to reform
the actual production of commodities, and the actual legal s*stem corresponding thereto, in accordance "ith this ideal8
Bhat opinion should "e ha)e of a chemist, "ho, instead of stud*ing the actual la"s of the molecular changes in the
composition and decomposition of matter, and on that foundation sol)ing definite problems, claimed to regulate the
composition and decomposition of matter b* means of the @eternal ideas,A of @naturalitRA and @affinitRAE 0o "e reall*
+no" an* more about @usur*,A "hen "e sa* it contradicts @Dustice Rternelle,A RIuitR Rternelle @mutualitR Rternelle,A
and other )RritRs Rternelles than the fathers of the church did "hen the* said it "as incompatible "ith @grMce
Rternelle,A @foi Rternelle,A and @la )olontR Rternelle de 0ieuAE
:
For t"o4fold is the use of e)er* obDect8888 'he one is peculiar to the obDect as such, the other is not, as a sandal "hich
ma* be "orn, and is also e9changeable8 /oth are uses of the sandal, for e)en he "ho e9changes the sandal for the
mone* or food he is in "ant of, ma+es use of the sandal as a sandal8 /ut not in its natural "a*8 For it has not been
made for the sa+e of being e9changed8A ((ristoteles, @0e &ep8A l8 i8 c8 28!
From this "e ma* form an estimate of the shre"dness of the petit4bourgeois socialism8 "hich, "hile perpetuating the
production of commodities, aims at abolishing the @antagonismA bet"een mone* and commodities, and conseIuentl*,
since mone* e9ists onl* b* )irtue of this antagonism, at abolishing mone* itself8 Be might Dust as "ell tr* to retain
5atholicism "ithout the #ope8 For more on this point see m* "or+, @,ur .riti+ der #ol8 =e+on8,A p8 61, sI8
3
So long as, instead of t"o distinct use4)alues being e9changed, a chaotic mass of articles are offered as the
eIui)alent of a single article, "hich is often the case "ith sa)ages, e)en the direct barter of products is in its first
infanc*8
6
.arl $ar9, l8c8, p8 1:38 @> metalli 888 naturalmente moneta8A G@'he metals 888 are b* their nature mone*8AH (Galiani,
@0ella monetaA in 5ustodi?s 5ollection: #arte $oderna t8 iii8!
7
For further details on this subDect see in m* "or+ cited abo)e, the chapter on @'he precious metals8A
8
@>l danaro n la merce uni)ersaleV(;erri, l8c8, p8 16!8
2
@Sil)er and gold themsel)es ("hich "e ma* call b* the general name of bullion! are 888 commodities 888 rising and
falling in 888 )alue 888 /ullion, then, ma* be rec+oned to be of higher )alue "here the smaller "eight "ill purchase the
greater Iuantit* of the product or manufacture of the countre*,A Pc8 (@( 0iscourse of the General Cotions of $one*,
'rade, and E9changes, as 'he* Stand in &elation each to other8A /* a $erchant8 <ond8, 1623, p8 78! @Sil)er and gold,
coined or uncoined, though the* are used for a measure of all other things, are no less a commodit* than "ine, oil,
tobacco, cloth, or stuffs8A (@( 0iscourse concerning 'rade, and that in particular of the East >ndies,A Pc8 <ondon,
1682, p8 68! @'he stoc+ and riches of the +ingdom cannot properl* be confined to mone*, nor ought gold and sil)er to
be e9cluded from being merchandise8A (V'he East4>ndia 'rade a $ost #rofitable 'rade8A <ondon, 1677, p8 8!
17
<?oro e l?argento hanno )alore come metalli anteriore all?esser moneta8A G@Gold and sil)er ha)e )alue as metals
before the* are mone*AH (Galiani, l8c8! <oc+e sa*s, @'he uni)ersal consent of man+ind ga)e to sil)er, on account of its
Iualities "hich made it suitable for mone*, an imaginar* )alue8A <a", on the other hand8 @-o" could different nations
gi)e an imaginar* )alue to an* single thing888 or ho" could this imaginar* )alue ha)e maintained itselfEA /ut the
follo"ing sho"s ho" little he himself understood about the matter: @Sil)er "as e9changed in proportion to the )alue
in use it possessed, conseIuentl* in proportion to its real )alue8 /* its adoption as mone* it recei)ed an additional
)alue (une )aleur additionnelle!8A (Lean <a": @5onsidRrations sur le numRraire et le commerceA in E8 0aire?s Edit8 of
@Economistes Financiers du O;>>> sincle,A p8 778!
11
@<?(rgent en (des denrRes! est le signe8A G@$one* is their (the commodities?! s*mbolAH (;8 de Forbonnais:
@ElRments du 5ommerce, Cou)8 Edit8 <e*de, 1766,A t8 >>8, p8 1:8! @5omme signe il est attirR par les denrRes8A G@(s a
s*mbol it is attracted b* the commoditiesAH (l8c8, p8 1338! @<?argent est un signe d?une chose et la reprRsente8A
G@$one* is a s*mbol of a thing and represents it?H ($ontesIuieu: @Esprit des <ois,A (=eu)res, <ond8 1767, t8 >>, p8 68!
@<?argent n?est pas simple signe, car il est lui4mdme richesse, il ne reprRsente pas les )aleurs, il les RIui)aut 8A
G@$one* is not a mere s*mbol, for it is itself "ealth; it does not represent the )alues, it is their eIui)alentsAH (<e
'rosne, l8c8, p8 2178! @'he notion of )alue contemplates the )aluable article as a mere s*mbol 4 the article counts not
for "hat it is, but for "hat it is "orth8A (-egel, l8c8, p8 1778! <a"*ers started long before economists the idea that
mone* is a mere s*mbol, and that the )alue of the precious metals is purel* imaginar*8 'his the* did in the
s*cophantic ser)ice of the cro"ned heads, supporting the right of the latter to debase the coinage, during the "hole of
the middle ages, b* the traditions of the &oman Empire and the conceptions of mone* to be found in the #andects8
@Ku?aucun puisse ni doi)e faire doute,A G@<et no one call into Iuestion,AH sa*s an apt scholar of theirs #hilip of ;alois,
in a decree of 1:6, @Iue X nous et X notre maDestR ro*ale n?appartiennent seulement 888 le mestier, le fait, l?Rtat, la
pro)ision et toute l?ordonnance des monnaies, de donner tel cours, et pour tel pri9 comme il nous plait et bon nous
semble8A G@that the trade, the composition, the suppl* and the po"er of issuing ordinances on the currenc* 888 belongs
e9clusi)el* to us and to our ro*al maDest*, to fi9 such a rate and at such price as it shall please us and seem good to
usAH >t "as a ma9im of the &oman <a" that the )alue of mone* "as fi9ed b* decree of the emperor8 >t "as e9pressl*
forbidden to treat mone* as a commodit*8 @#ecunias )ero nulli emere fas erit, nam in usu publico constitutas oportet
non esse mercem8A G@-o"e)er, it shall not be la"ful to an*one to bu* mone*, for, as it "as created for public use, it is
not permissible for it to be a commodit*AH Some good "or+ on this Iuestion has been done b* G8 F8 #agnini: @Saggio
sopra il giusto pregio delle cose, 1731V; 5ustodi @#arte $oderna,A t8 >>8 >n the second part of his "or+ #agnini directs
his polemics especiall* against the la"*ers8
16
@>f a man can bring to <ondon an ounce of Sil)er out of the Earth in #eru, in the same time that he can produce a
bushel of 5orn, then the one is the natural price of the other; no", if b* reason of ne" or more easier mines a man can
procure t"o ounces of sil)er as easil* as he formerl* did one, the corn "ill be as cheap at ten shillings the bushel as it
"as before at fi)e shillings, caeteris paribus8A Billiam #ett*8 @( 'reatise of 'a9es and 5ontributions8A <ond8, 1667, p8
:68
1:
'he learned #rofessor &oscher, after first informing us that @the false definitions of mone* ma* be di)ided into t"o
main groups: those "hich ma+e it more, and those "hich ma+e it less, than a commodit*,A gi)es us a long and )er*
mi9ed catalogue of "or+s on the nature of mone*, from "hich it appears that he has not the remotest idea of the real
histor* of the theor*; and then he moralises thus: @For the rest, it is not to be denied that most of the later economists
do not bear sufficientl* in mind the peculiarities4that distinguish mone* from other commoditiesA (it is then, after all,
either more or less than a commodit*Q!888 @So far, the semi4mercantilist reaction of Ganilh is not altogether "ithout
foundation8A (Bilhelm &oscher: @0ie Grundlagen der Cationaloe+onomie,A :rd Edn8 1838, pp8 67746178! $oreQ lessQ
not sufficientl*Q so farQ not altogetherQ Bhat clearness and precision of ideas and languageQ (nd such eclectic
professorial t"addle is modestl* baptised b* $r8 &oscher, @the anatomico4ph*siological methodA of #olitical
Econom*Q =ne disco)er* ho"e)er, he must ha)e credit for, namel*, that mone* is @a pleasant commodit*8A
1
'he Iuestion v Bh* does not mone* directl* represent labour4time, so that a piece of paper ma* represent, for
instance, 9 hours? labour, is at bottom the same as the Iuestion "h*, gi)en the production of commodities, must
products ta+e the form of commoditiesE 'his is e)ident, since their ta+ing the form of commodities implies their
differentiation into commodities and mone*8 =r, "h* cannot pri)ate labour v labour for the account of pri)ate
indi)iduals v be treated as its opposite, immediate social labourE > ha)e else"here e9amined thoroughl* the %topian
idea of @labour4mone*A in a societ* founded on the production of commodities (l8 c8, p8 61, seI8!8 =n this point > "ill
onl* sa* further, that ="en?s @labour4mone*,A for instance, is no more @mone*A than a tic+et for the theatre8 ="en
pre4supposes directl* associated labour, a form of production that is entirel* in consistent "ith the production of
commodities8 'he certificate of labour is merel* e)idence of the part ta+en b* the indi)idual in the common labour,
and of his right to a certain portion of the common produce destined for consumption8 /ut it ne)er enters into ="en?s
head to pre4suppose the production of commodities, and at the same time, b* Duggling "ith mone*, to tr* to e)ade the
necessar* conditions of that production8
6
Sa)ages and half4ci)ilised races use the tongue differentl*8 5aptain #arr* sa*s of the inhabitants on the "est coast of
/affin?s /a*: @>n this case (he refers to barter! the* lic+ed it (the thing represented to them! t"ice to their tongues,
after "hich the* seemed to consider the bargain satisfactoril* concluded8A >n the same "a*, the Eastern EsIuimau9
lic+ed the articles the* recei)ed in e9change8 >f the tongue is thus used in the Corth as the organ of appropriation, no
"onder that, in the South, the stomach ser)es as the organ of accumulated propert*, and that a .affir estimates the
"ealth of a man b* the si1e of his bell*8 'hat the .affirs +no" "hat the* are about is sho"n b* the follo"ing: at the
same time that the official /ritish -ealth &eport of 186 disclosed the deficienc* of fat4forming food among a large
part of the "or+ing4class, a certain 0r8 -ar)e* (not, ho"e)er, the celebrated disco)erer of the circulation of the
blood!, made a good thing b* ad)ertising recipes for reducing the superfluous fat of the bourgeoisie and aristocrac*8
:
See .arl $ar9: @,ur .riti+, Pc8A @'heorien )on der $asseinheit des Geldes,A p8 3:, seI8
@Bhere)er gold and sil)er ha)e b* la" been made to perform the function of mone* or of a measure of )alue side b*
side, it has al"a*s been tried, but in )ain, to treat them as one and the same material8 'o assume that there is an
in)ariable ratio bet"een the Iuantities of gold and sil)er in "hich a gi)en Iuantit* of labour4time is incorporated, is to
assume in fact, that gold and sil)er are of one and the same material, and that a gi)en mass of the less )aluable metal,
sil)er, is a constant fraction of a gi)en mass of gold8 From the reign of Ed"ard >>>8 to the time of George >>8, 'he
histor* of mone* in England consists of one long series of perturbations caused b* the clashing of the legall* fi9ed
ratio bet"een 'he )alues of gold and sil)er, "ith the fluctuations in their real )alues8 (t one time gold "as too high, at
another, sil)er8 'he metal that for the time being "as estimated belo" its )alue, "as "ithdra"n from circulation,
mated and e9ported8 'he ratio bet"een the t"o metals "as then again altered b* la", but the ne" nominal ratio soon
came into conflict again "ith the real one8 >n our o"n times, the slight and transient fall in the )alue of gold compared
"ith sil)er, "hich "as a conseIuence of 'he >ndo45hinese demand for sil)er, produced on a far more e9tended scale
in France the same phenomena, e9port of sil)er, and its e9pulsion from circulation b* gold8 0uring the *ears 1833,
1836 and 1837, the e9cess in France of gold4imports o)er gold4e9ports amounted to ]1,387,777, "hile the e9cess of
sil)er4e9ports o)er sil)er4imports "as ]1,77,7778 >n fact, in those countries in "hich both metals are legall*
measures of )alue, and therefore both legal tender so that e)er*one has the option of pa*ing in either metal, the metal
'hat rise in )alue is at a premium, and, li+e e)er* other commodit*, measures its price in the o)er4estimated metal
"hich alone ser)e in realit* as 'he standard of )alue8 'he result of all e9perience and histor* "ith regard to this
eIuation is simpl* that, "here t"o commodities perform b* la" the functions of a measure of )alue, in practice one
alone maintains that position8A (.arl $ar9, l8c8, pp8 36, 3:8!
3
'he peculiar circumstance, that "hile the ounce of gold ser)es in England as the unit of the standard of mone*, the
pound sterling does not form an aliIuot part of it, has been e9plained as follo"s: @=ur coinage "as originall* adapted
to the emplo*ment of sil)er onl*, hence, an ounce of sil)er can al"a*s be di)ided into a certain adeIuate number of
pieces of coin, but as gold "as introduced at a later period into a coinage adapted onl* to sil)er, an ounce of gold
cannot be coined into an aliIuot number of pieces8A $aclaren, @( S+etch of the -istor* of the 5urrenc*8A <ondon,
1838, p8 168
6
Bith English "riters the confusion bet"een measure of )alue and standard of price (standard of )alue! is
indescribable8 'heir functions, as "ell as their names, are constantl* interchanged8
7
$oreo)er, it has not general historical )alidit*8
8
>t is thus that the pound sterling in English denotes less than one4third of its original "eight; the pound Scot, before
the union, onl* 14:6th; the French li)re, 147th; the Spanish mara)edi, less than 141,777th; and the #ortuguese rei a
still smaller fraction8
2
@<e monete le Iuali oggi sono ideal, sono le piS antiche d?ogni na1ione, e tutte furono un tempo real, e perche erano
reali con esse si conta)aA G@'he coins "hich toda* are ideal are the oldest coins of e)er* nation, and all of them "ere
once real, and precisel* because the* "ere real the* "ere used for calculationAH (Galiani: 0ella moneta, l8c8, p8 13:8!
17
0a)id %rIuhart remar+s in his @Familiar BordsA on the monstrosit* (Q! that no"4a4da*s a pound (sterling!, "hich is
the unit of the English standard of mone*, is eIual to about a Iuarter of an ounce of gold8 @'his is falsif*ing a
measure, not establishing a standard8A -e sees in this @false denominationA of the "eight of gold, as in e)er*thing
else8 the falsif*ing hand of ci)ilisation8
11
Bhen (nacharsis "as as+ed for "hat purposes the Gree+s used mone*, he replied, @For rec+oning8A ((shen8 0eipn8
18 i)8 2 )8 68 ed8 Sch"eighauser, 18768!
16
@="ing to the fact that mone*, "hen ser)ing as the standard of price, appears under the same rec+oning names as
do the prices of commodities, and that therefore the sum of ]: 17s8 17 1J6d8 ma* signif* on the one hand an ounce
"eight of gold, and on the other, the )alue of a ton of iron, this rec+oning name of mone* has been called its mint4
price8 -ence there sprang up the e9traordinar* notion, that the )alue of gold is estimated in its o"n material, and that,
in contradistinction to all other commodities, its price is fi9ed b* the State8 >t "as erroneousl* thought that the gi)ing
of rec+oning names to definite "eights of gold, is the same thing as fi9ing the )alue of those "eights8A (.arl $ar9,
l8c8, p8 368!
1:
See @'heorien )on der $asseinheit des GeldesA in @,ur .riti+ der #ol =e+on8 Pc8,A p8 3:, seI8 'he fantastic notions
about raising or lo"ering the mint4price of mone* b* transferring to greater or smaller "eights of gold or sil)er, the
names alread* legall* appropriated to fi9ed "eights of those metals; such notions, at least in those cases in "hich the*
aim, not at clums* financial operations against creditors, both public and pri)ate but at economic Iuac+ remedies,
ha)e been so e9hausti)el* treated b* Bm8 #ett* in his @KuantulumcunIue concerning mone*: 'o the <ord $arIuis of
-alifa9, 1686,A that e)en his immediate follo"ers, Sir 0udle* Corth and Lohn <oc+e, not to mention later ones, could
onl* dilute him8 @>f the "ealth of a nationA he remar+s, @could be decupled b* a proclamation, it "ere strange that
such proclamations ha)e not long since been made b* our Go)ernors8A (l8c8, p8 :68!
1
@=u bien, il faut consentir X dire Iu?une )aleur d?un million en argent )aut plus Iu?une )aleur Rgale en
marchandises8A G@=r indeed it must be admitted that a million in mone* is "orth more than an eIual )alue in
commoditiesAH (<e 'rosne, l8c8, p8 212!, "hich amounts to sa*ing @Iu?une )aleur )aut plus Iu?une )aleur Rgale8A
G@that one )alue is "orth more than another )alue "hich is eIual to it8AH
13
Lerome had to "restle hard, not onl* in his *outh "ith the bodil* flesh, as is sho"n b* his fight in the desert "ith the
handsome "omen of his imagination, but also in his old age "ith the spiritual flesh8 @> thought,A he sa*s, @> "as in the
spirit before the Ludge of the %ni)erse8A @Bho art thouEA as+ed a )oice8 @> am a 5hristian8A @'hou liest,A thundered
bac+ the great Ludge, @thou art nought but a 5iceronian8A
16
@ ... ? , ?, ,
8A G@(s -eraclitus sa*s, all things are e9changed for fire and fire for all things,
as "ares are e9changed for gold and gold for "ares8AH (F8 <assalle: @0ie #hilosophie -era+leitos des 0un+eln8A
/erlin, 1838, ;ol8 >, p8 6668! <assalle in his note on this passage, p8 66, n8 :8, erroneousl* ma+es gold a mere
s*mbol of )alue8
1w7
Hote by the .nstitute of Marxism)Leninism in the Russian edition8 v >n his letter of Co)ember 68, 1878, to C8 F8
0anielson (Ci+olai4on! $ar9 proposed that this sentence be corrected to read as follo"s: @(nd, as a matter of fact, the
)alue of each single *ard is but the materialised form of a part of the social labour e9pended on the "hole number of
*ards8A (n analogous correction "as made in a cop* of the second German edition of the first )olume of @5apitalA
belonging to $ar9; ho"e)er, not in his hand"riting8
18
@'oute )ente est achat8A G@E)er* sale is a purchase8AH (0r8 Kuesna*: @0ialogues sur le 5ommerce et les 'ra)au9 des
(rtisans8A #h*siocrates ed8 0aire >8 #artie, #aris, 186, p8 177!, or as Kuesna* in his @$a9imes gRnRralesA puts it,
@;endre est acheter8A G@'o sell is to bu*8AH
12
@<e pri9 d?une marchandise ne pou)ant dtre pa*R Iue par le pri9 d?une autre marchandiseA ($ercier de la
&i)inre: @<?=rdre naturel et essentiel des sociRtRs politiIues8A G@'he price of one commodit* can onl* be paid b*
the price of another commodit*AH #h*siocrates, ed8 0aire >>8 #artie, p8 338!
67
@#our a)oir cet argent, il faut a)oir )endu,A G@>n order to ha)e this mone*, one must ha)e made a sale,AH l8c8, p8 3:8
61
(s before remar+ed, the actual producer of gold or sil)er forms an e9ception8 -e e9changes his product directl* for
another commodit*, "ithout ha)ing first sold it8
66
@Si l?argent reprRsente, dans nos mains, les choses Iue nous pou)ons dRsirer d?acheter, il * reprRsente aussi les
choses Iue nous a)ons )endues pour cet argent8A G@>f mone* represents, in our hands, the things "e can "ish to bu*, it
also represents the things "e ha)e sold to obtain that mone*AH ($ercier de la &i)inre, l8c8, p8 3868!
6:
@>l * a donc 888 Iuatre termes et trois contractants, dont l?un inter)ient deu9 foisA G@'here are therefore 888 four terms
and three contracting parties, one of "hom inter)enes t"iceAH (<e 'rosne, l8c8, p8 2728!
6
Self4e)ident as this ma* be, it is ne)ertheless for the most part unobser)ed b* political economists, and especiall*
b* the @Free4trader ;ulgaris8A
63
See m* obser)ations on Lames $ill in @,ur .riti+, Pc8,A pp8 74768 Bith regard to this subDect, "e ma* notice t"o
methods characteristic of apologetic econom*8 'he first is the identification of the circulation of commodities "ith the
direct barter of products, b* simple abstraction from their points of difference; the second is, the attempt to e9plain
a"a* the contradictions of capitalist production, b* reducing the relations bet"een the persons engaged in that mode
of production, to the simple relations arising out of the circulation of commodities8 'he production and circulation of
commodities are ho"e)er, phenomena that occur to a greater or less e9tent in modes of production the most di)erse8 >f
"e are acIuainted "ith nothing but the abstract categories of circulation, "hich are common to all these modes of
production, "e cannot possibl* +no" an*thing of the specific points of difference of those modes, nor pronounce an*
Dudgment upon them8 >n no science is such a big fuss made "ith commonplace truisms as in #olitical Econom*8 For
instance, L8 /8 Sa* sets himself up as a Dudge of crises, because, forsooth, he +no"s that a commodit* is a product8
66
/ranslatorCs note8 v 'his "ord is here used in its original signification of the course or trac+ pursued b* mone* as
it changes from hand to hand, a course "hich essentiall* differs from circulation8
67
E)en "hen the commodit* is sold o)er and o)er again, a phenomenon that at present has no e9istence for us, it falls,
"hen definitel* sold for the last time, out of the sphere of circulation into that of consumption, "here it ser)es either
as means of subsistence or means of production8
68
@>l (l?argent! n?a d?autre mou)ement Iue celui Iui lui est imprimR par les productions8A G@>tA (mone*! @has no other
motion than that imparted to it b* the productsAH (<e 'rosne, l8c8, p8 8838!
62
@5e sont les productions Iui le (l?argent! mettent en mou)ement et le font circuler 888 <a cRlRritR de son mou)ement
(c8 de l?argent! supplRe X sa IuantitR8 <orsIu?il en est besoin il ne fait Iue glisser d?une main dans l?autre sans
s?arrdter un instant8A G@>t is products "hich set itA (mone*! @in motion and ma+e it circulate 888 'he )elocit* of itsA
(mone*?s! @motion supplements its Iuantit*8 Bhen necessar*, it does nothing but slide from hand to hand, "ithout
stopping for a momentAH (<e 'rosne, l8c88 pp8 213, 2168!
:7
@$one* being 888 the common measure of bu*ing and selling, e)er*bod* "ho hath an*thing to sell, and cannot
procure chapmen for it, is presentl* apt to thin+, that "ant of mone* in the8 +ingdom, or countr*, is the cause "h* his
goods do not go off; and so, "ant of mone* is the common cr*; "hich is a great mista+e888 Bhat do these people "ant,
"ho cr* out for mone*E 888 'he farmer complains 888 he thin+s that "ere more mone* in the countr*; he should ha)e a
price for his goods8 'hen it seems mone* is not his "ant, but a price for his corn and cattel, "hich he "ould sell, but
cannot888 Bh* cannot he get a priceE 888 (1! Either there is too much corn and cattel in the countr*, so that most "ho
come to mar+et ha)e need of selling, as he hash, and fe" of bu*ing; or (6! 'here "ants the usual )ent abroad b*
transportation888, or (:! 'he consumption fails, as "hen men, b* reason of po)ert*, do not spend so much in their
houses as formerl* the* did; "herefore it is not the increase of specific mone*, "hich "ould at all ad)ance the
farmer?s goods, but the remo)al of an* of these three causes, "hich do trul* +eep do"n the mar+et888 'he merchant
and shop+eeper "ant mone* in the same manner, that is, the* "ant a )ent for the goods the* deal in, b* reason that the
mar+ets failA 888 G( nationH @ne)er thri)es better, than "hen riches are tost from hand to hand8A (Sir 0udle* Corth:
@0iscourses upon 'rade,A <ond8 1621, pp8 11413, passim8! -errensch"and?s fanciful notions amount merel* to this,
that the antagonism, "hich has its origin in the nature of commodities, and is reproduced in their circulation, can be
remo)ed b* increasing the circulating medium8 /ut if, on the one hand, it is a popular delusion to ascribe stagnation in
production and circulation to insufficienc* of the circulating medium, it b* no means follo"s, on the other hand, that
an actual paucit* of the medium in conseIuence, e$8, of bungling legislati)e interference "ith the regulation of
currenc*, ma* not gi)e rise to such stagnation8
:1
@'here is a certain measure and proportion of mone* reIuisite to dri)e the trade of a nation, more or less than "hich
"ould preDudice the same8 lust as there is a certain proportion of farthings necessar* in a small retail trade, to change
sil)er mone*, and to e)en such rec+onings as cannot be adDusted "ith the smallest sil)er pieces8888 Co", as the
proportion of the number of farthings reIuisite in commerce is to be ta+en from the number of people, the freIuenc*
of their e9changes: as also, and principall*, from the )alue of the smallest sil)er pieces of mone*; so in li+e manner,
the proportion of mone* Ggold and sil)er specieH reIuisite in our trade, is to be li+e"ise ta+en from the freIuenc* of
commutations, and from the bigness of the pa*ments8A (Billiam #ett*, @( 'reatise of 'a9es and 5ontributions8A <ond8
1667, p8 178! 'he 'heor* of -ume "as defended against the attac+s of L8 Steuart and others, b* (8 Noung, in his
@#olitical (rithmetic,A <ond; 177, in "hich "or+ there is a special chapter entitled @#rices depend on Iuantit* of
mone*, at p8 116, sII8 > ha)e stated in @,ur .riti+, Pc8,A p8 12: @-e ((dam Smith! passes o)er "ithout remar+ the
Iuestion as to the Iuantit* of coin in circulation, and treats mone* Iuite "rongl* as a mere commodit*8A 'his
statement applies onl* in so far as (dam Smith, e9 officio, treats of mone*8 Co" and then, ho"e)er, as in his criticism
of the earlier s*stems of #olitical Econom*, he ta+es the right )ie"8 @'he Iuantit* of coin in e)er* countr* is regulated
b* the )alue of the commodities "hich are to be circulated b* >t8888 'he )alue of the goods annuall* bought and sold in
an* countr* reIuires a certain Iuantit* of mone* to circulate and distribute them to their proper consumers, and can
gi)e emplo*ment to no more8 'he channel of circulation necessaril* dra"s to itself a sum sufficient to fill it, and ne)er
admits an* more8A (@Bealth of Cations8A /+8 >;8, ch8 18! >n li+e manner, e9 officio, he opens his "or+ "ith an
apotheosis on the di)ision of labour8 (fter"ards, in the last boo+ "hich treats of the sources of public re)enue, he
occasionall* repeats the denunciations of the di)ision of labour made b* his teacher, (8 Ferguson8
:6
@'he prices of things "ill certainl* rise in e)er* nation, as the gold and sil)er increase amongst the people, and
conseIuentl*, "here the gold and sil)er decrease in an* nation, the prices of all things must fall proportionatel* to
such decrease of mone*8A (Lacob ;anderlint: @$one* (ns"ers all 'hings8A <ond8 17:, p8 38! ( careful comparison of
thus boo+ "ith -ume?s @Essa*s,A pro)es to m* mind "ithout doubt that -ume "as acIuainted "ith and made use of
;anderlint?s "or+, "hich is certainl* an important one8 'he opinion that prices are determined b* the Iuantit* of the
circulating medium, "as also held b* /arbon and other much earlier "riters8 @Co incon)enience,A sa*s ;anderlint,
@can arise b* an unrestrained trade, but )er* great ad)antage; since, if the cash of the nation be decreased b* it, "hich
prohibitions are designed to pre)ent, those nations that get the cash "ill certainl* find e)er*thing ad)ance in price, as
the cash increases amongst them8 (nd 888 our manufactures, and e)er*thing else, "ill soon become so moderate as to
turn the balance of trade in our fa)our, and thereb* fetch the mone* bac+ again8A (l8c88 pp8 :, 8!
::
'hat the price of each single +ind of commodit* forms a pan of the sum of the prices of all the commodities in
circulation, is a self4e)ident proposition8 /ut ho" use4)alues "hich are incommensurable "ith regard to each other,
are to be e9changed, en masse for the total sum of gold and sil)er in a countr*, is Iuite incomprehensible8 >f "e start
from the notion that all commodities together form one single commodit*, of "hich each is but an aliIuot part, "e get
the follo"ing beautiful result: 'he total commodit* Y 9 c"t8 of gold; commodit* ( Y an aliIuot part of the total
commodit* Y the same aliIuot part of 9 c"t8 of gold8 'his is stated in all seriousness b* $ontesIuieu: @ Si l?on
compare la masse de l?or et de l?argent Iui est dans le monde a)ec la somme des marchandises Iui s?* )end il est
certain Iue chaIue denrRe ou marchandise, en particulier, pourra dtre comparRe X une certaine portion de la masse
entinre8 Supposons Iu?il n?* ait Iu?une seule denrRe ou marchandise dans le monde, ou Iu?il n?* ait Iu?une seule Iui
s?achnte, et Iu?elle se di)ise comme l?argent: 5ette partie de cette marchandise rRpondra X une partie de la masse de
l?argent; la moitiR du total de l?une X la moitiR du total de l?autre, Pc8888 <?Rtablissement du pri9 des choses dRpend
touDours fondamentalement de la raison du total des choses au total des signes8A G@>f one compares the amount of gold
and sil)er in the "orld "ith the sum of the commodities a)ailable, it is certain that each product or commodit*, ta+en
in isolation, could be compared "ith a certain portion of the total amount of mone*8 <et us suppose that there is onl*
one product, or commodit*, in the "orld, or onl* one that can be purchased, and that it can be di)ided in the same "a*
as mone*: a certain part of this commodit* "ould then correspond to a part of the total amount of mone*; half the
total of the one "ould correspond to half the total of the other P8 888 the determination of the prices of things al"a*s
depends, fundamentall*, on the relation bet"een the total amount of things and the total amount of their monetar*
s*mbolsAH ($ontesIuieu, l8c8 t8 >>>, pp8 16, 1:8! (s to the further de)elopment of this theor* b* &icardo and his
disciples, Lames $ill, <ord =)erstone, and others, see @,ur .riti+, Pc8,A pp8 17416, and p8 137, sII8 Lohn Stuart
$ill, "ith his usual eclectic logic, understands ho" to hold at the same time the )ie" of his father, Lames $ill, and the
opposite )ie"8 =n a comparison of the te9t of his compendium, @#rinciples of #ol8 Econ8,A "ith his preface to the first
edition, in "hich preface he announces himself as the (dam Smith of his da* v "e do not +no" "hether to admire
more the simplicit* of the man, or that of the public, "ho too+ him, in good faith, for the (dam Smith he announced
himself to be, although he bears about as much resemblance to (dam Smith as sa* General Billiams, of .ars, to the
0u+e of Bellington8 'he original researches of $r8 L8 S8 $ill "hich are neither e9tensi)e nor profound, in the domain
of #olitical Econom*, "ill be found mustered in ran+ and file in his little "or+, @Some %nsettled Kuestions of
#olitical Econom*,A "hich appeared in 188 <oc+e asserts point blan+ the conne9ion bet"een the absence of )alue in
gold and sil)er, and the determination of their )alues b* Iuantit* alone8 @$an+ind ha)ing consented to put an
imaginar* )alue upon gold and sil)er 888 the intrinsic )alue, regarded in these metals, is nothing but the Iuantit*8V
(@Some 5onsiderations,A 'c8, 1621, Bor+s Ed8 1777, ;ol8 >>8, p8 138!
:
>t lies of course, entirel* be*ond m* purpose to ta+e into consideration such details as the s
eigniorage on minting8 > "ill, ho"e)er, cite for the benefit of the romantic s*cophant, (dam $uller, "ho admires the
@generous liberalit*A "ith "hich the English Go)ernment coins gratuitousl*, the follo"ing opinion of Sir 0udle*
Corth: @Sil)er and gold, li+e other commodities, ha)e their ebbings and flo"ings8 %pon the arri)al of Iuantities from
Spain 888 it is carried into the 'o"er, and coined8 Cot long after there "ill come a demand for bullion to be e9ported
again8 >f there is none, but all happens to be in coin, "hat thenE $elt it do"n again; there?s no loss in it, for the
coining costs the o"ner nothing8 'hus the nation has been abused, and made to pa* for the t"isting of stra" for asses
to eat8 >f the merchant "ere made to pa* the price of the coinage, he "ould not ha)e sent his sil)er to the 'o"er
"ithout consideration, and coined mone* "ould al"a*s +eep a )alue abo)e uncoined sil)er8A (Corth, l8c8, p8 188!
Corth "as himself one of the foremost merchants in the reign of 5harles >>8
:3
@>f sil)er ne)er e9ceed "hat is "anted for the smaller pa*ments it cannot be collected in sufficient Iuantities for the
larger pa*ments 888 the use of gold in the main pa*ments necessaril* implies also .ts use in the retail trade: those "ho
ha)e gold coin offering them for small purchases, and recei)ing "ith the commodit* purchased a balance of sil)er in
return; b* "hich means the surplus of sil)er that "ould other"ise encumber the retail dealer, is dra"n off and
dispersed into general circulation8 /ut if there is as much sil)er as "ill transact the small pa*ments independent of
gold, the retail trader must then recei)e sil)er for small purchases ; and it must of necessit* accumulate in his hands8A
(0a)id /uchanan; @>nIuir* into the 'a9ation and 5ommercial #olic* of Great /ritain8A Edinburgh, 18, pp8 68,
628!
:6
'he mandarin Ban4mao4in, the 5hinese 5hancellor of the E9cheIuer, too+ it into his head one da* to la* before the
Son of -ea)en a proposal that secretl* aimed at con)erting the assinats of the empire into con)ertible ban+4notes8
'he assignats 5ommittee, in its report of (pril, 183, gi)es him a se)ere snubbing8 Bhether he also recei)ed the
traditional drubbing "ith bamboos is not stated8 'he concluding part of the report is as follo"s: v @'he 5ommittee
has carefull* e9amined his proposal and finds that it is entirel* in fa)our of the merchants, and that no ad)antage "ill
result to the cro"n8A (@(rbeiten der .aiserlich &ussischen Gesandtschaft 1u #e+ing Tber 5hina8A (us dem &ussischen
)on 0r8 .8 (bel und F8 (8 $ec+lenburg8 Erster /and8 /erlin, 1838, p8 7 sI8! >n his e)idence before the 5ommittee of
the -ouse of <ords on the /an+ (cts, a go)ernor of the /an+ of England sa*s, "ith regard to the abrasion of gold
coins during currenc*: @E)er* *ear a fresh class of so)ereigns becomes too light8 'he class "hich one *ear passes
"ith full "eight, loses enough b* "ear and tear to dra" the scales ne9t *ear against it8A (-ouse of <ords? 5ommittee,
188, n8 628!
:7
'he follo"ing passage from Fullarton sho"s the "ant of clearness on the pan of e)en the best "riters on mone*, in
their comprehension of its )arious functions: @'hat, as far as concerns our domestic e9changes, all the monetar*
functions "hich are usuall* performed b* gold and sil)er coins, ma* be performed as effectuall* b* a circulation of
incon)ertible notes pa*ing no )alue but that factitious and con)entional )alue the* deri)e from the la" is a fact "hich
admits, > concei)e, of no denial8 ;alue of this description ma* be made to ans"er all the purposes of intrinsic )alue,
and supersede e)en the necessit* for a standard, pro)ided onl* the Iuantit* of issues be +ept under due limitation8A
(Fullerton: @&egulation of 5urrencies,A <ondon, 183, p8 618! /ecause the commodit* that ser)es as mone* is capable
of being replaced in circulation b* mere s*mbols of )alue, therefore its functions as a measure of )alue and a standard
of prices are declared to be superfluousQ
:8
From the fact that gold and sil)er, so far as the* are coins, or e9clusi)el* ser)e as the medium of circulation,
become mere to+ens of themsel)es, Cicholas /arbon deduces the right of Go)ernments @to raise mone*,A that is, to
gi)e to the "eight of sil)er that is called a shilling the name of a greater "eight, such as a cro"n; and so to pa*
creditors shillings, instead of cro"ns8 @$one* does "ear and gro" lighter b* often telling o)er888 >t is the
denomination and currenc* of the mone* that men regard in bargaining, and not the Iuantit* of sil)er888?'is the public
authorit* upon the metal that ma+es it mone*8A (C8 /arbon, l8c8, pp8 62, :7, 638!
:2
@%ne richesse en argent n?est Iue 888 richesse en productions, con)erties en argent8A G@$onetar* "ealth is nothing
but 888 "ealth in products, transformed into mone*AH ($ercier de la &i)inre, l8c8! @%ne )aleur en productions n?a fait
Iue changer de forme8A G@( )alue in the form of products, "hich has merel* changed its form8AH (>d8, p8 868!
7
@?'is b* this practice? the* +eep all their goods and manufactures at such lo" rates8A (;anderlint, l8c8, pp8 23, 268!
1
@$one* 888 is a pledge8A (Lohn /ellers: @Essa*s about the #oor, $anufactures, 'rade, #lantations, and >mmoralit*,A
<ond8, 1622, p8 1:8!
6
( purchase8 in a @categoricalA sense, implies that gold and sil)er are alread* the con)erted form of commodities, or
the product of a sale8
:
-enr* >>>8, most 5hristian +ing of France, robbed cloisters of their relics, and turned them into mone*8 >t is "ell
+no"n "hat part the despoiling of the 0elphic 'emple, b* the #hocians, pla*ed in the histor* of Greece8 'emples "ith
the ancients ser)ed as the d"ellings of the gods of commodities8 'he* "ere @sacred ban+s8A Bith the #hoenicians, a
trading people par e9cellence, mone* "as the transmuted shape of e)er*thing8 >t "as, therefore, Iuite in order that the
)irgins, "ho, at the feast of the Goddess of <o)e, ga)e themsel)es up to strangers, should offer to the goddess the
piece of mone* the* recei)ed8
:a
@Gold, *ello", glittering, precious goldQ
'hus much of this, "ill ma+e blac+ "hite, foul, fair;
Brong, right; base, noble; old, *oung; co"ard, )aliant8
888 Bhat this, *ou godsE Bh*, this
Bill lug *our priests and ser)ants from *our sides;
#luc+ stout men?s pillo"s from belo" their heads;
'his *ello" sla)e
Bill +nit and brea+ religions; bless the accurs?d;
$a+e the hoar lepros* ador?d; place thie)es,
(nd gi)e them title, +nee and approbation;
Bith senators on the bench, this is it;
'hat ma+es the "appen?d "ido" "ed again:
888 5ome damned earth,
'hough common "hore of man+ind8V
(Sha+espeare: 'imon of (thens8!
:b
(Sophocles, (ntigone8!
'he desire of a)arice to dra" #luto himself out of the bo"els of the earth8A ('he 0eipnosophistst, ;>, 6:,
(thenaeus!
3
@(ccrescere Iuanto pix si puy il numero de?)enditori d?ogni merce, diminuere Iuanto pix si puo il numero dei
compratori, Iuest! sono i cardini sui Iuali si raggirano tutte le opera1ioni di economia politica8A G@'hese are the pi)ots
around "hich all the measures of political econom* turn: the ma9imum possible increase in the number of sellers of
each commodit*, and the ma9imum possible decrease in the number of bu*ersAH (;erri, l8c8, p8 368!
6
@'here is reIuired for carr*ing on the trade of the nation a determinate sum of specific+ mone* "hich )aries, and is
sometimes more, sometimes less, as the circumstances "e are in reIuire8888 'his ebbing and flo"ing of mone* supplies
and accommodates itself, "ithout an* aid of #oliticians8888 'he buc+ets "or+ alternatel*; "hen mone* is scarce,
bullion is coined; "hen bullion is scarce, mone* is melted8A (Sir 08 Corth, l8c8, #ostscript, p8 :8! Lohn Stuart $ill, "ho
for a long time "as an official of the East >ndia 5ompan*, confirms the fact that in >ndia sil)er ornaments still
continue to perform directl* the functions of a hoard8 'he sil)er ornaments are brought out and coined "hen there is a
high rate of interest, and go bac+ again "hen the rate of interest falls8 (L8 S8 $ill?s E)idence @&eports on /an+ (cts,A
1837, 6788! (ccording to a #arliamentar* document of 186 on the gold and sil)er import and e9port of >ndia, the
import of gold and sil)er in 186: e9ceeded the e9port b* ]12,:67,768 0uring the 8 *ears immediatel* preceding
186, the e9cess of imports o)er e9ports of the precious metals amounted to ]172,636,2178 0uring this centur* far
more than ]677,777,777 has been coined in >ndia8
7
'he follo"ing sho"s the debtor and creditor relations e9isting bet"een English traders at the beginning of the 18th
centur*8 @Such a spirit of crudit* reigns here in England among the men of trade, that is not to be met "ith in an*
other societ* of men, nor in an* other +ingdom of the "orld8A (@(n Essa* on 5redit and the /an+rupt (ct,A <ond8,
8
>t "ill be seen from the follo"ing Iuotation from m* boo+ "hich appeared in 1832, "h* > ta+e no notice in the te9t
of an opposite form: @5ontrari"ise, in the process in $v5, the mone* can be alienated as a real means of purchase,
and in that "a*, the price of the commodit* can be realised before the use4)alue of the mone* is realised and the
commodit* actuall* deli)ered8 'his occurs constantl* under the e)er*4da* form of prepa*ments8 (nd it is under this
form, that the English go)ernment purchases opium from the r*ots of >ndia8888 >n these cases, ho"e)er, the mone*
al"a*s acts as a means of purchase8888 =f course capital also is ad)anced in the shape of mone*8888 'his point of )ie",
ho"e)er, does not fall "ithin the hori1on of simple circulation8A (@,ur .riti+, 'c8,A pp8 112, 1678!
2
'he monetar* crisis referred to in the te9t, being a phase of e)er* crisis, must be clearl* distinguished from that
particular form of crisis, "hich also is called a monetar* crisis, but "hich ma* be produced b* itself as an independent
phenomenon in such a "a* as to react onl* indirectl* on industr* and commerce8 'he pi)ot of these crises is to be
found in mone*ed capital, and their sphere of direct action is therefore the sphere of that capital, )i18, ban+ing, the
stoc+ e9change, and finance8
37
@'he sudden re)ersion from a s*stem of credit to a s*stem of hard cash heaps theoretical fright on top of the
practical panic; and the dealers b* "hose agenc* circulation is affected, shudder before the impenetrable m*ster* in
"hich their o"n economic relations are in)ol)edA (.arl $ar9, l8c8, p8 1668! @'he poor stand still, because the rich
ha)e no mone* to emplo* them, though the* ha)e the same land and hands to pro)ide )ictuals and clothes, as e)er
the* had; 888"hich is the true riches of a nation, and not the mone*8A Lohn /ellers, Proposals for Raisin a Collee of
.ndustry, <ondon, 1626, p:8
31
he follo"ing sho"s ho" such times are e9ploited b* the @amis du commerce8A @=n one occasion (18:2! an old
grasping ban+er (in the cit*! in his pri)ate room raised the lid of the des+ he sat o)er, and displa*ed to a friend rolls of
ban+4notes, sa*ing "ith intense glee there "ere ]677,777 of them, the* "ere held to ma+e mone* tight, and "ould all
be let out after three o?cloc+ on the same da*8A (@'he 'heor* of E9changes8 'he /an+ 5harter (ct of 188A <ond8
186, p8 81!8 'he -bserver, a semi4official go)ernment organ, contained the follo"ing paragraph on 6th (pril, 186:
@Some )er* curious rumours are current of the means "hich ha)e been resorted to in order to create a scarcit* of
ban+notes8888 Kuestionable as it "ould seem, to suppose that an* tric+ of the +ind "ould be adopted, the report has
been so uni)ersal that it reall* deser)es mention8A
36
@'he amount of purchases or contracts entered upon during the course of an* gi)en da*, "ill not affect the Iuantit*
of mone* afloat on that particular da*, but, in the )ast maDorit* of cases, "ill resol)e themsel)es into multifarious
drafts upon the Iuantit* of mone* "hich ma* be afloat at subseIuent dates more or less distant8888 'he bills granted or
credits opened, to4da*, need ha)e no resemblance "hate)er, either in Iuantit*, amount or duration, to those granted or
entered upon to4morro" or ne9t da*, na*, man* of toda*?s bills, and credits, "hen due, fall in "ith a mass of liabilities
"hose origins tra)erse a range of antecedent dates altogether indefinite, bills at 16, 6, : months or 1 often aggregating
together to s"ell the common liabilities of one particular da*8888A (@'he 5urrenc* 'heor* &e)ie"ed; in a <etter to the
Scottish #eople8A /* a /an+er in England8 Edinburgh, 183, pp8 62, :7 passim8!
3:
(s an e9ample of ho" little read* mone* is reIuired in true commercial operations, > gi)e belo" a statement b* one
of the largest <ondon houses of its *earl* receipts and pa*ments8 >ts transactions during the *ear 1836, e9tending to
man* millions of pounds sterling, are here reduced to the scale of one million8
Receipts$Payments8/an+ers? and $erchants?]3::,326/ills pa*able after date]:76,675heIues on
/an+ers, Pc8 pa*able on demand:37,7135heIues on <ondon /an+ers66:,6765ountr*
Cotes2,667/an+ of England Cotes66,7:/an+ of England Cotes68,33Gold2,67Gold68,782Sil)er
and 5opper1,8Sil)er and 5opper1,86 #ost =ffice =rders2:: 'otal ]1,777,777'otal
]1,777,777@&eport from the Select 5ommittee on the /an+ (cts, Lul*, 1838,A p8 l99i88
3
@'he course of trade being thus turned, from e9changing of goods for goods, or deli)ering and ta+ing, to selling and
pa*ing, all the bargains 888 are no" stated upon the foot of a #rice in mone*8A (@(n Essa* upon #ublic+ 5redit8A :rd
Ed8 <ond8, 1717, p8 88!
33
@<?argent 888 est de)enu le bourreau de toutes choses8A Finance is the @alambic, Iui a fait R)aporer une IuantitR
effro*able de biens et de denrRes pour faire ce fatal prRcis8A @<?argent dRclare la guerre X tout le genre humain8A
G@$one* 888 has become the e9ecutioner of all things8A Finance is the @alembic that e)aporates a frightful Iuantit* of
goods and commodities in order to obtain this fatal e9tract8A @$one* G888H declares "ar G888H on the "hole human raceAH
(/oisguillebert: @0issertation sur la nature des richesses, de l?argent et des tributs8A Edit8 0aire8 Economistes
financiers8 #aris, 18:, t8 i8, pp8 1:, 12, 178!
36
@=n Bhitsuntide, 186,A sa*s $r8 5raig before the 5ommons? 5ommittee of 1866, @there "as such an immense
demand for notes upon the ban+s of Edinburgh, that b* 11 o?cloc+ the* had not a note left in their custod*8 'he* sent
round to all the different ban+s to borro", but could not get them, and man* of the transactions "ere adDusted b* slips
of paper onl*; *et b* three o?cloc+ the "hole of the notes "ere returned into the ban+s from "hich the* had issuedQ >t
"as a mere transfer from hand to hand8 @(lthough the a)erage effecti)e circulation of ban+4notes in Scotland is less
than three millions sterling, *et on certain pa* da*s in the *ear, e)er* single note in the possession of the ban+ers,
amounting in the "hole to about ]7,777,777, is called into acti)it*8 =n these occasions the notes ha)e a single and
specific function to perform, and so soon as the* ha)e performed it, the* -o" bac+ into the )arious ban+s from "hich
the* issued8 (See Lohn Fullarton, @&egulation of 5urrencies8A <ond8 183, p8 86, note8! >n e9planation it should be
stated, that in Scotland, at the date of Fullarton?s "or+, notes and not cheIues "ere used to "ithdra" deposits8
37
Hote by the .nstitute of Marxism)Leninism in the Russian edition0 (pparentl* a slip of the pen8 Bhen "riting
faverse the author e)identl* meant direct8
38
'o the Iuestion, @>f there "ere occasion to raise 7 millions p8 a8, "hether the same 6 millions (gold! 888 "ould
suffice for such re)olutions and circulations thereof, as trade reIuires,A #ett* replies in his usual masterl* manner, @>
ans"er *es: for the e9pense being 7 millions, if the re)olutions "ere in such short circles, )i18, "ee+l*, as happens
among poor artisans and labourers, "ho recei)e and pa* e)er* Saturda*, then 7J36 parts of 1 million of mone* "ould
ans"er these ends, but if the circles be Iuarterl*, according to our custom of pa*ing rent, and gathering ta9es, then 17
millions "ere reIuisite8 Bherefore, supposing pa*ments in general to be of a mi9ed circle bet"een one "ee+ and 1:,
then add 17 millions to 7J36, the half of "hich "ill be 3[, so as if "e ha)e 3[ millions "e ha)e enough8A (Billiam
#ett*: @#olitical (natom* of >reland8A 1676, Edit8: <ond8 1621, pp8 1:, 18!
32
-ence the absurdit* of e)er* la" prescribing that the ban+s of a countr* shall form reser)es of that precious metal
alone "hich circulates at home8 'he @pleasant difficultiesA thus self4created b* the /an+ of England, are "ell +no"n8
=n the subDect of the great epochs in the histor* of the changes in the relati)e )alue of gold and sil)er, see .arl $ar9,
l8c8, p8 1:6 sI8 Sir &obert #eel, b* his /an+ (ct of 18, sought to tide o)er the difficult*, b* allo"ing the /an+ of
England to issue notes against sil)er bullion, on condition that the reser)e of sil)er should ne)er e9ceed more than
one4fourth of the reser)e of gold8 'he )alue of sil)er being for that purpose estimated at its price in the <ondon
mar+et8
Added in the Bth =erman edition$ I Be find oursel)es once more in a period of serious change in the relati)e )alues
of gold and sil)er8 (bout 63 *ears ago the ratio e9pressing the relati)e )alue of gold and sil)er "as 1341J6:1; no" it is
appro9imatel* 66:1, and sil)er is still constantl* falling as against gold8 'his is essentiall* the result of a re)olution in
the mode of production of both metals8 Formerl* gold "as obtained almost e9clusi)el* b* "ashing it out from gold4
bearing allu)ial deposits, products of the "eathering of auriferous roc+s8 Co" this method has become inadeIuate and
has been forced into the bac+ground b* the processing of the Iuart1 lodes themsel)es, a "a* of e9traction "hich
formerl* "as onl* of secondar* importance, although "ell +no"n to the ancients (0iodorus, >>>, 1641! (0iodor?s )8
Sicilien @-istorische /ibliothe+,A boo+ >>>, 16418 Stuttgart 1868, pp8 6384661!8 $oreo)er, not onl* "ere ne" huge
sil)er deposits disco)ered in Corth (merica, in the Bestern part of the &oc+* $ountains, but these and the $e9ican
sil)er mines "ere reall* opened up b* the la*ing of rail"a*s, "hich made possible the shipment of modern machiner*
and fuel and in conseIuence the mining of sil)er on a )er* large scale at a lo" cost8 -o"e)er there is a great
difference in the "a* the t"o metals occur in the Iuart1 lodes8 'he gold is mostl* nati)e, but disseminated throughout
the Iuart1 in minute Iuantities8 'he "hole mass of the )ein must therefore be crushed and the gold either "ashed out
or e9tracted b* means of mercur*8 =ften 1,777,777 grammes of Iuart1 barel* *ield 14: and )er* seldom :7467
grammes of gold8 Sil)er is seldom found nati)e, ho"e)er it occurs in special Iuart1 that is separated from the lode
"ith comparati)e ease and contains mostl* 7427` sil)er; or it is contained, in smaller Iuantities, in copper, lead and
other ores "hich in themsel)es are "orth"hile "or+ing8 From this alone it is apparent that the labour e9pended on the
production of gold is rather in creasing "hile that e9pended on sil)er production has decidedl* decreased, "hich Iuite
naturall* e9plains the drop in the )alue of the latter8 'his fall in )alue "ould e9press itself in a still greater fall in price
if the price of sil)er "ere not pegged e)en to4da* b* artificial means8 /ut (merica?s rich sil)er deposits ha)e so far
barel* been tapped, and thus the prospects are that the )alue of this metal "ill +eep on dropping for rather a long time
to come8 ( still greater contributing factor here is the relati)e decrease in the reIuirement of sil)er for articles of
general use and for lu9uries, that is its replacement b* plated goods, aluminium, etc8 =ne ma* thus gauge the
utopianism of the bimetallist idea that compulsor* international Iuotation "ill raise sil)er again to the old )alue ratio
of 1:1341J68 >t is more li+el* that sil)er "ill forfeit its mone* function more and more in the mar+ets of the "orld8 v
! E$H
67
'he opponents, themsel)es, of the mercantile s*stem, a s*stem "hich considered the settlement of surplus trade
balances in gold and sil)er as the aim of international trade, entirel* misconcei)ed the functions of mone* of the
"orld8 > ha)e sho"n b* the e9ample of &icardo in "hat "a* their false conception of the la"s that regulate the
Iuantit* of the circulating medium, is reflected in their eIuall* false conception of the international mo)ement of the
precious metals (l8c8, pp8 137 sI8!8 -is erroneous dogma: @(n unfa)ourable balance of trade ne)er arises but from a
redundant currenc*8888 'he e9portation of the coin is caused b* its cheapness, and is not the effect, but the cause of an
unfa)ourable balance,A alread* occurs in /arbon: @'he /alance of 'rade, if there be one, is not the cause of sending
a"a* the mone* out of a nation; but that proceeds from the difference of the )alue of bullion in e)er* countr*8A (C8
/arbon; l8c8, pp8 32, 678! $ac5ulloch in @'he <iterature of #olitical Econom*, a classified catalogue, <ond8 183,A
praises /arbon for this anticipation, but prudentl* passes o)er the nai)e forms, in "hich /arbon clothes the absurd
supposition on "hich the @currenc* principleA is based8 'he absence of real criticism and e)en of honest*, in that
catalogue culminates in the sections de)oted to the histor* of the theor* of mone*; the reason is that $ac5ulloch in
this part of the "or+ is flattering <ord =)erstone "hom he calls @facile princeps argentanorum8A
61
For instance, in subsidies, mone* loans for carr*ing on "ars or for enabling ban+s to resume cash pa*ments, Pc8, it
is the mone*4form, and no other, of )alue that ma* be "anted8
66
@> "ould desire, indeed, no more con)incing e)idence of the competenc* of the machiner* of the hoards in specie4
pa*ing countries to perform e)er* necessar* office of international adDustment, "ithout an* sensible aid from the
general circulation, than the facilit* "ith "hich France, "hen but Dust reco)ering from the shoc+ of a destructi)e
foreign in)asion, completed "ithin the space of 67 months the pa*ment of her forced contribution of nearl* 67
millions to the allied po"ers, and a considerable proportion of the sum in specie, "ithout an* perceptible contraction
or derangement of her domestic currenc*, or e)en an* alarming fluctuation of her e9changes8A (Fullerton, l8c8, p8 118!
GAdded in the Bth =erman edition$ I Be ha)e a still more stri+ing e9ample in the facilit* "ith "hich the same France
"as able in 187147: to pa* off "ithin :7 months a forced contribution more than ten times as great, a considerable
part of it li+e"ise in specie8 I !$ E$H
6:
@<?argent se partage entre les nations relati)ement au besoin Iu?elles en ont 888 Rtant touDours attirR par les
productions8A G@$one* is shared among the nations in accordance "ith their need for it 888 as it is al"a*s attracted b*
the productsAH (<e 'rosne, l8c8, p8 2168! @'he mines "hich are continuall* gi)ing gold and sil)er, do gi)e sufficient to
suppl* such a needful balance to e)er* nation8A (L8 ;anderlint, l8c8, p8 78!
6
@E9changes rise and fall e)er* "ee+, and at some particular times in the *ear run high against a nation, and at other
times run as high on the contrar*8A (C8 /arbon, l8c8, p8 :2!
63
'hese )arious functions are liable to come into dangerous conflict "ith one another "hene)er gold and sil)er ha)e
also to ser)e as a fund for the con)ersion of ban+4notes8
66
@Bhat mone* is more than of absolute necessit* for a -ome 'rade, is dead stoc+ 888 and brings no profit to that
countr* it?s +ept in, but as it is transported in trade, as "ell as imported8A (Lohn /ellers, @Essa*s,A p8 1:8! @Bhat if "e
ha)e too much coinE Be ma* melt do"n the hea)iest and turn it into the splendour of plate, )essels or utensils of gold
or sil)er, or send it out as a commodit*, "here the same is "anted or desired; or let it out at interest, "here interest is
high8A (B8 #ett*: @KuantulumcunIue,A p8 :28! @$one* is but the fat of the /od* #olitic+, "hereof too much cloth as
often hinder its agilit*, as too little ma+es it sic+ 888 as fat lubricates the motion of the muscles, feeds in "ant of
)ictuals, fills up the une)en ca)ities, and beautifies the bod*; so cloth mone* in the state Iuic+en its action, feeds from
abroad in time of dearth at home, e)ens accounts 888 and beautifies the "hole; altho more especiall* the particular
persons that ha)e it in plent*8A (B8 #ett*, @#olitical (natom* of >reland,A p8 18!
1
'he contrast bet"een the po"er, based on the personal relations of dominion and ser)itude, that is conferred b*
landed propert*, and the impersonal po"er that is gi)en b* mone*, is "ell e9pressed b* the t"o French pro)erbs,
@Culle terre sans seigneur,A and @<?argent n?a pas de martre,A F @Co land "ithout its lord,A and @$one* has no
master8A
6
@()ec de l?argent on achnte des marchandises et a)ec des marchandises on achnte de l?argent 8A G@Bith mone* one
bu*s commodities, and "ith commodities one bu*s mone*AH ($ercier de la &i)inre: @<?ordre naturel et essentiel des
sociRtRs politiIues,A p8 3:8!
:
@Bhen a thing is bought in order to be sold again, the sum emplo*ed is called mone* ad)anced; "hen it is bought
not to be sold, it ma* be said to be e9pended8A v (Lames Steuart: @Bor+s,A Pc8 Edited b* Gen8 Sir Lames Steuart, his
son8 <ond8, 1873, ;8 >8, p8 678!
@=n n?Rchange pas de l?argent contre de l?argent,A G@=ne does not e9change mone* for mone*,AH sa*s $ercier de la
&i)inre to the $ercantilists (l8c8, p8 868! >n a "or+, "hich, e9 professo treats of @tradeA and @speculation,A occurs the
follo"ing: @(ll trade consists in the e9change of things of different +inds; and the ad)antageA (to the merchantE!
@arises out of this difference8 'o e9change a pound of bread against a pound of bread 888 "ould be attended "ith no
ad)antage; 888 -ence trade is ad)antageousl* contrasted "ith gambling, "hich consists in a mere e9change of mone*
for mone*8A ('h8 5orbet, @(n >nIuir* into the 5auses and $odes of the Bealth of >ndi)iduals; or the #rinciples of
'rade and Speculation E9plained8A <ondon, 181, p8 38! (lthough 5orbet does not see that $4$, the e9change or
mone* for mone*, is the characteristic form of circulation, not onl* of merchants? capital but of all capital, *et at least
he ac+no"ledges that this form is common to gambling and to one species of trade, )i18, speculation: but then comes
$ac5ulloch and ma+es out, that to bu* in order to sell, is to speculate, and thus the difference bet"een Speculation
and 'rade )anishes8 @E)er* transaction in "hich an indi)idual bu*s produce in order to sell it again, is, in fact, a
speculation8A ($ac5ulloch: @( 0ictionar* #ractical, Pc8, of 5ommerce8A <ond8, 187, p8 17728! Bith much more
nai)etR, #into, the #indar of the (msterdam Stoc+ E9change, remar+s, @<e commerce est un Deu: (ta+en from <oc+e!
et ce n?est pas a)ec des gueu9 Iu?on peut gagner8 Si l?on gagnait longtemps en tout a)ec tous, il faudrait rendre de bon
accord les plus grandes parties du profit pour recommencer le Deu8A G@'rade is a game, and nothing can be "on from
beggars8 >f one "on e)er*thing from e)er*bod* all the time, it "ould be necessar* to gi)e bac+ the greater part of the
profit )oluntaril*, in order to begin the game againAH (#into: @'raitR de la 5irculation et du 5rRdit8A (msterdam, 17718
p8 6:1,!
3
@5apital is di)isible 888 into the original capital and the profit, the increment to the capital 888 although in practice this
profit is immediatel* turned into capital, and set in motion "ith the original8A (F8 Engels, @%mrisse 1u einer .riti+ der
Cationalu+onomie, in: 0eutsch4Fran1usische LahrbTcher, herausgegeben )on (rnold &uge und .arl $ar98A #aris,
18, p8 228!
6
(ristotle opposes =economic to 5hrematistic8 -e starts from the former8 So far as it is the art of gaining a
li)elihood, it is limited to procuring those articles that are necessar* to e9istence, and useful either to a
household or the state8 @'rue "ealth (o aleIinos ploutos! consists of such )alues in use; for the Iuantit* of
possessions of this +ind, capable of ma+ing life pleasant, is not unlimited8 'here is, ho"e)er, a second mode of
acIuiring things, to "hich "e ma* b* preference and "ith correctness gi)e the name of 5hrematistic, and in this
case there appear to be no limits to riches and possessions8 'rade (e +apeli+e is literall* retail trade, and (ristotle
ta+es this +ind because in it )alues in use predominate! does not in its nature belong to 5hrematistic, for here the
e9change has reference onl* to "hat is necessar* to themsel)es (the bu*er or seller!8A 'herefore, as he goes on to
sho", the original form of trade "as barter, but "ith the e9tension of the latter, there arose the necessit* for
mone*8 =n the disco)er* of mone*, barter of necessit* de)eloped into +apeli+e, into trading in commodities, and
this again, in opposition to its original tendenc*, gre" into 5hrematistic, into the art of ma+ing mone*8 Co"
5hrematistic is distinguishable from =economic in this "a*, that @in the case of 5hrematistic circulation is the
source of riches poieti+e crematon 888 dia chrematon diaboles8 (nd it appears to re)ol)e about mone*, for mone*
is the beginning and end of this +ind of e9change (to nomisma stoiceion tes allages estin!8 'herefore also riches,
such as 5hrematistic stri)es for, are unlimited8 Lust as e)er* art that is not a means to an end, but an end in itself,
has no limit to its aims, because it see+s constantl* to approach nearer and nearer to that end, "hile those arts
that pursue means to an end, are not boundless, since the goal itself imposes a limit upon them, so "ith
5hrematistic, there are no bounds to its aims, these aims being absolute "ealth8 =economic not 5hrematistic has
a limit 888 the obDect of the former is something different from mone*, of the latter the augmentation of mone*8888
/* confounding these t"o forms, "hich o)erlap each other, some people ha)e been led to loo+ upon the
preser)ation and increase of mone* ad infinitum as the end and aim of =economic8A ((ristoteles, De Rep$ edit8
/e++er, lib8 l8c8 8, 28 passim8!
7
@5ommodities (here used in the sense of use4)alues! are not the terminating obDect of the trading capitalist, mone* is
his terminating obDect8A ('h8 5halmers, -n Pol$ Econ$ 'c$, 6nd Ed8, Glasgo", 18:6, pp8 163, 1668!
8
@>l mercante non conta Iuasi per niente il lucro fatto, ma mira sempre al futuro8A G@'he merchant counts the mone*
he has made as almost nothing; he al"a*s loo+s to the future8AH ((8 Geno)esi, <e1ioni di Economia 5i)ile (1763!,
5ustodi?s edit8 of >talian Economists8 #arte $oderna t8 )iii, p8 1:28!
2
@'he ine9tinguishable passion for gain, the auri sacra fames, "ill al"a*s lead capitalists8A ($ac5ulloch: @'he
#rinciples of #olit8 Econ8A <ondon, 18:7, p8 1728! 'his )ie", of course, does not pre)ent the same $ac5ulloch and
others of his +idne*, "hen in theoretical difficulties, such, for e9ample, as the Iuestion of o)er4production, from
transforming the same capitalist into a moral citi1en, "hose sole concern is for use4)alues, and "ho e)en de)elops an
insatiable hunger for boots, hats, eggs, calico, and other e9tremel* familiar sorts of use4)alues8
17
So1ein is a characteristic Gree+ e9pression for hoarding8 So in English to sa)e has the same t"o meanings:
sauver and ?parner8
11
@Kuesto infinito che le cose non hanno in progresso, hanno in giro8A G@'hat infinit* "hich things do not possess,
the* possess in circulation8AH (Galiani8!
16
@5e n?est pas la matinre Iui fait le capital, mais la )aleur de ces matinres8A G@>t is not matter "hich ma+es capital,
but the )alue of that matter8AH (L8 /8 Sa*: @'raitR d?Econ8 #olit8A :nme Rd8 #aris, 1817, t8 >>8, p8 628!
1:
@5urrenc* (Q! emplo*ed in producing articles888 is capital8A ($acleod: @'he 'heor* and #ractice of /an+ing8A
<ondon, 1833, )8 1, ch8 i, p8 338! @5apital is commodities8A (Lames $ill: @Elements of #ol8 Econ8A <ond8, 1861, p8 78!
1
5apital: @portion fructifiante de la richesse accumulRe888 )aleur permanente, multipliante8A (Sismondi: @Cou)eau9
#rincipes d?Econ8 #olit8,A t8 i8, p8 88, 828!
1
@<?Rchange est une transaction admirable dans laIuelle les deu9 contractants gagnent 4 touDours (Q!A G@E9change is a
transaction in "hich the t"o contracting parties al"a*s gain, both of them (Q!AH (0estutt de 'rac*: @'raitR de la
;olontR et de ses effets8A #aris, 1866, p8 688! 'his "or+ appeared after"ards as @'raitR d?Econ8 #olit8A
6
@$ercier de la &i)inre,A l8 c8, p8 38
:
@Kue l?une de ces deu9 )aleurs soit argent, ou Iu?elles soient toutes deu9 marchandises usuelles, rien de plus
indiffRrent en soi8A G@Bhether one of those t"o )alues is mone*, or the* are both ordinar* commodities, is in itself a
matter of complete indifference8AH (@$ercier de la &i)inre,A l8c8, p8 3:8!
@5e ne sont pas les contractants Iui prononcent sur la )aleur; elle est dRcidRe a)ant la con)ention8A G@>t is not the
parties to a contract "ho decide on the )alue; that has been decided before the contract8AH (<e 'rosne, p8 2768!
3
@0o)e n egualitX non n lucro8A (Galiani, @0ella $oneta in 5ustodi, #arte $oderna,A t8 i)8, p8 68!
6
@<?Rchange de)ient dRsa)antageu9 pour l?une des parties, lorsIue IuelIue chose Rtrangnre )ient diminuer ou
e9agRrer le pri9; alors l?RgalitR est blessRe, mais la lRsion procnde de cette cause et non de l?Rchange8A G@'he e9change
becomes unfa)ourable for one of the parties "hen some e9ternal circumstance comes to lessen or increase the price;
then eIualit* is infringed, but this infringement arises from that cause and not from the e9change itself8AH (<e 'rosne,
l8c8, p8 278!
7
@<?Rchange est de sa nature un contrat d?RgalitR Iui se fait de )aleur pour )aleur Rgale8 >l n?est donc pas un mo*en de
s?enrichir, puisIue l?on donne autant Iue l?on rezoit8A G@E9change is b* its nature a contract "hich rests on eIualit*,
i8e8, it ta+es place bet"een t"o eIual )alues, and it is not a means of self4enrichment, since as much is gi)en as is
recei)ed8AH (<e 'rosne, l8c8, p8 27:8!
8
5ondillac: @<e 5ommerce et le Gou)ernementA (1776!8 Edit8 0aire et $olinari in the @$Rlanges d?Econ8 #olit8A
#aris, 187, pp8 667, 6218
2
<e 'rosne, therefore, ans"ers his friend 5ondillac "ith Dustice as follo"s: @0ans une 888 sociRtR formRe il n?* a pas
de surabondant en aucun genre8A G@>n a de)eloped societ* absolutel* nothing is superfluous8AH (t the same time, in a
bantering "a*, he remar+s: @>f both the persons "ho e9change recei)e more to an eIual amount, and part "ith less to
an eIual amount, the* both get the same8A >t is because 5ondillac has not the remotest idea of the nature of e9change4
)alue that he has been chosen b* -err #rofessor Bilhelm &oscher as a proper person to ans"er for the soundness of
his o"n childish notions8 See &oscher?s @0ie Grundlagen der Cationalu+onomie, 0ritte (uflage,A 18388
17
S8 #8 Ce"man: @Elements of #olit8 Econ8A (ndo)er and Ce" Nor+, 18:3, p8 1738
11
@/* the augmentation of the nominal )alue of the produce888 sellers not enriched888 since "hat the* gain as sellers,
the* precisel* e9pend in the Iualit* of bu*ers8A (@'he Essential #rinciples of the Bealth of Cations8A Pc8, <ondon,
1727, p8 668!
16
@Si l?on est forcR de donner pour 18 li)res une IuantitR de telle production Iui en )alait 6, lorsIu?on emplo*era ce
mdme argent X acheter, on aura Rgalement pour 18 l8 ce Iue l?on pa*ait 68A G@>f one is compelled to sell a Iuantit* of
a certain product for 18 li)res "hen it has a )alue of 6 li)res, "hen one emplo*s the same amount of mone* in
bu*ing, one "ill recei)e for 18 li)res the same Iuantit* of the product as 6 li)res "ould ha)e bought other"ise8AH (<e
'rosne, >8 c8, p8 8278!
1:
@5haIue )endeur ne peut donc par)enir X renchRrir habituellement ses marchandises, Iu?en se soumettant aussi X
pa*er habituellement plus cher les marchandises des autres )endeurs; et par la mdme raison, chaIue consommateur ne
peut pa*er habituellement moins cher ce Iu?il achnte, Iu?en se soumettant aussi X une diminution semblable sur le
pri9 des choses Iu?il )end8A G@( seller can normall* onl* succeed in raising the prices of his commodities if he agrees
to pa*, b* and large, more for the commodities of the other sellers; and for the same reason a consumer can normall*
onl* pa* less for his purchases if he submits to a similar reduction in the prices of the things he sells8AH ($ercier de la
&i)inre, l8c8, p8 3338!
1
'orrens8 @(n Essa* on the #roduction of Bealth8A <ondon, 1861, p8 :28
13
'he idea of profits being paid b* the consumers, is, assuredl*, )er* absurd8 Bho are the consumersEA (G8 &amsa*:
@(n Essa* on the 0istribution of Bealth8A Edinburgh, 18:6, p8 18:8!
16
@Bhen a man is in "ant of a demand, does $r8 $althus recommend him to pa* some other person to ta+e off his
goodsEA is a Iuestion put b* an angr* disciple of &icardo to $althus, "ho, li+e his disciple, #arson 5halmers,
economicall* glorifies this class of simple bu*ers or consumers8 (See @(n >nIuir* into those #rinciples &especting the
Cature of 0emand and the Cecessit* of 5onsumption, latel* ad)ocated b* $r8 $althus,A Pc8 <ond8, 1861, p8 338!
17
0estutt de 'rac*, although, or perhaps because, he "as a member of the >nstitute, held the opposite )ie"8 -e sa*s,
industrial capitalists ma+e profits because @the* all sell for more than it has cost to produce8 (nd to "hom do the*
sellE >n the first instance to one another8A (>8 c8, p8 6:28!
18
@<?Rchange Iui se fait de deu9 )aleurs Rgales n?augmente ni ne diminue la masse des )aleurs subsistantes dans la
sociRtR8 <?Rchange de deu9 )aleurs inRgales 888 ne change rien non plus X la somme des )aleurs sociales, bien Iu?il
aDoute X la fortune de l?un ce Iu?il tte de la fortune de l?autre8A G@'he e9change of t"o eIual )alues neither increases
nor diminishes the amount of the )alues a)ailable in societ*8 Cor does the e9change of t"o uneIual )alues 888 change
an*thing in the sum of social )alues, although it adds to the "ealth of one person "hat ir remo)es fomr the "ealth of
another8AH (L8 /8 Sa*, l8c8, t8 >>, pp8 :, 8! Sa*, not in the least troubled as to the conseIuences of this statement,
borro"s it, almost "ord for "ord, from the #h*siocrats8 'he follo"ing e9ample "ill sho" ho" $onsieur Sa* turned
to account the "ritings of the #h*siocrats, in his da* Iuite forgotten, for the purpose of e9panding the @)alueA of his
o"n8 -is most celebrated sa*ing, @=n n?achnte des produits Iu?a)ec des produitsA G@#roducts can onl* be bought "ith
products8AH(l8c8, t8 >>8 p8 18! runs as follo"s in the original ph*siocratic "or+: @<es productions ne se paient Iu?a)ec
des productions8A G@#roducts can onl* be paid for "ith products8AH (<e 'rosne, l8c8, p8 8228!
12
@E9change confers no )alue at all upon products8A (F8 Ba*land: @'he Elements of #olitical Econom*8A /oston,
18:, p8 1628!
67
%nder the rule of in)ariable eIui)alents commerce "ould be impossible8 (G8 =pd*+e: @( 'reatise on #olit8
Econom*8A Ce" Nor+, 1831, pp8 664628! @'he difference bet"een real )alue and e9change4)alue is based upon this
fact, namel*, that the )alue of a thing is different from the so4called eIui)alent gi)en for it in trade, i8e8, that this
eIui)alent is no eIui)alent8A (F8 Engels, l8c8, p8 26!8
61
/enDamin Fran+lin: Bor+s, ;ol8 >>, edit8 Spar+s in @#ositions to be e9amined concerning Cational Bealth,A p8 :768
66
(ristotle, >8 c8, c8 178
6:
@#rofit, in the usual condition of the mar+et, is not made b* e9changing8 -ad it not e9isted before, neither could it
after that transaction8A (&amsa*, l8c8, p8 188!
6
From the foregoing in)estigation, the reader "ill see that this statement onl* means that the formation of capital
must be possible e)en though the price and )alue of a commodit* be the same; for its formation cannot be attributed
to an* de)iation of the one from the other8 >f prices actuall* differ from )alues, "e must, first of all, reduce the former
to the latter, in other "ords, treat the difference as accidental in order that the phenomena ma* be obser)ed in their
purit*, and our obser)ations not interfered "ith b* disturbing circumstances that ha)e nothing to do "ith the process
in Iuestion8 Be +no", moreo)er, that this reduction is no mere scientific process8 'he continual oscillations in prices,
their rising and falling, compensate each other, and reduce themsel)es to an a)erage price, "hich is their hidden
regulator8 >t forms the guiding star of the merchant or the manufacturer in e)er* underta+ing that reIuires time8 -e
+no"s that "hen a long period of time is ta+en, commodities are sold neither o)er nor under, but at their a)erage
price8 >f therefore he thought about the matter at all, he "ould formulate the problem of the formation of capital as
follo"s: -o" can "e account for the origin of capital on the supposition that prices are regulated b* the a)erage price,
i8 e8, ultimatel* b* the )alue of the commoditiesE > sa* @ultimatel*,A because a)erage prices do not directl* coincide
"ith the )alues of commodities, as (dam Smith, &icardo, and others belie)e8
63
@-ic &hodus, hic saltusQA F <atin, usuall* translated: @&hodes is here, here is "here *ou DumpQA
=riginates from the traditional <atin translation of the punch line from (esop?s fable 'he /oastful (thlete "hich has
been the subDect of some mistranslations8 >n Gree+, the ma9im reads:
@{|b} ~ |b\,
{|b} cj{ ab |~jA
'he stor* is that an athlete boasts that "hen in &hodes, he performed a stupendous Dump, and that there "ere
"itnesses "ho could bac+ up his stor*8 ( b*stander then remar+ed, W(lrightQ <et?s sa* this is &hodes, demonstrate the
Dump here and no"8? 'he fable sho"s that people must be +no"n b* their deeds, not b* their o"n claims for
themsel)es8 >n the conte9t in "hich -egel used it in the Philosophy of Riht, this could be ta+en to mean that the
philosoph* of right must ha)e to do "ith the actuality of modern societ*, not the theories and ideals that societies
create for themsel)es, nor, as -egel goes on to sa*, to @teach the "orld "hat it ought to be8A
'he epigram is gi)en b* -egel first in Gree+, then in <atin (in the form @*ic &hodus, hic saltusA!, and he then sa*s:
@Bith little change, the abo)e sa*ing "ould read (in German!: @*ier ist die &ose, hier tan1eA: @-ere is the rose, dance
hereA
'his is ta+en to be an allusion to the Wrose in the cross? of the &osicrucians ("ho claimed to possess esoteric
+no"ledge "ith "hich the* could transform social life!, impl*ing that the material for understanding and changing
societ* is gi)en in societ* itself, not in some other4"orldl* theor*, punning first on the Gree+ (Rhodos Y &hodes,
rhodon Y rose!, then on the <atin (saltus Y Dump GnounH, salta Y dance Gimperati)eH!8 G$>( Editors8H
1
@>n the form of mone* 888 capital is producti)e of no profit8A (&icardo: @#rinc8 of #ol8 Econ8,A p8 6678!
6
>n enc*clopaedias of classical antiIuities "e find such nonsense as this v that in the ancient "orld capital "as full*
de)eloped, @e9cept that the free labourer and a s*stem of credit "as "anting8A $ommsen also, in his @-istor* of
&ome,A commits, in this respect, one blunder after another8
:
-ence legislation in )arious countries fi9es a ma9imum for labour4contracts8 Bhere)er free labour is the rule, the
la"s regulate the mode of terminating this contract8 >n some States, particularl* in $e9ico (before the (merican 5i)il
Bar, also in the territories ta+en from $e9ico, and also, as a matter of fact, in the 0anubian pro)inces till the
re)olution effected b* .usa!, sla)er* is hidden under the form of peonae8 /* means of ad)ances, repa*able in
labour, "hich are handed do"n from generation to generation, not onl* the indi)idual labourer, but his famil*,
become, de facto, the propert* of other persons and their families8 Luare1 abolished peonae8 'he so4called Emperor
$a9imilian re4established it b* a decree, "hich, in the -ouse of &epresentati)es at Bashington, "as aptl* denounced
as a decree for the re4introduction of sla)er* into $e9ico8 @> ma* ma+e o)er to another the use, for a limited time, of
m* particular bodil* and mental aptitudes and capabilities; because in conseIuence of this restriction, the* are
impressed "ith a character of alienation "ith regard to me as a "hole8 /ut b* the alienation of all m* labour4time and
the "hole of m* "or+, > should be con)erting the substance itself, in other "ords, m* general acti)it* and realit*, m*
person, into the propert* of another8A (-egel, @#hilosophie des &echts8A /erlin, 187, p8 17, 678!
'he capitalist epoch is therefore characterised b* this, that labour4po"er ta+es in the e*es of the labourer himself the
form of a commodit* "hich is his propert*; his labour conseIuentl* becomes "age4labour8 =n the other hand, it is
onl* from this moment that the produce of labour uni)ersall* becomes a commodit*8
3
@'he )alue or "orth of a man, is as of all other things his price v that is to sa*, so much as "ould be gi)en for the
use of his po"er8A ('h8 -obbes: @<e)iathanA in Bor+s, Ed8 $oles"orth8 <ond8 18:24, )8 iii8 p8 768!
6
-ence the &oman ;illicus, as o)erloo+er of the agricultural sla)es, recei)ed @more meagre fare than "or+ing sla)es,
because his "or+ "as lighter8A ('h8 $ommsen, &um8 Geschichte, 1836, p8 8178!
7
5ompare B8 'h8 'hornton: @=)er4population and its &emed*,A <ond8, 1868
8
#ett*8
2
@>ts (labour?s! natural price 888 consists in such a Iuantit* of necessaries and comforts of life, as, from the nature of
the climate, and the habits of the countr*, are necessar* to support the labourer, and to enable him to rear such a
famil* as ma* preser)e, in the mar+et, an undiminished suppl* of labour8A (&8 'orrens: @(n Essa* on the E9ternal
5orn 'rade8A <ond8 1813, p8 668! 'he "ord labour is here "rongl* used for labour4po"er8
17
&ossi: @5ours d?Econ8 #olit8,A /ru9elles, 186, p8 :778
11
Sismondi: @Cou)8 #rinc8 etc8,A t8 >, p8 1168
16
@(ll labour is paid after it has ceased8A (@(n >nIuir* into those #rinciples &especting the Cature of 0emand,A Pc8,
p8 178! <e crRdit commercial a dS commencer au moment ox l?ou)rier, premier artisan de la production, a pu, au
mo*en de ses Rconomies, attendre le salaire de son tra)ail DusIu?X la fin de la semaine, de la Iuin1aine, du mois, du
trimestre, Pc8A G@'he s*stem of commercial credit had to start at the moment "hen the labourer, the prime creator of
products, could, than+s to his sa)ings, "ait for his "ages until the end of the "ee+8AH (5h8 Ganilh: @0es S*stnmes
d?Econ8 #olit8A 6Rme Rdit8 #aris, 1861, t8 >>, p8 1378!
1:
@<?ou)rier prdte son industrie,A but adds Storch sl*l*: he @ris+s nothingA e9cept @de perdre son salaire 888 l?ou)rier
ne transmet rien de matRriel8A G@'he labourer lends his industr* 888 the lossof his "ages 888 the labourer does not hand
o)er an*thing of a material nature8AH (Storch: @5ours d?Econ8 #olit8A #Rtersbourg, 1813, t8 >>8, p8 :78!
1
=ne e9ample8 >n <ondon there are t"o sorts of ba+ers, the @full priced,A "ho sell bread at its full )alue, and the
@undersellers,A "ho sell it under its )alue8 'he latter class comprises more than three4fourths of the total number of
ba+ers8 (p8 999ii in the &eport of -8 S8 'remenheere, commissioner to e9amine into @the grie)ances complained of b*
the Dourne*men ba+ers,A Pc8, <ond8 18668! 'he undersellers, almost "ithout e9ception, sell bread adulterated "ith
alum, soap, pearl ashes, chal+, 0erb*shire stone4dust, and such li+e agreeable nourishing and "holesome ingredients8
(See the abo)e cited /lue boo+, as also the report of @the committee of 1833 on the adulteration of bread,A and 0r8
-assall?s @(dulterations 0etected,A 6nd Ed8 <ond8 18618! Sir Lohn Gordon stated before the committee of 1833, that
@in conseIuence of these adulterations, the poor man, "ho li)es on t"o pounds of bread a da*, does not no" get one
fourth part of nourishing matter, let alone the deleterious effects on his health8A 'remenheere states (l8c8, p8 9l)iii!, as
the reason, "h* a )er* large part of the "or+ing4class, although "ell a"are of this adulteration, ne)ertheless accept
the alum, stone4dust, Pc8, as part of their purchase: that it is for them @a matter of necessit* to ta+e from their ba+er or
from the chandler?s shop, such bread as the* choose to suppl*8A (s the* are not paid their "ages before the end of the
"ee+, the* in their turn are unable @to pa* for the bread consumed b* their families, during the "ee+, before the end
of the "ee+,A and 'remenheere adds on the e)idence of "itnesses, @it is notorious that bread composed of those
mi9tures, is made e9pressl* for sale in this manner8A >n man* English and still more Scotch agricultural districts,
"ages are paid fortnightl* and e)en monthl*; "ith such long inter)als bet"een the pa*ments, the agricultural labourer
is obliged to bu* on credit8888 -e must pa* higher prices, and is in fact tied to the shop "hich gi)es him credit8 'hus at
-orningham in Bilts, for e9ample, "here the "ages are monthl*, the same flour that he could bu* else"here at ls 17d
per stone, costs him 6s d per stone8 (@Si9th &eportA on @#ublic -ealthA b* @'he $edical =fficer of the #ri)*
5ouncil, Pc8, 186,A p8668! @'he bloc+ printers of #aisle* and .ilmarnoc+ enforced, b* a stri+e, fortnightl*, instead
of monthl* pa*ment of "ages8A (@&eports of the >nspectors of Factories for :1st =ct8, 183:,A p8 :8! (s a further
prett* result of the credit gi)en b* the "or+men to the capitalist, "e ma* refer to the method current in man* English
coal mines, "here the labourer is not paid till the end of the month, and in the meantime, recei)es sums on account
from the capitalist, often in goods for "hich the miner is obliged to pa* more than the mar+et price ('ruc+4s*stem!8
@>t is a common practice "ith the coal masters to pa* once a month, and ad)ance cash to their "or+men at the end of
each intermediate "ee+8 'he cash is gi)en in the shopA (i8e8, the 'omm* shop "hich belongs to the master!; @the men
ta+e it on one side and la* it out on the other8A (@5hildren?s Emplo*ment 5ommission, >>>8 &eport,A <ond8 186, p8 :8,
n8 1268!
1
@'he earth?s spontaneous productions being in small Iuantit*, and Iuite independent of man, appear, as it "ere, to be
furnished b* Cature, in the same "a* as a small sum is gi)en to a *oung man, in order to put him in a "a* of industr*,
and of ma+ing his fortune8A (Lames Steuart: @#rinciples of #olit8 Econ8A edit8 0ublin, 1777, )8 >, p81168!
6
@&eason is Dust as cunning as she is po"erful8 -er cunning consists principall* in her mediating acti)it*, "hich, b*
causing obDects to act and re4act on each other in accordance "ith their o"n nature, in this "a*, "ithout an* direct
interference in the process, carries out reason?s intentions8A (-egel: @En1*+lopdie, Erster 'heil, 0ie <ogi+,A /erlin,
187, p8 :868!
:
>n his other"ise miserable "or+ (@'hRorie de l?Econ8 #olit8A #aris, 1813!, Ganilh enumerates in a stri+ing manner in
opposition to the @#h*siocratsA the long series of pre)ious processes necessar* before agriculture properl* so called
can commence8
'urgot in his @&Rfle9ions sur la Formation et la 0istribution des &ichessesA (1766! brings "ell into prominence the
importance of domesticated animals to earl* ci)ilisation8
3
'he least important commodities of all for the technological comparison of different epochs of production are
articles of lu9ur*, in the strict meaning of the term8 -o"e)er little our "ritten histories up to this time notice the
de)elopment of material production, "hich is the basis of all social life, and therefore of all real histor*, *et
prehistoric times ha)e been classified in accordance "ith the results, not of so4called historical, but of materialistic
in)estigations8 'hese periods ha)e been di)ided, to correspond "ith the materials from "hich their implements and
"eapons "ere made, )i18, into the stone, the bron1e, and the iron ages8
6
>t appears parado9ical to assert, that uncaught fish, for instance, are a means of production in the fishing industr*8
/ut hitherto no one has disco)ered the art of catching fish in "aters that contain none8
7
'his method of determining, from the standpoint of the labour4process alone, "hat is producti)e labour, is b* no
means directl* applicable to the case of the capitalist process of production8
8
Storch calls true ra" materials @matinres,A and accessor* material @matRriau98A 5herbulie1 describes accessories as
@matinres instrumentales8A
2
/* a "onderful feat of logical acumen, 5olonel 'orrens has disco)ered, in this stone of the sa)age the origin of
capital8 @>n the first stone "hich he Gthe sa)ageH flings at the "ild animal he pursues, in the first stic+ that he sei1es to
stri+e do"n the fruit "hich hangs abo)e his reach, "e see the appropriation of one article for the purpose of aiding in
the acIuisition of another, and thus disco)er the origin of capital8A (&8 'orrens: @(n Essa* on the #roduction of
Bealth,A Pc8, pp8 774718!
17
@#roducts are appropriated before the* are con)erted into capital; this con)ersion does not secure them from such
appropriation8A (5heibulie1: @&ichesse ou #au)retR,A edit8 #aris, 181, p8 38! @'he #roletarian, b* selling his labour
for a definite Iuantit* of the necessaries of life, renounces all claim to a share in the product8 'he mode of
appropriation of the products remains the same as before; it is in no "a* altered b* the bargain "e ha)e mentioned8
'he product belongs e9clusi)el* to the capitalist, "ho supplied the ra" material and the necessaries of life; and this is
a rigorous conseIuence of the la" of appropriation, a la" "hose fundamental principle "as the )er* opposite, namel*,
that e)er* labourer has an e9clusi)e right to the o"nership of "hat he produces8A (l8c8, p8 388! @Bhen the labourers
recei)e "ages for their labour 888 the capitalist is then the o"ner not of the capital onl*A (he means the means of
production! @but of the labour also8 >f "hat is paid as "ages is included, as it commonl* is, in the term capital, it is
absurd to tal+ of labour separatel* from capital8 'he "ord capital as thus emplo*ed includes labour and capital both8A
(Lames $ill: @Elements of #ol8 Econ8,A Pc8, Ed8 1861, pp8 77, 718!
11
(s has been stated in a pre)ious note, the English language has t"o different e9pressions for these t"o different
aspects of labour: in the Simple <abour4process, the process of producing %se4;alues, it is Aor"J in the process of
creation of ;alue, it is Labour+ ta+ing the term in its strictl* economic sense8 v !$ E$
16
'hese figures are Iuite arbitrar*8
1:
'his is the fundamental proposition on "hich is based the doctrine of the #h*siocrats as to the unproducti)eness of
all labour that is not agriculture: it is irrefutable for the orthodo9 economist8 @5ette fazon d?imputer X une seule chose
la )aleur de plusieurs autresA (par e9emple au lin la consommation du tisserand!, @d?appliIuer, pour ainsi dire, couche
sur couche, plusieurs )aleurs sur une seule, fait Iue celle4ci grossit d?autant8888 <e terme d?addition peint trRs bien la
maniere dont se forme le pri9 des ou)rages de main d?oeu)re; ce pri9 n?est Iu?un total de plusieurs )aleurs
consommRes et additionnRes ensemble; or, additionner n?est pas multiplier8A G@'his method of adding to one particular
obDect the )alue of a number of others,A for e9ample, adding the li)ing costs of the "ea)er to the fla9!, @of as it "ere
heaping up )arious )alues in la*ers on top of one single )alue, has the result that this )alue gro"s to the same
e9tent 888 'he e9pression Waddition?gi)es a )er* clear picture of the "a* in "hich the price of a manufactured product
is formed; this price is onl* the sum of a number of )alues "hich ha)e been consumed, and it is arri)ed at b* adding
them together; ho"e)er, addition is not the same as multiplication8AH (@$ercier de la &i)inre,A l8c8, p8 3228!
1
'hus from 1847 he "ithdre" part of his capital from producti)e emplo*ment, in order to thro" it a"a* in
rail"a* speculations; and so also, during the (merican 5i)il Bar, he closed his factor*, and turned his "or+4people
into the streets, in order to gamble on the <i)erpool cotton e9change8
13
@E9tol th*self, put on finer* and adorn th*self 888 but "hoe)er ta+es more or better than he gi)es, that is usur*, and is
not ser)ice, but "rong done to his neighbour, as "hen one steals and robs8 (ll is not ser)ice and benefit to a neighbour
that is called ser)ice and benefit8 For an adulteress and adulterer do one another great ser)ice and pleasure8 (
horseman does an incendiar* a great ser)ice, b* helping him to rob on the high"a*, and pillage land and houses8 'he
papists do ours a great ser)ice, in that the* don?t dro"n, burn, murder all of them, or let them all rot in prison; but let
some li)e, and onl* dri)e them out, or ta+e from them "hat the* ha)e8 'he de)il himself does his ser)ants inestimable
ser)ice8888 'o sum up, the "orld is full of great, e9cellent, and dail* ser)ice and benefit8A ($artin <uther: @(n die
#farrherrn "ider den Bucher 1u predigen,A Bittenberg, 1378!
16
>n @,ur .riti+ der #ol8 =e+8,A p8 1, > ma+e the follo"ing remar+ on this point v @>t is not difficult to understand
"hat Wser)ice? the categor* Wser)ice? must render to a class of economists li+e L8 /8 Sa* and F8 /astiat8A
17
'his is one of the circumstances that ma+es production b* sla)e labour such a costl* process8 'he labourer here is,
to use a stri+ing e9pression of the ancients, distinguishable onl* as instrumentum )ocale, from an animal as
instrumentum semi4)ocale, and from an implement as instrumentum mutum8 /ut he himself ta+es care to let both
beast and implement feel that he is none of them, but is a man8 -e con)inces himself "ith immense satisfaction, that
he is a different being, b* treating the one unmercifull* and damaging the other con amore8 -ence the principle,
uni)ersall* applied in this method of production, onl* to emplo* the rudest and hea)iest implements and such as are
difficult to damage o"ing to their sheer clumsiness8 >n the sla)e4states bordering on the Gulf of $e9ico, do"n to the
date of the ci)il "ar, ploughs constructed on old 5hinese models, "hich turned up the soil li+e a hog or a mole,
instead of ma+ing furro"s, "ere alone to be found8 5onf8 L8 E8 5airnes8 @'he Sla)e #o"er,A <ondon, 1866, p8 6 sII8
>n his @Sea /oard Sla)e States,A =lmsted tells us: @> am here sho"n tools that no man in his senses, "ith us, "ould
allo" a labourcr, for "hom he "as pa*ing "ages, to be encumbered "ith; and the e9cessi)e "eight and clumsiness of
"hich, > "ould Dudge, "ould ma+e "or+ at least ten per cent greater than "ith those ordinaril* used "ith us8 (nd > am
assured that, in the careless and clums* "a* the* must be used b* the sla)es, an*thing lighter or less rude could not be
furnished them "ith good econom*, and that such tools as "e constantl* gi)e our labourers and find our profit in
gi)ing them, "ould not last out a da* in a ;irginia cornfield F much lighter and more free from stones though it be
than ours8 So, too, "hen > as+ "h* mules are so uni)ersall* substituted for horses on the farm, the first reason gi)en,
and confessedl* the most conclusi)e one, is that horses cannot bear the treatment that the* al"a*s must get from
negroes; horses are al"a*s soon foundered or crippled b* them, "hile mules "ill bear cudgelling, or lose a meal or
t"o no" and then, and not be materiall* inDured, and the* do not ta+e cold or get sic+, if neglected or o)er"or+ed8 /ut
> do not need to go further than to the "indo" of the room in "hich > am "riting, to see at almost an* time, treatment
of cattle that "ould ensure the immediate discharge of the dri)er b* almost an* farmer o"ning them in the Corth8A
18
'he distinction bet"een s+illed and uns+illed labour rests in part on pure illusion, or, to sa* the least, on distinctions
that ha)e long since ceased to be real, and that sur)i)e onl* b* )irtue of a traditional con)ention; in part on the
helpless condition of some groups of the "or+ing4class, a condition that pre)ents them from e9acting eIuall* "ith the
rest the )alue of their labour4po"er8 (ccidental circumstances here pla* so great a part, that these t"o forms of labour
sometimes change places8 Bhere, for instance, the ph*siIue of the "or+ing4class has deteriorated, and is, relati)el*
spea+ing, e9hausted, "hich in the case in all countries "ith a "ell de)eloped capitalist production, the lo"er forms of
labour, "hich demand great e9penditure of muscle, are in general considered as s+illed, compared "ith much more
delicate forms of labour; the latter sin+ do"n to the le)el of uns+illed labour8 'a+e as an e9ample the labour of a
bric+la*er, "hich in England occupies a much higher le)el than that of a damas+4"ea)er8 (gain, although the labour
of a fustian cutter demands great bodil* e9ertion, and is at the same time unhealth*, *et it counts onl* as uns+illed
labour8 (nd then, "e must not forget, that the so4called s+illed labour does not occup* a large space in the field of
national labour8 <aing estimates that in England (and Bales! the li)elihood of 11,:77,777 people depends on uns+illed
labour8 >f from the total population of 18,777,777 li)ing at the time "hen he "rote, "e deduct 1,777,777 for the
@genteel population,A and 1,377,777 for paupers, )agrants, criminals, prostitutes, Pc8, and ,637,777 "ho compose the
middle4class, there remain the abo)e mentioned 11,777,7778 /ut in his middle4class he includes people that li)e on the
interest of small in)estments, officials, men of letters, artists, schoolmasters and the li+e, and in order to s"ell the
number he also includes in these ,637,777 the better paid portion of the factor* operati)esQ 'he bric+la*ers, too,
figure amongst them8 (S8 <aing: @Cational 0istress,A Pc8, <ondon, 18!8 @'he great class "ho ha)e nothing to gi)e
for food but ordinar* labour, are the great bul+ of the people8A (Lames $ill, in art8: @5olon*,A Supplement to the
Enc*clop8 /rit8, 18:18!
12
@Bhere reference is made to labour as a measure of )alue, it necessaril* implies labour of one particular +ind 888 the
proportion "hich the other +inds bear to it being easil* ascertained8A (@=utlines of #ol8 Econ8,A <ond8, 18:6, pp8 66
and 6:8!
1
@<abour gi)es a ne" creation for one e9tinguished8A @(n Essa* on the #olit8 Econ8 of Cations,A <ondon, 1861, p8
1:8!
6
'he subDect of repairs of the implements of labour does not concern us here8 ( machine that is undergoing repair, no
longer pla*s the part of an instrument, but that of a subDect of labour8 Bor+ is no longer done "ith it, but upon it8 >t is
Iuite permissible for our purpose to assume, that the labour e9pended on the repairs of instruments is included in the
labour necessar* for their original production8 /ut in the te9t "e deal "ith that "ear and tear, "hich no doctor can
cure, and "hich little b* little brings about death, "ith @that +ind of "ear "hich cannot be repaired from time to time,
and "hich, in the case of a +nife, "ould ultimatel* reduce it to a state in "hich the cutler "ould sa* of it, it is not
"orth a ne" blade8A Be ha)e she"n in the te9t, that a machine ta+es part in e)er* labour4process as an integral
machine, but that into the simultaneous process of creating )alue it enters onl* bit b* bit8 -o" great then is the
confusion of ideas e9hibited in the follo"ing e9tractQ @$r8 &icardo sa*s a portion of the labour of the engineer in
ma+ing Gstoc+ingH machinesA is contained for e9ample in the )alue of a pair of stoc+ings8 @Net the total labour, that
produced each single pair of stoc+ings 888 includes the "hole labour of the engineer, not a portion; for one machine
ma+es man* pairs, and none of those pairs could ha)e been done "ithout an* part of the machine8A @=bs8 on 5ertain
;erbal 0isputes in #ol8 Econ8, #articularl* &elating to ;alue,A p8 38 'he author, an uncommonl* self4satisfied
"iseacre, is right in his confusion and therefore in his contention, to this e9tent onl*, that neither &icardo nor an*
other economist, before or since him, has accuratel* distinguished the t"o aspects of labour, and still less, therefore,
the part pla*ed b* it under each of these aspects in the formation of )alue8
:
From this "e ma* Dudge of the absurdit* of L8 /8 Sa*, "ho pretends to account for surplus )alue (>nterest, #rofit,
&ent!, b* the @ser)ices productifsA "hich the means of production, soil, instruments, and ra" material, render in the
labour4process b* means of their use4)alues8 $r8 Bm8 &oscher "ho seldom loses an occasion of registering, in blac+
and "hite, ingenious apologetic fancies, records the follo"ing specimen: 4 @L8 /8 Sa* ('raitR, t8 1, ch8 ! )er* trul*
remar+s: the )alue produced b* an oil mill, after deduction of all costs, is something ne", something Iuite different
from the labour b* "hich the oil mill itself "as erected8A (l8c8, p8 86, note8! ;er* true, $r8 #rofessorQ the oil produced
b* the oil mill is indeed something )er* different from the labour e9pended in constructing the millQ /* )alue, $r8
&oscher understands such stuff as @oil,A because oil has )alue, not"ithstanding that @CatureA produces petroleum,
though relati)el* @in small Iuantities,A a fact to "hich he seems to refer in his further obser)ation: @>t (Cature!
produces scarcel* an* e9change4)alue8A $r8 &oscher?s @CatureA and the e9change4)alue it produces are rather li+e the
foolish )irgin "ho admitted indeed that she had had a child, but @it "as such a little one8A 'his @sa)ant sRrieu9A in
continuation remar+s: @&icardo?s school is in the habit of including capital as accumulated labour under the head of
labour8 'his is uns+ilful "or+, because, indeed, the o"ner of capital, after all, does something more than the merel*
creating and preser)ing of the same: namel*, the abstention from the enDo*ment of it, for "hich he demands, e$$,
interest8A (l8c8! -o" )er* @s+ilfulA is this @anatomico4ph*siological methodA of #olitical Econom*, "hich, @indeed,A
con)erts a mere desire @after allA into a source of )alue8
@=f all the instruments of the farmers? trade, the labour of man 888 is that on "hich he is most to rel* for the
repa*ment of his capital8 'he other t"o 888 the "or+ing stoc+ of the cattle and the 888 carts, ploughs, spades, and so
forth, "ithout a gi)en portion of the first, are nothing at all8A (Edmund /ur+e: @'houghts and 0etails on Scarcit*,
originall* presented to the &ight -on8 B8 #itt, in the month of Co)ember 1723,A Edit8 <ondon, 1877, p8 178!
3
>n /he /imes of 66th Co)ember, 1866, a manufacturer, "hose mill emplo*ed 877 hands, and consumed, on the
a)erage, 137 bales of East >ndian, or 1:7 bales of (merican cotton, complains, in doleful manner, of the standing
e9penses of his factor* "hen not "or+ing8 -e estimates them at ]6,777 a *ear8 (mong them are a number of items
that do not concern us here, such as rent, rates, and ta9es, insurance, salaries of the manager, boo+4+eeper, engineer,
and others8 'hen he rec+ons ]137 for coal used to heat the mill occasionall*, and run the engine no" and then8
/esides this, he includes the "ages of the people emplo*ed at odd times to +eep the machiner* in "or+ing order8
<astl*, he puts do"n ]1,677 for depreciation of machiner*, because @the "eather and the natural principle of deca* do
not suspend their operations because the steam4engine ceases to re)ol)e8A -e sa*s, emphaticall*, he does not estimate
his depreciation at more than the small sum of ]1,677, because his machiner* is alread* nearl* "orn out8
6
@#roducti)e consumption 888 "here the consumption of a commodit* is a part of the process of production8 888 >n these
instances there is no consumption of )alue8A (S8 #8 Ce"man, l8c8, p8 6268!
7
>n an (merican compendium that has gone through, perhaps, 67 editions, this passage occurs: @>t matters not in "hat
form capital re4appears;A then after a length* enumeration of all the possible ingredients of production "hose )alue
re4appears in the product, the passage concludes thus: @'he )arious +inds of food, clothing, and shelter, necessar* for
the e9istence and comfort of the human being, are also changed8 'he* are consumed from time to time, and their )alue
re4appears in that ne" )igour imparted to his bod* and mind, forming fresh capital, to be emplo*ed again in the "or+
of production8A (F8 Ba*land, l8c8, pp8 :1, :68! Bithout noticing an* other oddities, it suffices to obser)e, that "hat re4
appears in the fresh )igour, is not the bread?s price, but its bloodforming substances8 Bhat, on the other hand, re4
appears in the )alue of that )igour, is not the means of subsistence, but their )alue8 'he same necessaries of life, at
half the price, "ould form Dust as much muscle and bone, Dust as much )igour, but not )igour of the same )alue8 'his
confusion of @)alueA and @)igourA coupled "ith our author?s pharisaical indefiniteness, mar+ an attempt, futile for all
that, to thrash out an e9planation of surplus )alue from a mere re4appearance of pre4e9isting )alues8
8
@'outes les productions d?un mdme v genre ne forment proprement Iu?une masse, dont le pri9 se dRtermine en
gRnRral et sans Rgard au9 circonstances particulinres8A (<e 'rosne, 18 c8, p8 82:8! G@#roperl* spea+ing, all products of
the same +ind form a single mass, and their price is determined in general and "ithout regard to particular
circumstances8AH
1
@>f "e rec+on the )alue of the fi9ed capital emplo*ed as a part of the ad)ances, "e must rec+on the remaining )alue
of such capital at the end of the *ear as a part of the annual returns8A ($althus, @#rinc8 of #ol8 Econ8A 6nd8 ed8, <ond8,
18:6, p8 6628!
6
Bhat <ucretius sa*s is self4e)ident; @nil posse creari de nihilo,A out of nothing, nothing can be created8 5reation of
)alue is transformation of labour4po"er into labour8 <abour4po"er itself is energ* transferred to a human organism b*
means of nourishing matter8
:
>n the same "a* that the English use the terms @rate of profit,A @rate of interest8A Be shall see, in /oo+ >>>, that the
rate of profit is no m*ster*, so soon as "e +no" the la"s of surplus )alue8 >f "e re)erse the process, "e cannot
comprehend either the one or the other8
Hote added in the 7rd =erman edition$ v 'he author resorts here to the economic language in current use8 >t "ill be
remembered that on p8 186 (present edition, p8 17! it "as sho"n that in realit* the labourer @ad)ancesA to the
capitalist and not the capitalist to the labourer8 v !$ E$
3
>n this "or+, "e ha)e, up to no", emplo*ed the term @necessar* labour4time,A to designate the time necessar* under
gi)en social conditions for the production of an* commodit*8 -encefor"ard "e use it to designate also the time
necessar* for the production of the particular commodit* labour4po"er8 'he use of one and the same technical term in
different senses is incon)enient, but in no science can it be altogether a)oided8 5ompare, for instance, the higher "ith
the lo"er branches of mathematics8
6
-err Bilhelm 'huc*dides &oscher has found a mare?s nest8 -e has made the important disco)er* that if, on the one
hand, the formation of surplus )alue, or surplus4produce, and the conseIuent accumulation of capital, is no"4a4da*s
due to the thrift of the capitalist, on the other hand, in the lo"est stages of ci)ilisation it is the strong "ho compel the
"ea+ to economise8 (l8c8, p8 788! 'o economise "hatE <abourE =r superfluous "ealth that does not e9istE Bhat is it
that ma+es such men as &oscher account for the origin of surplus )alue, b* a mere rechauffR of the more of less
plausible e9cuses b* the capitalist, for his appropriation of surplus )alueE >t is, besides their real ignorance, their
apologetic dread of a scientific anal*sis of )alue and surplus )alue, and of obtaining a result, possibl* not altogether
palatable to the po"ers that be8
7
(lthough the rate of surplus )alue is an e9act e9pression for the degree of e9ploitation of labour4po"er, it is, in no
sense, an e9pression for the absolute amount of e9ploitation8 For e9ample, if the necessar* labour 3 hours and the
surplus labour Y 3 hours, the degree of e9ploitation is 177`8 'he amount of e9ploitation is here measured b* 3 hours8
>f, on the other hand, the necessar* labour Y 6 hours and the surplus labour Y 6 hours, the degree of e9ploitation
remains, as before, 177`, "hile the actual amount of e9ploitation has increased 67`, namel* from fi)e hours to si98
8
'he abo)e data, "hich ma* be relied upon, "ere gi)en me b* a $anchester spinner8 >n England the horse4po"er of
an engine "as formerl* calculated from the diameter of its c*linder, no" the actual horse4po"er sho"n b* the
indicator is ta+en8
2
'he calculations gi)en in the te9t are intended merel* as illustrations8 Be ha)e in fact8 assumed that prices Y )alues8
Be shall, ho"e)er, see, in /oo+ >ll8, that e)en in the case of a)erage prices the assumption cannot be made in this )er*
simple manner8
17
Senior, l8c8, pp8 16, 1:8 Be let pass such e9traordinar* notions as are of no importance for our purpose; for instance,
the assertion, that manufacturers rec+on as part of their profit, gross or net, the amount reIuired to ma+e good "ear
and tear of machiner*, or in other "ords, to replace a part of the capital8 So, too, "e pass o)er an* Iuestion as to the
accurac* of his figures8 <eonard -orner has sho"n in @( <etter to $r8 Senior,A Pc8, <ondon, 18:7, that the* are
"orth no more than so4called @(nal*sis8A <eonard -orner "as one of the Factor* >nIuir* 5ommissioners in 18::,
and >nspector, or rather 5ensor of Factories till 18328 -e rendered und*ing ser)ice to the English "or+ing4class8 -e
carried on a life4long contest, not onl* "ith the embittered manufacturers, but also "ith the 5abinet, to "hom the
number of )otes gi)en b* the masters in the <o"er -ouse, "as a matter of far greater importance than the number of
hours "or+ed b* the @handsA in the mills8
(part from efforts in principle, Senior?s statement is confused8 Bhat he reall* intended to sa* "as this: 'he
manufacturer emplo*s the "or+man for 11[ hours or for 6: half4hours dail*8 (s the "or+ing da*, so, too, the "or+ing
*ear, ma* be concei)ed to consist of 11[ hours or 6: half4hours, but each multiplied b* the number of "or+ing da*s
in the *ear8 =n this supposition, the 6: half4hours *ield an annual product of ]113,777; one half4hour *ields 1J6: h
]113,777; 67 half4hours *ield 67J6: h ]113,777 Y ]177,777, i8e8, the* replace no more than the capital ad)anced8
'here remain : half4hours, "hich *ield 1J6: h ]113,777 Y ]3,777 or the gross profit8 =f these : half4hours, one *ields
1J6: h ]113,777 Y ]3,777; i8e8, it ma+es up for the "ear and tear of the machiner*; the remaining 6 half4hours, i8e8, the
last hour, *ield 6J6: h ]113,777 Y ]17,777 or the net profit8 >n the te9t Senior con)erts the last 6J6: of the product into
portions of the "or+ing da* itself8
11
>f, on the one hand, Senior pro)ed that the net profit of the manufacturer, the e9istence of he English cotton
industr*, and England?s command of the mar+ets of the "orld, depend on @the last "or+ing4hour,A on the other hand,
0r8 (ndre" %re sho"ed, that if children and *oung persons under 18 *ears of age, instead of being +ept the full 16
hours in the "arm and pure moral atmosphere of the factor*, are turned out an hour sooner into the heartless and
fri)olous outer "orld, the* "ill be depri)ed, b* idleness and )ice, of all hope of sal)ation for their souls8 Since 188,
the factor* inspectors ha)e ne)er tired of t"itting the masters "ith this @last,A this @fatal hour8A 'hus $r8 -o)ell in his
report of the 61st $a*, 1833: @-ad the follo"ing ingenious calculation (he Iuotes Senior! been correct, e)er* cotton
factor* in the %nited .ingdom "ould ha)e been "or+ing at a loss since the *ear 18378A (&eports of the >nsp8 of Fact8,
for the half4*ear, ending :7th (pril, 1833, pp8 12, 678! >n the *ear 188, after the passing of the 17 hours? bill, the
masters of some fla9 spinning mills, scattered, fe" and far bet"een, o)er the countr* on the borders of 0orset and
Somerset, foisted a petition against the bill on to the shoulders of a fe" of their "or+4people8 =ne of the clauses of
this petition is as follo"s: @Nour petitioners, as parents, concei)e that an additional hour of leisure "ill tend more to
demoralise the children than other"ise, belie)ing that idleness is the parent of )ice8A =n this the factor* report of :1st
=ct8, 188, sa*s: 'he atmosphere of the fla9 mills, in "hich the children of these )irtuous and tender parents "or+, is
so loaded "ith dust and fibre from the ra" material, that it is e9ceptionall* unpleasant to stand e)en 17 minutes in the
spinning rooms: for *ou are unable to do so "ithout the most painful sensation, o"ing to the e*es, the ears, the
nostrils, and mouth, being immediatel* filled b* the clouds of fla9 dust from "hich there is no escape8 'he labour
itself, o"ing to the fe)erish haste of the machiner*, demands unceasing application of s+ill and mo)ement, under the
control of a "atchfulness that ne)er tires, and it seems some"hat hard, to let parents appl* the term @idlingA to their
o"n children, "ho, after allo"ing for meal4times, are fettered for 17 "hole hours to such an occupation, in such an
atmosphere8888 'hese children "or+ longer than the labourers in the neighbouring )illages8888 Such cruel tal+ about
@idleness and )iceA ought to be branded as the purest cant, and the most shameless h*pocris*8888 'hat portion of the
public, "ho, about 16 *ears ago, "ere struc+ b* the assurance "ith "hich, under the sanction of high authorit*, it "as
publicl* and most earnestl* proclaimed, that the "hole net profit of the manufacturer flo"s from the labour of the last
hour, and that, therefore, the reduction of the "or+ing da* b* one hour, "ould destro* his net profit, that portion of the
public, "e sa*, "ill hardl* belie)e its o"n e*es, "hen it no" finds, that the original disco)er* of the )irtues of @the
last hourA has since been so far impro)ed, as to include morals as "ell as profit; so that, if the duration of the labour of
children, is reduced to a full 17 hours, their morals, together "ith the net profits of their emplo*ers, "ill )anish, both
being dependent on this last, this fatal hour8 (See &epts8, >nsp8 of Fact8, for :1st =ct8, 188, p8 1718! 'he same report
then gi)es some e9amples of the moralit* and )irtue of these same pure4minded manufacturers, of the tric+s, the
artifices, the caDoling, the threats, and the falsifications, the* made use of, in order, first, to compel a fe" defenceless
"or+men to sign petitions of such a +ind, and then to impose them upon #arliament as the petitions of a "hole branch
of industr*, or a "hole countr*8 >t is highl* characteristic of the present status of so4called economic science, that
neither Senior himself, "ho, at a later period, to his honour be it said, energeticall* supported the factor* legislation,
nor his opponents, from first to last, ha)e e)er been able to e9plain the false conclusions of the @original disco)er*8A
'he* appeal to actual e9perience, but the "h* and "herefore remains a m*ster*8
16
Ce)ertheless, the learned professor "as not "ithout some benefit from his Dourne* to $anchester8 >n the @<etters on
the Factor* (ct,A he ma+es the "hole net gains including @profitA and @interestsA and e)en @something more,A depend
upon a single unpaid hour?s "or+ of the labourer8 =ne *ear pre)iousl*, in his @=utlines of #olitical Econom*,A "ritten
for the instruction of =9ford students and culti)ated #hilistines, he had also @disco)ered, in opposition to &icardo?s
determination of )alue b* labour, that profit is deri)ed from the labour of the capitalist, and interest from his
asceticism, in other "ords, from his abstinence8A 'he dodge "as an old one, but the "ord @abstinenceA "as ne"8 -err
&oscher translates it rightl* b* @Enthaltung8A Some of his countr*men, the /ro"ns, Lones, and &obinsons, of
German*, not so "ell )ersed in <atin as he, ha)e, mon+4li+e, rendered it b* @EntsagungA (renunciation!8
1:
@'o an indi)idual "ith a capital of ]67,777, "hose profits "ere ]6,777 per annum, it "ould be a matter Iuite
indifferent "hether his capital "ould emplo* a 177 or 1,777 men, "hether the commodit* produced sold for ]17,777
or ]67,777, pro)ided, in all cases, his profit "ere not diminished belo" ]6,7778 >s not the real interest of the nation
similarE #ro)ided its net real income, its rent and profits, be the same, it is of no importance "hether the nation
consists of 17 or of 16 millions of inhabitants8A (&ic8 l8c8,8p8 168! <ong before &icardo, (rthur Noung, a fanatical
upholder of surplus4produce, for the rest, a rambling, uncritical "riter, "hose reputation is in the in)erse ratio of his
merit, sa*s, @=f "hat use, in a modem +ingdom, "ould be a "hole pro)ince thus di)ided Gin the old &oman manner,
b* small independent peasantsH, ho"e)er "ell culti)ated, e9cept for the mere purpose of breeding men, "hich ta+en
singl* is a most useless purposeEA ((rthur Noung: @#olitical (rithmetic, Pc8A <ondon, 177, p8 78!
;er* curious is @the strong inclination888 to represent net "ealth as beneficial to the labouring class888 though it is
e)identl* not on account of being net8A ('h 8 -op+ins, @=n &ent of <and, Pc8A <ondon, 1868, p8 1668!
1
@( da*?s labour is )ague, it ma* be long or short8A (@(n Essa* on 'rade and 5ommerce, 5ontaining =bser)ations on
'a9es, Pc8A <ondon8 1777, p8 7:8!
6
'his Iuestion is far more important than the celebrated Iuestion of Sir &obert #eel to the /irmingham 5hamber of
5ommerce: Bhat is a poundE ( Iuestion that could onl* ha)e been proposed, because #eel "as as much in the dar+ as
to the nature of mone* as the @little shilling menA of /irmingham8
:
@>t is the aim of the capitalist to obtain "ith his e9pended capital the greatest possible Iuantit* of labour (d?obtenir
du capital dRpense la plus forte somme de tra)ail possible!8A L8 G8 5ourcelle4Seneuil8 @'raitR thRoriIue et pratiIue des
entreprises industrielles8A 6nd ed8 #aris, 1837, p8 6:8
@(n hour?s labour lost in a da* is a prodigious inDur* to a commercial State8888 'here is a )er* great consumption of
lu9uries among the labouring poor of this +ingdom: particularl* among the manufacturing populace, b* "hich the*
also consume their time, the most fatal of consumptions8A @(n Essa* on 'rade and 5ommerce, Pc8,A p8 7, and 13
3
@Si le manou)rier libre prend un instant de repos, l?Rconomie sordide Iui le suit des *eu9 a)ec inIuiRtude, prRtend
Iu?il la )ole8A G>f the free labourer allo"s himself an instant of rest, the base and pett* management, "hich follo"s
him "ith "ar* e*es, claims he is stealing from it8H C8 <inguet, @'hRorie des <ois 5i)iles8 Pc8A <ondon, 1767, t8 >>8, p8
668
6
0uring the great stri+e of the <ondon builders, 1867461, for the reduction of the "or+ing da* to 2 hours, their
5ommittee published a manifesto that contained, to some e9tent, the plea of our "or+er8 'he manifesto alludes, not
"ithout iron*, to the fact, that the greatest profit4monger amongst the building masters, a certain Sir $8 #eto, "as in
the odour of sanctit* ('his same #eto, after 1867, came to an end a la Strousberg8!
7
@'hose "ho labour 888 in realit* feed both the pensioners 888 Gcalled the richH and themsel)es8A (Edmund /ur+e, l8c8, p8
68!
8
Ciebuhr in his @&oman -istor*A sa*s )er* nai)el*: @>t is e)ident that "or+s li+e the Etruscan, "hich in their ruins
astound us, pre4suppose in little (Q! states lords and )assals8A Sismondi sa*s far more to the purpose that @/russels
laceA pre4supposes "age4lords and "age4sla)es8
2
@=ne cannot see these unfortunates (in the gold mines bet"een Eg*pt, Ethiopia, and (rabia! "ho cannot e)en ha)e
their bodies clean, or their na+edness clothed, "ithout pit*ing their miserable lot8 'here is no indulgence, no
forbearance for the sic+, the feeble, the aged, for "oman?s "ea+ness8 (ll must, forced b* blo"s, "or+ on until death
puts an end to their sufferings and their distress8A (@0iod8 Sic8 /ibl8 -ist8,A lib8 6, c8 1:8!
17
'hat "hich follo"s refers to the situation in the &umanian pro)inces before the change effected since the 5rimean
"ar8
11
'his holds li+e"ise for German*, and especiall* for #russia east of the Elbe8 >n the 13th centur* the German peasant
"as nearl* e)er*"here a man, "ho, "hilst subDect to certain rents paid in produce and labour "as other"ise at least
practicall* free8 'he German colonists in /randenburg, #omerania, Silesia, and Eastern #russia, "ere e)en legall*
ac+no"ledged as free men8 'he )ictor* of the nobilit* in the peasants? "ar put an end to that8 Cot onl* "ere the
conIuered South German peasants again ensla)ed8 From the middle of the 16th centur* the peasants of Eastern
#russia, /randenburg, #omerania, and Silesia, and soon after the free peasants of Schles"ig4-olstein "ere degraded
to the condition of serfs8 ($aurer, Fronhufe i)8 )ol8, v $eit1en, @0er /oden des preussischen StaatsA v -anssen,
@<eibeigenschaft in Schles"ig4-olstein8A v !$ E$5
16
Further details are to be found in E8 &egnault?s @-istoire politiIue et sociale des #rincipautRs 0anubiennes,A #aris,
18338
1:
@>n general and "ithin certain limits, e9ceeding the medium si1e of their +ind, is e)idence of the prosperit* of
organic beings8 (s to man, his bodil* height lessens if his due gro"th is interfered "ith, either b* ph*sical or local
conditions8 >n all European countries in "hich the conscription holds, since its introduction, the medium height of
adult men, and generall* their fitness for militar* ser)ice, has diminished8 /efore the re)olution (1782!, the minimum
for the infantr* in France "as 163 centimetres; in 1818 (la" of $arch 17th!, 137; b* the la" of $arch 61, 18:6, 136
cm8; on the a)erage in France more than half are reDected on account of deficient height or bodil* "ea+ness8 'he
militar* standard in Sa9on* "as in 1787, 178 cm8 >t is no" 1338 >n #russia it is 1378 (ccording to the statement of 0r8
$e*er in the /a)arian Ga1ette, $a* 2th, 1866, the result of an a)erage of 2 *ears is, that in #russia out of 1,777
conscripts 716 "ere unfit for militar* ser)ice, :17 because of deficienc* in height, and :22 because of bodil*
defects8888 /erlin in 1838 could not pro)ide its contingent of recruits, it "as 136 men short8A L8 )on <iebig: @0ie
5hemie in ihrer (n"endung auf (gri+ultur und #h*siologie8 1866,A 7th Ed8, )ol8 1, pp8 117, 1188
1
'he histor* of the Factor* (ct of 1837 "ill be found in the course of this chapter8
13
> onl* touch here and there on the period from the beginning of modern industr* in England to 1838 For this period
> refer the reader to @0ie <age der arbeitenden .lasse in England,A G5ondition of the Bor+ing 5lass in EnglandH )on
Friedrich Engels, <eip1ig, 1838 -o" completel* Engels understood the nature of the capitalist mode of production is
sho"n b* the Factor* &eports, &eports on $ines, Pc8, that ha)e appeared since 183, and ho" "onderfull* he
painted the circumstances in detail is seen on the most superficial comparison of his "or+ "ith the official reports of
the 5hildren?s Emplo*ment 5ommission, published 18 to 67 *ears later (186:41867!8 'hese deal especiall* "ith the
branches of industr* in "hich the Factor* (cts had not, up to 1866, been introduced, in fact are not *et introduced8
-ere, then, little or no alteration had been enforced, b* authorit*, in the conditions painted b* Engels8 > borro" m*
e9amples chiefl* from the Free4trade period after 188, that age of paradise, of "hich the commercial tra)ellers for
the great firm of Free4trade, blatant as ignorant, tell such fabulous tales8 For the rest England figures here in the
foreground because she is the classic representati)e of capitalist production, and she alone has a continuous set of
official statistics of the things "e are considering8
16
@Suggestions, Pc8 b* $r8 <8 -orner, >nspector of Factories,A in Factories &egulation (cts8 =rdered b* the -ouse of
5ommons to be printed, 2th (ugust, 1832, pp8 , 38
17
&eports of the >nspector of Factories for the half *ear8 =ctober, 1836, p8 :38
18
&eports, Pc8, :7th (pril, 1838, p8 28
12
&eports, Pc8, l8c8, p8 178
67
&eports Pc8, l8c8, p8 638
61
&eports Pc8, for the half *ear ending :7th (pril, 18618 See (ppendi9 Co8 6; &eports, Pc8, :1st =ctober, 1866, pp8 7,
36, 3:8 'he )iolations of the (cts became more numerous during the last half *ear 186:8 5f &eports, Pc8, ending :1st
=ctober, 186:, p8 78
66
&eports, Pc8, =ctober :1st, 1867, p8 6:8 Bith "hat fanaticism, according to the e)idence of manufacturers gi)en in
courts of la", their hands set themsel)es against e)er* interruption in factor* labour, the follo"ing curious
circumstance sho"s8 >n the beginning of Lune, 18:6, information reached the magistrates of 0e"sbur* (Nor+shire!
that the o"ners of 8 large mills in the neighbourhood of /atle* had )iolated the Factor* (cts8 Some of these
gentlemen "ere accused of ha)ing +ept at "or+ 3 bo*s bet"een 16 and 13 *ears of age, from 6 a8m8 on Frida* to
p8m8 on the follo"ing Saturda*, not allo"ing them an* respite e9cept for meals and one hour for sleep at midnight8
(nd these children had to do this ceaseless labour of :7 hours in the @shodd*hole,A as the hole is called, in "hich the
"oollen rags are pulled in pieces, and "here a dense atmosphere of dust, shreds, Pc8, forces e)en the adult "or+man
to co)er his mouth continuall* "ith hand+erchiefs for the protection of his lungsQ 'he accused gentlemen affirm in
lieu of ta+ing an oath v as Iua+ers the* "ere too scrupulousl* religious to ta+e an oath v that the* had, in their great
compassion for the unhapp* children, allo"ed them four hours for sleep, but the obstinate children absolutel* "ould
not go to bed8 'he Iua+er gentlemen "ere mulcted in ]678 0r*den anticipated these gentr*:
Fo9 full fraught in seeming sanctit*,
'hat feared an oath, but li+e the de)il "ould lie,
'hat loo+?d li+e <ent, and had the hol* leer,
(nd durst not sinQ before he said his pra*erQA
6:
&ep8, :1st =ct8, 1836, p8 :8
6
l8c8, p8 :38
63
l8c8, p8 88
66
l8c8, p8 88
67
l8c8, p8 88
68
l8c8, p8 88
62
&eport of the >nsp8 Pc8, :7th (pril 1867, p8 368
:7
'his is the official e9pression both in the factories and in the reports8
:1
@'he cupidit* of mill4o"ners "hose cruelties in the pursuit of gain ha)e hardl* been e9ceeded b* those perpetrated
b* the Spaniards on the conIuest of (merica in the pursuit of gold8A Lohn Bade, @-istor* of the $iddle and Bor+ing
5lasses,A :rd Ed8 <ondon, 18:3, p8 118 'he theoretical part of this boo+, a +ind of hand4boo+ of #olitical Econom*,
is, considering the time of its publication, original in some parts, e$$+ on commercial crises8 'he historical part is, to a
great e9tent, a shameless plagiarism of Sir F8 $8 Eden?s @'he State of the #oor,A <ondon, 17278
:6
Daily /eleraph+ 4Kth Lanuar*, 18678
::
5f8 F8 Engels @<age, etc8A pp8 624318
:
5hildren?s Emplo*ment 5ommission8 First report8, etc8, 186:8 E)idence8 pp8 16, 12, 188
:3
#ublic -ealth, :rd report, etc8, pp8 176, 17, 1738
:6
5hild8 Empl8 5omm8 >8 &eport, p8 68
:7
5hildren?s Emplo*ment 5ommission, p8 66, and 9i8
:8
l8c8, p8 9l)iii8
:2
l8c8, p8 li)8
7
'his is not to be ta+en in the same sense as our surplus labour time8 'hese gentlemen consider 17[ hours of labour
as the normal "or+ing da*, "hich includes of course the normal surplus labour8 (fter this begins @o)ertimeA "hich is
paid a little better8 >t "ill be seen later that the labour e9pended during the so4called normal da* is paid belo" its
)alue, so that the o)ertime is simpl* a capitalist tric+ in order to e9tort more surplus labour, "hich it "ould still be,
e)en if the labour4po"er e9pended during the normal "or+ing da* "ere properl* paid8
1
l8c8, E)idence, pp8 16:, 16, 163, 17, and 38
6
(lum finel* po"dered, or mi9ed "ith salt, is a normal article of commerce bearing the significant name of @ba+ers?
stuff8A
:
Soot is a "ell4+no"n and )er* energetic form of carbon, and forms a manure that capitalistic chimne*4s"eeps sell
to English farmers8 Co" in 1866 the /ritish Dur*man had in a la"4suit to decide "hether soot, "ith "hich, un+no"n
to the bu*er, 27` of dust and sand are mi9ed, is genuine soot in the commercial sense or adulterated soot in the legal
sense8 'he @amis du commerceA Gfriends of commerceH decided it to be genuine commercial soot, and non4suited the
plaintiff farmer, "ho had in addition to pa* the costs of the suit8
'he French chemist, 5he)allier, in his treatise on the @sophisticationsA of commodities, enumerates for man* of the
677 or more articles "hich he passes in re)ie", 17, 67, :7 different methods of adulteration8 -e adds that he does not
+no" all the methods and does not mention all that he +no"s8 -e gi)es 6 +inds of adulteration of sugar, 2 of oli)e oil,
17 of butter, 16 of salt, 12 of mil+, 67 of bread, 6: of brand*, 6 of meal, 68 of chocolate, :7 of "ine, :6 of coffee,
etc8 E)en God (lmight* does not escape this fate8 See &ouard de 5ard, @=n the Falsifications of the materials of the
Sacrament8A (@0e la falsification des substances sacramentelles,A #aris, 18368!
3
@&eport, Pc8, relati)e to the grie)ances complained of b* the Dourne*men ba+ers, Pc8, <ondon, 1866,A and @Second
&eport, Pc8, <ondon, 186:8A
6
l8c8, First &eport, Pc8, p8 )i8
7
l8c8, p8 >99i8
8
George &ead, @'he -istor* of /a+ing,A <ondon, 188, p8 168
2
&eport (First! Pc8 E)idence of the @full4pricedA ba+er 5heeseman, p8 1788
37
George &ead, l8c8 (t the end of the 17th and the beginning of the 18th centuries the factors (agents! that cro"ded
into e)er* possible trade "ere still denounced as @public nuisances8A 'hus the Grand Lur* at the Iuarter session of the
Lustices of the #eace for the 5ount* of Somerset, addressed a presentment to the <o"er -ouse "hich, among other
things, states, @that these factors of /lac+"ell -all are a #ublic Cuisance and #reDudice to the 5lothing 'rade, and
ought to be put do"n as a Cuisance8A @'he 5ase of our English Bool8, Pc8,A <ondon, 1683, pp8 6, 78
31
First &eport, Pc8
36
&eport of 5ommittee on the /a+ing 'rade in >reland for 18618
3:
l8c8
3
#ublic meeting of agricultural labourers at <ass"ade, near Edinburgh, Lanuar* 3th, 18668 (See Aor"manCs Advocate,
Lanuar* 1:th, 18668! 'he formation since the close of 1863 of a 'rades? %nion among the agricultural labourers at first
in Scotland is a historic e)ent8 >n one of the most oppressed agricultural districts of England, /uc+inghamshire, the
labourers, in $arch, 1867, made a great stri+e for the raising of their "ee+l* "age from 2417 shillings to 16 shillings8
(>t "ill be seen from the preceding passage that the mo)ement of the English agricultural proletariat, entirel* crushed
since the suppression of its )iolent manifestations after 18:7, and especiall* since the introduction of the ne" #oor
<a"s, begins again in the si9ties, until it becomes finall* epoch4ma+ing in 18768 > return to this in the 6nd )olume, as
"ell as to the /lue boo+s that ha)e appeared since 1867 on the position of the English land labourers8 (ddendum to
the :rd ea8!
33
ReynoldsC He1spaper, Lanuar*, 18668 v E)er* "ee+ this same paper has, under the sensational headings, @Fearful
and fatal accidents,A @(ppalling tragedies,A Pc8, a "hole list of fresh rail"a* catastrophes8 =n these an emplo*ee on
the Corth Staffordshire line comments: @E)er*one +no"s the conseIuences that ma* occur if the dri)er and fireman
of a locomoti)e engine are not continuall* on the loo+4out8 -o" can that be e9pected from a man "ho has been at
such "or+ for 62 or :7 hours, e9posed to the "eather, and "ithout rest8 'he follo"ing is an e9ample "hich is of )er*
freIuent occurrence: v =ne fireman commenced "or+ on the $onda* morning at a )er* earl* hour8 Bhen he had
finished "hat is called a da*?s "or+, he had been on dut* 1 hours 37 minutes8 /efore he had time to get his tea, he
"as again called on for dut*8888 'he ne9t time he finished he had been on dut* 1 hours 63 minutes, ma+ing a total of
62 hours 13 minutes "ithout intermission8 'he rest of the "ee+?s "or+ "as made up as follo"s: v Bednesda*8 13
hours: 'hursda*, 13 hours :3 minutes; Frida*, 1[ hours; Saturda*, 1 hours 17 minutes, ma+ing a total for the "ee+
of 88 hours :7 minutes8 Co", sir, fanc* his astonishment on being paid 6 1J da*s for the "hole8 'hin+ing it "as a
mista+e, he applied to the time4+eeper,888 and inIuired "hat the* considered a da*?s "or+, and "as told 1: hours for a
goods man (i$e8, 78 hours!8888 -e then as+ed for "hat he had made o)er and abo)e the 78 hours per "ee+, but "as
refused8 -o"e)er, he "as at last told the* "ould gi)e him another Iuarter, i$e8, 17d8,A l8c8, th Februar*8 18668
36
5f F8 Engels, l8c8, pp8 63:, 638
37
0r8 <etheb*, 5onsulting #h*sician of the /oard of -ealth, declared: @'he minimum of air for each adult ought to be
in a sleeping room :77, and in a d"elling room 377 cubic feet8A 0r8 &ichardson, Senior #h*sician to one of the
<ondon -ospitals: @Bith needle"omen of all +inds, including milliners, dressma+ers, and ordinar* seamstresses,
there are three miseries v o)er4"or+, deficient air, and either deficient food or deficient digestion8888 Ceedle"or+, in
the main, 888 is infinitel* better adapted to "omen than to men8 /ut the mischiefs of the trade, in the metropolis
especiall*, are that it is monopolised b* some t"ent*4si9 capitalists, "ho, under the ad)antages that spring from
capital, can bring in capital to force econom* out of labour8 'his po"er tells throughout the "hole class8 >f a
dressma+er can get a little circle of customers, such is the competition that, in her home, she must "or+ to the death to
hold together, and this same o)er4"or+ she must of necessit* inflict on an* "ho ma* assist her8 >f she fail, or do not
tr* independentl*, she must Doin an establishment, "here her labour is not less, but "here her mone* is safe8 #laced
thus, she becomes a mere sla)e, tossed about "ith the )ariations of societ*8 Co" at home, in one room, star)ing, or
near to it, then engaged 13, 16, a*e, e)en 18 hours out of the 6, in an air that is scarcel* tolerable, and on food "hich,
e)en if it be good, cannot be digested in the absence of pure air8 =n these )ictims, consumption, "hich is purel* a
disease of bad air, feeds8A 0r8 &ichardson: @Bor+ and =)er4"or+,A in @Social Science &e)ie",A 18th Lul*, 186:8
38
Mornin ;tar, 6:rd Lune, 186:8 v /he /imes made use of the circumstance to defend the (merican sla)e4o"ners
against /right, Pc8 @;er* man* of us thin+,A sa*s a leader of Lul* 6nd, 186:, @that, "hile "e "or+ our o"n *oung
"omen to death, using the scourge of star)ation, instead of the crac+ of the "hip, as the instrument of compulsion, "e
ha)e scarcel* a right to hound on fire and slaughter against families "ho "ere born sla)e4o"ners, and "ho, at least,
feed their sla)es "ell, and "or+ them lightl*8A >n the same manner, the ;tandard+ a 'or* organ, fell foul of the &e)8
Ce"man -all: @-e e9communicated the sla)e4o"ners, but pra*s "ith the fine fol+ "ho, "ithout remorse, ma+e the
omnibus dri)ers and conductors of <ondon, Pc8, "or+ 16 hours a4da* for the "ages of a dog8A Finall*, spa+e the
oracle, 'homas 5arl*le, of "hom > "rote, in 1837, @,um 'eufel ist der Genius, der .ultus ist geblieben8A G@>n the cult
of genius 888 'he cult remains,A paraphrasing SchillerH >n a short parable, he reduces the one great e)ent of
contemporar* histor*, the (merican 5i)il Bar, to this le)el, that the #eter of the Corth "ants to brea+ the head of the
#aul of the South "ith all his might, because the #eter of the Corth hires his labour b* the da*, and the #aul of the
South hires his b* the life8 (MacmillanCs MaaFine$ >lias (mericana in nuce8 (ugust, 186:8! 'hus, the bubble of 'or*
s*mpath* for the urban "or+ers v b* no means for the rural v has burst at last8 'he sum of all is v sla)er*Q
32
0r8 &ichardson, l8c8
67
5hildren?s Emplo*ment 5ommission8 'hird &eport8 <ondon, 186, pp8 i)8, )8, )i8
61
@/oth in Staffordshire and in South Bales *oung girls and "omen are emplo*ed on the pit ban+s and on the co+e
heaps, not onl* b* da* but also b* night8 'his practice has been often noticed in &eports presented to #arliament, as
being attended "ith great and notorious e)ils8 'hese females emplo*ed "ith the men, hardl* distinguished from them
in their dress, and begrimed "ith dirt and smo+e, are e9posed to the deterioration of character, arising from the loss of
self4respect, "hich can hardl* fail to follo" from their unfeminine occupation8A (l8 c8, 12, p8 99)i8 5f8 Fourth &eport
(1863!, 61, p8 9iii8! >t is the same in glass4"or+s8
66
( steel manufacturer "ho emplo*s children in night4labour remar+ed: @>t seems but natural that bo*s "ho "or+ at
night cannot sleep and get proper rest b* da*, but "ill be running about8A (l8c8, Fourth &eport, 6:, p8 9iii8! =n the
importance of sunlight for the maintenance and gro"th of the bod*, a ph*sician "rites: @<ight also acts upon the
tissues of the bod* directl* in hardening them and supporting their elasticit*8 'he muscles of animals, "hen the* are
depri)ed of a proper amount of light, become soft and inelastic, the ner)ous po"er loses its tone from defecti)e
stimulation, and the elaboration of all gro"th seems to be per)erted8888 >n the case of children, constant access to
plent* of light during the da*, and to the direct ra*s of the sun for a part of it, is most essential to health8 <ight assists
in the elaboration of good plastic blood, and hardens the fibre after it has been laid do"n8 >t also acts as a stimulus
upon the organs of sight, and b* this means brings about more acti)it* in the )arious cerebral functions8A 0r8 B8
Strange, Senior #h*sician of the Borcester General -ospital, from "hose "or+ on @-ealthA (186! this passage is
ta+en, "rites in a letter to $r8 Bhite, one of the commissioners: @> ha)e had opportunities formerl*, "hen in
<ancashire, of obser)ing the effects of night"or+ upon children, and > ha)e no hesitation in sa*ing, contrar* to "hat
some emplo*ers "ere fond of asserting, those children "ho "ere subDected to it soon suffered in their health8A (l8c8,
688, p8 338! 'hat such a Iuestion should furnish the material of serious contro)ers*, sho"s plainl* ho" capitalist
production acts on the brain4functions of capitalists and their retainers8
6:
l8c8, 37, p8 9ii8
6
l8c88 Fourth &eport (1863!8 388 p8 9ii8
63
l8c8
66
l8c8, p8 9iii8 'he degree of culture of these @labour4po"ersA must naturall* be such as appears in the follo"ing
dialogues "ith one of the commissioners: Leremiah -a*nes, age 16 v @Four times four is 8; fours are 168 ( +ing is
him that has all the mone* and gold8 Be ha)e a +ing (told it is a Kueen!, the* call her the #rincess (le9andra8 'old
that she married the Kueen?s son8 'he Kueen?s son is the #rincess (le9andra8 ( #rincess is a man8A Billiam 'urner,
age 16 v @0on?t li)e in England8 'hin+ it is a countr*, but didn?t +no" before8A Lohn $orris, age 1 v @-a)e heard
sa* that God made the "orld, and that all the people "as dro"nded but one, heard sa* that one "as a little bird8A
Billiam Smith age 13 v @God made man, man made "oman8A Ed"ard 'a*lor, age 13 v @0o not +no" of <ondon8A
-enr* $atthe"man, age 17 v @-ad been to chapel, but missed a good man* times latel*8 =ne name that the*
preached about "as Lesus 5hrist, but > cannot sa* an* others, and > cannot tell an*thing about him8 -e "as not +illed,
but died li+e other people8 -e "as not the same as other people in some "a*s, because he "as religious in some "a*s
and others isn?t8A (l8c8, p8 9)8! @'he de)il is a good person8 > don?t +no" "here he li)es8A @5hrist "as a "ic+ed man8A
@'his girl spelt God as dog, and did not +no" the name of the Iueen8A (@5h8 Emplo*ment 5omm8 ;8 &eport, 1866A p8
33, n8 6788! 'he same s*stem obtains in the glass and paper "or+s as in the metallurgical, alread* cited8 >n the paper
factories, "here the paper is made b* machiner*, night4"or+ is the rule for all processes, e9cept rag4sorting8 >n some
cases night4"or+, b* rela*s, is carried on incessantl* through the "hole "ee+, usuall* from Sunda* night until
midnight of the follo"ing Saturda*8 'hose "ho are on da*4"or+ "or+ 3 da*s of 16, and 1 da* of 18 hours; those on
night4"or+ 3 nights of 16, and > of 6 hours in each "ee+8 >n other cases each set "or+s 6 hours consecuti)el* on
alternate da*s, one set "or+ing 6 hours on $onda*, and 18 on Saturda* to ma+e up the 6 hours8 >n other cases an
intermediate s*stem pre)ails, b* "hich all emplo*ed on the paper4ma+ing machiner* "or+ 13 or 16 hours e)er* da*
in the "ee+8 'his s*stem, sa*s 5ommissioner <ord, @seems to combine all the e)ils of both the 16 hours? and the 6
hours? rela*s8A 5hildren under 1:, *oung persons under 18, and "omen, "or+ under this night s*stem8 Sometimes
under the 16 hours? s*stem the* are obliged, on account of the non4appearance of those that ought to relie)e them, to
"or+ a double turn of 6 hours8 'he e)idence pro)es that bo*s and girls )er* often "or+ o)ertime, "hich, not
unfreIuentl*, e9tends to 6 or e)en :6 hours of uninterrupted toil8 >n the continuous and un)ar*ing process of gla1ing
are found girls of 16 "ho "or+ the "hole month 1 hours a da*, @"ithout an* regular relief or cessation be*ond 6 or,
at most, : brea+s of half an hour each for meals8A >n some mills, "here regular night4"or+ has been entirel* gi)en up,
o)er4"or+ goes on to a terrible e9tent, @and that often in the dirtiest, and in the hottest, and in the most monotonous of
the )arious processes8A (@5h8 Emplo*ment 5omm8 &eport >;8, 1863,A p8 999)iii, and 999i98!
67
Fourth &eport, Pc88 1863, 72, p8 9)i8
68
l8c8, 878 p8 9)i8
62
l8c8, 868 p8 9)ii8
77
>n our reflecting and reasoning age a man is not "orth much "ho cannot gi)e a good reason for e)er*thing, no
matter ho" bad or ho" cra1*8 E)er*thing in the "orld that has been done "rong has been done "rong for the )er*
best of reasons8 (-egel, l8c8, p8 62 !
71
l8c8, 83, p8 9)ii8 'o similar tender scruples of the glass manufacturers that regular meal4times for the children are
impossible because as a conseIuence a certain Iuantit* of heat, radiated b* the furnaces, "ould be @a pure lossA or
@"asted,A 5ommissioner Bhite ma+es ans"er8 -is ans"er is unli+e that of %re, Senior, Pc8, and their pun* German
plagiarists X la &oscher "ho are touched b* the @abstinence,A @self4denial,A @sa)ing,A of the capitalists in the
e9penditure of their gold, and b* their 'imur4'amerlanish prodigalit* of human lifeQ @( certain amount of heat
be*ond "hat is usual at present might also be going to "aste, if meal4times "ere secured in these cases, but it seems
li+el* not eIual in mone*4)alue to the "aste of animal po"er no" going on in glass4houses throughout the +ingdom
from gro"ing bo*s not ha)ing enough Iuiet time to eat their meals at ease, "ith a little rest after"ards for digestion8A
(l8c8, p8 9i)8! (nd this in the *ear of progress 1863Q Bithout considering the e9penditure of strength in lifting and
carr*ing, such a child, in the sheds "here bottle and flint glass are made, "al+s during the performance of his "or+
13467 miles in e)er* 6 hoursQ (nd the "or+ often lasts 1 or 13 hoursQ >n man* of these glass "or+s, as in the
$osco" spinning mills, the s*stem of 6 hours? rela*s is in force8 @0uring the "or+ing part of the "ee+ si9 hours is the
utmost unbro+en period e)er attained at an* one time for rest, and out of this has to come the time spent in coming
and going to and from "or+, "ashing, dressing, and meals, lea)ing a )er* short period indeed for rest, and none for
fresh air and pla*, unless at the e9pense of the sleep necessar* for *oung bo*s, especiall* at such hot and fatiguing
"or+8888 E)en the short sleep is ob)iousl* liable to be bro+en b* a bo* ha)ing to "a+e himself if it is night, or b* the
noise, if it is da*8A $r8 Bhite gi)es cases "here a bo* "or+ed :6 consecuti)e hours; others "here bo*s of 16 drudged
on until 6 in the morning, and then slept in the "or+s till 3 a8m8 (: hoursQ! onl* to resume their "or+8 @'he amount of
"or+,A sa* 'remenheere and 'ufnell, "ho drafted the general report, @done b* bo*s, *ouths, girls, and "omen, in the
course of their dail* or nightl* spell of labour, is certainl* e9traordinar*8A (l8c8, 9liii8 and 9li)8! $ean"hile, late b*
night, self4den*ing $r8 Glass45apital, primed "ith port4"ine, reels out of his club home"ard droning out idioticall*8
@/ritons ne)er, ne)er shall be sla)esQA
76
>n England e)en no" occasionall* in rural districts a labourer is condemned to imprisonment for desecrating the
Sabbath, b* "or+ing in his front garden8 'he same labourer is punished for breach of contract if he remains a"a*
from his metal, paper, or glass "or+s on the Sunda*, e)en if it be from a religious "him8 'he orthodo9 #arliament "ill
hear nothing of Sabbath4brea+ing if it occurs in the process of e9panding capital8 ( memorial ((ugust 186:!, in "hich
the <ondon da*4labourers in fish and poultr* shops as+ed for the abolition of Sunda* labour, states that their "or+
lasts for the first 6 da*s of the "ee+ on an a)erage 13 hours a4da*, and on Sunda* 8417 hours8 From this same
memorial "e learn also that the delicate gourmands among the aristocratic h*pocrite of E9eter -all, especiall*
encourage this @Sunda* labour8A 'hese @hol* ones,A so 1ealous in cute curanda Gin attending to their bodil*
pleasuresH, sho" their 5hristianit* b* the humilit* "ith "hich the* bear the o)er"or+, the pri)ations, and the hunger
of others8 -bse&uium ventris istis (the labourers5 perniciosius est GGlutton* is more ruinous to their stomachs F
paraphrase of -oraceH8
7:
@Be ha)e gi)en in our pre)ious reports the statements of se)eral e9perienced manufacturers to the effect that o)er4
hours 888 certainl* tend prematurel* to e9haust the "or+ing po"er of the men8A (l8c8, 68 p8 9iii8!
7
5airnes, @'he Sla)e #o"er,A pp8 1178 1118
73
Lohn Bard: @'he /orough of Sto+e4upon4'rent,A <ondon, 18:, p8 68
76
Ferrand?s Speech in the -ouse of 5ommons, 67th (pril, 186:8
77
'hose "ere the )er* "ords used b* the cotton manufacturers8A l8c8
78
l8c8 $r8 ;illiers, despite the best of intentions on his part, "as @legall*A obliged to refuse the reIuests of the
manufacturers8 'hese gentlemen, ho"e)er, attained their end through the obliging nature of the local poor la" boards8
$r8 (8 &edgra)e, >nspector of Factories, asserts that this time the s*stem under "hich orphans and pauper children
"ere treated @legall*A as apprentices @"as not accompanied "ith the old abusesA (on these @abusesA see Engels, l8c8!,
although in one case there certainl* "as @abuse of this s*stem in respect to a number of girls and *oung "omen
brought from the agricultural districts of Scotland into <ancashire and 5heshire8A %nder this s*stem the manufacturer
entered into a contract "ith the "or+house authorities for a certain period8 -e fed, clothed and lodged the children,
and ga)e them a small allo"ance of mone*8 ( remar+ of $r8 &edgra)e to be Iuoted directl* seems strange, especiall*
if "e consider that e)en among the *ears of prosperit* of the English cotton trade, the *ear 1867 stands unparalleled,
and that, besides, "ages "ere e9ceptionall* high8 For this e9traordinar* demand for "or+ had to contend "ith the
depopulation of >reland, "ith une9ampled emigration from the English and Scotch agricultural districts to (ustralia
and (merica, "ith an actual diminution of the population in some of the English agricultural districts, in conseIuence
partl* of an actual brea+do"n of the )ital force of the labourers, partl* of the alread* effected dispersion of the
disposable population through the dealers in human flesh8 0espite all this $r8 &edgra)e sa*s: @'his +ind of labour,
ho"e)er, "ould onl* be sought after "hen none other could be procured, for it is a high4priced labour8 'he ordinar*
"ages of a bo* of 1: "ould be about s8 per "ee+, but to lodge, to clothe, to feed, and to pro)ide medical attendance
and proper superintendence for 37 or 177 of these bo*s, and to set aside some remuneration for them, could not be
accomplished for s8 a4head per "ee+8A (&eport of the >nspector of Factories for :7th (pril, 1867, p8 678! $r8
&edgra)e forgets to tell us ho" the labourer himself can do all this for his children out of their s8 a4"ee+ "ages,
"hen the manufacturer cannot do it for the 37 or 177 children lodged, boarded, superintended all together8 'o guard
against false conclusions from the te9t, > ought here to remar+ that the English cotton industr*, since it "as placed
under the Factor* (ct of 1837 "ith its regulations of labour4time, Pc8, must be regarded as the model industr* of
England8 'he English cotton operati)e is in e)er* respect better off than his 5ontinental companion in miser*8 @'he
#russian factor* operati)e labours at least ten hours per "ee+ more than his English competitor, and if emplo*ed at his
o"n loom in his o"n house, his labour is not restricted to e)en those additional hours8 (@&ep8 of >nsp8 of Fact8,A :1st
=ctober, 1833, p8 17:8! &edgra)e, the Factor* >nspector mentioned abo)e, after the >ndustrial E9hibition in 1831,
tra)elled on the 5ontinent, especiall* in France and German*, for the purpose of inIuiring into the conditions of the
factories8 =f the #russian operati)e he sa*s: @-e recei)es a remuneration sufficient to procure the simple fare, and to
suppl* the slender comforts to "hich he has been accustomed 888 he li)es upon his coarse fare, and "or+s hard,
"herein his position is subordinate to that of the English operati)e8A (@&ep8 of >nsp8 of Fact8A :1st =ct8, 1833, p8 838!
72
'he o)er4"or+ed @die off "ith strange rapidit*; but the places of those "ho perish are instantl* filled, and a freIuent
change of persons ma+es no alteration in the scene8A (@England and (merica8A <ondon, 18::, )ol8 >, p8 338 /* E8 G8
Ba+efield8!
87
See @#ublic -ealth8 Si9th &eport of the $edical =fficer of the #ri)* 5ouncil, 186:8A #ublished in <ondon 1868
'his report deals especiall* "ith the agricultural labourers8 @Sutherland 888 is commonl* represented as a highl*
impro)ed count* 888 but 888 recent inIuir* has disco)ered that e)en there, in districts once famous for fine men and
gallant soldiers, the inhabitants ha)e degenerated into a meagre and stunted race8 >n the healthiest situations, on hill
sides fronting the sea, the faces of their famished children are as pale as the* could be in the foul atmosphere of a
<ondon alle*8A (B8 'h8 'hornton8 @=)erpopulation and its &emed*8A l8c8, pp8 7, 738! 'he* resemble in fact the :7,777
@gallant -ighlandersA "hom Glasgo" pigs together in its "*nds and closes, "ith prostitutes and thie)es8
81
@/ut though the health of a population is so important a fact of the national capital, "e are afraid it must be said that
the class of emplo*ers of labour ha)e not been the most for"ard to guard and cherish this treasure8888 'he
consideration of the health of the operati)es "as forced upon the mill4o"ners8A (/imes, Co)ember 3th, 18618! @'he
men of the Best &iding became the clothiers of man+ind 888 the health of the "or+people "as sacrificed, and the race
in a fe" generations must ha)e degenerated8 /ut a reaction set in8 <ord Shaftesbur*?s /ill limited the hours of
children?s labour,A Pc8 (@&eport of the &egistrar4General,A for =ctober 18618!
86
Be, therefore, find, e8g8, that in the beginning of 186:, 66 firms o"ning e9tensi)e potteries in Staffordshire,
amongst others, Losiah Bedg"ood, P Sons, petition in a memorial for @some legislati)e enactment8A 5ompetition
"ith other capitalists permits them no )oluntar* limitation of "or+ing4time for children, Pc8 @$uch as "e deplore the
e)ils before mentioned, it "ould not be possible to pre)ent them b* an* scheme of agreement bet"een the
manufacturers8 888 'a+ing all these points into consideration, "e ha)e come to the con)iction that some legislati)e
enactment is "anted8A (@5hildren?s Emplo*ment 5omm8A &ep8 >, 186:, p8 :668! $ost recentl* a much more stri+ing
e9ample offers8 'he rise in the price of cotton during a period of fe)erish acti)it*, had induced the manufacturers in
/lac+burn to shorten, b* mutual consent, the "or+ing4time in their mills during a certain fi9ed period8 'his period
terminated about the end of Co)ember, 18718 $ean"hile, the "ealthier manufacturers, "ho combined spinning "ith
"ea)ing, used the diminution of production resulting from this agreement, to e9tend their o"n business and thus to
ma+e great profits at the e9pense of the small emplo*ers8 'he latter thereupon turned in their e9tremit* to the
operati)es, urged them earnestl* to agitate for the 2 hours? s*stem, and promised contributions in mone* to this end8
8:
'he labour Statutes, the li+e of "hich "ere enacted at the same time in France, the Cetherlands, and else"here,
"ere first formall* repealed in England in 181:, long after the changes in methods of production had rendered them
obsolete8
8
@Co child under 16 *ears of age shall be emplo*ed in an* manufacturing establishment more than 17 hours in one
da*8A General Statutes of $assachusetts, 6:, ch8 168 ('he )arious Statutes "ere passed bet"een 18:6 and 18388!
@<abour performed during a period of 17 hours on an* da* in all cotton, "oollen, sil+, paper, glass, and fla9 factories,
or in manufactories of iron and brass, shall be considered a legal da*?s labour8 (nd be it enacted, that hereafter no
minor engaged in an* factor* shall be holden or reIuired to "or+ more than 17 hours in an* da*,or 67 hours in an*
"ee+; and that hereafter no minor shall be admitted as a "or+er under the age of 17 *ears in an* factor* "ithin this
State8A State of Ce" Lerse*8 (n (ct to limit the hours of labour, Pc8, 1 and 68 (<a" of 18th $arch, 18318! @Co
minor "ho has attained the age of 16 *ears, and is under the age of 13 *ears, shall be emplo*ed in an* manufacturing
establishment more than 11 hours in an* one da*, nor before 3 o?cloc+ in the morning, nor after 78:7 in the e)ening8A
(@&e)ised Statutes of the State of &hode >sland,A Pc8, ch8 1:2, 6:, 1st Lul*, 18378!
83
@Sophisms of Free 'rade8A 7th Ed8 <ondon, 1837, p8 673, 2th Ed8, p8 63:8 'his same 'or*, moreo)er, admits that
@(cts of #arliament regulating "ages, but against the labourer and in fa)our of the master, lasted for the long period
of 6 *ears8 #opulation gre"8 'hese la"s "ere then found, and reall* became, unnecessar* and burdensome8A (l8c8, p8
6768!
86
>n reference to this statute, L8 Bade "ith truth remar+s: @From the statement abo)e (i8e8, "ith regard to the statute! it
appears that in 126 the diet "as considered eIui)alent to one4third of the income of an artificer and one4half the
income of a labourer, "hich indicates a greater degree of independence among the "or+ing4classes than pre)ails at
present; for the board, both of labourers and artificers, "ould no" be rec+oned at a much higher proportion of their
"ages8A (L8 Bade, @-istor* of the $iddle and Bor+ing 5lasses,A pp8 6, 63, and 3778! 'he opinion that this difference
is due to the difference in the price4relations bet"een food and clothing then and no" is refuted b* the most cursor*
glance at @5hronicon #reciosum, Pc8A /* /ishop Fleet"ood8 1st Ed8, <ondon, 1777; 6nd Ed8, <ondon, 1738
87
B8 #ett*8 @#olitical (natom* of >reland, ;erbum Sapienti,A 1676, Ed8 1621, p8 178
88
@( 0iscourse on the necessit* of encouraging $echanic+ >ndustr*,A <ondon, 1627, p8 1:8 $acaula*, "ho has
falsified English histor* in the interests of the Bhigs and the bourgeoisie, declares as follo"s: @'he practice of setting
children prematurel* to "or+ 888 pre)ailed in the 17th centur* to an e9tent "hich, "hen compared "ith the e9tent of
the manufacturing s*stem, seems almost incredible8 (t Cor"ich, the chief seat of the clothing trade, a little creature of
si9 *ears old "as thought fit for labour8 Se)eral "riters of that time, and among them some "ho "ere considered as
eminentl* bene)olent, mention "ith e9ultation the fact that in that single cit*, bo*s and girls of )er* tender age create
"ealth e9ceeding "hat "as necessar* for their o"n subsistence b* t"el)e thousand pounds a *ear8 'he more carefull*
"e e9amine the histor* of the past, the more reason shall "e find to dissent from those "ho imagine that our age has
been fruitful of ne" social e)ils8888 'hat "hich is ne" is the intelligence and the humanit* "hich remedies them8A
(@-istor* of England,A )ol8 18, p8 178! $acaula* might ha)e reported further that @e9tremel* "ell4disposedA amis du
commerce in the 17th centur*, narrate "ith @e9ultationA ho" in a poorhouse in -olland a child of four "as emplo*ed,
and that this e9ample of @vertu mise en prati&ueA Gapplied )irtueH passes muster in all the humanitarian "or+s, E la
$acaula*, to the time of (dam Smith8 >t is true that "ith the substitution of manufacture for handicrafts, traces of the
e9ploitation of children begin to appear8 'his e9ploitation e9isted al"a*s to a certain e9tent among peasants, and "as
the more de)eloped, the hea)ier the *o+e pressing on the husbandman8 'he tendenc* of capital is there unmista+abl*;
but the facts themsel)es are still as isolated as the phenomena of t"o4headed children8 -ence the* "ere noted @"ith
e9ultationA as especiall* "orth* of remar+ and as "onders b* the far4seeing @amis du commerce,A and recommended
as models for their o"n time and for posterit*8 'his same Scotch s*cophant and fine tal+er, $acaula*, sa*s: @Be hear
to4da* onl* of retrogression and see onl* progress8A Bhat e*es, and especiall* "hat earsQ
82
(mong the accusers of the "or+people, the most angr* is the anon*mous author Iuoted in the te9t of @(n Essa* on
'rade and 5ommerce, containing =bser)ations on 'a9es, Pc8,A <ondon, 17778 -e had alread* dealt "ith this subDect
in his earlier "or+: @5onsiderations on 'a9es8A <ondon, 17638 (nd the same side follo"s #olonius (rthur Noung, the
unutterable statistical prattler8 (mong the defenders of the "or+ing4classes the foremost are: Lacob ;anderlint, in:
@$one* (ns"ers all 'hings8A <ondon, 17:, the &e)8 Cathaniel Forster, 08 08, in @(n EnIuir* into the 5auses of the
#resent -igh #rice of #ro)isions,A <ondon, 1767; 0r8 #rice, and especiall* #ostleth"a*t, as "ell in the supplement to
his @%ni)ersal 0ictionar* of 'rade and 5ommerce,A as in his @Great /ritain?s 5ommercial >nterest e9plained and
impro)ed8A 6nd Edition, 17338 'he facts themsel)es are confirmed b* man* other "riters of the time, among others b*
Losiah 'uc+er8
27
#ostleth"a*t, l8c8, @First #reliminar* 0iscourse,A p8 18
21
@(n Essa*,A Pc8 -e himself relates on p8 26 "herein the @happinessA of the English agricultural labourer alread* in
1777 consisted8 @'heir po"ers are al"a*s upon the stretch, the* cannot li)e cheaper than the* do, nor "or+ harder8A
26
#rotestantism, b* changing almost all the traditional holida*s into "or+da*s, pla*s an important part in the genesis
of capital8
2:
@(n Essa*,A c8, pp8 13, 1, 26, 27, 33, 37, 628 v Lacob ;anderlint, as earl* as 17:, declared that the secret of the
out4cr* of the capitalists as to the la1iness of the "or+ing people "as simpl* that the* claimed for the same "ages 6
da*s? labour instead of 8
2
l8c8, p8 668
23
l8c8 @'he French,A he sa*s, @laugh at our enthusiastic ideas of libert*8A l8c8, p8 788
26
@'he* especiall* obDected to "or+ be*ond the 16 hours per da*, because the la" "hich fi9ed those hours, is the onl*
good "hich remains to them of the legislation of the &epublic8A (@&ep8 of >nsp8 of Fact8A, :1 st =ctober, 1836, p8 878!
'he French '"el)e -ours? /ill of September 3th, 1837, a bourgeois edition of the decree of the #ro)isional
Go)ernment of $arch 6nd, 188, holds in all "or+shops "ithout e9ceptions8 /efore this la" the "or+ing da* in
France "as "ithout definite limit8 >t lasted in the factories 1, 13, or more hours8 See @0es classes ou)rinres en
France, pendant l?annRe 1888 #ar $8 /lanIui8A $8 /lanIui the economist, not the &e)olutionist, had been entrusted
b* the Go)ernment "ith an inIuir* into the condition of the "or+ing4class8
27
/elgium is the model bourgeois state in regard to the regulation of the "or+ing da*8 <ord -o"ard of Belden,
English #lenipotentiar* at /russels, reports to the Foreign =ffice $a* 16th, 1866: @$8 &ogier, the minister, informed
me that children?s labour is limited neither b* a general la" nor b* an* local regulations; that the Go)ernment, during
the last three *ears, intended in e)er* session to propose a bill on the subDect, but al"a*s found an insuperable
obstacle in the Dealous opposition to an* legislation in contradiction "ith the principle of perfect freedom of labour8A
28
>t is certainl* much to be regretted that an* class of persons should toil 16 hours a da*, "hich, including the time for
their meals and for going to and returning from their "or+, amounts, in fact, to 1 of the 6 hours8888 Bithout entering
into the Iuestion of health, no one "ill hesitate, > thin+, to admit that, in a moral point of vie1, so entire an absorption
of the time of the "or+ing4classes, "ithout intermission, from the earl* age of 1:, and in trades not subDect to
restriction, much *ounger, must be e9tremel* preDudicial, and is an e)il greatl* to be deplored8888 For the sa+e,
therefore, of public morals8 of bringing up an orderl* population, and of gi)ing the great bod* of the people a
reasonable enDo*ment of life, it is much to be desired that in all trades some portion of e)er* "or+ing da* should be
reser)ed for rest and leisure8A (<eonard -orner in @&eports of >nsp8 of Fact8 for :1st 0ec8, 1818A!
22
See @Ludgment of $r8 L8 -8 =t"a*, /elfast8 -ilar* Sessions, 5ount* (ntrim, 18678A
177
>t is )er* characteristic of the regime of <ouis #hilippe, the bourgeois +ing, that the one Factor* (ct passed during
his reign, that of $arch 66nd, 181, "as ne)er put in force8 (nd this la" onl* dealt "ith child4labour8 >t fi9ed 8 hours
a da* for children bet"een 8 and 16, 16 hours for children bet"een 16 and 16, Pc8, "ith man* e9ceptions "hich allo"
night4"or+ e)en for children 8 *ears old8 'he super)ision and enforcement of this la" are, in a countr* "here e)er*
mouse is under police administration, left to the good4"ill of the amis du commerce8 =nl* since 183:, in one single
department v the 0epartement du Cord v has a paid go)ernment inspector been appointed8 Cot less characteristic of
the de)elopment of French societ*, generall*, is the fact, that <ouis #hilippe?s la" stood solitar* among the all4
embracing mass of French la"s, till the &e)olution of 1888
171
&eport of >nsp8 of Fact8A :7th (pril, 1867, p8 378
176
@&ept8 of >nsp8 of Fact8,A :1st =ctober, 182, p8 6
17:
@&ept8 of >nsp8 of Fact8,A :1st =ctober, 188, p8 288
17
<eonard -orner uses the e9pression @nefarious practicesA in his official reports8 (@&eport of >nsp8 of Fact8,A :1st
=ctober, 1832, p8 78!
173
@&ept8,A Pc8, :7th Sept8, 18, p8 138
176
'he (ct allo"s children to be emplo*ed for 17 hours if the* do not "or+ da* after da*, but onl* on alternate da*s8
>n the main, this clause remained inoperati)e8
177
@(s a reduction in their hours of "or+ "ould cause a larger number (of children! to be emplo*ed, it "as thought
that the additional suppl* of children from 8 to 2 *ears of age "ould meet the increased demandA (l8c8, p8 1: !8
178
&ep8 of >nsp8 of Fact8,A :1st =ct8, 188, p8 168
172
@> found that men "ho had been getting 17s8 a "ee+, had had 1s8 ta+en off for a reduction in the rate of 17 per cent,
and 1s8 6d8 off the remaining 2s8 for the reduction in time, together 6s8 6d88 and not"ithstanding this, man* of them
said the* "ould rather "or+ 17 hours8A l8c8
117
@W'hough > signed it Gthe petitionH, > said at the time > "as putting m* hand to a "rong thing8? W'hen "h* did *ou
put *our hand to itE? W/ecause > should ha)e been turned off if > had refused8? Bhence it "ould appear that this
petitioner felt himself Woppressed,? but not e9actl* b* the Factor* (ct8A l8c8, p8 1768
111
p8 17, l8c8 >n $r8 -orner?s district 17,677 adult male labourers "ere thus e9amined in 181 factories8 'heir e)idence
is to be found in the appendi9 to the Factor* &eports for the half4*ear ending =ctober 1888 'hese e9aminations
furnish )aluable material in other conne9ions also8
116
l8c8 See the e)idence collected b* <eonard -orner himself, Cos8 62, 77, 71, 76, 26, 2:, and that collected b* Sub4
lnspector (8, Cos8 31, 36, 38, 32, 66, 77, of the (ppendi98 =ne manufacturer, too, tells the plain truth8 See Co8 1, and
Co8 663, l8c8
11:
&eports, Pc8, for :1st =ctober, 188, pp8 1::, 1:8
11
&eports, Pc8, for :7th (pril, 188, p8 78
113
&eports, Pc8, for :1st =ctober, 188, p8 1:78
116
&eports, Pc8, l8c8, p8 168
117
&eports Pc8, for :1st =ctober, 1837, pp8 3, 68
118
'he nature of capital remains the same in its de)eloped as in its unde)eloped form8 >n the code "hich the influence
of the sla)e4o"ners, shortl* before the outbrea+ of the (merican 5i)il Bar, imposed on the territor* of Ce" $e9ico,
it is said that the labourer, in as much as the capitalist has bought his labour4po"er, @is his (the capitalist?s! mone*8A
'he same )ie" "as current among the &oman patricians8 'he mone* the* had ad)anced to the plebeian debtor had
been transformed )ia the means of subsistence into the flesh and blood of the debtor8 'his @flesh and bloodA "ere,
therefore, @their mone*8A -ence, the Sh*loc+4la" of the 'en 'ables8 <inguet?s h*pothesis that the patrician creditors
from time to time prepared, be*ond the 'iber, banIuets of debtors? flesh, ma* remain as undecided as that of 0aumer
on the 5hristian Eucharist8
112
&eports, Pc88 for :7th (pril, 188, p8 688
167
'hus, among others, #hilanthropist (sh"orth to <eonard -orner, in a disgusting Kua+er letter8 (&eports, Pc8, (pril,
182, p8 8!
161
l8c8, p8 178
166
&eports, Pc8, for :7th (pril, 182, pp8 61, 668 5f li+e e9amples ibid8, pp8 8 38
16:
/* >8 and >>8 Bill8 >;8, ch8 6, s8 17, +no"n as Sir Lohn Bobhouse?s Factor* (ct, it "as forbidden to an* o"ner of a
cotton4spinning or "ea)ing mill, or the father, son, or brother of such o"ner, to act as Lustice of the #eace in an*
inIuiries that concerned the Factor* (ct8
16
l8c8
163
&eports, Pc8, for :7th (pril, 182, p8 S8
166
&eports, Pc8, for :1st =ctober, 182, p8 68
167
&eports, Pc8, for :7th (pril, 182, p8 618
168
&eports, Pc8, for :1st =ctober, 188, p8 238
162
See &eports, Pc8, for :7th (pril, 182, p8 6, and the detailed e9planation of the @shifting s*stem,A b* Factor*
>nspectors -o"ell and Saunders, in @&eports, Pc8, for :1st =ctober, 1888A See also the petition to the Kueen from
the clerg* of (shton and )icinit*, in the spring of 182, against the shift s*stem8A
1:7
5f8 for e9ample, @'he Factor* Kuestion and the 'en -ours? /ill8A, /* &8 -8 Greg, 18:78
1:1
F8 Engels: W'he English 'en -ours? /ill8A (>n the @Heue Rheinische Leitun$ Politisch)oe"onomische Revue$A
Edited b* .8 $ar98 (pril number, 1837, p8 1:8! 'he same @highA 5ourt of Lustice disco)ered, during the (merican
5i)il Bar, a )erbal ambiguit* "hich e9actl* re)ersed the meaning of the la" against the arming of pirate ships8
1:6
&ep8, Pc8, for :7th (pril, 18378
1::
>n "inter, from 7 a8m8 to 7 p8m8 ma* be substituted8
1:
@'he present la" (of 1837! "as a compromise "hereb* the emplo*ed surrendered the benefit of the 'en -ours? (ct
for the ad)antage of one uniform period for the commencement and termination of the labour of those "hose labour is
restricted8A (&eports, Pc8, for :7th (pril, 1836, p8 18!
1:3
&espons, Pc8, for Sept8, 18, p8 1:8
1:6
l8c8
1:7
l8c8
1:8
@&eports, Pc8, for :1st =ct8, 186,A p8 678
1:2
&eports, Pc8, for :1st =ct8, 1861, p8 668
17
l8c8,p8 678 =n the "hole the "or+ing population, subDect to the Factor* (ct, has greatl* impro)ed ph*sicall*8 (ll
medical testimon* agrees on this point, and personal obser)ation at different times has con)inced me of it8
Ce)ertheless, and e9clusi)e of the terrible death4rate of children in the first *ears of their life, the official reports of
0r8 Greenho" sho" the unfa)ourable health condition of the manufacturing districts as compared "ith @agricultural
districts of normal health8A (s e)idence, ta+e the follo"ing table from his 1861 report: v
Pecenta%e of Adult
Males (n%a%ed
in Manufactures182686:78:182:187182:686:78v6eath?rate from
Pulmonary Affections
per 1,,=,,, Males32877837611621388761766:73*ame of
6istrictBigan/lac+burn-alifa9/radford$accles4
field<ee+Sto+e4
upon4'rentBoolstantonEight health*
agricultural
districts6eath?rate from
Pulmonary Affections
per 1,,=,,, 2emales67:3667:87773663767:7Pecenta%e of Adult
2emales (n%a%ed
in Manufactures1887:82678:78766871786128:1:82v@ind of
2emale
)ccupation5otton0o8Borsted0o8Sil+0o8Earthen"are0o8v
11
>t is "ell +no"n "ith "hat reluctance the English @Free4traders,A ga)e up the protecti)e dut* on the sil+
manufacture8 >nstead of the protection against French importation, the absence of protection to English factor*
children no" ser)es their turn8
16
0uring 1832 and 1867, the 1enith *ears of the English cotton industr*, some manufacturers tried, b* the deco* bait
of higher "ages for o)er4time, to reconcile the adult male operati)es to an e9tension of the "or+ing da*8 'he hand4
mule spinners and self4actor mincers put an end to the e9periment b* a petition to their emplo*ers in "hich the* sa*,
@#lainl* spea+ing, our li)es are to us a burthen; and, "hile "e are confined to the mills nearly t1o days a 1ee" more
than the other operati)es of the countr*, "e feel li+e helots in the land, and that "e are perpetuating a s*stem inDurious
to oursel)es and future generations8888 'his, therefore, is to gi)e *ou most respectful notice that "hen "e commence
"or+ again after the 5hristmas and Ce" Near?s holida*s, "e shall "or+ 67 hours per "ee+, and no more, or from si9
to si9, "ith one hour and a half out8A (&eports, Prc8, for :7th (pril, 1867, p8 :78!
1:
=n the means that the "ording of this (ct afforded for its )iolation of the #arliamentar* &eturn @Factories
&egulation (ctA (6th (ugust, 1832!, and in it <eonard -orner?s @Suggestions for amending the Factor* (cts to enable
the >nspectors to pre)ent illegal "or+ing, no" becoming )er* pre)alent8A
1
5hildren of the age of 8 *ears and up"ards, ha)e, indeed, been emplo*ed from 6 a8m8 to 2 p8m8 during the last half
*ear in m* district8A (&eports, Pc8, for :1st =ctober, 1837, p8 :28!
13
@'he #rint"or+s? (ct is admitted to be a failure both "ith reference to its educational and protecti)e pro)isions8A
(&eports, Pc8, for :1st =ctober, 1866, p8 368!
16
'hus, e$8, E8 #otter in a letter to the /imes of $arch 6th, 186:8 'he /imes reminded him of the maoufacturers?
re)olt against the 'en -ours? /ill8
17
'hus, among others, $r8 B8 Ce"march, collaborator and editor of 'oo+e?s @-istor* of #rices8A >s it a scientific
ad)ance to ma+e co"ardl* concessions to public opinionE
18
'he (ct passed in 1867, determined that, in regard to d*e and bleach"or+s, the "or+ing da* should be fi9ed on
(ugust 1st, 1861, pro)isionall* at 16 hours, and definitel* on (ugust 1st, 1866, at 17 hours, i$e8, at 17[ hours for
ordinar* da*s, and 7[ for Saturda*8 Co", "hen the fatal *ear, 1866, came, the old farce "as repeated8 /esides, the
manufacturers petitioned #arliament to allo" the emplo*ment of *oung persons and "omen for 16 hours during one
*ear longer8 @>n the e9isting condition of the trade (the time of the cotton famine!, it "as greatl* to the ad)antage of
the operati)es to "or+ 16 hours per da*, and ma+e "ages "hen the* could8A ( bill to this effect had been brought in,
@and it "as mainl* due to the action of the operati)e bleachers in Scotland that the bill "as abandoned8A (&eports,
P:c8, for :1st =ctober, 1866, pp8 14138! 'hus defeated b* the )er* "or+people, in "hose name it pretended to spea+,
5apital disco)ered, "ith the help of la"*er spectacles, that the (ct of 1867, dra"n up, li+e all the (cts of #arliament
for the @protection of labour,A in eIui)ocal phrases, ga)e them a prete9t to e9clude from its "or+ing the calenderers
and finishers8 English Durisprudence, e)er the faithful ser)ant of capital, sanctioned in the 5ourt of 5ommon #leas this
piece of pettifogging8 @'he operati)es ha)e been greatl* disappointed 888 the* ha)e complained of o)er4"or+, and it is
greatl* to be regretted that the clear intention of the legislature should ha)e failed b* reason of a fault* definition8A
(l8c8, p8 188!
12
'he @open4air bleachersA had e)aded the la" of 1867, b* means of the lie that no "omen "or+ed at it in the night8
'he lie "as e9posed b* the Factor* >nspectors, and at the same time #arliament "as, b* petitions from the operati)es,
bereft of its notions as to the cool meado"4fragrance, in "hich bleaching in the open4air "as reported to ta+e place8 >n
this aerial bleaching, dr*ing4rooms "ere used at temperatures of from 27p to 177p Fahrenheit, in "hich the "or+ "as
done for the most part b* girls8 @5oolingA is the technical e9pression for their occasional escape from the dr*ing4
rooms into the fresh air8 @Fifteen girls in sto)es8 -eat from 87p to 27p for linens, and 177p and up"ards for cambrics8
'"el)e girls ironing and doing4up in a small room about 17 feet sIuare, in the centre of "hich is a close sto)e8 'he
girls stand round the sto)e, "hich thro"s out a terrific heat, and dries the cambrics rapidl* for the ironers8 'he hours
of "or+ for these hands are unlimited8 >f bus*, the* "or+ till 2 or 16 at night for successi)e nights8A (&eports, Pc8, for
:1st =ctober, 1866, p8 368! ( medical man states: @Co special hours are allo"ed for cooling, but if the temperature
gets too high, or the "or+ers? hands get soiled from perspiration, the* are allo"ed to go out for a fe" minutes8888 $*
e9perience, "hich is considerable, in treating the diseases of sto)e "or+ers, compels me to e9press the opinion that
their sanitar* condition is b* no means so high as that of the operati)es in a spinning factor* (and 5apital, in its
memorials to #arliament, had painted them as floridl* health* after the manner of &ubens8! 'he diseases most
obser)able amongst them are phthisis, bronchitis, irregularit* of uterine functions, h*steria in its most aggra)ated
forms, and rheumatism8 (ll of these, > belie)e, are either directl* or indirectl* induced b* the impure, o)erheated air
of the apartments in "hich the hands are emplo*ed and the "ant of sufficient comfortable clothing to protect them
from the cold, damp atmosphere, in "inter, "hen going to their homes8A (l8c8, pp8 364378! 'he Factor* >nspectors
remar+ed on the supplementar* la" of 1867, torn from these open4air bleachers: @'he (ct has not onl* failed to afford
that protection to the "or+ers "hich it appears to offer, but contains a clause 888 apparentl* so "orded that, unless
persons are detected "or+ing after 8 o?cloc+ at night the* appear to come under no protecti)e pro)isions at all, and if
the* do so "or+ the mode of proof is so doubtful that a con)iction can scarcel* follo"8A (l8c8, p8 368! @'o all intents
and purposes, therefore, as an (ct for an* bene)olent or educational purpose, it is a failure; since it can scarcel* be
called bene)olent to permit, "hich is tantamount to compelling, "omen and children to "or+ 1 hours a da* "ith or
"ithout meals, as the case ma* be, and perhaps for longer hours than these, "ithout limit as to age, "ithout reference
to se9, and "ithout regard to the social habits of the families of the neighbourhood, in "hich such "or+s (bleaching
and d*eing! are situated8A (&eports, Pc8, for :7th (pril, 186:, p8 78!
137
Hote to the 6nd Ed$ Since 1866, "hen > "rote the abo)e passages, a reaction has again set in8
131
@'he conduct of each of these classes (capitalists and "or+men! has been the result of the relati)e situation in
"hich the* ha)e been placed8A (&eports, Pc8, for :1st =ctober, 188, p8 11:8!
136
@'he emplo*ments, placed under restriction, "ere connected "ith the manufacture of te9tile fabrics b* the aid of
steam or "ater4po"er8 'here "ere t"o conditions to "hich an emplo*ment must be subDect to cause it to be inspected,
)i18, the use of steam or "aterpo"er, and the manufacture of certain specified fibre8A (&eports, Pc8, for :1st =ctober,
186, p8 88!
13:
=n the condition of so4called domestic industries, speciall* )aluable materials are to be found in the latest reports
of the 5hildren?s Emplo*ment 5ommission8
13
@'he (cts of last Session (186! 888 embrace a di)ersit* of occupations, the customs in "hich differ greatl*, and the
use of mechanical po"er to gi)e motion to machiner* is no longer one of the elements necessar*8 as formerl*, to
constitute, in legal phrase, a WFactor*8?A (&eports, Pc8, for :1st =ctaber, 186, p8 88!
133
/elgium, the paradise of 5ontinental <iberalism, sho"s no trace of this mo)ement8 E)en in the coal and metal
mines labourers of both se9es, and all ages, are consumed, in perfect @freedomA at an* period and through an* length
of time8 =f e)er* 1,777 persons emplo*ed there, 7:: are men, 88 "omen8 1:3 bo*s, and girls under 16; in the blast
furnaces, Pc8, of e)er* 1,777, 668 are men, 12 "omen, 28 bo*s, and 83 girls under 168 (dd to this the lo" "ages for
the enormous e9ploitation of mature and immature labour4po"er8 'he a)erage dail* pa* for a man is 6s8 8d88 for a
"oman, 1s8 8d88 for a bo*8 1s8 6[d8 (s a result, /elgium had in 186:, as compared "ith 1837, nearl* doubled both the
amount and the )alue of its e9ports of coal, iron, Pc8
136
&obert ="en, soon after 1817, not onl* maintained the necessit* of a limitation of the "or+ing da* in theor*, but
actuall* introduced the 17 hours? da* into his factor* at Ce" <anar+8 'his "as laughed at as a communistic %topia; so
"ere his @5ombination of children?s education "ith producti)e labour and the 5o4operati)e Societies of
Bor+ingmenA, first called into being b* him8 'o4da*, the first %topia is a Factor* (ct, the second figures as an official
phrase in all Factor* (cts, the third is alread* being used as a cloa+ for reactionar* humbug8
137
%re: @French translation, #hilosophie des $anufactures8A #aris, 18:6, ;ol8 >>, pp8 :2, 7, 67, 77, Pc8
138
>n the 5ompte &endu of the >nternational Statistical 5ongress at #aris, 1833, it is stated: @'he French la", "hich
limits the length of dail* labour in factories and "or+shops to 16 hours, does not confine this "or+ to definite fi9ed
hours8 For children?s labour onl* the "or+4time is prescribed as bet"een 3 a8m8 and 2 p8m8 'herefore, some of the
masters use the right "hich this fatal silence gi)es them to +eep their "or+s going, "ithout intermission, da* in, da*
out, possibl* "ith the e9ception of Sunda*8 For this purpose the* use t"o different sets of "or+ers, of "hom neither is
in the "or+shop more than 16 hours at a time, but the "or+ of the establishment lasts da* and night8 'he la" is
satisfied, but is humanit*EA /esides @the destructi)e influence of night4labour on the human organism,A stress is also
laid upon @the fatal influence of the association of the t"o se9es b* night in the same badl*4lighted "or+shops8A
132
@For instance, there is "ithin m* district one occupier "ho, "ithin the same curtilage, is at the same time a bleacher
and d*er under the /leaching and 0*eing Bor+s (ct, a printer under the #rint Bor+s (ct, and a finisher under the
Factor* (ct8A (&eport of $r8 /a+er, in &eports, lic8, for =ctober :1st, 1861, p8 678! (fter enumerating the different
pro)isions of these (cts, and the complications arising from them, $r8 /a+er sa*s: @>t "ill hence appear that it must
be )er* difficult to secure the e9ecution of these three (cts of #arliament "here the occupier chooses to e)ade the
la"8A /ut "hat is assured to the la"*ers b* this is la"4suits8
167
'hus the Factor* >nspectors at last )enture to sa*: @'hese obDections (of capital to the legal limitation of the
"or+ing da*! must succumb before the broad principle of the rights of labour8888 'here is a time "hen the master?s
right in his "or+man?s labour ceases, and his time becomes his o"n, e)en if there "ere no e9haustion in the
Iuestion8A (&eports, Pc8, for :1 st =ct8, 1866, p8 38!
161
@Be, the "or+ers of 0un+ir+, declare that the length of time of labour reIuired under the present s*stem is too
great, and that, far from lea)ing the "or+er time for rest and education, it plunges him into a condition of ser)itude but
little better than sla)er*8 'hat is "h* "e decide that 8 hours are enough for a "or+ing da*, and ought to be legall*
recognised as enough; "h* "e call to our help that po"erful le)er, the press; 888 and "h* "e shall consider all those
that refuse us this help as enemies of the reform of labour and of the rights of the labourer8A (&esolution of the
Bor+ing $en of 0un+ir+, Ce" Nor+ State, 18668!
166
&eports, Pc8, for =ct8, 188, p8 1168
16:
@'he proceedings (the manoeu)res of capital, e8g8, from 188437! ha)e afforded, moreo)er, incontro)ertible proof
of the fallac* of the assertion so often ad)anced, that operati)es need no protection, but ma* be considered as free
agents in the disposal of the onl* propert* "hich the* possess v the labour of their hands and the s"eat of their
bro"s8A (&eports, Pc8, for (pril :7th, 1837, p8 38! @Free labour (if so it ma* be termed! e)en in a free countr*,
reIuires the strong arm of the la" to protect it8A (&eports, Pc8, for =ctober :1st, 186, p8 :8! @'o permit, "hich is
tantamount to compelling 888 to "or+ 1 hours a da* "ith or "ithout meals,A Pc8 (&epts8, Pc8, for (pril :7th, 186:, p8
78!
16
Friedrich Engels, l8c8, p8 38
163
'he 17 -ours? (ct has, in the branches of industr* that come under it, @put an end to the premature decrepitude of
the former long4hour "or+ers8A (&eports, Pc8, for :1st =ct8, 1832, p8 78! @5apital (in factories! can ne)er be
emplo*ed in +eeping the machiner* in motion be*ond a limited time, "ithout certain inDur* to the health and morals
of the labourers emplo*ed; and the* are not in a position to protect themsel)es8A (l8c8, p8 8!
166
@( still greater boon is the distinction at last made clear bet"een the "or+er?s o"n time and his master?s8 'he
"or+er +no"s no" "hen that "hich he sells is ended, and "hen his o"n begins; and b* possessing a sure
fore+no"ledge of this, is enabled to prearrange his o"n minutes for his o"n purposes8A (l8c8, p8 368! @/* ma+ing them
masters of their o"n time (the Factor* (cts! ha)e gi)en them a moral energ* "hich is directing them to the e)entual
possession of political po"erA (l8c8, p8 7!8 Bith suppressed iron*, and in )er* "ell "eighed "ords, the Factor*
>nspectors hint that the actual la" also frees the capitalist from some of the brutalit* natural to a man "ho is a mere
embodiment of capital, and that it has gi)en him time for a little @culture8A @Formerl* the master had no time for
an*thing but mone*; the ser)ant had no time for an*thing but labourA (l8c8, p8 8!8
1
'his elementar* la" appears to be un+no"n to the )ulgar economists, "ho, upside4do"n (rchimedes, in the
determination of the mar+et4price of labour b* suppl* and demand, imagine the* ha)e found the fulcrum b* means of
"hich, not to mo)e the "orld, but to stop its motion8
6
Further particulars "ill be gi)en in /oo+ >;8
:
@'he <abour, that is the economic time, of societ*, is a gi)en portion, sa* ten hours a da* of a million of people, or
ten million hours8888 5apital has its boundar* of increase8 'his boundar* ma*, at an* gi)en period, be attained in the
actual e9tent of economic time emplo*ed8A (@(n Essa* on the #olitical Econom* of Cations8A <ondon, 1861, pp8 7,
28!
@'he farmer cannot rel* on his o"n labour, and if he does, > "ill maintain that he is a loser b* it8 -is emplo*ment
should be a general attention to the "hole: his thresher must be "atched, or he "ill soon lose his "ages in corn not
threshed out, his mo"ers reapers, Pc8, must be loo+ed after; he must constantl* go round his fences; he must see there
is no neglect; "hich "ould be the case if he "as confined to an* one spot8A (@(n >nIuir* into the 5onne9ion bet"een
the #resent #rice of #ro)isions and the Si1e of Farms, Pc8 /* a Farmer8A <ondon, 177:, p8 168! 'his boo+ is )er*
interesting8 >n it the genesis of the @capitalist farmerA or @merchant farmer,A as he is e9plicitl* called, ma* be studied,
and his self4glorification at the e9pense of the small farmer "ho has onl* to do "ith bare subsistence, be noted8 @'he
class of capitalists are from the first partiall*, and the* become ultimatel* completel*, discharged from the necessit* of
the manual labour8A (@'e9tboo+ of <ectures on the #olitical Econom* of Cations8 /* the &e)8 &ichard Lones8A
-ertford 18368 <ecture >>>8, p8 :28!
3
'he molecular theor* of modern chemistr* first scientificall* "or+ed out b* <aurent and Gerhardt rests on no other
la"8 ((ddition to :rd Edition8! For the e9planation of this statement, "hich is not )er* clear to nonchemists, "e
remar+ that the author spea+s here of the homologous series of carbon compounds, first so named b* 58 Gerhardt in
18:, each series of "hich has its o"n general algebraic formula8 'hus the series of paraffins: 5n-6n_6, that of the
normal alcohols: 5n-6n_6=; of the normal fatt* acids: 5n-6n=6 and man* others8 >n the abo)e e9amples, b* the simpl*
Iuantitati)e addition of 5-6 to the molecular formula, a Iualitati)el* different bod* is each time formed8 =n the share
(o)erestimated b* $ar9! of <aurent and Gerhardt in the determination of this important fact see .opp, @Ent"ic+lung
der 5hemie8A $unchen, 187:, pp8 772, 716, and Schor+mmer, @'he &ise and 0e)elopment of =rganic 5hemistr*8A
<ondon, 1872, p8 38 v !$ E$8 See <etter from $ar9 to Engels, 66 Lune 1867
For -egel?s formulation of the idea in the Loic, see &emar+: E9amples of Such Codal <ines; the $a9im, WCature
0oes Cot $a+e <eaps?8
6
$artin <uther calls these +inds of institutions: @'he 5ompan* $onopolia8A
7
&eports of >nsp8 of Fact8, (pril :7th, 182, p8 328
8
l8c8, p8 678 Factor* >nspector Stuart, himself a Scotchman, and in contrast to the English Factor* >nspectors, Iuite
ta+en capti)e b* the capitalistic method of thin+ing, remar+s e9pressl* on this letter "hich he incorporates in his
report that it is @the most useful of the communications "hich an* of the factor*o"ners "or+ing "ith rela*s ha)e
gi)en to those engaged in the same trade, and "hich is the most calculated to remo)e the preDudices of such of them as
ha)e scruples respecting an* change of the arrangement of the hours of "or+8A
1
'he )alue of his a)erage dail* "ages is determined b* "hat the labourer reIuires @so as to li)e, labour, and
generate8A (Bm8 #ett*: @#olitical (natom* of >reland,A 1676, p8 68! @'he price of <abour is al"a*s constituted of the
price of necessaries 888 "hene)er 888 the labouring man?s "ages "ill not, suitabl* to his lo" ran+ and station, as a
labouring man, support such a famil* as is often the lot of man* of them to ha)e,A he does not recei)e proper "ages8
(L8 ;anderlint, l8c8, p8 138! @<e simple ou)rier, Iui n?a Iue ses bras et son industrie, n?a rien Iu?autant Iu?il par)ient X
)endre X d?autres sa peine888 En tout genre de tra)ail il doit arri)er, et il arri)e en effet, Iue le salaire de l?ou)rier se
borne X ce Iui lui est nRcessaire pour lui procurer sa subsistance8A G'he mere "or+man, "ho has onl* his arms and his
industr*, has nothing unless he succeeds in selling his labour to others 888 >n e)er* +ind of "or+ it cannot fail to
happen, as a matter of fact it does happen, that the "ages of the "or+man are limited to "hat is necessar* to procure
him his subsistence8H ('urgot, @&Rfle9ions, Pc8,A -euvres, Rd8 0aire t8 >, p8 178! @'he price of the necessaries of life is,
in fact, the cost of producing labour8A ($althus, @>nIuir* into, Pc8, &ent,A <ondon, 1813, p8 8, note8!
6
Kuando si perfe1ionano le arti, che non n altro che la scoperta di nuo)e )ie, onde si possa compiere una manufattura
con meno gente o (che n lo stesso! in minor tempo di prima8A (Galiani, l8c8, p8 1328! @<?Rconomie sur les frais de
production ne peut donc dtre autre chose Iue l?Rconomie sur la IuantitR de tra)ail emplo*R pour produire8A G#erfection
of hte crafts means nothing other than the disco)er* of ne" "a*s of ma+ing a product "ith fe"er people, or ("hich is
the same thing! in less time than pre)iousl*H (Sismondi, @tudes,A t8 >8 p8 668!
:
@<et us suppose 888 the products 888 of the manufacturer are doubled b* impro)ement in machiner* 888 he "ill be able
to clothe his "or+men b* means of a smaller proportion of the entire return 888 and thus his profit "ill be raised8 /ut in
no other "a* "ill it be influenced8A (&amsa*, l8c8, pp8 168, 1628!
@( man?s profit does not depend upon his command of the produce of other men?s labour, but upon his command of
labour itself8 >f he can sell his goods at a higher price, "hile his "or+men?s "ages remain unaltered, he is clearl*
benefited8888 ( smaller proportion of "hat he produces is sufficient to put that labour into motion, and a larger
proportion conseIuentl* remains for himself8A (@=utlines of #ol8 Econ8A <ondon, 18:6, pp8 2, 378!
3
@>f m* neighbour b* doing much "ith little labour, can sell cheap, > must contri)e to sell as cheap as he8 So that
e)er* art, trade, or engine, doing "or+ "ith labour of fe"er hands, and conseIuentl* cheaper, begets in others a +ind
of necessit* and emulation, either of using the same art, trade, or engine, or of in)enting something li+e it, that e)er*
man ma* be upon the sIuare, that no man ma* be able to undersell his neighbour8A (@'he (d)antages of the East >ndia
'rade to England,A <ondon, 1767, p8 678!
6
@>n "hate)er proportion the e9penses of a labourer are diminished, in the same proportion "ill his "ages be
diminished, if the restraints upon industr* are at the same time ta+en off8A (@5onsiderations 5oncerning 'a+ing off the
/ount* on 5orn E9ported,A Pc8, <ondon, 173:, p8 78! @'he interest of trade reIuires, that corn and all pro)isions
should be as cheap as possible; for "hate)er ma+es them dear, must ma+e labour dear also 888 in all countries, "here
industr* is not restrained, the price of pro)isions must affect the price of labour8 'his "ill al"a*s be diminished "hen
the necessaries of life gro" cheaper8A (>8 c8, p8 :8! @Bages are decreased in the same proportion as the po"ers of
production increase8 $achiner*, it is true, cheapens the necessaries of life, but it also cheapens the labourer8A (@(
#ri1e Essa* on the 5omparati)e $erits of 5ompetition and 5o4operation8A <ondon, 18:, p8 678!
7
@>ls con)iennent Iue plus on peut, sans prRDudice, Rpargner de frais ou de tra)au9 dispendieu9 dans la fabrication des
ou)rages des artisans, plus cette Rpargne est profitable par la diminution des pri9 de ces ou)rages8 5ependant ils
croient Iue la production de richesse Iui rRsulte des tra)au9 des artisans consiste dans l?augmentation de la )aleur
)Rnale de leurs ou)rages8A (Kuesna*: @0ialogues sur le 5ommerce et les 'ra)au9 des (rtisans8A pp8 188, 1828!
8
@5es spRculateurs si Rconomes du tra)ail des ou)riers Iu?il faudrait Iu?ils pa*assent8A G'hese speculators, "ho are so
economical of the labour of "or+ers the* "ould ha)e to pa*H (L8 C8 /idaut: @0u $onopole Iui s?Rtablit dans les arts
industriels et le commerce8A #aris, 1868, p8 1:8! @'he emplo*er "ill be al"a*s on the stretch to economise time and
labour8A (0ugald Ste"art: Bor+s ed8 b* Sir B8 -amilton, Edinburgh, )8, )iii8, 18338 @<ectures on #olit8 Econ8,A p8
:188! @'heir (the capitalists?! interest is that the producti)e po"ers of the labourers the* emplo* should be the greatest
possible8 =n promoting that po"er their attention is fi9ed and almost e9clusi)el* fi9ed8A (&8 Lones: l8c8, <ecture >>>8!
1
@%nIuestionabl*, there is a good deal of difference bet"een the )alue of one man?s labour and that of another from
strength, de9terit*, and honest application8 /ut > am Iuite sure, from m* best obser)ation, that an* gi)en fi)e men
"ill, in their total, afford a proportion of labour eIual to an* other fi)e "ithin the periods of life > ha)e stated; that is,
that among such fi)e men there "ill be one possessing all the Iualifications of a good "or+man, one bad, and the
other three middling, and appro9imating to the first, and the last8 So that in so small a platoon as that of e)en fi)e, *ou
"ill find the full complement of all that fi)e men can earn8A (E8 /ur+e, 18 c8, pp8 13, 168! 5ompare KuRtelet on the
a)erage indi)idual8
6
#rofessor &oscher claims to ha)e disco)ered that one needle"oman emplo*ed b* $rs8 &oscher during t"o da*s,
does more "or+ than t"o needle"omen emplo*ed together during one da*8 'he learned professor should not stud* the
capitalist process of production in the nurser*, nor under circumstances "here the principal personage, the capitalist,
is "anting8
:
@5oncours de forces8A (0estutt de 'rac*, l8c8, p8 878!
'here are numerous operations of so simple a +ind as not to admit a di)ision into parts, "hich cannot be performed
"ithout the co4operation of man* pairs of hands8 > "ould instance the lifting of a large tree on to a "ain 88, e)er*thing,
in short, "hich cannot be done unless a great man* pairs of hands help each other in the same undi)ided emplo*ment
and at the same time8A (E8 G8 Ba+efield: @( ;ie" of the (rt of 5olonisation8A <ondon, 182, p8 1688!
3
@(s one man cannot, and ten men must strain to lift a ton of "eight, *et 177 men can do it onl* b* the strength of a
finger of each of them8A (Lohn /etters: @#roposals for &aising a 5olledge of >ndustr*8A <ondon, 1626, p8 618!
6
@'here is alsoA ("hen the same number of men are emplo*ed b* one farmer on :77 acres, instead of b* ten farmers
"ith :7 acres a piece! @an ad)antage in the proportion of ser)ants, "hich "ill not so easil* be understood but b*
practical men; for it is natural to sa*, as 1 is to , so are : to 16; but this "ill not hold good in practice; for in har)est
time and man* other operations "hich reIuire that +ind of despatch b* the thro"ing man* hands together, the "or+ is
better and more e9peditiousl* done: f i8 in har)est, 6 dri)ers, 6 loaders, 6 pitchers, 6 ra+ers, and the rest at the ric+, or
in the barn, "ill despatch double the "or+ that the same number of hands "ould do if di)ided into different gangs on
different farms8A (@(n >nIuir* into the 5onne9ion bet"een the #resent #rice of #ro)isions and the Si1e of Farms8A /*
a Farmer8 <ondon, 177:, pp8 7, 88!
7
Strictl*, (ristotle?s definition is that man is b* nature a to"n4citi1en8 'his is Iuite as characteristic of ancient
classical societ* as Fran+lin?s definition of man, as a tool4ma+ing animal, is characteristic of Nan+eedom8
8
@=n doit encore remarIuer Iue cette di)ision partielle de tra)ail peut se faire Iuand mdme les ou)riers sont occupRs
d?une mdme besogne8 0es mazons par e9emple, occupRs X faire passer de mains en mains des briIues X un
Rchafaudage supRrieur, font tous la mdme besogne, et pourtant il e9iste parmi eu9 une espnce de di)ision de tra)ail,
Iui consiste en ce Iue chacun d?eu9 fait passer la briIue par un espace donnR, et Iue tous ensemble la font par)enir
beaucoup plus promptement X l?endroit marIuR Iu?ils ne le feraient si chacun d?eu9 portait sa briIue sRparRment
DusIu?X l?Rchafaudage supRrieur8A G>t should be noted further that this partial di)ision of labour can occur e)en "hen
the "or+ers are engaged in the same tas+8 $asons, for e9ample, engaged in passing bric+s from hand to hand to a
higher stage of the building, are all performing the same tas+, and *et there does e9ist amongst them a sort of di)ision
of labour8 'his consists in the fact that each of them passes the bric+ through a gi)en space, and, ta+en together, the*
ma+e it arri)e much more Iuic+l* at the reIuired spot than the* "ould do if each of them carried his bric+ separatel*
to the upper store*H (F8 S+arbe+: @'hRorie des richesses sociales8A #aris, 18:2, t8 >, pp8 27, 288!
2
@Est4il Iuestion d?e9Rcuter un tra)ail compliIuR, plusieurs choses doi)ent dtre faites simultanRment8 <?un en fait une
pendant Iue l?autre en fait une autre, et tous contribuent X l?effet Iu?un seul homme n?aurait pu produire8 <?un rame
pendant Iue l?autre tient le gou)ernail, et Iu?un troisinme Dette le filet on harponne le poisson, et la pdche a un succns
impossible sans ce concours8A G>s it a Iuestion of underta+ing a comple9 piece of labourE $an* things must be done
simultaneousl*8 =ne person does one thing, "hile another does something else, and the* all contribute to an effect that
a single man "ould be unable to produce8 =ne ro"s "hile the other holds the rudder, and a third casts the net or
harpoons the fish; in this "a* fishing enDo*s a success that "ould be impossible "ithout this cooperationH (0estutt de
'rac*, l8c8!
17
@'he doing of it (agricultural "or+! at the critical Duncture is of so much the greater conseIuence8A (@(n >nIuir* into
the 5onne9ion bet"een the #resent #rice,A Pc8, p8 28! @>n agriculture, there is no more important factor than that of
time8A (<iebig: @%eber 'heorie und #ra9is in der <and"irtschaft8A 1836, p8 6:8!
11
@'he ne9t e)il is one "hich one "ould scarcel* e9pect to find in a countr* "hich e9ports more labour than an*
other in the "orld, "ith the e9ception, perhaps, of 5hina and England the impossibilit* of procuring a sufficient
number of hands to clean the cotton8 'he conseIuence of this is that large Iuantities of the crop are left unpic+ed,
"hile another portion is gathered from the ground "hen it has fallen, and is of course discoloured and partiall* rotted,
so that for "ant of labour at the proper season the culti)ator is actuall* forced to submit to the loss of a large part of
that crop for "hich England is so an9iousl* loo+ing8A (@/engal -ur+aru8A /i4$onthl* =)erland Summar* of Ce"s,
66nd Lul*, 18618!
16
>n the progress of culture @all, and perhaps more than all, the capital and labour "hich once loosel* occupied 377
acres, are no" concentrated for the more complete tillage of 1778A (lthough @relati)el* to the amount of capital and
labour emplo*ed, space is concentrated, it is an enlarged sphere of production, as compared to the sphere of
production formerl* occupied or "or+ed upon b* one single independent agent of production8A (&8 Lones: @(n Essa*
on the 0istribution of Bealth,A part >8 =n &ent8 <ondon, 18:18 p8 1218!
1:
@<a for1a di ciascuno uomo n minima, ma la riunione delle minime for1e forma una for1a totale maggiore anche
della somma delle for1e medesime fino a che le for1e per essere riunite possono diminuere il tempo ed accrescere lo
spa1io della loro a1ione8A (G8 &8 5arli, Cote to #8 ;erri, l8c8, t8 9)8, p8 1268!
1
@#rofits 888 is the sole end of trade8A (L8 ;anderlint, l8c8, p8 118!
13
'hat #hilistine paper, the ;pectator, states that after the introduction of a sort of partnership bet"een capitalist and
"or+men in the @Bire"or+ 5ompan* of $anchester,A @the first result "as a sudden decrease in "aste, the men not
seeing "h* the* should "aste their o"n propert* an* more than an* other master?s, and "aste is, perhaps, ne9t to bad
debts, the greatest source of manufacturing loss8A 'he same paper finds that the main defect in the &ochdale co4
operati)e e9periments is this: @'he* sho"ed that associations of "or+men could manage shops, mills, and almost all
forms of industr* "ith success, and the* immediatel* impro)ed the condition of the men; but then the* did not lea)e a
clear place for masters8A Kuelle horreurQ
16
#rofessor 5airnes, after stating that the superintendence of labour is a leading feature of production b* sla)es in the
Southern States of Corth (merica, continues: @'he peasant proprietor (of the Corth!, appropriating the "hole produce
of his toil, needs no other stimulus to e9ertion8 Superintendence is here completel* dispensed "ith8A (5airnes, l8c8, pp8
8, 28!
17
Sir Lames Steuart, a "riter altogether remar+able for his Iuic+ e*e for the characteristic social distinctions bet"een
different modes of production, sa*s: @Bh* do large underta+ings in the manufacturing "a* ruin pri)ate industr*, but
b* coming nearer to the simplicit* of sla)esEA (@#rin8 of #ol8 Econ8,A <ondon, 1767, )8 >8, pp8 167, 1688!
18
(uguste 5omte and his school might therefore ha)e sho"n that feudal lords are an eternal necessit* in the same "a*
that the* ha)e done in the case of the lords of capital8
12
&8 Lones8 @'e9tboo+ of <ectures,A Pc8, pp8 77, 788 'he ancient (ss*rian, Eg*ptian, and other collections in <ondon,
and in other European capitals, ma+e us e*e4"itnesses of the modes of carr*ing on that co4operati)e labour8
67
<inguet is improbabl* right, "hen in his @'hRorie des <ois 5i)iles,A he declares hunting to be the first form of co4
operation, and man4hunting ("ar! one of the earliest forms of hunting8
61
#easant agriculture on a small scale, and the carr*ing on of independent handicrafts, "hich together form the basis
of the feudal mode of production, and after the dissolution of that s*stem, continue side b* side "ith the capitalist
mode, also form the economic foundation of the classical communities at their best, after the primiti)e form of
o"nership of land in common had disappeared, and before sla)er* had sei1ed on production in earnest8
66
@Bhether the united s+ill, industr*, and emulation of man* together on the same "or+ be not the "a* to ad)ance itE
(nd "hether it had been other"ise possible for England, to ha)e carried on her Boollen $anufacture to so great a
perfectionEA (/er+ele*8 @'he Kuerist8A <ondon, 1731, p8 36, par8 3618!
1
'o gi)e a more modern instance: 'he sil+ spinning and "ea)ing of <*on and Crmes @est toute patriarcale; elle
emploie beaucoup de femmes et d?enfants, mais sans les Rpuiser ni les corrompre; elle les laisse dans leur belles
)alises de la 0rtme, du ;ar, de l?>snre, de ;aucluse, pour * Rle)er des )ers et dR)ider leurs cocons; Damais elle n?entre
dans une )Rritable fabriIue8 #our dtre aussi bien obser)R 888 le principe de la di)ision du tra)ail s?* re)dt d?un caractnre
spRcial8 >l * a bien des dR)ideuses, des moulineurs, des teinturiers, des encolleurs, puis des tisserands; mais ils ne sont
pas rRunis dans un mdme Rtablissement, ne dRpendent pas d?un mdme martre, tous ils sont indRpendantsA G888 is
entirel* patriarchal; it emplo*s a large number of "omen and children, but "ithout e9hausting or ruining them; it
allo"s them to sta* in their beautiful )alle*s of the 0rtme, the ;ar, the >snre, the ;aucluse, cultu)ating their
sil+"orms and un"inding their cocoons; it ne)er becomes a true factor* industr*8 -o"e)er, the principle of the
di)ision of labour ta+es on a special character here8 'here do indeed e9ist "inders, thro"sters8 d*ers, si1ers, and
finall* "ea)ers; but the* are not assembled in the same "or+shop, nor are the* dependent on a single master; the* are
all independentH ((8 /lanIui: @5ours, d?Econ8 >ndustrielle8A &ecueilli par (8 /laise8 #aris, 18:84:2, p8 728! Since
/lanIui "rote this, the )arious independent labourers ha)e, to some e9tent, been united in factories8 G(nd since $ar9
"rote the abo)e, the po"er4loom has in)aded these factories, and is no" 1886 rapidl* superseding the hand4loom8
(Added in the Bth =erman edition8 'he .refeld sil+ industr* also has its tale to tell anent this subDect8! F8 E8H
6
'he more an* manufacture of much )ariet* shall be distributed and assigned to different artists, the same must needs
be better done and "ith greater e9pedition, "ith less loss of time and labour8A (@'he (d)antages of the East >ndia
'rade,A <ond8, 1767, p8 718!
:
@Eas* labour is transmitted s+ill8A ('h8 -odgs+in, @#opular #olitical Econom*,A p8 88!
@'he arts also ha)e 888 in Eg*pt reached the reIuisite degree of perfection8 For it is the onl* countr* "here artificers
ma* not in an* "a* meddle "ith the affairs of another class of citi1ens, but must follo" that calling alone "hich b*
la" is hereditar* in their clan8888 >n other countries it is found that tradesmen di)ide their attention bet"een too man*
obDects8 (t one time the* tr* agriculture, at another the* ta+e to commerce, at another the* bus* themsel)es "ith t"o
or three occupations at once8 >n free countries, the* mostl* freIuent the assemblies of the people8888 >n Eg*pt, on the
contrar*, e)er* artificer is se)erel* punished if he meddles "ith affairs of State, or carries on se)eral trades at once8
'hus there is nothing to disturb their application to their calling8888 $oreo)er, since, the* inherit from their forefathers
numerous rules, the* are eager to disco)er fresh ad)antagesA (0iodorus Siculus: /ibl8 -ist8 >8 18 c8, 78!
3
@-istorical and descripti)e account of /rit8 >ndia, Pc8,A b* -ugh $urra* and Lames Bilson, Pc8, Edinburgh 18:6, )8
>>8, p8 28 'he >ndian loom is upright, i8e8, the "arp is stretched )erticall*8
6
0ar"in in his epoch4ma+ing "or+ on the origin of species, remar+s, "ith reference to the natural organs of plants
and animals: @So long as one and the same organ has different +inds of "or+ to perform, a ground for its changeabilit*
ma* possibl* be found in this, that natural selection preser)es or suppresses each small )ariation of form less carefull*
than if that organ "ere destined for one special purpose alone8 'hus, +ni)es that are adapted to cut all sorts of things,
ma*, on the "hole, be of one shape; but an implement destined to be used e9clusi)el* in one "a* must ha)e a
different shape for e)er* different use8A
7
>n the *ear 183 Gene)a produced 87,777 "atches, "hich is not one4fifth of the production in the 5anton of
CeufchMtel8 <a 5hau94de4Fond alone, "hich "e ma* loo+ upon as a huge "atch manufactor*, produces *earl* t"ice
as man* as Gene)a8 From 1837461 Gene)a produced 767,777 "atches8 See @&eport from Gene)a on the Batch
'radeA in @&eports b* -8 $8?s Secretaries of Embass* and <egation on the $anufactures, 5ommerce, Pc8, Co8 6,
186:8A 'he "ant of conne9ion alone, bet"een the processes into "hich the production of articles that merel* consist
of parts fitted together is split up, ma+es it )er* difficult to con)ert such a manufacture into a branch of modem
industr* carried on b* machiner*; but in the case of a "atch there are t"o other impediments in addition, the
minuteness and delicac* of its parts, and its character as an article of lu9ur*8 -ence their )ariet*, "hich is such, that in
the best <ondon houses scarcel* a do1en "atches are made ali+e in the course of a *ear8 'he "atch manufactor* of
$essrs8 ;acheron P 5onstantin, in "hich machiner* has been emplo*ed "ith success, produces at the most three or
four different )arieties of si1e and form8
8
>n "atchma+ing, that classical e9ample of heterogeneous manufacture, "e ma* stud* "ith great accurac* the abo)e4
mentioned differentiation and specialisation of the instruments of labour caused b* the sub4di)ision of handicrafts8
2
@>n so close a cohabitation of the people, the carriage must needs be less8A (@'he (d)antages of the East >ndia
'rade,A p8 1768!
17
@'he isolation of the different stages of manufacture, conseIuent upon the emplo*ment of manual labour, adds
immensel* to the cost of production, the loss mainl* arising from the mere remo)als from one process to another8A
(@'he >ndustr* of Cations8A <ond8, 1833, #art >>, p8 6778!
11
@>t (the di)ision of labour! produces also an econom* of time b* separating the "or+ into its different branches, all
of "hich ma* be carried on into e9ecution at the same moment8888 /* carr*ing on all the different processes at once,
"hich an indi)idual must ha)e e9ecuted separatel*, it becomes possible to produce a multitude of pins completel*
finished in the same time as a single pin might ha)e been either cut or pointed8A (0ugald Ste"art, l8c8, p8 :128!
16
@'he more )ariet* of artists to e)er* manufacture888 the greater the order and regularit* of e)er* "or+, the same
must needs be done in less time, the labour must be less8A (@'he (d)antages,A Pc8, p8 688!
1:
Ce)ertheless, the manufacturing s*stem, in man* branches of industr*, attains this result but )er* imperfectl*,
because it +no"s not ho" to control "ith certaint* the general chemical and ph*sical conditions of the process of
production8
1
@Bhen (from the peculiar nature of the produce of each manufactor*!, the number of processes into "hich it is most
ad)antageous to di)ide it is ascertained, as "ell as the number of indi)iduals to be emplo*ed, then all other
manufactories "hich do not emplo* a direct multiple of this number "ill produce the article at a greater cost8888 -ence
arises one of the causes of the great si1e of manufacturing establishments8A (58 /abbage8 @=n the Econom* of
$achiner*,A 1st ed8 <ondon8 18:68 5h8 99i, pp8 17647:8!
13
>n England, the melting4furnace is distinct from the glass4furnace in "hich the glass is manipulated8 >n /elgium, one
and the same furnace ser)es for both processes8
16
'his can be seen from B8 #ett*, Lohn /ellers, (ndre" Narranton, @'he (d)antages of the East >ndia 'rade,A and L8
;anderlint, not to mention others8
17
'o"ards the end of the 16th centur*, mortars and sie)es "ere still used in France for pounding and "ashing ores8
18
'he "hole histor* of the de)elopment of machiner* can be traced in the histor* of the corn mill8 'he factor* in
England is still a @mill8A >n German technological "or+s of the first decade of this centur*, the term @$ThleA is still
found in use, not onl* for all machiner* dri)en b* the forces of Cature, but also for all manufactures "here apparatus
in the nature of machiner* is applied8
12
(s "ill be seen more in detail in the fourth boo+ of this "or+, (dam Smith has not established a single ne"
proposition relating to di)ision of labour8 Bhat, ho"e)er, characterises him as the political economist par e9cellence
of the period of $anufacture, is the stress he la*s on di)ision of labour8 'he subordinate part "hich he assigns to
machiner* ga)e occasion in the earl* da*s of modern mechanical industr* to the polemic of <auderdale, and, at a later
period, to that of %re8 (8 Smith also confounds differentiation of the instruments of labour, in "hich the detail
labourers themsel)es too+ an acti)e part, "ith the in)ention of machiner*; in this latter, it is not the "or+men in
manufactories, but learned men, handicraftsman, and e)en peasants (/rindle*!, "ho pla* a part8
67
@'he master manufacturer, b* di)iding the "or+ to be e9ecuted into different processes, each reIuiring different
degrees of s+ill or of force, can purchase e9actl* that precise Iuantit* of both "hich is necessar* for each process;
"hereas, if the "hole "or+ "ere e9ecuted b* one "or+man, that person must possess sufficient s+ill to perform the
most difficult, and sufficient strength to e9ecute the most laborious of the operations into "hich the article is di)ided8A
(5h8 /abbage, l8c8, ch8 9i98!
61
For instance, abnormal de)elopment of some muscles, cur)ature of bones, Pc8
66
'he Iuestion put b* one of the >nIuir* 5ommissioners, -o" the *oung persons are +ept steadil* to their "or+, is
)er* correctl* ans"ered b* $r8 Bm8 $arshall, the general manager of a glass manufactor*: @'he* cannot "ell
neglect their "or+; "hen the* once begin, the* must go on; the* are Dust the same as parts of a machine8A (@5hildren?s
Empl8 5omm8,A th &ep8, 1863, p8 678!
6:
0r8 %re, in his apotheosis of $odern $echanical >ndustr*, brings out the peculiar character of manufacture more
sharpl* than pre)ious economists, "ho had not his polemical interest in the matter, and more sharpl* e)en than his
contemporaries /abbage, e8g8, "ho, though much his superior as a mathematician and mechanician, treated
mechanical industr* from the standpoint of manufacture alone8 %re sa*s, @'his appropriation 888 to each, a "or+man of
appropriate )alue and cost "as naturall* assigned, forms the )er* essence of di)ision of labour8A =n the other hand, he
describes this di)ision as @adaptation of labour to the different talents of men,A and lastl*, characterises the "hole
manufacturing s*stem as @a s*stem for the di)ision or gradation of labour,A as @the di)ision of labour into degrees of
s+ill,A Pc8 (%re, l8c8, pp8 1246: passim8!
6
@Each handicraftsman being 888 enabled to perfect himself b* practice in one point, became 888 a cheaper "or+man8A
(%re, l8c8, p8 128!
63
@0i)ision of labour proceeds from the separation of professions the most "idel* different to that di)ision, "here
se)eral labourers di)ide bet"een them the preparation of one and the same product, as in manufacture8A (Storch:
@5ours d?Econ8 #ol8,A #aris Edn8 t8 >8, p8 17:8! @Cous rencontrons che1 les peuples par)enus X un certain degrR de
ci)ilisation trois genres de di)isions d?industrie: la preminre, Iue nous nommerons gRnRrale, amnne la distinction des
producteurs en agriculteurs, manufacturiers et commerzants, elle se rapporte au9 trois principales branches d?industrie
nationale; la seconde Iu?on pourrait appeler spRciale, est la di)ision de chaIue genre d?industrie en espnces 888 la
troisinme di)ision d?industrie, celle enfin Iu?on de)rait Iualifier de di)ision de la besogne on de tra)ail proprement
dit, est celle Iui s?Rtablit dans les arts et les mRtiers sRparRs 888 Iui s?Rtablit dans la plupart des manufactures et des
ateliers8A G(mong peoples "hich ha)e reached a certain le)el of ci)ilisation, "e meet "ith three +inds of di)ision of
labour: the first, "hich "e shall call general, brings about the di)ision of the producers into agriculturalists,
manufacturers, and traders, it corresponds to the three main branches of the nation?s labour; the second, "hich one
could call particular, is the di)ision of labour of each branch into species8 888 'he third di)ision of labour, "hich one
could designate as a di)ision of tas+s, or of labour properl* so called, is that "hich gro"s up in the indi)idual crafts
and trades 888 "hich is established in the maDorit* of the manufactories and "or+shopsH (S+arbe+, l8c8, pp8 8, 838!
66
Hote to the third edition$ SubseIuent )er* searching stud* of the primiti)e condition of man, led the author to the
conclusion, that it "as not the famil* that originall* de)eloped into the tribe, but that, on the contrar*, the tribe "as
the primiti)e and spontaneousl* de)eloped form of human association, on the basis of blood relationship, and that out
of the first incipient loosening of the tribal bonds, the man* and )arious forms of the famil* "ere after"ards
de)eloped8 GF8 E8H
67
Sir Lames Steuart is the economist "ho has handled this subDect best8 -o" little his boo+, "hich appeared ten *ears
before the @Bealth of Cations,A is +no"n, e)en at the present time, ma* be Dudged from the fact that the admirers of
$althus do not e)en +no" that the first edition of the latter?s "or+ on population contains, e9cept in the purel*
declamator* part, )er* little but e9tracts from Steuart, and in a less degree, from Ballace and 'o"nsend8
68
@'here is a certain densit* of population "hich is con)enient, both for social intercourse, and for that combination
of po"ers b* "hich the produce of labour is increased8A (Lames $ill, l8c8, p8 378! @(s the number of labourers
increases, the producti)e po"er of societ* augments in the compound ratio of that increase, multiplied b* the effects
of the di)ision of labour8A ('h8 -odgs+in, l8c8, pp8 163, 1668!
62
>n conseIuence of the great demand for cotton after 1861, the production of cotton, in some thic+l* populated
districts of >ndia, "as e9tended at the e9pense of rice culti)ation8 >n conseIuence there arose local famines, the
defecti)e means of communication not permitting the failure of rice in one district to be compensated b* importation
from another8
:7
'hus the fabrication of shuttles formed as earl* as the 17th centur*, a special branch of industr* in -olland8
:1
Bhether the "oollen manufacture of England is not di)ided into se)eral parts or branches appropriated to particular
places, "here the* are onl* or principall* manufactured; fine cloths in Somersetshire, coarse in Nor+shire, long ells at
E9eter, soies at Sudbur*, crapes at Cor"ich, linse*s at .endal, blan+ets at Bhitne*, and so forth8A (/er+ele*: @'he
Kuerist,A 1731, 3678!
:6
(8 Ferguson: @-istor* of 5i)il Societ*8A Edinburgh, 1767; #art i), sect8 ii8, p8 6838
::
>n manufacture proper, he sa*s, the di)ision of labour appears to be greater, because @those emplo*ed in e)er*
different branch of the "or+ can often be collected into the same "or+house, and placed at once under the )ie" of the
spectator8 >n those great manufactures, (Q! on the contrar*, "hich are destined to suppl* the great "ants of the great
bod* of the people, e)er* different branch of the "or+ emplo*s so great a number of "or+men, that it is impossible to
collect them all into the same "or+house 888 the di)ision is not near so ob)ious8A ((8 Smith: @Bealth of Cations,A b+8 i,
ch8 i8! 'he celebrated passage in the same chapter that begins "ith the "ords, @=bser)e the accommodation of the
most common artificer or da*4labourer in a ci)ilised and thri)ing countr*,A Pc8, and then proceeds to depict "hat an
enormous number and )ariet* of industries contribute to the satisfaction of the "ants of an ordinar* labourer, is copied
almost "ord for "ord from /8 de $ande)ille?s &emar+s to his @Fable of the /ees, or #ri)ate ;ices, #ublic+ /enefits8A
(First ed8, "ithout the remar+s, 1776; "ith the remar+s, 1718!
:
@'here is no longer an*thing "hich "e can call the natural re"ard of indi)idual labour8 Each labourer produces onl*
some part of a "hole, and each part, ha)ing no )alue or utilit* in itself, there is nothing on "hich the labourer can
sei1e, and sa*: >t is m* product, this > "ill +eep to m*self8A (@<abour 0efended against the 5laims of 5apital8A <ond8,
1863, p8 638! 'he author of this admirable "or+ is the 'h8 -odgs+in > ha)e alread* cited8
:3
'his distinction bet"een di)ision of labour in societ* and in manufacture, "as practicall* illustrated to the Nan+ees8
=ne of the ne" ta9es de)ised at Bashington during the ci)il "ar, "as the dut* of 6` @on all industrial products8A
Kuestion: Bhat is an industrial productE (ns"er of the legislature: ( thing is produced @"hen it is made,A and it is
made "hen it is read* for sale8 Co", for one e9ample out of man*8 'he Ce" Nor+ and #hiladelphia manufacturers had
pre)iousl* been in the habit of @ma+ingA umbrellas "ith all their belongings8 /ut since an umbrella is a mixtum
compositum of )er* heterogeneous parts, b* degrees these parts became the products of )arious separate industries,
carried on independentl* in different places8 'he* entered as separate commodities into the umbrella manufactor*,
"here the* "ere fitted together8 'he Nan+ees ha)e gi)en to articles thus fitted together, the name of @assembled
articles,A a name the* deser)e, for being an assemblage of ta9es8 'hus the umbrella @assembles,A first, 6` on the price
of each of its elements, and a further 6` on its o"n total price8
:6
@=n peut888 Rtablir en rngle gRnRrale, Iue moins l?autoritR prRside X la di)ision du tra)ail dans l?intRrieur de la
sociRtR, plus la di)ision du tra)ail se dR)eloppe dans l?intRrieur de l?atelier, et plus elle * est soumise X l?autoritR d?un
seul8 (insi l?autoritR dans l?atelier et celle dans la sociRtR, par rapport X la di)ision du tra)ail, sont en raison in)erse
l?une de l?autre8A G>t can 888 be laid do"n as a general rule that the less authorit* presides o)er the di)ision of labour
inside societ*, the more the di)ision of labour de)elops inside the "or+shop, and the more it is subDected there to the
authorit* of a single person8 'hus authorit* in the "or+shop and authorit* in societ* in relation to the di)ision of
labour, are in in)erse ratio to each otherH (.arl $ar9, @$isnre,A Pc8, pp8 1:741:18!
:7
<ieut845ol8 $ar+ Bil+s: @-istorical S+etches of the South of >ndia8A <ond8, 1817417, )8 >8, pp8 1184678 ( good
description of the )arious forms of the >ndian communities is to be found in George 5ampbell?s @$odern >ndia8A
<ond8, 18368
:8
@%nder this simple form 888 the inhabitants of the countr* ha)e li)ed from time immemorial8 'he boundaries of the
)illages ha)e been but seldom altered; and though the )illages themsel)es ha)e been sometimes inDured, and e)en
desolated b* "ar, famine, and disease, the same name, the same limits, the same interests, and e)en the same families,
ha)e continued for ages8 'he inhabitants gi)e themsel)es no trouble about the brea+ing up and di)ision of +ingdoms;
"hile the )illage remains entire, the* care not to "hat po"er it is transferred, or to "hat so)ereign it de)ol)es; its
internal econom* remains unchanged8A ('h8 Stamford &affles, late <ieut8 Go)8 of La)a: @'he -istor* of La)a8A <ond8,
1817, ;ol8 >8, p8 6838!
:2
@>t is not sufficient that the capitalA (the "riter should ha)e said the necessar* means of subsistence and of
production! @reIuired for the subdi)ision of handicrafts should be in readiness in the societ*: it must also be
accumulated in the hands of the emplo*ers in sufficientl* large Iuantities to enable them to conduct their operations
on a large scale8888 'he more the di)ision increases, the more does the constant emplo*ment of a gi)en number of
labourers reIuire a greater outla* of capital in tools, ra" material, Pc8A (Storch: @5ours d?Econ8 #olit8A #aris Ed8, t8 >8,
pp8 637, 6318! @<a concentration des instruments de production et la di)ision du tra)ail sont aussi insRparables l?une
de l?autre Iue le sont, dans le rRgime politiIue, la concentration des pou)oirs publics et la di)ision des intRrdts pri)Rs8A
G'he concentration of the instruments of production and the di)ision of labour are as inseparable one from the other,
as are, in the political sphere, the concentration of public po"ers and the di)ision of pri)ate interests8H (.arl $ar9, l8c8,
p8 1:8!
7
0ugald Ste"art calls manufacturing labourers @li)ing automatons 888 emplo*ed in the details of the "or+8A (>8 c8, p8
:188!
1
>n corals, each indi)idual is, in fact, the stomach of the "hole group; but it supplies the group "ith nourishment,
instead of, li+e the &oman patrician, "ithdra"ing it8
6
@<?ou)rier Iui porte dans ses bras tout un mRtier, peut aller partout e9ercer son industrie et trou)er des mo*ens de
subsister: l?autre (the manufacturing labourer! n?est Iu?un accessoire Iui, sRparR de ses confrnres, n?a plus ni capacitR,
ni indRpendance, et Iui se trou)e force d?accepter la loi Iu?on Duge X propos de lui imposer 8A G'he "or+er "ho is the
master of a "hole craft can "or+ and find the means of subsistence an*"here; the other (the manufacturing labourer!
is onl* an appendage "ho, "hen he is separated from his fello"s, possesses neither capabilit* nor independence, and
finds himself forced to accept an* la" it is thought fit to imposeH (Storch, l8c8, #etersb8 edit8, 1813, t8 >8, p8 678!
:
(8 Ferguson, l8c8, p8 681: @'he former ma* ha)e gained "hat the other has lost8A
@'he man of +no"ledge and the producti)e labourer come to be "idel* di)ided from each other, and +no"ledge,
instead of remaining the handmaid of labour in the hand of the labourer to increase his producti)e po"ers 888 has
almost e)er*"here arra*ed itself against labour 888 s*stematicall* deluding and leading them (the labourers! astra* in
order to render their muscular po"ers entirel* mechanical and obedient8A (B8 'hompson: @(n >nIuir* into the
#rinciples of the 0istribution of Bealth8A <ondon, 186, p8 678!
3
(8 Ferguson, l8c8, p8 6878
6
L8 08 'uc+ett: @( -istor* of the #ast and #resent State of the <abouring #opulation8A <ond8, 1868
7
(8 Smith: @Bealth of Cations,A /+8 )8, ch8 i, art8 ii8 /eing a pupil of (8 Ferguson "ho sho"ed the disad)antageous
effects of di)ision of labour, (dam Smith "as perfectl* clear on this point8 >n the introduction to his "or+, "here he
ex professo praises di)ision of labour, he indicates onl* in a cursor* manner that it is the source of social ineIualities8
>t is not till the 3th /oo+, on the &e)enue of the State, that he reproduces Ferguson8 >n m* @$isnre de la #hilosophie,A
> ha)e sufficientl* e9plained the historical conne9ion bet"een Ferguson, (8 Smith, <emonte*, and Sa*, as regards
their criticisms of 0i)ision of <abour, and ha)e sho"n, for the first time, that 0i)ision of <abour as practised in
manufactures, is a specific form of the capitalist mode of production8
8
Ferguson had alread* said, l8c8, p8 681: @(nd thin+ing itself, in this age of separations, ma* become a peculiar
craft8A
2
G8 Garnier, )ol8 ;8 of his translation of (8 Smith, pp8 438
37
&ama11ini, professor of practical medicine at #adua, published in 171: his "or+ @0e morbis artificum,A "hich "as
translated into French 1781, reprinted 181 in the @Enc*clopRdie des Sciences $Rdicales8 7me 0is8 (uteurs
5lassiIues8A 'he period of $odern $echanical >ndustr* has, of course, )er* much enlarged his catalogue of labour?s
diseases8 See @-*ginne ph*siIue et morale de l?ou)rier dans les grandes )illes en gRnRral et dans la )ille de <*on en
particulier8 #ar le 0r8 (8 <8 Fonteret, #aris, 1838,A and @0ie .ran+heiten, "elche )erschiednen Stnden, (ltern und
Geschlechtern eigenthTmlich sind8 6 ;ols8 %lm, 1867,A and others8 >n 183 the Societ* of (rts appointed a
5ommission of >nIuir* into industrial patholog*8 'he list of documents collected b* this commission is to be seen in
the catalogue of the @'"ic+enham Economic $useum8A ;er* important are the official @&eports on #ublic -ealth8A
See also Eduard &eich, $8 08 @%eber die Entartung des $enschen,A Erlangen, 18688
31
(08 %rIuhart: @Familiar Bords8A <ond8, 1833, p8 1128! -egel held )er* heretical )ie"s on di)ision of labour8 >n his
@&echtsphilosophieA he sa*s: @/* "ell educated men "e understand in the first instance, those "ho can do e)er*thing
that others do8A
36
'he simple belief in the in)enti)e genius e9ercised a priori b* the indi)idual capitalist in di)ision of labour, e9ists
no"4a4da*s onl* among German professors, of the stamp of -err &oscher, "ho, to recompense the capitalist from
"hose Lo)ian head di)ision of labour sprang read* formed, dedicates to him @)arious "agesA (di)erse ArbeitslMhne!8
'he more or less e9tensi)e application of di)ision of labour depends on length of purse, not on greatness of genius8
3:
'he older "riters, li+e #ett* and the anon*mous author of @(d)antages of the East >ndia 'rade,A bring out the
capitalist character of di)ision of labour as applied in manufacture more than (8 Smith does8
3
(mongst the moderns ma* be e9cepted a fe" "riters of the 18th centur*, li+e /eccaria and Lames -arris, "ho "ith
regard to di)ision of labour almost entirel* follo" the ancients8 'hus, /eccaria: @5iascuno pro)a coll?esperien1a, che
applicando la mano e l?ingegno sempre allo stesso genere di opere e di produtte, egli pix facili, pix abbondanti e
migliori ne traca risultati, di Iuello che se ciascuno isolatamente le cose tutte a se necessarie soltanto facesse8888
0i)idendosi in tal maniera per la comune e pri)ata utilitX gli uomini in )arie classi e condi1ioni8A GE)er*one +no"s
from e9perience that if the hands and the intelligence are al"a*s applied to the same +ind of "or+ and the same
products, these "ill be produced more easil*, in greater abundance, and in higher Iualit*, than if each indi)idual
ma+es for himself all the things he needs 888 >n this "a*, men are di)ided up into )arious classes and conditions, to
their o"n ad)antage and to that of the commodit*8H(5esare /eccaria: @Elementi di Econ: #ubblica,A ed8 5ustodi, #arte
$oderna, t8 9i, p8 628! Lames -arris, after"ards Earl of $almesbur*, celebrated for the @0iariesA of his embass* at St8
#etersburg, sa*s in a note to his @0ialogue 5oncerning -appiness,A <ond8, 171, reprinted after"ards in @'hree
'reatises, : Ed8, <ond8, 1776: @'he "hole argument to pro)e societ* natural (i8e8, b* di)ision of emplo*ments! 888 is
ta+en from the second boo+ of #lato?s &epublic8A
33
'hus, in the =d*sse* 9i)8, 668, G@\ \A For different men ta+e
Do* in different "or+sH and (rchilochus in Se9tus Empiricus, G@\ 8A men
differ as to things cheer their heartsH
36
G@ , \ 8A -e could do man* "or+s, but all of them badl* F
-omerH E)er* (thenian considered himself superior as a producer of commodities to a Spartan; for the latter in
time of "ar had men enough at his disposal but could not command mone*, as 'huc*dides ma+es #ericles sa* in
the speech inciting the (thenians to the #eloponnesian "ar: G@
A people producing for their o"n consumption "ill rather let "ar ha)e
their bodies than their mone*H ('huc8: 1, >8 c8 18! Ce)ertheless, e)en "ith regard to material production,
Gautarceia self4sufficienc*H, as opposed to di)ision of labour remained their ideal, G@ , ,
\8A For "ith the latter there is "ell4being, but "ith the former there is independence8H
>t should be mentioned here that at the date of the fall of the :7 '*rants there "ere still not 3,777 (thenians
"ithout landed propert*8
37
Bith #lato, di)ision of labour "ithin the communit* is a de)elopment from the multifarious reIuirements, and
the limited capacities of indi)iduals8 'he main point "ith him is, that the labourer must adapt himself to the
"or+, not the "or+ to the labourer; "hich latter is una)oidable, if he carries on se)eral trades at once, thus
ma+ing one or the other of them subordinate8
G@ ,
. .
, , 8A GFor the
"or+man must "ait upon the "or+; it "ill not "ait upon his leisure and allo" itself to be done in a spare
moment8 v Nes, he must,v So the conclusion is that more "ill be produced of e)er* thing and the "or+ "ill be
more easil* and better done, "hen e)er* man is set free from all other occupations to do, at the right time, the
one thing for "hich he is naturall* fitted8H (&ep8 18 68 Ed8 /aiter, =relli, Pc8! So in 'huc*dides, l8c8, c8 16:
@Seafaring is an art li+e an* other, and cannot, as circumstances reIuire, be carried on as a subsidiar*
occupation; na*, other subsidiar* occupations cannot be carried on alongside of this one8A >f the "or+, sa*s
#lato, has to "ait for the labourer, the critical point in the process is missed and the article spoiled,
G@ 8A G>f someone lets slip 888H 'he same #latonic idea is found recurring in the protest of
the English bleachers against the clause in the Factor* (ct that pro)ides fi9ed mealtimes for all operati)es8 'heir
business cannot "ait the con)enience of the "or+men, for @in the )arious operations of singeing, "ashing,
bleaching, mangling, calendering, and d*eing, none of them can be stopped at a gi)en moment "ithout ris+ of
damage 888 to enforce the same dinner hour for all the "or+people might occasionall* subDect )aluable goods to
the ris+ of danger b* incomplete operations8A Le platonisme oN va)t)il se nicher! GBhere "ill #latonism be found
ne9tQH
38
Oenophon sa*s, it is not onl* an honour to recei)e food from the table of the .ing of #ersia, but such food is much
more tast* than other food8 @(nd there is nothing "onderful in this, for as the other arts are brought to special
perfection in the great to"ns, so the ro*al food is prepared in a special "a*8 For in the small to"ns the same man
ma+es bedsteads, doors, ploughs, and tables: often, too, he builds houses into the bargain, and is Iuite content if he
finds custom sufficient for his sustenance8 >t is altogether impossible for a man "ho does so man* things to do them
all "ell8 /ut in the great to"ns, "here each can find man* bu*ers, one trade is sufficient to maintain the man "ho
carries it on8 Ca*, there is often not e)en need of one complete trade, but one man ma+es shoes for men, another for
"omen8 -ere and there one man gets a li)ing b* se"ing, another b* cutting out shoes; one does nothing but cut out
clothes, another nothing but se" the pieces together8 >t follo"s necessaril* then, that he "ho does the simplest +ind of
"or+, undoubtedl* does it better than an*one else8 So it is "ith the art of coo+ing8A (Oen8 5*rop8 >8 )iii8, c8 68!
Oenophon here la*s stress e9clusi)el* upon the e9cellence to be attained in use4)alue, although he "ell +no"s that the
gradations of the di)ision of labour depend on the e9tent of the mar+et8
32
-e (/usiris! di)ided them all into special castes 888 commanded that the same indi)iduals should al"a*s carr* on the
same trade, for he +ne" that the* "ho change their occupations become s+illed in none; but that those "ho constantl*
stic+ to one occupation bring it to the highest perfection8 >n truth, "e shall also find that in relation to the arts and
handicrafts, the* ha)e outstripped their ri)als more than a master does a bungler; and the contri)ances for maintaining
the monarch* and the other institutions of their State are so admirable that the most celebrated philosophers "ho treat
of this subDect praise the constitution of the Eg*ptian State abo)e all others8 (>socrates, /usiris, c8 88!
67
5f8 0iodorus Siculus8
61
%re, l8c8, p8 678
66
'his is more the case in England than in France, and more in France than in -olland8
1
$ill should ha)e said, @of an* human being not fed b* other people?s labour,A for, "ithout doubt, machiner* has
greatl* increased the number of "ell4to4do idlers8
6
See, for instance, -utton: @5ourse of $athematics8A
:
@From this point of )ie" "e ma* dra" a sharp line of distinction bet"een a tool and a machine: spades, hammers,
chisels, Pc8, combinations of le)ers and of scre"s, in all of "hich, no matter ho" complicated the* ma* be in other
respects, man is the moti)e po"er, 888 all this falls under the idea of a tool; but the plough, "hich is dra"n b* animal
po"er, and "ind4mills, Pc8, must be classed among machines8A (Bilhelm Schul1: @0ie /e"egung der #rodu+tion8A
,Trich, 18:, p8 :88! >n man* respects a boo+ to be recommended8
/efore his time, spinning machines, although )er* imperfect ones, had alread* been used, and >tal* "as probabl* the
countr* of their first appearance8 ( critical histor* of technolog* "ould sho" ho" little an* of the in)entions of the
18th centur* are the "or+ of a single indi)idual8 -itherto there is no such boo+8 0ar"in has interested us in the histor*
of Cature?s 'echnolog*, i8e8, in the formation of the organs of plants and animals, "hich organs ser)e as instruments
of production for sustaining life8 0oes not the histor* of the producti)e organs of man, of organs that are the material
basis of all social organisation, deser)e eIual attentionE (nd "ould not such a histor* be easier to compile, since, as
;ico sa*s, human histor* differs from natural histor* in this, that "e ha)e made the former, but not the latterE
'echnolog* discloses man?s mode of dealing "ith Cature, the process of production b* "hich he sustains his life, and
thereb* also la*s bare the mode of formation of his social relations, and of the mental conceptions that flo" from
them8 E)er* histor* of religion, e)en, that fails to ta+e account of this material basis, is uncritical8 >t is, in realit*,
much easier to disco)er b* anal*sis the earthl* core of the mist* creations of religion, than, con)ersel*, it is, to
de)elop from the actual relations of life the corresponding celestialised forms of those relations8 'he latter method is
the onl* materialistic, and therefore the onl* scientific one8 'he "ea+ points in the abstract materialism of natural
science, a materialism that e9cludes histor* and its process, are at once e)ident from the abstract and ideological
conceptions of its spo+esmen, "hene)er the* )enture be*ond the bounds of their o"n specialit*8
3
Especiall* in the original form of the po"er4loom, "e recognise, at the first glance, the ancient loom8 >n its modern
form, the po"er4loom has undergone essential alterations8
6
>t is onl* during the last 13 *ears (i8e8, since about 1837!, that a constantl* increasing portion of these machine tools
ha)e been made in England b* machiner*, and that not b* the same manufacturers "ho ma+e the machines8 >nstances
of machines for the fabrication of these mechanical tools are, the automatic bobbin4ma+ing engine, the cardsetting
engine, shuttle4ma+ing machines, and machines for forging mule and throstle spindles8
7
$oses sa*s: @'hou shalt not mu11le the o9 that treads the corn8A 'he 5hristian philanthropists of German*, on the
contrar*, fastened a "ooden board round the nec+s of the serfs, "hom the* used as a moti)e po"er for grinding, in
order to pre)ent them from putting flour into their mouths "ith their hands8
8
>t "as partl* the "ant of streams "ith a good fall on them, and partl* their battles "ith superabundance of "ater in
other respects, that compelled the 0utch to resort to "ind as a moti)e po"er8 'he "ind4mill itself the* got from
German*, "here its in)ention "as the origin of a prett* sIuabble bet"een the nobles, the priests, and the emperor, as
to "hich of those three the "ind @belonged8A 'he air ma+es bondage, "as the cr* in German*, at the same time that
the "ind "as ma+ing -olland free8 Bhat it reduced to bondage in this case, "as not the 0utchman, but the land for
the 0utchman8 >n 18:6, 16,777 "indmills of 6,777 horse4po"er "ere still emplo*ed in -olland, to pre)ent t"o4thirds
of the land from being recon)erted into morasses8
2
>t "as, indeed, )er* much impro)ed b* Batt?s first so4called single acting engine; but, in this form, it continued to be
a mere machine for raising "ater, and the liIuor from salt mines8
17
@'he union of all these simple instruments, set in motion b* a single motor, constitutes a machine8A (/abbage, l8c8!
11
>n Lanuar*, 1861, Lohn 58 $orton read before the Societ* of (rts a paper on @'he forces emplo*ed in agriculture8A
-e there states: @E)er* impro)ement that furthers the uniformit* of the land ma+es the steam4engine more and more
applicable to the production of pure mechanical force8888 -orse4po"er is reIuisite "here)er croo+ed fences and other
obstructions pre)ent uniform action8 'hese obstructions are )anishing da* b* da*8 For operations that demand more
e9ercise of "ill than actual force, the onl* po"er applicable is that controlled e)er* instant b* the human mind4in
other "ords, man4po"er8A $r8 $orton then reduces steam4po"er, horse4po"er, and man4po"er, to the unit in general
use for steam4engines, namel*, the force reIuired to raise ::,777 lbs8 one foot in one minute, and rec+ons the cost of
one horse4po"er from a steam4engine to be :d8, and from a horse to be 3[d8 per hour8 Further, if a horse must full*
maintain its health, it can "or+ no more than 8 hours a da*8 'hree at the least out of e)er* se)en horses used on tillage
land during the *ear can be dispensed "ith b* using steam4po"er, at an e9pense not greater than that "hich, the
horses dispensed "ith, "ould cost during the : or months in "hich alone the* can be used effecti)el*8 <astl*, steam4
po"er, in those agricultural operations in "hich it can be emplo*ed, impro)es, in comparison "ith horse4po"er, the
Iualit* of the "or+8 'o do the "or+ of a steam4engine "ould reIuire 66 men, at a total cost of 13S8 an hour, and to do
the "or+ of a horse, :6 men, at a total cost of 8s8 an hour8
16
Faulhaber, 1663; 0e 5aus, 16888
1:
'he modern turbine frees the industrial e9ploitation of "ater4po"er from man* of its former fetters8
1
@>n the earl* da*s of te9tile manufactures, the localit* of the factor* depended upon the e9istence of a stream ha)ing
a sufficient fall to turn a "ater4"heel; and, although the establishment of the "ater4mills "as the commencement of
the brea+ing up of the domestic s*stem of manufacture, *et the mills necessaril* situated upon streams, and freIuentl*
at considerable distances the one from the other, formed part of a rural, rather than an urban s*stem; and it "as not
until the introduction of the steam4po"er as a substitute for the stream that factories "ere congregated in to"ns, and
localities "here the coal and "ater reIuired for the production of steam "ere found in sufficient Iuantities8 'he steam4
engine is the parent of manufacturing to"ns8A ((8 &edgra)e in @&eports of the >nsp8 of Fact8, :7th (pril, 1867,A p8 :68!
13
From the standpoint of di)ision of labour in $anufacture, "ea)ing "as not simple, but, on the contrar*,
complicated manual labour; and conseIuentl* the po"er4loom is a machine that does )er* complicated "or+8 >t is
altogether erroneous to suppose that modern machiner* originall* appropriated those operations alone, "hich di)ision
of labour had simplified8 Spinning and "ea)ing "ere, during the manufacturing period, split up into ne" species, and
the implements "ere modified and impro)ed; but the labour itself "as in no "a* di)ided, and it retained its handicraft
character8 >t is not the labour, but the instrument of labour, that ser)es as the starting4point of the machine8
16
/efore the epoch of $echanical >ndustr*, the "ool manufacture "as the predominating manufacture in England8
-ence it "as in this industr* that, in the first half of the 18th centur*, the most e9periments "ere made8 5otton, "hich
reIuired less careful preparation for its treatment b* machiner*, deri)ed the benefit of the e9perience gained on "ool,
Dust as after"ards the manipulation of "ool b* machiner* "as de)eloped on the lines of cotton4spinning and "ea)ing
b* machiner*8 >t "as onl* during the 17 *ears immediatel* preceding 1866, that isolated details of the "ool
manufacture, such as "oolcombing, "ere incorporated in the factor* s*stem8 @'he application of po"er to the process
of combing "ool 888 e9tensi)el* in operation since the introduction of the combingmachine, especiall* <ister?s 888
undoubtedl* had the effect of thro"ing a )er* large number of men out of "or+8 Bool "as formerl* combed b* hand,
most freIuentl* in the cottage of the comber8 >t is no" )er* generall* combed in the factor*, and hand4labour is
superseded, e9cept in some particular +inds of "or+, in "hich hand4combed "ool is still preferred8 $an* of the hand4
combers found emplo*ment in the factories, but the produce of the hand4combers bears so small a proportion to that
of the machine, that the emplo*ment of a )er* large number of combers has passed a"a*8A (@&ep8 of lnsp8 of Fact8 for
:1st =ct8, 1836,A p8 168!
17
@'he principle of the factor* s*stem, then, is to substitute 888 the partition of a process into its essential constituents,
for the di)ision or graduation of labour among artisans8A ((ndre" %re: @'he #hilosoph* of $anufactures,A <ond8,
18:3, p8 678!
18
'he po"er4loom "as at first made chiefl* of "ood; in its impro)ed modern form it is made of iron8 'o "hat an
e9tent the old forms of the instruments of production influenced their ne" forms at first starting, is sho"n b*, amongst
other things, the most superficial comparison of the present po"er4loom "ith the old one, of the modern blo"ing
apparatus of a blast4furnace "ith the first inefficient mechanical reproduction of the ordinar* bello"s, and perhaps
more stri+ingl* than in an* other "a*, b* the attempts before the in)ention of the present locomoti)e, to construct a
locomoti)e that actuall* had t"o feet, "hich after the fashion of a horse, it raised alternatel* from the ground8 >t is
onl* after considerable de)elopment of the science of mechanics, and accumulated practical e9perience, that the form
of a machine becomes settled entirel* in accordance "ith mechanical principles, and emancipated from the traditional
form of the tool that ga)e rise to it8
12
Eli Bhitne*?s cotton gin had until )er* recent times undergone less essential changes than an* other machine of the
18th centur*8 >t is onl* during the last decade (i8e8, since 1836! that another (merican, $r8 Emer*, of (lban*, Ce"
Nor+, has rendered Bhitne*?s gin antiIuated b* an impro)ement as simple as it is effecti)e8
67
@'he >ndustr* of Cations,A <ond8, 1833, #art >>8, p8 6:28 'his "or+ also remar+s: WSimple and out"ardl*
unimportant as this appendage to lathes ma* appear, it is not, "e belie)e, a)erring too much to state, that its influence
in impro)ing and e9tending the use of machiner* has been as great as that produced b* Batt?s impro)ements of the
steam4engine itself8 >ts introduction "ent at once to perfect all machiner*, to cheapen it, and to stimulate in)ention and
impro)ement8A
61
=ne of these machines, used for forging paddle4"heel shafts in <ondon, is called @'hor8A >t forges a shaft of 16[
tons "ith as much ease as a blac+smith forges a horseshoe8
66
Bood4"or+ing machines that are also capable of being emplo*ed on a small scale are mostl* (merican in)entions8
6:
Science, generall* spea+ing, costs the capitalist nothing, a fact that b* no means hinders him from e9ploiting it8 'he
science of others is as much anne9ed b* capital as the labour of others8 5apitalistic appropriation and personal
appropriation, "hether of science or of material "ealth, are, ho"e)er, totall* different things8 0r8 %re himself deplores
the gross ignorance of mechanical science e9isting among his dear machiner*4e9ploiting manufacturers, and <iebig
can a tale unfold about the astounding ignorance of chemistr* displa*ed b* English chemical manufacturers8
6
&icardo la*s such stress on this effect of machiner* (of "hich, in other conne9ions, he ta+es no more notice than he
does of the general distinction bet"een the labour process and the process of creating surplus )alue!, that he
occasionall* loses sight of the )alue gi)en up b* machines to the product, and puts machines on the same footing as
natural forces8 'hus @(dam Smith no"here under)alues the ser)ices "hich the natural agents and machiner* perform
for us, but he )er* Dustl* distinguishes the nature of the )alue "hich the* add to commodities888 as the* perform their
"or+ gratuitousl*, the assistance "hich the* afford us, adds nothing to )alue in e9change8A (&ic8, l8c8, pp8 ::6, ::78!
'his obser)ation of &icardo is of course correct in so far as it is directed against L8 /8 Sa*, "ho imagines that
machines render the @ser)iceA of creating )alue "hich forms a part of @profits8A
63
( horse4po"er is eIual to a force of ::,777 foot4pounds per minute, i8e8, to a force that raises ::,777 pounds one
foot in a minute, or one pound ::,777 feet8 'his is the horse po"er meant in the te9t8 >n ordinar* language, and also
here and there in Iuotations in this "or+, a distinction is dra"n bet"een the @nominalA and the @commercialA or
@indicatedA horse4po"er of the same engine8 'he old or nominal horse4po"er is calculated e9clusi)el* from the length
of piston4stro+e, and the diameter of the c*linder, and lea)es pressure of steam and piston speed out of consideration8
>t e9presses practicall* this: 'his engine "ould be one of 37 horse4po"er, if it "ere dri)en "ith the same lo" pressure
of steam, and the same slo" piston speed, as in the da*s of /oulton and Batt8 /ut the t"o latter factors ha)e increased
enormousl* since those da*s8 >n order to measure the mechanical force e9erted toda* b* an engine, an indicator has
been in)ented "hich sho"s the pressure of the steam in the c*linder8 'he piston speed is easil* ascertained8 'hus the
@indicatedA or @commercialA horse4po"er of an engine is e9pressed b* a mathematical formula, in)ol)ing diameter of
c*linder, length of stro+e, piston speed, and steam pressure, simultaneousl*, and sho"ing "hat multiple of ::,777
pounds is reall* raised b* the engine in a minute8 -ence, one @nominalA horse4po"er ma* e9ert three, four, or e)en
fi)e @indicatedA or @realA horse4po"ers8 'his obser)ation is made for the purpose of e9plaining )arious citations in the
subseIuent pages8 v !$ E8
66
'he reader "ho is imbued "ith capitalist notions "ill naturall* miss here the @interestA that the machine, in
proportion to its capital )alue, adds to the product8 >t is, ho"e)er, easil* seen that since a machine no more creates
ne" )alue than an* other part of constant capital, it cannot add an* )alue under the name of @interest8A >t is also
e)ident that here, "here "e are treating of the production of surplus )alue, "e cannot assume a priori the e9istence of
an* part of that )alue under the name of interest8 'he capitalist mode of calculating, "hich appears, prim% facie,
absurd, and repugnant to the la"s of the creation of )alue, "ill be e9plained in the third boo+ of this "or+8
67
'his portion of )alue "hich is added b* the machiner*, decreases both absolutel* and relati)el*, "hen the
machiner* does a"a* "ith horses and other animals that are emplo*ed as mere mo)ing forces, and not as machines
for changing the form of matter8 >t ma* here be incidentall* obser)ed, that 0escartes, in defining animals as mere
machines, 8sa" "ith e*es of the manufacturing period, "hile to e*es of the middle ages, animals "ere assistants to
man, as the* "ere later to ;on -aller in his @&estauration der Staats"issenschaften8A 'hat 0escartes, li+e /acon,
anticipated an alteration in the form of production, and the practical subDugation of Cature b* $an, as a result of the
altered methods of thought, is plain from his @0iscours de la $Rthode8A -e there sa*s: @>l est possible (b* the methods
he introduced in philosoph*! de par)enir X des connaissances fort utiles X la )ie, et Iu?au lieu de cette philosophie
spRculati)e Iu?on enseigne dans les Rcoles, on en peut trou)er une pratiIue, par laIuelle, connaissant la force et les
actions du feu, de l?eau, de l?air, des astres, et de tous les autres corps Iui nous en)ironnent, aussi distinctement Iue
nous connaissons les di)ers mRtiers de nos artisans, nous les pourrions emplo*er en mdme fazon X tous les usages
au9Iuels ils sont propres, et ainsi nous rendre comme martres et possesseurs de la natureA and thus @contribuer au
perfectionnement de la )ie humaine8A G>t is possible to attain +no"ledge )er* useful in life and, in place of the
speculati)e philosoph* taught in the schools, one can find a practical philosoph* b* "hich, gi)en that "e +no" the
po"ers and the effecti)eness of fire, "ater, air, the stars, and all the other bodies that surround us, as "ell and as
accuratel* as "e +no" the )arious trades of our craftsmen, "e shall be able to emplo* them in the same manner as the
latter to all uses to "hich the* are adapted, and thus as it "ere ma+e oursel)es the masters and possessors of nature,
and thus contributing to the perfection of human life8H >n the preface to Sir 0udle* Corth?s @0iscourses upon 'radeA
(1621! it is stated, that 0escartes? method had begun to free #olitical Econom* from the old fables and superstitious
notions of gold, trade, Pc8 =n the "hole, ho"e)er, the earl* English economists sided "ith /acon and -obbes as their
philosophers; "hile, at a later period, the philosopher G888H of #olitical Econom* in England, France, and >tal*, "as
<oc+e8
68
(ccording to the annual report (186:! of the Essen chamber of commerce, there "as produced in 1866, at the cast4
steel "or+s of .rupp, "ith its 161 furnaces, thirt*4t"o steam4engines (in the *ear 1877 this "as about the number of
all the steam4engines "or+ing in $anchester!, and fourteen steam4hammers (representing in all 1,6:6 horse4po"er!
fort*4nine forges, 67: tool4machines, and about 6,77 "or+men4thirteen million pounds of cast steel8 -ere there are
not t"o "or+men to each horse4po"er8
62
/abbage estimates that in La)a the spinning labour alone adds 117` to the )alue of the cotton8 (t the same period
(18:6! the total )alue added to the cotton b* machiner* and labour in the fine4spinning industr*, amounted to about
::` of the )alue of the cotton8 (@=n the Econom* of $achiner*,A pp8 163, 1668!
:7
$achine printing also economises colour8
:1
See #aper read b* 0r8 Batson, &eporter on #roducts to the Go)ernment of >ndia, before the Societ* of (rts, 17th
(pril, 18678
:6
@'hese mute agents (machines! are al"a*s the produce of much less labour than that "hich the* displace, e)en
"hen the* are of the same mone*4)alue8A (&icardo, l8c8, p8 78!
::
-ence in a communistic societ* there "ould be a )er* different scope for the emplo*ment of machiner* than there
can be in a bourgeois societ*8
:
@Emplo*ers of labour "ould not unnecessaril* retain t"o sets of children under thirteen8888 >n fact one class of
manufacturers, the spinners of "oollen *am, no" rarel* emplo* children under thirteen *ears of age, i8e8, half4timers8
'he* ha)e introduced impro)ed and ne" machiner* of )arious +inds, "hich altogether supersedes the emplo*ment of
children (i8e8, under 1: *ears!; f8 i8, > "ill mention one process as an illustration of this diminution in the number of
children, "herein b* the addition of an apparatus, called a piecing machine, to e9isting machines, the "or+ of si9 or
four half4timers, according to the peculiarit* of each machine, can be performed b* one *oung person (o)er 1:
*ears!888 the half4time s*stem Wstimulated? the in)ention of the piecing machine8A (&eports of >nsp8 of Fact8 for :1st
=ct8, 18388!
:3
@BretchA is the recognised term in English #olitical Econom* for the agricultural labourer8
:6
@$achiner* 888 can freIuentl* not be emplo*ed until labour (he means "ages! rises8A (&icardo, l8c8, p8 728!
:7
See @&eport of the Social Science 5ongress, at Edinburgh8A =ct8, 186:8
:8
0r8 Ed"ard Smith, during the cotton crisis caused b* the (merican 5i)il Bar, "as sent b* the English Go)ernment
to <ancashire, 5heshire, and other places, to report on the sanitar* condition of the cotton operati)es8 -e reported, that
from a h*gienic point of )ie", and apart from the banishment of the operati)es from the factor* atmosphere, the crisis
had se)eral ad)antages8 'he "omen no" had sufficient leisure to gi)e their infants the breast, instead of poisoning
them "ith @Godfre*?s cordial8A 'he* had time to learn to coo+8 %nfortunatel* the acIuisition of this art occurred at a
time "hen the* had nothing to coo+8 /ut from this "e see ho" capital, for the purposes of its self4e9pansion, has
usurped the labour necessar* in the home of the famil*8 'his crisis "as also utilised to teach se"ing to the daughters
of the "or+men in se"ing schools8 (n (merican re)olution and a uni)ersal crisis, in order that the "or+ing girls, "ho
spin for the "hole "orld, might learn to se"Q
:2
@'he numerical increase of labourers has been great, through the gro"ing substitution of female for male, and abo)e
all, of childish for adult labour8 'hree girls of 1:, at "ages of from 6 shillings to 8 shillings a "ee+, ha)e replaced the
one man of mature age, of "ages )ar*ing from 18 shillings to 3 shillings8A ('h8 de Kuince*: @'he <ogic of #olitical
Econ8,A <ondon, 188 Cote to p8 178! Since certain famil* functions, such as nursing and suc+ling children, cannot
be entirel* suppressed, the mothers confiscated b* capital, must tr* substitutes of some sort8 0omestic "or+, such as
se"ing and mending, must be replaced b* the purchase of read*4made articles8 -ence, the diminished e9penditure of
labour in the house is accompanied b* an increased e9penditure of mone*8 'he cost of +eeping the famil* increases,
and balances the greater income8 >n addition to this, econom* and Dudgment in the consumption and preparation of the
means of subsistence becomes impossible8 (bundant material relating to these facts, "hich are concealed b* official
#olitical Econom*, is to be found in the &eports of the >nspectors of Factories, of the 5hildren?s Emplo*ment
5ommission, and more especiall* in the &eports on #ublic -ealth8
7
>n stri+ing contrast "ith the great fact, that the shortening of the hours of labour of "omen and children in English
factories "as e9acted from capital b* the male operati)es, "e find in the latest reports of the 5hildren?s Emplo*ment
5ommission traits of the operati)e parents in relation to the traffic in children, that are trul* re)olting and thoroughl*
li+e sla)e4dealing8 /ut the #harisee of a capitalist, as ma* be seen from the same reports, denounces this brutalit*
"hich he himself creates, perpetuates, and e9ploits, and "hich he moreo)er baptises @freedom of labour8A @>nfant
labour has been called into aid 888 e)en to "or+ for their o"n dail* bread8 Bithout strength to endure such
disproportionate toil, "ithout instruction to guide their future life, the* ha)e been thro"n into a situation ph*sicall*
and morall* polluted8 'he Le"ish historian has remar+ed upon the o)erthro" of Lerusalem b* 'itus that it "as no
"onder it should ha)e been destro*ed, "ith such a signal destruction, "hen an inhuman mother sacrificed her o"n
offspring to satisf* the cra)ings of absolute hunger8A (@#ublic Econom* 5oncentrated8A 5arlisle, 18::, p8 668!
1
(8 &edgra)e in @&eports of lnsp8 of Fact8 for :1st =ctober, 1838,A pp8 7, 18
6
@5hildren?s Emplo*ment 5ommission, Fifth &eport,A <ondon, 1866, p8 81, n8 :18 8Added in the Bth =erman
edition$ I /he <ethnal =reen sil" industry is no1 almost destroyed$ I !$ E$H
:
@5hildren?s Emplo*ment 5ommission, 'hird &eport,A <ondon, 186, p8 3:, n8 138
@(ll things being eIual, the English manufacturer can turn out a considerabl* larger amount of "or+ in a gi)en time
than a foreign manufacturer, so much as to counterbalance the difference of the "or+ing da*s, bet"een 67 hours a
"ee+ here, and 76 or 87 else"here8A (&ep8 of >nsp8 of Fact8 for :1st =ct8, 1833, p8 638! 'he most infallible means for
reducing this Iualitati)e difference bet"een the English and 5ontinental "or+ing hour "ould be a la" shortening
Iuantitati)el* the length of the "or+ing da* in 5ontinental factories8
3
@'here are compensating circumstances 888 "hich the "or+ing of the 'en -oursU (ct has brought to light8A (&ep8 of
>nsp8 of Fact8 for :1st =ct8 188,A p8 78!
6
@'he amount of labour "hich a man had undergone in the course of 6 hours might be appro9imatel* arri)ed at b*
an e9amination of the chemical changes "hich had ta+en place in his bod*, changed forms in matter indicating the
anterior e9ercise of d*namic force8A (Gro)e: @=n the 5orrelation of #h*sical Forces8A!
7
@5orn and labour rarel* march Iuite abreast; but there is an ob)ious limit, be*ond "hich the* cannot be separated8
Bith regard to the unusual e9ertions made b* the labouring classes in periods of dearness, "hich produce the fall of
"ages noticed in the e)idenceA (namel*, before the #arliamentar* 5ommittee of >nIuir*, 181413!, @the* are most
meritorious in the indi)iduals, and certainl* fa)our the gro"th of capital8 /ut no man of humanit* could "ish to see
them constant and unremitted8 'he* are most admirable as a temporar* relief; but if the* "ere constantl* in action,
effects of a similar +ind "ould result from them, as from the population of a countr* being pushed to the )er* e9treme
limits of its food8A ($althus: @>nIuir* into the Cature and #rogress of &ent,A <ond8, 1813, p8 8, note8! (ll honour to
$althus that he la*s stress on the lengthening of the hours of labour, a fact to "hich he else"here in his pamphlet
dra"s attention, "hile &icardo and others, in face of the most notorious facts, ma+e in)ariabilit* in the length of the
"or+ing da* the ground"or+ of all their in)estigations8 /ut the conser)ati)e interests, "hich $althus ser)ed,
pre)ented him from seeing that an unlimited prolongation of the "or+ing da*, combined "ith an e9traordinar*
de)elopment of machiner*, and the e9ploitation of "omen and children, must ine)itabl* ha)e made a great portion of
the "or+ing4class @supernumerar*,A particularl* "hene)er the "ar should ha)e ceased, and the monopol* of England
in the mar+ets of the "orld should ha)e come to an end8 >t "as, of course, far more con)enient, and much more in
conformit* "ith the interests of the ruling classes, "hom $althus adored li+e a true priest, to e9plain this @o)er4
populationA b* the eternal la"s of Cature, rather than b* the historical la"s of capitalist production8
8
@( principal cause of the increase of capital, during the "ar, proceeded from the greater e9ertions, and perhaps the
greater pri)ations of the labouring classes, the most numerous in e)er* societ*8 $ore "omen and children "ere
compelled b* necessitous circumstances, to enter upon laborious occupations, and former "or+men "ere, from the
same cause, obliged to de)ote a greater portion of their time to increase production8A (Essa*s on #ol8 Econ8, in "hich
are illustrated the principal causes of the present national distress8 <ond8, 18:7, p8 688!
1
'hus, e8g8, in @0ritter /rief an )8 .irchmann )on &odbertus8 Biderlegung der &icardo?schen <ehre )on der
Grundrente und /egrundung einer neuen &ententheorie8A /erlin, 18318 > shall return to this letter later on; in spite of
its erroneous theor* of rent, it sees through the nature of capitalist production8
C='E (00E0 >C '-E :&0 GE&$(C E0>'>=C: >t ma* be seen from this ho" fa)orabl* $ar9 Dudged his
predecessors, "hene)er he found in them real progress, or ne" and sound ideas8 'he subseIuent publications of
&obertus? letters to &ud8 $e*er has sho"n that the abo)e ac+no"ledgement b* $ar9 "ants restricting to some e9tent8
>n those letters this passage occurs:
@5apital must be rescued not onl* from labor, but from itself, and that "ill be best effected, b* treating the acts of the
industrial capitalist as economic and political functions, that ha)e been delegated to him "ith his capital, and b*
treating his profit as a form of salar*, because "e still +no" no other social organi1ation8 /ut salaries ma* be
regulated, and ma* also be reduced if the* ta+e too much from "ages8 'he irruption of $ar9 into Societ*, as > ma*
call his boo+, must be "arded off8888 (ltogether, $ar9?s boo+ is not so much an in)estigation into capital, as a polemic
against the present form of capital, a form "hich he confounds "ith the concept itself of capital8A
(V/riefe, Pc8, )on 0r8 &obertus4Laget1o", herausgg8 )on 0r8 &ud8 $e*er,A /erlin, 1881, >, /d8 #8111, 68 /rief )on
&odbertus8! 'o such ideological commonplaces did the bold attac+ b* &obertus in his @social lettersA finall* d"indle
do"n8 v !$ E$
6
'hat part of the product "hich merel* replaces the constant capital ad)anced is of course left out in this calculation8
$r8 <8 de <a)ergne, a blind admirer of England, is inclined to estimate the share of the capitalist too lo", rather than
too high8
:
(ll "ell4de)eloped forms of capitalist production being forms of cooperation, nothing is, of course, easier, than to
ma+e abstraction from their antagonistic character, and to transform them b* a "ord into some form of free
association, as is done b* (8 de <aborde in @0e l?Esprit d?(ssociation dans tous les intRrdts de la communautRV8 #aris
18188 -8 5are*, the Nan+ee, occasionall* performs this conDuring tric+ "ith li+e success, e)en "ith the relations
resulting from sla)er*8
(lthough the #h*siocrats could not penetrate the m*ster* of surplus )alue, *et this much "as clear to them, )i18, that
it is @une richesse indRpendante et disponible Iu?il (the possessor! n?a point achetRe et Iu?il )end8A Ga "ealth "hich is
independent and disposable, "hich he 888 has not bought and "hich he sellsH ('urgot: @&Rfle9ions sur la Formation et
la 0istribution des &ichesses,A p8118!
1
@$r8&icardo ingeniousl* enough a)oids a difficult* "hich, on a first )ie", threatens to encumber his doctrine v that
)alue depends on the Iuantit* of labour emplo*ed in production8 >f this principle is rigidl* adhered to, it follo"s that
the )alue of labour depends on the Iuantit* of labour emplo*ed in producing it v "hich is e)identl* absurd8 /* a
de9terous turn, therefore, $r8 &icardo ma+es the )alue of labour depend on the Iuantit* of labour reIuired to produce
"ages; or, to gi)e him the benefit of his o"n language, he maintains, that the )alue of labour is to be estimated b* the
Iuantit* of labour reIuired to produce "ages; b* "hich he means the Iuantit* of labour reIuired to produce the
mone* or commodities gi)en to the labourer8 'his is similar to sa*ing, that the )alue of cloth is estimated, not b* the
Iuantit* of labour besto"ed on its production, but b* the Iuantit* of labour besto"ed on the production of the sil)er,
for "hich the cloth is e9changed8A v @( 5ritical 0issertation on the Cature, Pc8, of ;alue,A pp8 37, 318
6
@>f *ou call labour a commodit*, it is not li+e a commodit* "hich is first produced in order to e9change, and then
brought to mar+et "here it must e9change "ith other commodities according to the respecti)e Iuantities of each
"hich there ma* be in the mar+et at the time; labour is created the moment it is brought to mar+et; na*, it is brought to
mar+et before it is created8A v @=bser)ations on 5ertain ;erbal 0isputes,A Pc8, pp8 73, 768
:
@'reating labour as a commodit*, and capital, the produce of labour, as another, then, if the )alues of these t"o
commodities "ere regulated b* eIual Iuantities of labour, a gi)en amount of labour "ould 888 e9change for that
Iuantit* of capital "hich had been produced b* the same amount of labour; antecedent labour "ould 888 e9change for
the same amount as present labour8 /ut the )alue of labour in relation to other commodities 888 is determined not b*
eIual Iuantities of labour8A v E8 G8 Ba+efield in his edition of (dam Smith?s @Bealth of Cations,A ;ol8 >8, <ondon,
18:6, p8 6:1, note8
@'here has to be a ne" agreementA (a ne" edition of the social contractQ! @that "hene)er there is an e9change of
"or+ done for "or+ to be done, the latterA (the capitalist! @is to recei)e a higher )alue than the formerA (the "or+er!8
v Simonde (de Sismondi!, @0e la &ichesse 5ommerciale,A Gene)a, 187:, ;ol >, p8 :78
3
@<abour the e9clusi)e standard of )alue 888 the creator of all "ealth, no commodit*8A 'homas -odgs+in, @#opul8
#olit8 Econ8,A p8 1868
6
=n the other hand, the attempt to e9plain such e9pressions as merel* poetic license onl* sho"s the impotence of the
anal*sis8 -ence, in ans"er to #roudhon?s phrase; @<abour is called )alue, not as being a commodit* itself, but in )ie"
of the )alues supposed to be potentiall* embodied in it8 'he )alue of labour is a figurati)e e9pression,A Pc8 > ha)e
remar+ed: @>n labour, commodit*, "hich is a frightful realit*, he (#roudhon! sees nothing but a grammatical ellipsis8
'he "hole of e9isting societ*, then, based upon labour commodit*, is henceforth based upon a poetic license, on a
figurati)e e9pression8 0oes societ* desire to eliminate all the incon)eniences "hich trouble it, it has onl* to eliminate
all the ill4sounding terms8 <et it change the language, and for that it has onl* to address itself to the (cadem* and as+
it for a ne" edition of its dictionar*8A (.arl $ar9, @$isnre de la #hilosophie,A pp8 :, :38! >t is naturall* still more
con)enient to understand b* )alue nothing at all8 'hen one can "ithout difficult* subsume e)er*thing under this
categor*8 'hus, e8g8, L8 /8 Sa*: @Bhat is )alueEA (ns"er: @'hat "hich a thing is "orthV; and "hat is @priceVE (ns"er:
@'he )alue of a thing e9pressed in mone*8A (nd "h* has agriculture a )alueE (ns"er: @/ecause one sets a price on
it8A 'herefore )alue is "hat a thing is "orth, and the land has its @)alue,A because its )alue is @e9pressed in mone*8A
'his is, an*ho", a )er* simple "a* of e9plaining the "h* and the "herefore of things8
7
5f8 @,ur .riti+ Pc8,A p8 7, "here > state that, in the portion of that "or+ that deals "ith 5apital, this problem "ill be
sol)ed: @-o" does production, on the basis of e9change4)alue determined simpl* b* labour4time, lead to the result
that the e9change4)alue of labour is less than the e9change4)alue of its productEA
8
'he @$orning Star,A a <ondon Free4trade organ, naif to silliness, protested again and again during the (merican
5i)il Bar, "ith all the moral indignation of "hich man is capable, that the Cegro in the @5onfederate StatesA "or+ed
absolutel* for nothing8 >t should ha)e compared the dail* cost of such a Cegro "ith that of the free "or+man in the
East4end of <ondon8
2
> gi)e in order that *ou ma* gi)e; > gi)e in order that *ou ma* produce; > produce so that *ou ma* gi)e; > produce so
that *ou ma* produce8
17
(dam Smith onl* accidentall* alludes to the )ariation of the "or+ing da* "hen he is referring to piece4"ages8
1
'he )alue of mone* itself is here al"a*s supposed constant8
6
@'he price of labour is the sum paid for a gi)en Iuantit* of labour8A (Sir Ed"ard Best, @#rice of 5orn and Bages of
<abour,A <ondon, 18:6, p8 678! Best is the author of the anon*mous @Essa* on the (pplication of 5apital to <and8A b*
a Fello" of the %ni)ersit* 5ollege of =9ford, <ondon, 18138 (n epoch4ma+ing "or+ in the histor* of #olitical
Econom*8
:
@'he "ages of labour depend upon the price of labour and the Iuantit* of labour performed8888 (n increase in the
"ages of labour does not necessaril* impl* an enhancement of the price of labour8 From fuller emplo*ment, and
greater e9ertions, the "ages of labour ma* be considerabl* increased, "hile the price of labour ma* continue the
same8A (Best, op8 cit8, pp8 67, 68, 1168! 'he main Iuestion: @-o" is the price of labour determinedEA Best, ho"e)er,
dismisses "ith mere banalities8
'his is percei)ed b* the fanatical representati)e of the industrial bourgeoisie of the 18th centur*, the author of the
@Essa* on 'rade and 5ommerceA often Iuoted b* us, although he puts the matter in a confused "a*: @>t is the Iuantit*
of labour and not the price of itA (he means b* this the nominal dail* or "ee+l* "ages! @that is determined b* the
price of pro)isions and other necessaries: reduce the price of necessaries )er* lo", and of course *ou reduce the
Iuantit* of labour in proportion8 $aster manufacturers +no" that there are )arious "a*s of raising and felling the
price of labour, besides that of altering its nominal amount8A (op8 cit8, pp8 8, 618! >n his @'hree <ectures on the &ate
of Bages,A <ondon, 18:7, in "hich C8 B8 Senior uses Best?s "or+ "ithout mentioning it, he sa*s: @'he labourer is
principall* interested in the amount of "agesA (p8 1!, that is to sa*, the labourer is principall* interested in "hat he
recei)es, the nominal sum of his "ages, not in that "hich he gi)es, the amount of labourQ
3
'he effect of such an abnormal lessening of emplo*ment is Iuite different from that of a general reduction of the
"or+ing da*, enforced b* la"8 'he former has nothing to do "ith the absolute length of the "or+ing da*, and ma*
occur Dust as "ell in a "or+ing da* of 13, as of 6 hours8 'he normal price of labour is in the first case calculated on the
labourer "or+ing 13 hours, in the second case on his "or+ing 6 hours a da* on the a)erage8 'he result is therefore the
same, if he in the one case is emplo*ed onl* for 7[, in the other onl* for : hours8
6
@'he rate of pa*ment for o)ertime (in lace4ma+ing! is so small, from [ d8 and e d8 to 6d8 per hour, that it stands in
painful contrast to the amount of inDur* produced to the health and stamina of the "or+people8888 'he small amount
thus earned is also often obliged to be spent in e9tra nourishment8A (@5hild8Empl85om8, >>8 &ep8,A p8 9)i8, n8 1178!
7
E8g8, in paper4staining before the recent introduction into this trade of the Factor* (ct8 @Be "or+ on "ith no
stoppage for meals, so that the da*?s "or+ of 17[ hours is finished b* ::7 p8m8, and all after that is o)er4time, and
"e seldom lea)e off "or+ing before 6 p8m8, so that "e are reall* "or+ing o)er4time the "hole *ear round8A ($r8
Smith?s @E)idence in 5hild8 Empl8 5om8, 18 &ep8,A p8 1638!
8
E8g8, in the Scotch bleaching4"or+s8 @>n some parts of Scotland this tradeA (before the introduction of the Factor*
(ct in 1866! @"as carried on b* a s*stem of o)er4time, i8e8, ten hours a da* "ere the regular hours of "or+, for "hich
a nominal "age of 1s8 6d8 per da* "as paid to a man, there being e)er* da* o)er4time for three or four hours, paid at
the rate of :d8 per hour8 'he effect of this s*stem 888 a man could not earn more than 8s8 per "ee+ "hen "or+ing the
ordinar* hours 888 "ithout o)er4time the* could not earn a fair da*?s "ages8A (@&ept8 of >nsp8 of Factories,A (pril :7th,
186:, p8 178! @'he higher "ages, for getting adult males to "or+ longer hours, are a temptation too strong to be
resisted8A (@&ept8 of >nsp8 of Fact8,A (pril :7th, 188, p8 38! 'he boo+4binding trade in the cit* of <ondon emplo*s
)er* man* *oung girls from 1 to >3 *ears old, and that under indentures "hich prescribe certain definite hours of
labour8 Ce)ertheless, the* "or+ in the last "ee+ of each month until 17, 11, 16, or 1 o?cloc+ at night, along "ith the
older labourers, in a )er* mi9ed compan*8 @'he masters tempt them b* e9tra pa* and supper,A "hich the* eat in
neighboring public houses8 'he great debaucher* thus produced among these @*oung immortalsA (@5hildren?s
Emplo*ment 5omm8, ;8 &ept8,A p8 , n8 121! is compensated b* the fact that among the rest man* /ibles and
religious boo+s are bound b* them8
2
See @&eports of lnsp8 of Fact8,A :7th (pril, 186:, p8 178 Bith )er* accurate appreciation of the state of things, the
<ondon labourers emplo*ed in the building trades declared, during the great stri+e and loc+4out of 1867, that the*
"ould onl* accept "ages b* the hour under t"o conditions: (1!, that, "ith the price of the "or+ing4hour, a normal
"or+ing da* of 2 and 17 hours respecti)el* should be fi9ed, and that the price of the hour for the 17 hours, "or+ing
da* should be higher than that for the hour of the 2 hours "or+ing da*; (6!, that e)er* hour be*ond the normal
"or+ing da* should be rec+oned as o)er4time and proportionall* more highl* paid8
17
@>t is a )er* notable thing, too, that "here long hours are the rule, small "ages are also so8A (@&eport of >nsp8 of
Fact8,A :1st8 =ct8, 186:, p8 28! @'he "or+ "hich obtains the scant* pittance of food, is, for the most part, e9cessi)el*
prolonged8A (@#ublic -ealth, Si9th &eport,A 186, p8 138!
11
@&eport of >nspectors of Fact8,A :7th (pril, 1867, pp8 :1, :68
16
'he hand nail4ma+ers in England, e8g8, ha)e, on account of the lo" price of labour, to "or+ 13 hours a da* in order
to hammer out their miserable "ee+l* "age8 @>t?s a great man* hours in a da* (6 a8m8 to 8 p8m8!, and he has to "or+
hard all the time to get >> d8 or >s8, and there is the "ear of the tools, the cost of firing, and something for "aste iron to
go out of this, "hich ta+es off altogether 6[d8 or :d8A (@5hildren?s Emplo*ment 5om8, >>>8 &eport,A p8 1:6, n8 6718!
'he "omen earn b* the same "or+ing4time a "ee+?s "age of onl* 3 shillings8 (l8c8, p8 1:7, n8 678!
1:
>f a factor*4hand, e8g8, refused to "or+ the customar* long hours, @he "ould )er* shortl* be replaced b* somebod*
"ho "ould "or+ an* length of time, and thus be thro"n out of emplo*ment8A (@&eports of >nspectors of Factories,A
:7th (pril, 1888 E)idence, p8 :2, n8 388! @>f one man performs the "or+ of t"o888 the rate of profits "ill generall* be
raised 888 in conseIuence of the additional suppl* of labour ha)ing diminished its price8A (Senior, l8c8, p8 138!
1
@5hildren?s Emplo*ment 5om8, >>> &ep8,A E)idence, p8 66, n8 668
13
@&eport, Pc8, &elati)e to the Grie)ances 5omplained of b* the Lourne*men /a+ers8A <ondon, 1866, p8 11, and ib8
E)idence, notes 72, :32, 678 (n*ho" the full4priced ba+ers, as "as mentioned abo)e, and as their spo+esman,
/ennett, himself admits, ma+e their men @generall* begin "or+ at 11 p8m8 888 up to 8 o?cloc+ the ne9t morning8888 'he*
are then engaged all da* long 888 as late as 7 o?cloc+ in the e)ening8A (l8c8, p8 668!
1
@'he s*stem of piece4"or+ illustrates an epoch in the histor* of the "or+ing4man; it is half"a* bet"een the position
of the mere da*4labourer depending upon the "ill of the capitalist and the co4operati)e artisan, "ho in the not distant
future promises to combine the artisan and the capitalist in his o"n person8 #iece4"or+ers are in fact their o"n
masters, e)en "hilst "or+ing upon the capital of the emplo*er8A (Lohn Batts: @'rade Societies and Stri+es, $achiner*
and 5o4operati)e Societies8A $anchester, 1863, pp8 36, 3:8! > Iuote this little "or+ because it is a )er* sin+ of all
long4ago4rotten, apologetic commonplaces8 'his same $r8 Batts earlier traded in ="enism and published in 186
another pamphlet: @Facts and Fictions of #olitical Economists,A in "hich among other things he declares that
@propert* is robber*8A 'hat "as long ago8
6
'8 L8 0unning: @'rades? %nions and Stri+es,A <ond8, 1867, p8 668
:
-o" the e9istence, side b* side and simultaneousl*, of these t"o forms of "age fa)ors the masters? cheating: @(
factor* emplo*s 77 people, the half of "hich "or+ b* the piece, and ha)e a direct interest in "or+ing longer hours8
'he other 677 are paid b* the da*, "or+ eIuall* long "ith the others, and get no more mone* for their o)er4time8888
'he "or+ of these 677 people for half an hour a da* is eIual to one person?s "or+ for 37 hours, or 3J6?s of one
person?s labour in a "ee+, and is a positi)e gain to the emplo*er8A (@&eports of >nsp8 of Fact8, :1st =ct8, 1867,A p8 28!
@=)er4"or+ing to a )er* considerable e9tent still pre)ails; and, in most instances, "ith that securit* against detection
and punishment "hich the la" itself affords8 > ha)e in man* former reports sho"n 888 the inDur* to "or+people "ho are
not emplo*ed on piece4"or+, but recei)e "ee+l* "ages8A (<eonard -orner in @&eports of >nsp8 of Fact8,A :7th (pril,
1832, pp8 8, 28!
@Bages can be measured in t"o "a*s: either b* the duration of the labour, or b* its product8A (@(brRgR R1Rmentaire
des principes de l?Rconomie politiIue8A #aris, 1726, p8 :68! 'he author of this anon*mous "or+: G8 Garnier8
3
@So much "eight of cotton is deli)ered to himA (the spinner!, @and he has to return b* a certain time, in lieu of it, a
gi)en "eight of t"ist or *arn, of a certain degree of fineness, and he is paid so much per pound for all that he so
returns8 >f his "or+ is defecti)e in Iualit*, the penalt* falls on him, if less in Iuantit* than the minimum fi9ed for a
gi)en time, he is dismissed and an abler operati)e procured8A (%re, l8c8, p8 :178!
6
@>t is "hen "or+ passes through se)eral hands, each of "hich is to ta+e its share of profits, "hile onl* the last does
the "or+, that the pa* "hich reaches the "or+"oman is miserabl* disproportioned8A (@5hild8 Emp8 5omm8 >> &eport,A
p8 1998, n8 68!
7
E)en Batts, the apologetic, remar+s: @>t "ould be a great impro)ement to the s*stem of piece4"or+, if all the men
emplo*ed on a Dob "ere partners in the contract, each according to his abilities, instead of one man being interested in
o)er4"or+ing his fello"s for his o"n benefit8A (l8c8, p8 3:8! =n the )ileness of this s*stem, cf8 @5hild8 Emp8 5omm8,
&ep8 >>>8,A p8 66, n8 66, p8 11, n8 16, p8 9i, n8 1:, 3:, 32, Pc8
8
'his spontaneous result is often artificiall* helped along, e8g8, in the Engineering 'rade of <ondon, a customar* tric+
is @the selecting of a man "ho possesses superior ph*sical strength and Iuic+ness, as the principal of se)eral
"or+men, and pa*ing him an additional rate, b* the Iuarter or other"ise, "ith the understanding that he is to e9ert
himself to the utmost to induce the others, "ho are onl* paid the ordinar* "ages, to +eep up to him 888 "ithout an*
comment this "ill go far to e9plain man* of the complaints of stinting the action, superior s+ill, and "or+ing4po"er,
made b* the emplo*ers against the menA (in 'rades4%nions8 0unning, l8c8, pp8 66, 6:!8 (s the author is himself a
labourer and secretar* of a 'rades? %nion, this might be ta+en for e9aggeration8 /ut the reader ma* compare the
@highl* respectableA @5*clopedia of (gricultureA of L8 58 $orton, (rt8, the article @<abourer,A "here this method is
recommended to the farmers as an appro)ed one8
2
@(ll those "ho are paid b* piece4"or+ 888 profit b* the transgression of the legal limits of "or+8 'his obser)ation as
to the "illingness to "or+ o)er4time is especiall* applicable to the "omen emplo*ed as "ea)ers and reelers8A (@&ept8
of >nsp8 of Fact8, :7th (pril, 1838,A p8 28! @'his s*stemA (piece4"or+!, @so ad)antageous to the emplo*er 888 tends
directl* to encourage the *oung potter greatl* to o)er4"or+ himself during the four or fi)e *ears during "hich he is
emplo*ed in the piece4"or+ s*stem, but at lo" "ages8888 'his is 888 another great cause to "hich the bad constitutions
of the potters are to be attributed8A (@5hild8 Empl8 5omm8 18 &ept8,A p8 9iii8!
17
@Bhere the "or+ in an* trade is paid for b* the piece at so much per Dob 888 "ages ma* )er* materiall* differ in
amount8888 /ut in "or+ b* the da* there is generall* an uniform rate 888 recogni1ed b* both emplo*er and emplo*ed as
the standard of "ages for the general run of "or+men in the trade8A (0unning, l8c8, p8 178!
11
@'he "or+ of the Dourne*man4artisans "ill be ruled b* the da* or b* the piece8 'hese master4artisans +no" about
ho" much "or+ a Dourne*man4artisan can do per da* in each craft, and often pa* them in proportion to the "or+
"hich the* do; the Dourne* men, therefore, "or+ as much as the* can, in their o"n interest, "ithout an* further
inspection8A (5antillon, @Essai sur la Cature du 5ommerce en gRnRral,A (mst8 Ed8, 1736, pp8 183 and 6768 'he first
edition appeared in 17338! 5antillon, from "hom Kuesna*, Sir Lames Steuart P (8 Smith ha)e largel* dra"n, alread*
here represents piece4"age as simpl* a modified form of time4"age8 'he French edition of 5antillon professes in its
title to be a translation from the English, but the English edition: @'he (nal*sis of 'rade, 5ommerce, Pc8,A b* #hilip
5antillon, late of the cit* of <ondon, $erchant, is not onl* of later date (1732!, but pro)es b* its contents that it is a
later and re)ised edition: e8g8, in the French edition, -ume is not *et mentioned, "hilst in the English, on the other
hand, #ett* hardl* figures an* longer8 'he English edition is theoreticall* less important, but it contains numerous
details referring specificall* to English commerce, bullion trade, Pc8, that are "anting in the French te9t8 'he "ords
on the title4page of the English edition, according to "hich the "or+ is @ta+en chiefl* from the manuscript of a )er*
ingenious gentleman, deceased, and adapted, Pc8,A seem, therefore, a pure fiction, )er* customar* at that time8
16
@-o" often ha)e "e seen, in some "or+shops, man* more "or+ers recruited than the "or+ actuall* called forE =n
man* occasions, "or+ers are recruited in anticipation of future "or+, "hich ma* ne)er materiali1e8 /ecause the* are
paid b* piece "ages, it is said that no ris+ is incurred, since an* loss of time "ill be charged against the unemplo*ed8A
(-8 Gregoir: @<es '*pographes de)ant le 'ribunal correctionnel de /ru9elles,A /russeles, 1863, p8 28!
1:
@&emar+s on the 5ommercial #olic* of Great /ritain,A <ondon, 18138
1
@( 0efense of the <ando"ners and Farmers of Great /ritain,A 181, pp8 , 3
13
$althus, @>nIuir* into the Cature and #rogress of &ent,A <ond8, 18138
16
@'hose "ho are paid b* piece4"or+ 888 constitute probabl* four4fifths of the "or+ers in the factories8A @&eport of
>nsp8 of Fact8,A :7th (pril, 18388
17
@'he producti)e po"er of his spinning4machine is accuratel* measured, and the rate of pa* for "or+ done "ith it
decreases "ith, though not as, the increase of its producti)e po"er8A (%re, l8c8, p8 :178! 'his last apologetic phrase %re
himself again cancels8 'he lengthening of the mule causes some increase of labour, he admits8 'he labour does
therefore not diminish in the same ratio as its producti)it* increases8 Further: @/* this increase the producti)e po"er
of the machine "ill be augmented one4fifth8 Bhen this e)ent happens the spinner "ill not be paid at the same rate for
"or+ done as he "as before, but as that rate "ill not be diminished in the ratio of one4fifth, the impro)ement "ill
augment his mone* earnings for an* gi)en number of hours? "or+,A but @the foregoing statement reIuires a certain
modification8888 'he spinner has to pa* something additional for Du)enile aid out of his additional si9pence,
accompanied b* displacing a portion of adultsA (l8c8, p8 :61!, "hich has in no "a* a tendenc* to raise "ages8
18
-8 Fa"cett: @'he Economic #osition of the /ritish labourer8A 5ambridge and <ondon, 1863, p8 1788
12
>n the @<ondon StandardA of =ctober 66, 1861, there is a report of proceedings of the firm of Lohn /right P 5o8,
before the &ochdale magistrates @to prosecute for intimidation the agents of the 5arpet Bea)ers 'rades? %nion8
/right?s partners had introduced ne" machiner* "hich "ould turn out 67 *ards of carpet in the time and "ith the
labour (Q! pre)iousl* reIuired to produce 167 *ards8 'he "or+men had no claim "hate)er to share in the profits made
b* the in)estment of their emplo*er?s capital in mechanical impro)ements8 (ccordingl*, $essrs8 /right proposed to
lo"er the rate of pa* from 1[d8 per *ard to 1d8, lea)ing the earnings of the men e9actl* the same as before for the
same labour8 /ut there "as a nominal reduction, of "hich the operati)es, it is asserted, had not fair "arning
beforehand8A
67
@'rades? %nions, in their desire to maintain "ages, endea)or to share in the benefits of impro)ed
machiner*8A (Kuelle horreurQ! @888 the demanding higher "ages, because labour is abbre)iated, is in
other "ords the endea)or to establish a dut* on mechanical impro)ements8A (@=n 5ombination of
'rades,A ne" ed8, <ondon, 18:, p8 68!
1
@>t is not accurate to sa* that "agesA (he deals here "ith their mone* e9pression! @are increased, because the*
purchase more of a cheaper article8A (0a)id /uchanan in his edition of (dam Smith?s @Bealth of Cations,A 181, ;ol8
1, p8 17, note8!
6
Be shall inIuire, in another place, "hat circumstances in relation to producti)it* ma* modif* this la" for indi)idual
branches of industr*8
:
Lames (nderson remar+s in his polemic against (dam Smith: @>t deser)es, li+e"ise, to be remar+ed, that although
the apparent price of <abour is usuall* lo"er in poor countries, "here the produce of the soil, and grain in general, is
cheap; *et it is in fact for the most part reall* higher than in other countries8 For it is not the "ages that is gi)en to the
labourer per da* that constitutes the real price of labour, although it is its apparent price8 'he real price is that "hich a
certain Iuantit* of "or+ performed actuall* costs the emplo*er; and considered in this light, labour is in almost all
cases cheaper in rich countries than in those that are poorer, although the price of grain and other pro)isions is usuall*
much lo"er in the last than in the first8888 <abour estimated b* the da* is much lo"er in Scotland than in England8888
<abour b* the piece is generall* cheaper in England8A (Lames (nderson, @=bser)ations on the $eans of E9citing a
Spirit of Cational >ndustr*,A Ptc8, Edin8 1777, pp8 :37, :318! =n the contrar*, lo"ness of "ages produces, in its turn,
dearness of labour8 @<abour being dearer in >reland than it is in England 888 because the "ages are so much lo"er8A (C8
6772 in @&o*al 5ommission on &ail"a*s, $inutes,A 18678!
@'he "ages of labour are ad)anced b* capitalists in the case of less than one fourth of the labourers of the earth8A
(&ich8 Lones: @'e9tboo+ of <ectures on the #ol8 Econ8 of Cations8A -ertford, 1836, p8 :68!
3
@'hough the manufacturerA (i8e8, the labourer! @has his "ages ad)anced to him b* his master, he in realit* costs him
no e9pense, the )alue of these "ages being generall* reser)ed, together "ith a profit, in the impro)ed )alue of the
subDect upon "hich his labour is besto"ed8A ((8 Smith, l8 c8, /oo+ >>88 ch8 >>>, p8 :118!
6
@'his is a remar+abl* peculiar propert* of producti)e labour8 Bhate)er is producti)el* consumed is capital and it
becomes capital b* consumption8A (Lames $ill, l8 c8, p8 668! Lames $ill, ho"e)er, ne)er got on the trac+ of this
@remar+abl* peculiar propert*8A
7
@>t is true indeed, that the first introducing a manufacture emplo*s man* poor, but the* cease not to be so, and the
continuance of it ma+es man*8A (@&easons for a <imited E9portation of Bool8A <ondon, 1677, p8 128! @'he farmer
no" absurdl* asserts, that he +eeps the poor8 'he* are indeed +ept in miser*8A (@&easons for the <ate >ncrease of the
#oor &ates: or a 5omparati)e ;ie" of the #rices of labour and #ro)isions8A <ondon, 1777, p8 :18!
8
&ossi "ould not declaim so emphaticall* against this, had he reall* penetrated the secret of @producti)e
consumption8A
2
@'he labourers in the mines of S8 (merica, "hose dail* tas+ (the hea)iest perhaps in the "orld! consists in bringing
to the surface on their shoulders a load of metal "eighing from 187 to 677 pounds, from a depth of 37 feet, li)e on
broad and beans onl*; the* themsel)es "ould prefer the bread alone for food, but their masters, "ho ha)e found out
that the men cannot "or+ so hard on bread, treat them li+e horses, and compel them to eat beans; beans, ho"e)er, are
relati)el* much richer in bone4earth (phosphate of lime! than is bread8A (<iebig, l8 c8, )ol8 18, p8 12, note8!
17
Lames $ill, l8 c8, p8 6:8
11
@>f the price of labour should rise so high that, not"ithstanding the increase of capital, no more could be emplo*ed,
> should sa* that such increase of capital "ould be still unproducti)el* consumed8A (&icardo, l8 c8, p8 16:8!
16
@'he onl* producti)e consumption, properl* so called, is the consumption or destruction of "ealthA (he alludes to
the means of production! @b* capitalists "ith a )ie" to reproduction8888 'he "or+man 888 is a producti)e consumer to
the person "ho emplo*s him, and to the State, but not, strictl* spea+ing, to himself8A ($althus? @0efinitions, Pc8,A p8
:78!
1:
@'he onl* thing, of "hich one can sa*, that it is stored up and prepared beforehand, is the s+ill of the labourer8888 'he
accumulation and storage of s+illed labour, that most important operation, is, as regards the great mass of labourers,
accomplished "ithout an* capital "hate)er8A ('h8 -odgs+in: @<abour 0efended, Pc8,A p8 1:8!
1
@'hat letter might be loo+ed upon as the manifesto of the manufacturers8A (Ferrand: @$otion on the 5otton
Famine8A -8o858, 67th (pril, 186:8!
13
>t "ill not be forgotten that this same capital sings Iuite another song, under ordinar* circumstances, "hen there is a
Iuestion of reducing "ages8 'hen the masters e9claim "ith one )oice: @'he factor* operati)es should +eep in
"holesome remembrance the fact that theirs is reall* a lo" species of s+illed labour, and that there is none "hich is
more easil* acIuired, or of its Iualit* more ampl* remunerated, or "hich, b* a short training of the least e9pert, can
be more Iuic+l*, as "ell as abundantl*, acIuired 888 'he master?s machiner*A ("hich "e no" learn can be replaced
"ith ad)antage in 16 months,! @reall* pla*s a far more important part in the business of production than the labour
and s+ill of the operati)eA ("ho cannot no" be replaced under :7 *ears!, @"hich si9 months? education can reach, and
a common labourer can learn8A (See ante, p8 6:8!
16
#arliament did not )ote a single farthing in aid of emigration, but simpl* passed some (cts empo"ering the
municipal corporations to +eep the operati)es in a half4star)ed state, i$e8, to e9ploit them at less than the normal
"ages8 =n the other hand, "hen : *ears later, the cattle disease bro+e out, #arliament bro+e "ildl* through its usages
and )oted, straight off, millions for indemnif*ing the millionaire landlords, "hose farmers in an* e)ent came off
"ithout loss, o"ing to the rise in the price of meat8 'he bull4li+e bello" of the landed proprietors at the opening of
#arliament, in 1866, sho"ed that a man can "orship the co" Sabala "ithout being a -indu, and can change himself
into an o9 "ithout being a Lupiter8
17
@<?ou)rier demandait de la subsistence pour )i)re, le chef demandait du tra)ail pour gagner8A G'he "or+er reIuired
the means of subsistence to li)e, the boss reIuired labour to ma+e a profitH (Sismondi, l8 c8, p8 218!
18
( boorishl* clums* form of this bondage e9ists in the count* of 0urham8 'his is one of the fe" counties, in "hich
circumstances do not secure to the farmer undisputed proprietar* rights o)er the agricultural labourer8 'he mining
industr* allo"s the latter some choice8 >n this count*, the farmer, contrar* to the custom else"here, rents onl* such
farms as ha)e on them labourers? cottages8 'he rent of the cottage is a part of the "ages8 'hese cottages are +no"n as
@hinds? houses8A 'he* are let to the labourers in consideration of certain feudal ser)ices, under a contract called
@bondage,A "hich, amongst other things, binds the labourer, during the time he is emplo*ed else"here, to lea)e some
one, sa* his daughter, Pc8, to suppl* his place8 'he labourer himself is called a @bondsman8A 'he relationship here set
up also sho"s ho" indi)idual consumption b* the labourer becomes consumption on behalf of capital4or producti)e
consumption4from Iuite a ne" point of )ie": @>t is curious to obser)e that the )er* dung of the hind and bondsman is
the perIuisite of the calculating lord 888 and the lord "ill allo" no pri)* but his o"n to e9ist in the neighbourhood, and
"ill rather gi)e a bit of manure here and there for a garden than bate an* part of his seigneurial right8A (@#ublic
-ealth, &eport ;>>8, 186,A p8 1888!
12
>t "ill not be forgotten, that, "ith respect to the labour of children, Pc8, e)en the formalit* of a )oluntar* sale
disappears8
67
@5apital pre4supposes "age labour, and "age labour pre4supposes capital8 =ne is a necessar* condition to the
e9istence of the other; the* mutuall* call each other into e9istence8 0oes an operati)e in a cotton4factor* produce
nothing but cotton goodsE Co, he produces capital8 -e produces )alues that gi)e fresh command o)er his labour, and
that, b* means of such command, create fresh )alues8A (.arl $ar9: @<ohnarbeit und .apital,A in the Heue Rheinische
Leitun: Co8 666, 7th (pril, 1828! 'he articles published under the abo)e title in the H$ Rh$ L$ are parts of some
lectures gi)en b* me on that subDect, in 187, in the German @(rbeiter4;ereinA at /russels, the publication of "hich
"as interrupted b* the re)olution of Februar*8
1
@(ccumulation of capital; the emplo*ment of a portion of re)enue as capital8A ($althus: @0efinitions, Pc8,A ed8
5a1eno)e, p8 118! @5on)ersion of re)enue into capital,A ($althus: @#rinc8 of #ol8 Econ @ 6nd Ed8, <ond88 18:6, p8
:678!
6
Be here ta+e no account of e9port trade, b* means of "hich a nation can change articles of lu9ur* either into means
of production or means of subsistence, and vice versE$ >n order to e9amine the obDect of our in)estigation in its
integrit*, free from all disturbing subsidiar* circumstances, "e must treat the "hole "orld as one nation, and assume
that capitalist production is e)er*"here established and has possessed itself of e)er* branch of industr*8
:
Sismondi?s anal*sis of accumulation suffers from the great defect, that he contents himself, to too great an e9tent,
"ith the phrase @con)ersion of re)enue into capital,A "ithout fathoming the material conditions of this operation8
@<e tra)ail primitif auIuel son capital a dS sa naissance8A Gthe original labour, to "hich his capital o"ed its originH
Sismondi, l8 c8, ed8 #aris, t8 >8, p8 1728
3
@<abour creates capital before capital emplo*s labour8A E8 G8 Ba+efield, @England and (merica,A <ond8, 18::, ;ol8
>>, p8 1178
6
'he propert* of the capitalist in the product of the labour of others @is a strict conseIuence of the la" of
appropriation, the fundamental principle of "hich "as, on the contrar*, the e9clusi)e title of e)er* labourer to the
product of his o"n labour8A (5herbulie1, @&ichesse ou #au)retR,A #aris, 181, p8 38, "here, ho"e)er, the dialectical
re)ersal is not properl* de)eloped8!
7
'he follo"ing passage (to p8 331 @la"s of capitalist appropriation8A! has been added to the English te9t in conformit*
"ith the th German edition8
8
Be ma* "ell, therefore, feel astonished at the cle)erness =f #roudhon, "ho "ould abolish capitalistic propert* b*
enforcing the eternal la"s of propert* that are based on commodit* productionQ
2
@5apital, )i18, accumulated "ealth emplo*ed "ith a )ie" to profit8A ($althus, l8 c8! @5apital 888 consists of "ealth
sa)ed from re)enue, and used "ith a )ie" to profit8A (&8 Lones: @(n >ntroductor* <ecture on #olit8 Econ8,A <ond8,
18::, p8 168!
17
@'he possessors of surplus4produce or capital8A (@'he Source and &emed* of the Cational 0ifficulties8 ( <etter to
<ord Lohn &ussell8A <ond8, 18618!
11
@5apital, "ith compound interest on e)er* portion of capital sa)ed, is so all engrossing that all the "ealth in the
"orld from "hich income is deri)ed, has long ago become the interest on capital8A (<ondon, Economist+ 12th Lul*,
18318!
16
@Co political economist of the present da* can b* sa)ing mean8mere hoarding: and be*ond this contracted and
insufficient proceeding, no use of the term in reference to the national "ealth can "ell be imagined,8 but that "hich
must arise from a different application of "hat is sa)ed, founded upon a real distinction bet"een the different +inds of
labour maintained b* it8A ($althus, l8 c8, pp8 :8, :28!
1:
'hus for instance, /al1ac, "ho so thoroughl* studied e)er* shade of a)arice, represents the old usurer Gobsec+ as
in his second childhood "hen he begins to heap up a hoard of commodities8
1
@(ccumulation of stoc+s 888 upon4e9change 888 o)er4production8A ('h8 5orbet8 l8 c8, p8 178!
13
>n this sense Cec+er spea+s of the @obDets de faste et de somptuositR,A Gthings of pomp and lu9ur*H of "hich @le
temps a grossi l?accummulation,A Gaccumulation has gro"n "ith timeH and "hich @les lois de propriRtR ont rassemblRs
dans une seule classe de la sociRtR8A Gthe la"s of propert* ha)e brought into the hands of one class of societ* aloneH
(-euvres de M$ Hec"er, #aris and <ausanne, 1782, t8 ii8, p8 6218!
16
&icardo, 18c8, p8 16:, note8
17
>n spite of his @<ogic,A Lohn St8 $ill ne)er detects e)en such fault* anal*sis as this "hen made b* his predecessors,
an anal*sis "hich, e)en from the bourgeois standpoint of the science, cries out for rectification8 >n e)er* case he
registers "ith the dogmatism of a disciple, the confusion of his master?s thoughts8 So here: @'he capital itself in the
long run becomes entirel* "ages, and "hen replaced b* the sale of produce becomes "ages again8A
18
>n his description of the process of reproduction, and of accumulation, (dam Smith, in man* "a*s, not onl* made
no ad)ance, but e)en lost considerable ground, compared "ith his predecessors, especiall* b* the #h*siocrats8
5onnected "ith the illusion mentioned in the te9t, is the reall* "onderful dogma, left b* him as an inheritance to
#olitical Econom*, the dogma, that the price of commodities is made up of "ages, profit (interest! and rent, i$e$+ of
"ages and surplus )alue8 Starting from this basis, Storch nai)el* confesses, @>l est impossible de rRsoudre le pri9
nRcessaire dans ses RlRments les plus simples8A G888 it is impossible to resol)e the necessar* price into its simplest
elementsH (Storch, l8 c8, #etersb8 Edit8, 1813, t8 ii8, p8 11, note8! ( fine science of econom* this, "hich declares it
impossible to resol)e the price of a commodit* into its simplest elementsQ 'his point "ill be further in)estigated in the
se)enth part of /oo+ iii8
12
'he reader "ill notice, that the "ord re)enue is used in a double sense: first, to designate surplus )alue so far as it is
the fruit periodicall* *ielded b* capital; secondl*, to designate the part of that fruit "hich is periodicall* consumed b*
the capitalist, or added to the fund that supplies his pri)ate consumption8 > ha)e retained this double meaning because
it harmonises "ith the language of the English and French economists8
67
'a+ing the usurer, that old4fashioned but e)er rene"ed specimen of the capitalist for his te9t, <uther sho"s )er*
aptl* that the lo)e of po"er is an element in the desire to get rich8 @'he heathen "ere able, b* the light of reason, to
conclude that a usurer is a double4d*ed thief and murderer8 Be 5hristians, ho"e)er, hold them in such honour, that "e
fairl* "orship them for the sa+e of their mone*8888 Bhoe)er eats up, robs, and steals the nourishment of another, that
man commits as great a murder (so far as in him lies! as he "ho star)es a man or utterl* undoes him8 Such does a
usurer, and sits the "hile safe on his stool, "hen he ought rather to be hanging on the gallo"s, and be eaten b* as
man* ra)ens as he has stolen guilders, if onl* there "ere so much flesh on him, that so man* ra)ens could stic+ their
bea+s in and share it8 $ean"hile, "e hang the small thie)es8888 <ittle thie)es are put in the stoc+s, great thie)es go
flaunting in gold and sil+8888 'herefore is there, on this earth, no greater enem* of man (after the de)il! than a gripe4
mone*, and usurer, for he "ants to be God o)er all men8 'ur+s, soldiers, and t*rants are also bad men, *et must the*
let the people li)e, and 5onfess that the* are bad, and enemies, and do, na*, must, no" and then sho" pit* to some8
/ut a usurer and mone*4glutton, such a one "ould ha)e the "hole "orld perish of hunger and thirst, miser* and "ant,
so far as in him lies, so that he ma* ha)e all to himself, and e)er* one ma* recei)e from him as from a God, and be his
serf for e)er8 'o "ear fine cloa+s, golden chains, rings, to "ipe his mouth, to be deemed and ta+en for a "orth*, pious
man 8888 %sur* is a great huge monster, li+e a "ere"olf, "ho la*s "aste all, more than an* 5acus, Gerion or (ntus8
(nd *et dec+s himself out, and "ould be thought pious, so that people ma* not see "here the o9en ha)e gone, that he
drags bac+"ards into his den8 /ut -ercules shall hear the cr* of the o9en and of his prisoners, and shall see+ 5acus
e)en in cliffs and among roc+s, and shall set the o9en loose again from the )illain8 For 5acus means the )illain that is
a pious usurer, and steals, robs, eats e)er*thing8 (nd "ill not o"n that he has done it, and thin+s no one "ill find him
out, because the o9en, dra"n bac+"ards into his den, ma+e it seem, from their foot4prints, that the* ha)e been let out8
So the usurer "ould decei)e the "orld, as though he "ere of use and ga)e the "orld o9en, "hich he, ho"e)er, rends,
and eats all alone888 (nd since "e brea+ on the "heel, and behead high"a*men, murderers and housebrea+ers, ho"
much more ought "e to brea+ on the "heel and +ill8888 hunt do"n, curse and behead all usurers8A ($artin <uther, l8 c8!
61
See Goethe?s @Faust8A
66
0r8 (i+in: @0escription of the 5ountr* from :7 to 7 miles round $anchester8A <ond8, 1723, p8 186, sI8
6:
(8 Smith, l8 c8, b+8 iii8, ch8 iii8
6
E)en L8 /8 Sa* sa*s: @<es Rpargnes des riches se font au9 dRpens des pau)res8A Gthe sa)ings of the rich are made at
the e9pense of the poorH @'he &oman proletarian li)ed almost entirel* at the e9pense of societ*8888 >t can almost be
said that modern societ* li)es at the e9pense of the proletarians, on "hat it +eeps out of the remuneration of labour8A
(Sismondi: @Rtudes, Pc8,A t8 i8, p8 68!
63
$althus, l8 c8, pp8 :12, :678
66
@(n >nIuir* into those #rinciples &especting the Cature of 0emand, Pc8,A p8 678
67
l8 c8, p8 328
68
(Senior, @#rincipes fondamentau9 del?con8 #ol8A trad8 (rri)abene8 #aris, 18:6, p8 :788! 'his "as rather too much
for the adherents of the old classical school8 @$r8 Senior has substituted for itA (the e9pression, labour and,profit! @the
e9pression labour and (bstinence8 -e "ho con)erts his re)enue abstains from the enDo*ment "hich its e9penditure
"ould afford him8 >t is not the capital, but the use of the capital producti)el*, "hich is the cause of profits8A (Lohn
5a1eno)e, l8 c8, p8 1:7, Cote8! Lohn St8 $ill, on the contrar*, accepts on the one hand &icardo?s theor* of profit, and
anne9es on the other hand Senior?s @remuneration of abstinence8A -e is as much at home in absurd contradictions, as
he feels at sea in the -egelian contradiction, the source of all dialectic8 >t has ne)er occurred to the )ulgar economist
to ma+e the simple refle9ion, that e)er* human action ma* be )ie"ed, as @abstinenceA from its opposite8 Eating is
abstinence from fasting, "al+ing, abstinence from standing still, "or+ing, abstinence from idling, idling, abstinence
from "or+ing, Pc8 'hese gentlemen "ould do "ell, to ponder, once in a ""hile, o)er Spino1a?s: @0eterminatio est
Cegatio8A
62
Senior, l8 c8, p8 :68
:7
@Co one 888 "ill so" his "heat, for instance, and allo" it to remain a t"el)le month in the ground, or lea)e his "ine
in a cellar for *ears, instead of consuming these things or their eIui)alent at once 888 unless he e9pects to acIuire
additional )alue, Pc8A (Scrope, @#olit8 Econ8,A edit8 b* (8 #otter, Ce" Nor+, 181, pp8 1::41:8!
:1
@<a pri)ation Iue s?impose le capitalistR, en prdtant G'he depri)ation the capitalist imposes on himself b*
lending 888H (this euphemism used, for the purpose of identif*ing, according to the appro)ed method of )ulgar
econom*, the labourer "ho is e9ploited, "ith the industrial capitalist "ho e9ploits, and to "hom other capitalists lend
mone*! ses instruments de production au tra)ailleur, au lieu d?en consacrer la )aleur X son propre usage, en la
transforment en obDets d?utilitR ou d?agrRment8A Ghis instruments of production to the "or+er, instead of de)oting their
)alue to his o"n consumption, b* transforming them into obDects of utilit* or pleasureH (G8 de $olinari, l8 c8, p8 :68!
:6
@<a conser)ation d?un capital e9ige 888 un effort constant pour rRsister a la tentation de le consommer8A (5ourcelle4
Seneuil, l8 c8, p8 378!
::
@'he particular classes of income "hich *ield the most abundantl* to the progress of national capital, change at
different stages of their progress, and are, therefore, entirel* different in nations occup*ing different positions in that
progress8888 #rofits 888 unimportant source of accumulation, compared "ith "ages and rents, in the earlier stages of
societ*8888 Bhen a considerable ad)ance in the po"ers of national industr* has actuall* ta+en place, profits rise into
comparati)e importance as a source of accumulation8A (&ichard Lones, @'e9tboo+, Pc8,A pp8 16, 618!
:
l8 c8, p8 :6, sI8
:3
@&icardo sa*s: W>n different stages of societ* the accumulation of capital or of the means of emplo*ing? (i8e8,
e9ploiting! Wlabour is more or less rapid, and must in all cases depend on the producti)e po"ers of labour8 'he
producti)e po"ers of labour are generall* greatest "here there is an abundance of fertile land8? >f, in the first sentence,
the producti)e po"ers of labour mean the smallness of that aliIuot part of an* produce that goes to those "hose
manual labour produced it, the sentence is nearl* identical, because the remaining aliIuot part is the fund "hence
capital can, if the o1ner pleases+ be accumulated8 /ut then this does not generall* happen, "here there is most fertile
land8A (@=bser)ations on 5ertain ;erbal 0isputes, Pc8A pp8 7, 738!
:6
L8 Stuart $ill: @Essa*s on Some %nsettled Kuestions of #olitical Econom*,A <ond8, 18, p8 278
:7
@(n Essa* on 'rade and 5ommerce,A <ond8, 1777, #8 8 /he /imes of 0ecember, 1866, and Lanuar*, 1867, in li+e
manner published certain outpourings of the heart of the English mine4o"ner, in "hich the happ* lot of the /elgian
miners "as pictured, "ho as+ed and recei)ed no more than "as strictl* necessar* for them to li)e for their @masters8A
'he /elgian labourers ha)e to suffer much, but to figure in /he /imes as model labourersQ >n the beginning of
Februar*, 1867, came the ans"er: stri+e of the /elgian miners at $archienne, put do"n b* po"der and lead8
:8
l8 c8, pp8 , 68
:2
'he Corthamptonshire manufacturer commits a pious fraud, pardonable in one "hose heart is so full8 -e nominall*
compares the life of the English and French manufacturing labourer, but in the "ords Dust Iuoted he is painting, as he
himself confesses in his confused "a*, the French agricultural labourers8
7
l8 c8, pp8 77, 718 Hote in the 7rd =erman edition0 toda*, than+s to the competition on the "orld4mar+et, established
since then, "e ha)e ad)anced much further8 @>f 5hina,A sa*s $r8 Stapleton, $8#8, to his constituents, @should become
a great manufacturing countr*, > do not see ho" the manufacturing population of Europe could sustain the contest
"ithout descending to the le)el of their competitors8A (/imes+ Sept8 :, 187:, p8 88! 'he "ished4for goal of English
capital is no longer 5ontinental "ages but 5hinese8
1
/enDamin 'hompson: @Essa*s, #olitical, Economical, and #hilosophical, Pc8,A : )ols8, <ond, 172641876, )ol8 i8, p8
628 >n his @'he State of the #oor, or an -istor* of the labouring 5lasses in England, Pc8,A Sir F8 $8 Eden strongl*
recommends the &umfordian beggar4soup to "or+house o)erseers, and reproachfull* "arns the English labourers that
@man* poor people, particularl* in Scotland, li)e, and that )er* comfortabl*, for months together, upon oat4meal and
barle*4meal, mi9ed "ith onl* "ater and salt8A (l8 c8, )ol8 i, boo+ i8, ch8 6, p8 37:8! 'he same sort of hints in the 12th
centur*8 @'he most "holesome mi9tures of flour ha)ing been refused (b* the English agricultural labourer!888 in
Scotland, "here education is better, this preDudice is, probabl*, un+no"n8A (5harles -8 #arr*, $8 08, @'he Kuestion of
the Cecessecit* of the E9isting 5orn <a"s 5onsidered8A <ondon, 1816,, p8 628! 'his same #arr*, ho"e)er, complains
that the English labourer is no" (1813! in a much "orse condition than in Eden?s time (17278!
6
From the reports of the last #arliamentar* 5ommission on adulteration of means of subsistence, it "ill be seen that
the adulteration e)en of medicines is the rule, not the e9ception in England8 E8g8, the e9amination of : specimens of
opium, purchased of as man* different chemists in <ondon, sho"ed that :1 "ere adulterated "ith popp* heads,
"heat4flour, gum, cla*, sand, Pc8 Se)eral did not contain an atom of morphia8
:
G8 /8 Ce"nham (barrister4at4la"!: @( &e)ie" of the E)idence before the 5ommittee of the t"o -ouses of
#arliament on the 5om <a"s8A <ond8, 1813, p8 67, note$
Eden should ha)e as+ed, "hose creatures then are @the ci)il institutionsVE From his standpoint of Duridical illusion,
he does not regard the la" as a product of the material relations of production, but con)ersel* the relations of
production as products of the la"8 <inguet o)erthre" $ontesIuieu?s illusor* @Esprit des loisA "ith one "ord: @
<?esprit des lois, c?est la propriRtR8A G'he spirit of la"s is propert*H
3
Eden, l8 c8, ;ol8 1, boo+ >8, chapter 1, pp8 1, 6, and preface, p8 998
6
>f the reader reminds me of $althus, "hose @Essa* on #opulationA appeared in 1728, > remind him that this "or+ in
its first form is nothing more than a schoolbo*ish, superficial plagiar* of 0e #oe, Sir Lames Steuart, 'o"nsend,
Fran+lin, Ballace, Pc8, and does not contain a single sentence thought out b* himself8 'he great sensation this
pamphlet caused, "as due solel* to part* interest8 'he French &e)olution had found passionate defenders in the
%nited .ingdom; the @principle of population,A slo"l* "or+ed out in the eighteenth centur*, and then, in the midst of
a great social crisis, proclaimed "ith drums and trumpets as the infallible antidote to the teachings of 5ondorcet, Pc8,
"as greeted "ith Dubilance b* the English oligarch* as the great destro*er of all han+erings after human de)elopment8
$althus, hugel* astonished at his success, ga)e himself to stuffing into his boo+ materials superficiall* compiled, and
adding to it ne" matter, not disco)ered but anne9ed b* him8 Cote further: (lthough $althus "as a parson of the
English State 5hurch, he had ta+en the monastic )o" of celibac* v one of the conditions of holding a Fello"ship in
#rotestant 5ambridge %ni)ersit*: @Socios collegiorum maritos esse non permittimus, sed statim postIuam Iuis
u9orem du9erit socius collegii desinat esse8A (@&eports of 5ambridge %ni)ersit* 5ommission,A p8 1768! 'his
circumstance fa)ourabl* distinguishes $althus from the other #rotestant parsons, "ho ha)e shuffled off the command
enDoining celibac* of the priesthood and ha)e ta+en, @/e fruitful and multipl*,A as their special /iblical mission in
such a degree that the* generall* contribute to the increase of population to a reall* unbecoming e9tent, "hilst the*
preach at the same time to the labourers the @principle of population8A >t is characteristic that the economic fall of
man, the (dam?s apple, the urgent appetite, @the chec+s "hich tend to blunt the shafts of 5upid,A as #arson 'o"nsend
"aggishl* puts it, that this delicate Iuestion "as and is monopolised b* the &e)erends of #rotestant 'heolog*, or
rather of the #rotestant 5hurch8 Bith the e9ception of the ;enetian mon+, =rtes, an original and cle)er "riter, most of
the population theor* teachers are #rotestant parsons8 For instance, /ruc+ner, @'hRorie du S*stnme animal,A <e*de,
1767, in "hich the "hole subDect of the modern population theor* is e9hausted, and to "hich the passing Iuarrel
bet"een Kuesna* and his pupil, the elder $irabeau, fumished ideas on the same topic; then #arson Ballace, #arson
'o"nsend, #arson $althus and his pupil, the arch4#arson 'homas 5halmers, to sa* nothing of lesser re)erend
scribblers in this line8 =riginall*, #olitical Econom* "as studied b* philosophers li+e -obbes, <oc+e, -ume; b*
businessmen and statesmen, li+e 'homas $ore, 'emple, Sull*, 0e Bitt, Corth, <a", ;anderlint, 5antillon, Fran+lin;
and especiall*, and "ith the greatest success, b* medical men li+e #ett*, /arbon, $ande)ille, Kuesna*8 E)en in the
middle of the eighteenth centur*, the &e)8 $r8 'uc+er, a notable economist of his time, e9cused himself for meddling
"ith the things of $ammon8 <ater on, and in truth "ith this )er* @#rinciple of population,A struc+ the hour of the
#rotestant parsons8 #ett*, "ho regarded the population as the basis of "ealth, and "as, li+e (dam Smith, an outspo+en
foe to parsons, sa*s, as if he had a presentiment of their bungling interference, @that &eligion best flourishes "hen the
#riests are most mortified, as "as before said of the <a", "hich best flourisheth "hen la"*ers ha)e least to do8A -e
ad)ises the #rotestant priests, therefore, if the*, once for all, "ill not follo" the (postle #aul and @mortif*A themsel)es
b* celibac*, @not to breed more 5hurchmen than the /enefices, as the* no" stand shared out, "ill recei)e, that is to
sa*, if there be places for about t"el)e thousand in England and Bales, it "ill not be safe to breed up 6,777
ministers, for then the t"el)e thousand "hich are unpro)ided for, "ill see+ "a*s ho" to get themsel)es a li)elihood,
"hich the* cannot do more easil* than b* persuading the people that the t"el)e thousand incumbents do poison or
star)e their souls, and misguide them in their "a* to -ea)en8A (#ett*: @( 'reatise of 'a9es and 5ontributions,A
<ondon, 1667, p8 378! (dam Smith?s position "ith the #rotestant priesthood of his time is sho"n b* the follo"ing8 >n
@( <etter to (8 Smith, <8<808 =n the <ife, 0eath, and #hilosoph* of his Friend, 0a)id -ume8 /* one of the #eople
called 5hristians,A th Edition, =9ford, 178, 0r8 -orne, /ishop of Cor"ich, repro)es (dam Smith, because in a
published letter to $r8 Strahan, he @embalmed his friend 0a)idA (sc8 -ume!; because he told the "orld ho" @-ume
amused himself on his deathbed "ith <ucian and Bhist,A and because he e)en had the impudence to "rite of -ume:
@> ha)e al"a*s considered him, both in his life4time and since his death, as approaching as nearl* to the idea of a
perfectl* "ise and )irtuous man, as, perhaps, the nature of human frailt* "ill permit8A 'he bishop cries out, in a
passion: @>s it right in *ou, Sir, to hold up to our )ie" as Wperfectl* "ise and )irtuous,? the character and conduct of
one, "ho seems to ha)e been possessed "ith an incurable antipath* to all that is called ReliionJ and "ho strained
e)er* ner)e to e9plode, suppress and e9tirpate the spirit of it among men, that its )er* name, if he could effect it,
might no more be had in remembranceEA (l8 c8, p8 88! @/ut let not the lo)ers of truth be discouraged8 (theism cannot
be of long continuance8A (#8 178! (dam Smith, @had the atrocious "ic+edness to propagate atheism through the land
()i18, b* his @'heor* of $oral SentimentsA!8 %pon the "hole, 0octor, *our meaning is good; but > thin+ *ou "ill not
succeed this time8 Nou "ould persuade us, b* the e9ample of David *ume+ Es&$+ that atheism is the onl* cordial for
lo" spirits, and the proper antidote against the fear of death8888 Nou ma* smile o)er <abylon in ruins and congratulate
the hardened Pharaoh on his o)erthro" in the &ed Sea8A (l8 c8, pp8 61, 668! =ne orthodo9 indi)idual, amongst (dam
Smith?s college friends, "rites after his death: @Smith?s "ell4placed affection for -ume 888 hindered him from being a
5hristian8888 Bhen he met "ith honest men "hom he li+ed 888 he "ould belie)e almost an*thing the* said8 -ad he been
a friend of the "orth* ingenious -orro9 he "ould ha)e belie)ed that the moon some times disappeared in a clear s+*
"ithout the interposition of a cloud8888 -e approached to republicanism in his political principles8A (@'he /ee8A /*
Lames (nderson, 18 ;ols8, ;ol8 :, pp8 166, 163, Edinburgh, 172142:8! #arson 'homas 5halmers has his suspicions as
to (dam Smith ha)ing in)ented the categor* of @unproducti)e labourers,A solel* for the #rotestant parsons, in spite of
their blessed "or+ in the )ine*ard of the <ord8
7
@'he limit, ho"e)er, to the emplo*ment of both the operati)e and the labourer is the same; namel*, the possibilit* of
the emplo*er realising a profit on the produce of their industr*8 >f the rate of "ages is such as to reduce the master?s
gains belo" the a)erage profit of capital, he "ill cease to emplo* them, or he "ill onl* emplo* them on condition of
submission to a reduction of "ages8A (Lohn Bade, l8 c8, p8 618!
8
Cote b* the >nstitute of $ar9ism4<eninism to the &ussian edition: 'he $S in the first case sa*s @littleA and in the
second case @muchA; the correction has been introduced according to the authorised French translation8
2
5f8 .arl $ar9: @,ur .riti+ der #olitischen =e+onomie,A pp8 166, seI8
17
@>f "e no" return to our first inIuir*, "herein it "as sho"n that capital itself is onl* the result of human labour888 it
seems Iuite incomprehensible that man can ha)e fallen under the domination of capital, his o"n product; can be
subordinated to it; and as in realit* this is be*ond dispute the case, in)oluntaril* the Iuestion arises: -o" has the
labourer been able to pass from being master of capital v as its creator v to being its sla)eEA (;on 'hTnen, @0er
isolierte StaatA #art ii8, Section ii8, &ostoc+, 186:, pp8 3, 68! >t is 'hTnen?s merit to ha)e as+ed this Iuestion8 -is
ans"er is simpl* childish8
11
(dam Smith, @EnIuir* into the Cature of 888A, ;olume >8
16
Hote in the Bth =erman edition$ v 'he latest English and (merican @trustsA are alread* stri)ing to attain this goal
b* attempting to unite at least all the large4scale concerns in one branch of industr* into one great Doint4stoc+ compan*
"ith a practical monopol*8 !$ E$
1:
Hote in the 7rd =erman edition$ v >n $ar9?s cop* there is here the marginal note: @-ere note for "or+ing out later;
if the e9tension is onl* Iuantitati)e, then for a greater and a smaller capital in the same branch of business the profits
are as the magnitudes of the capitals ad)anced8 >f the Iuantitati)e e9tension induces Iualitati)e change, then the rate
of profit on the larger capital rises simultaneousl*8A !$ E$
1
'he census of England and Bales sho"s: all persons emplo*ed in agriculture (landlords, farmers, gardeners,
shepherds, Pc8, included!: 1831, 6,711,7; 1861, 1,26,1178 Fall, 87,::78 Borsted manufacture: 1831, 176,71
persons; 1861, 72,668 Sil+ "ea)ing: 1831, 111,27; 1861, 171,6788 5alico4printing: 1831, 16,728; 1861, 16,3368 (
small rise that, in the face of the enormous e9tension of this industr* and impl*ing a great fall proportionall* in the
number of labourers emplo*ed8 -at4ma+ing: 1831, 13,237; 1861, 1:,818 Stra"4hat and bonnet4ma+ing: 1831,
67,:2:; 1861, 18,1768 $alting: 1831, 17,366; 1861, 17,6778 5handler*, 1831, ,22; 1861, ,6868 'his fall is due,
besides other causes, to the increase in lighting b* gas8 5omb4ma+ing v 1831, 6,7:8; 1861, 1,788 Sa"*ers: 1831,
:7,336; 1861, :1,67 v a small rise in conseIuence of the increase of sa"ing4machines8 Cail4ma+ing: 1831, 66,27;
1861, 66,1:7 v fall in conseIuence of the competition of machiner*8 'in and copper4mining: 1831, :1,:67; 1861,
:6,718 =n the other hand: 5otton4spinning and "ea)ing: 1831, :71,777; 1861, 36,668 5oal4mining: 1831, 18:,:82,
1861, 66,61:, @'he increase of labourers is generall* greatest, since 1831, in such branches of industr* in "hich
machiner* has not up to the present been emplo*ed "ith success8A (5ensus of England and Bales for 18618 ;ol8 >ll8
<ondon, 186:, p8 :68!
13
Added in the Bth =erman edition$ v 'he la" of progressi)e diminution of the relati)e magnitude of )ariable capital
and its effect on the condition of the class of "age "or+ers is conDectured rather than understood b* some of the
prominent economists of the classical school8 'he greatest ser)ice "as rendered here b* Lohn /arton, although he, li+e
all the rest, lumps together constant and fi9ed capital, )ariable and circulating capital8 -e sa*s:
@'he demand for labour depends on the increase of circulating, and not of fi9ed capital8 Bere it true that the
proportion bet"een these t"o sorts of capital is the same at all times, and in all circumstances, then, indeed, it follo"s
that the number of labourers emplo*ed is in proportion to the "ealth of the state8 /ut such a proposition has not the
semblance of probabilit*8 (s arts are culti)ated, and ci)ilisation is e9tended, fi9ed capital bears a larger and larger
proportion to circulating capital8 'he amount of fi9ed capital emplo*ed in the production of a piece of /ritish muslin
is at least a hundred, probabl* a thousand times greater than that emplo*ed in a similar piece of >ndian muslin8 (nd
the proportion of circulating capital is a hundred or thousand times less 888 the "hole of the annual sa)ings, added to
the fi9ed capital, "ould ha)e no effect in increasing the demand for labour8A (Lohn /arton, @=bser)ations on the
5ircumstances "hich >nfluence the 5ondition of the <abouring 5lasses of Societ*8A <ondon, 1817, pp8 16, 178! @'he
same cause "hich ma* increase the net re)enue of the countr* ma* at the same time render the population redundant,
and deteriorate the condition of the labourer8A (&icardo, l8 c8, p8 628! Bith increase of capital, @the demand Gfor
labourH "ill be in a diminishing ratio8A (>bid8, p8 87, Cote8! @'he amount of capital de)oted to the maintenance of
labour ma* )ar*, independentl* of an* changes in the "hole amount of capital8888 Great fluctuations in the amount of
emplo*ment, and great suffering ma* become more freIuent as capital itself becomes more plentiful8A (&ichard Lones,
@(n >ntroductor* <ecture on #ol8 Econ8,A <ond8 18::, p8 1:! @0emand Gfor labourH "ill rise 888 not in proportion to the
accumulation of the general capital8 888 E)er* augmentation, therefore, in the national stoc+ destined for reproduction,
comes, in the progress of societ*, to ha)e less and less influence upon the condition of the labourer8A (&amsa*, l8 c8,
pp8 27, 218!
16
-8 $eri)ale8 @<ectures on 5olonisation and 5olonies,A 181, ;ol8 > , p8 168
17
$althus, @#rinciples of #olitical Econom*,A pp8 613, :12, :678 >n this "or+, $althus finall* disco)ers, "ith the help
of Sismondi, the beautiful 'rinit* of capitalistic production: o)er4production, o)er4population, o)er4consumption v
three )er* delicate monsters, indeed8 5f8 F8 Engels, @%mrisse 1u einer .riti+ der Cationalu+onomie,A l8 c8, p, 177, et
seI8
18
-arriet $artineau, @( $anchester Stri+e,A 18:6, p8 1718
12
E)en in the cotton famine of 186: "e find, in a pamphlet of the operati)e cotton4spinners of /lac+burn, fierce
denunciations of o)er"or+, "hich, in conseIuence of the Factor* (cts, of course onl* affected adult male labourers8
@'he adult operati)es at this mill ha)e been as+ed to "or+ from 16 to 1: hours per da*, "hile there are hundreds "ho
are compelled to be idle "ho "ould "illingl* "or+ partial time, in order to maintain their families and sa)e their
brethren from a premature gra)e through being o)er"or+ed8888 Be,A it goes on to sa*, @"ould as+ if the practice of
"or+ing o)ertime b* a number of hands, is li+el* to create a good feeling bet"een masters and ser)ants8 'hose "ho
are "or+ed o)ertime feel the inDustice eIuall* "ith those "ho are condemned to forced idleness8 'here is in the
district almost sufficient "or+ to gi)e to all partial emplo*ment if fairl* distributed8 Be are onl* as+ing "hat is right
in reIuesting the masters generall* to pursue a s*stem of short hours, particularl* until a better state of things begins
to da"n upon us, rather than to "or+ a portion of the hands o)ertime, "hile others, for "ant of "or+, are compelled to
e9ist upon charit*8A (@&eports of >nsp8 of Fact8, =ct8 :1, 186:,A p8 88! 'he author of the @Essa* on 'rade and
5ommerceA grasps the effect of a relati)e surplus population on the emplo*ed labourers "ith his usual unerring
bourgeois instinct8 @(nother cause of idleness in this +ingdom is the "ant of a sufficient number of labouring
hands 8888 Bhene)er from an e9traordinar* demand for manufactures, labour gro"s scarce, the labourers feel their o"n
conseIuence, and "ill ma+e their masters feel it li+e"ise v it is ama1ing; but so depra)ed are the dispositions of
these people, that in such cases a set of "or+men ha)e combined to distress the emplo*er b* idling a "hole da*
together8A (@Essa*, Pc8,A pp8 67, 688! 'he fello"s in fact "ere han+ering after a rise in "ages8
67
Economist+ Lan8 618 18678
61
Bhilst during the last si9 months of 1866, 87427,777 "or+ing people in <ondon "ere thro"n out of "or+, the
Factor* &eport for that same half *ear sa*s: @>t does not appear absolutel* true to sa* that demand "ill al"a*s
produce suppl* Dust at the moment "hen it is needed8 >t has not done so "ith labour, for much machiner* has been idle
last *ear for "ant of hands8A (@&ep8 of >nsp8 of Fact8, :1st =ct8, 1866,A p8 818!
66
=pening address to the Sanitar* 5onference, /irmingham, Lanuar* 13th, 1873, b* L8 5hamberlain, $a*or of the
to"n, no" (188:! #resident of the /oard of 'rade8
6:
781 to"ns gi)en in the census for 1861 for England and Bales @contained 17,267,228 inhabitants, "hile the )illages
and countr* parishes contained 2,173,6668 >n 1831, 387 to"ns "ere distinguished, and the population in them and in
the surrounding countr* "as nearl* eIual8 /ut "hile in the subseIuent ten *ears the population in the )illages and the
countr* increased half a million, the population in the 387 to"ns increased b* a million and a half (1,33,767!8 'he
increase of the population of the countr* parishes is 683 per cent8, and of the to"ns 178: per cent8 'he difference in the
rates of increase is due to the migration from countr* to to"n8 'hree4fourths of the total increase of population has
ta+en place in the to"ns8A (@5ensus8 Pc8,A pp8 11 and 168!
6
@#o)ert* seems fa)ourable to generation8A ((8 Smith8! 'his is e)en a speciall* "ise arrangement of God, according
to the gallant and "itt* (bbR Galiani @>ddio af che gli uomini che esercitano mestieri di prima utiliti nascono
abbondantemente8A (Galiani, l8 c8, p8 788! GGod ordains that men "ho carr* on trades of primar* utilit* are born in
abundanceH @$iser* up to the e9treme point of famine and pestilence, instead of chec+ing, tends to increase
population8A (S8 <aing, @Cational 0istress,A 18, p8 628! (fter <aing has illustrated this b* statistics, he continues: @>f
the people "ere all in eas* circumstances, the "orld "ould soon be depopulated8A
63
@0e Dour en Dour il de)ient donc plus clair Iue les rapports de production dans lesIuels se meut la bourgeoisie n?ont
pas un caractnre un, un catactnre simple, mais un caractnre de duplicitR; Iue dans les mdmes rapports dans lesIuels se
produit la richesse, la misRre se produit aussi; Iue dans les mdmes rapports dans lesIuels il * a dR)eloppement des
forces producti)es, il * a une force producti)e de rRpression; Iue ces rapports ne produisent la richesse bourgeoise,
c?est4X4dire la richesse de la classe bourgeoise, Iu?en anRantissant continuellement la richesse des membres intRgrants
de cette classe et en produisant un prolRtariat touDours croissant8A GFrom da* to da* it thus becomes clearer that the
production relations in "hich the bourgeoisie mo)es ha)e not a simple, uniform character, but a dual character; that in
the selfsame relations in "hich "ealth is produced, po)ert* is produced also; that in the selfsame relations in "hich
there is a de)elopment of producti)e forces, there is also a force producing repression; that there relations produce
bourgeois "ealth, i8e8, the "ealth of the bourgeois class, onl* b* continuall* annihilating the "ealth of the indi)idual
members of this class and b* producing an e)ergro"ing proletariatH (.arl $ar9: @$isnre de la #hilosophie,A p8 1168!
66
G8 =rtes: @0elia Economia Ca1ionale libri sei, 1777,A in 5ustodi, #arte $oderna, t8 99i, pp8 6, 2, 66, 63, etc8 =rtes
sa*s, l8 c8, p8 :6: @>n luoco di progettar sistemi inutili per la felicitX de?popoli, mi limitery a in)estigate la region delta
loro infelicitX8A G>nstead of proDecting useless s*stems for achie)ing the happiness of people, > shall limit m*self to
in)estigating the reasons for their unhappinessH
67
@( 0issertation on the #oor <a"s8 /* a Bell4"isher of $an+ind8 ('he &e)8 L8 'o"nsend! 1786,A republished <ond8
1817, pp8 13, :2, 18 'his @delicateA parson, from "hose "or+ Dust Iuoted, as "ell as from his @Lourne* through
Spain,A $althus often copies "hole pages, himself borro"ed the greater part of his doctrine from Sir Lames Steuart,
"hom he ho"e)er alters in the borro"ing8 E$8, "hen Steuart sa*s: @-ere, in sla)er*, "as a forcible method of
ma+ing man+ind diligent,A Gfor the non4"or+ersH 888 @$en "ere then forced to "or+A Gi$e8,to "or+ gratis for othersH,
@because the* "ere sla)es of others; men are no" forced to "or+A Gi$e8, to "or+ gratis for non4"or+ersH @because the*
are the sla)es of their necessities,A he does not thence conclude, li+e the fat holder of benefices, that the "age labourer
must al"a*s go fasting8 -e "ishes, on the contrar*, to increase their "ants and to ma+e the increasing number of their
"ants a stimulus to their labour for the @more delicate8A
68
Storch, l8 c8, t8 iii, p8 66:8
62
Sismondi, l8 c8, pp8 72, 87, 838
:7
0estutt de 'rac*, l8 c8, p8 6:1: @<es nations pau)res, c?est lX ox le peuple est X son aise; et les nations riches, c?est lX
ox il est ordinairement pau)re8A G'he poor nations are those "here the people are comfortabl* off; and the rich
nationss, those "here the people are generall* poorH
:1
@'enth &eport of the 5ommissioners of -8 $8 >nland &e)enue8A <ond8, 18668 p8 :88
:6
lbidem8
::
'hese figures are sufficient for comparison, but, ta+en absolutel*, are false, since, perhaps, ]177,777,777 of income
are annuall* not declared8 'he complaints of the >nland &e)enue 5ommissioners of s*stematic fraud, especiall* on the
part of the commercial and industrial classes, are repeated in each of their reports8 So e$$+ @( Loint4stoc+ compan*
returns ]6,777 as assessable profits, the sur)e*or raises the amount to ]88,777, and upon that sum dut* is ultimatel*
paid8 (nother compan* "hich returns ]127,777 is finall* compelled to admit that the true return should be ]637,7778A
(>bid8, p, 68!
:
@5ensus, Pc8,A l8 c8, p8 628 Lohn /right?s assertion that 137 landlords o"n half of England, and 16 half the Scotch
soil, has ne)er been refuted8
:3
@Fourth &eport, Pc8, of >nland &e)enue8A <ond8, 1867, p8 178
:6
hese are the net incomes after certain legall* authorised abatements8
:7
(t this moment, $arch, 1867, the >ndian and 5hinese mar+et is again o)erstoc+ed b* the consignments of the
/ritish cotton manufacturers8 >n 1866 a reduction in "ages of 3 per cent8 too+ place amongst the cotton operati)es8 >n
1867, as conseIuence of a similar operation, there "as a stri+e of 67,777 men at #reston8 8Added in the Bth =erman
edition8 v 'hat "as the prelude to the crisis "hich bro+e out immediatel* after"ards8 v !$ E$9
:8
@5ensus, Pc8,A l8 c8, #8 118
:2
Gladstone in the -ouse of 5ommons, Feb8 1:th, 18:8 /imes+ Feb8 1th, 18: v @>t is one of the most melanchol*
features in the social state of this countr* that "e see, be*ond the possibilit* of denial, that "hile there is at this
moment a decrease in the consuming po"ers of the people, an increase of the pressure of pri)ations and distress; there
is at the same time a constant accumulation of "ealth in the upper classes, an increase of the lu9uriousness of their
habits, and of their means of enDo*ment8A (-ansard, 1:th Feb8!
7
Gladstone in the -ouse of 5ommons, (pril 16th, 186:8 Mornin ;tar+ (pril 17th8
1
See the official accounts in the /lue boo+: @$iscellaneous Statistics of the %nited .ingdom,A #art )i8, <ondon,
1866, pp8 667467:, passim8 >nstead of the statistics of orphan as*lums, Pc8, the declamations of the ministerial
Dournals in recommending do"ries for the &o*al children might also ser)e8 'he greater dearness of the means of
subsistence is ne)er forgotten there8
6
Gladstone, -ouse of 5ommons, 7th (pril, 1868 v @'he -ansard )ersion runs: W(gain, and *et more at large v
"hat is human life, but, in the maDorit* of cases, a struggle for e9istence8? 'he continual cr*ing contradictions in
Gladstone?s /udget speeches of 186: and 186 "ere characterised b* an English "riter b* the follo"ing Iuotation
from /oileau:
@;oilX l?homme en effet8 >l )a du blanc au noir,
>l condamne au matin ses sentiments du soir8
>mportun X tout autre, X soi4mdme incommode,
>l change X tout moment d?esprit comme de mode8A
GSuch is the man: he goes from blac+ to "hite8 J -e condemns in the morning "hat he felt in the e)ening8 J ( nuisance
to e)er*one else, and an incon)enience to himself, J he changes his "a* of thin+ing as easil* as he changes his "a* of
dressingH
(@'he 'heor* of E9changes, Pc8,A <ondon, 186, p8 1:38!
:
-8 Fa"cett, l8 c8, pp8 674868 (s to the increasing dependence of labourers on the retail shop+eepers, this is the
conseIuence of the freIuent oscillations and interruptions of their emplo*ment8
>n his @%topia,A 'homas $ore sa*s, that in England @*our shepe that "ere "ont to be so me+e and tame, and so smal
eaters, no", as > heare sa*e, be become so great de)ourers and so "*lde that the* eate up, and s"allo" do"ne, the
)er* men themselfes8A @%topia,A transl8 b* &obinson, ed8 (rber, <ond8, 1862, p8 18
3
/acon sho"s the conne9ion bet"een a free, "ell4to4do peasantr* and good infantr*8 @'his did "onderfull* concern
the might and mannerhood of the +ingdom to ha)e farms as it "ere of a standard sufficient to maintain an able bod*
out of penur*, and did in effect amortise a great part of the lands of the +ingdom unto the hold and occupation of the
*eomanr* or middle people, of a condition bet"een gentlemen, and cottagers and peasants8888 For it hath been held b*
the general opinion of men of best Dudgment in the "ars8888 that the principal strength of an arm* consisteth in the
infantr* or foot8 (nd to ma+e good infantr* it reIuireth men bred, not in a ser)ile or indigent fashion, but in some free
and plentiful manner8 'herefore, if a state run most to noblemen and gentlemen, and that the husbandman and
ploughmen be but as their "or+fol+ and labourers, or else mere cottagers ("hich are but hous?d beggars!, *ou ma*
ha)e a good ca)alr*, but ne)er good stable bands of foot8888 (nd this is to be seen in France, and >tal*, and some other
parts abroad, "here in effect all is noblesse or peasantr*8888 insomuch that the* are inforced to emplo* mercenar*
bands of S"it1ers and the li+e, for their battalions of foot; "hereb* also it comes to pass that those nations ha)e much
people and fe" soldiers8A (@'he &eign of -enr* ;>>8A ;erbatim reprint from .ennet?s England8 Ed8 17128 <ond8,
1877, p8 :788!
6
0r8 -unter, l8 c8, p8 1:8 @'he Iuantit* of land assigned (in the old la"s! "ould no" be Dudged too great for
labourers, and rather as li+el* to con)ert them into small farmers8A (George &oberts: @'he Social -istor* of the
#eople of the Southern 5ounties of England in #ast 5enturies8A <ond8, 1836, pp8 1841838!
7
@'he right of the poor to share in the tithe, is established b* the tenour of ancient statutes8A ('uc+ett, l8 c8, ;ol8 >>8, pg8
8748738!
8
Billiam 5obbett: @( -istor* of the #rotestant &eformation,A 718
2
'he @spiritA of #rotestantism ma* be seen from the follo"ing, among other things8 >n the south of England certain
landed proprietors and "ell4to4do farmers put their heads together and propounded ten Iuestions as to the right
interpretation of the poor4la" of Eli1abeth8 'hese the* laid before a celebrated Durist of that time, Sergeant Snigge
(later a Dudge under Lames >8! for his opinion8 @Kuestion 2 v Some of the more "ealth* farmers in the parish ha)e
de)ised a s+ilful mode b* "hich all the trouble of e9ecuting this (ct (the :rd of Eli1abeth! might be a)oided8 'he*
ha)e proposed that "e shall erect a prison in the parish, and then gi)e notice to the neighbourhood, that if an* persons
are disposed to farm the poor of this parish, the* do gi)e in sealed proposals, on a certain da*, of the lo"est price at
"hich the* "ill ta+e them off our hands; and that the* "ill be authorised to refuse to an* one unless he be shut up in
the aforesaid prison8 'he proposers of this plan concei)e that there "ill be found in the adDoining counties, persons,
"ho, being un"illing to labour and not possessing substance or credit to ta+e a farm or ship, so as to li)e "ithout
labour, ma* be induced to ma+e a )er* ad)antageous offer to the parish8 >f an* of the poor perish under the
contractor?s care, the sin "ill lie at his door, as the parish "ill ha)e done its dut* b* them8 Be are, ho"e)er,
apprehensi)e that the present (ct (:rd of Eli1abeth! "ill not "arrant a prudential measure of this +ind; but *ou are to
learn that the rest of the freeholders of the count*, and of the adDoining count* of /, "ill )er* readil* Doin in
instructing their members to propose an (ct to enable the parish to contract "ith a person to loc+ up and "or+ the
poor; and to declare that if an* person shall refuse to be so loc+ed up and "or+ed, he shall be entitled to no relief8
'his, it is hoped, "ill pre)ent persons in distress from "anting relief, and be the means of +eeping do"n parishes8A (&8
/la+e*: @'he -istor* of #olitical <iterature from the Earliest 'imes8A <ond8, 1833, ;ol8 >>8, pp8 84838! >n Scotland,
the abolition of serfdom too+ place some centuries later than in England8 E)en in 1628, Fletcher of Saltoun, declared
in the Scotch parliament, @'he number of beggars in Scotland is rec+oned at not less than 677,7778 'he onl* remed*
that >, a republican on principle, can suggest, is to restore the old state of serfdom, to ma+e sla)es of all those "ho are
unable to pro)ide for their o"n subsistence8A Eden, l8 c8, /oo+ >8, ch8 1, pp8 67461, sa*s, @'he decrease of )illenage
seems necessaril* to ha)e been the era of the origin of the poor8 $anufactures and commerce are the t"o parents of
our national poor8A Eden, li+e our Scotch republican on principle, errs onl* in this: not the abolition of )illenage, but
the abolition of the propert* of the agricultural labourer in the soil made him a proletarian, and e)entuall* a pauper8 >n
France, "here the e9propriation "as effected in another "a*, the ordonnance of $oulins, 1371, and the Edict of 1636,
correspond to the English poor4la"s8
17
#rofessor &ogers, although formerl* #rofessor of #olitical Econom* in the %ni)ersit* of =9ford, the hotbed of
#rotestant orthodo9*, in his preface to the @-istor* of (gricultureA la*s stress on the fact of the pauperisation of the
mass of the people b* the &eformation8
11
@( <etter to Sir '8 58 /unbur*, /art8, on the -igh #rice of #ro)isions8 /* a Suffol+ Gentleman8A >ps"ich, 1723, p8
8 E)en the fanatical ad)ocate of the s*stem of large farms, the author of the @>nIuir* into the 5onne9ion bet"een the
#resent #rice of #ro)isions,A <ondon, 177:, p8 1:2, sa*s: @> most lament the loss of our *eomanr*, that set of men
"ho reall* +ept up the independence of this nation; and sorr* > am to see their lands no" in the hands of monopolising
lords, tenanted out to small farmers, "ho hold their leases on such conditions as to be little better than )assals read* to
attend a summons on e)er* mischie)ous occasion8A
16
=n the pri)ate moral character of this bourgeois hero, among other things: @'he large grant of lands in >reland to
<ad* =r+ne*, in 1623, is a public instance of the +ing?s affection, and the lad*?s influence888 <ad* =r+ne*?s endearing
offices are supposed to ha)e been v fda labiorum ministeria8A (>n the Sloane $anuscript 5ollection, at the /ritish
$useum, Co8 668 'he $anuscript is entitled: @'he character and beha)iour of .ing Billiam, Sunderland, etc8, as
represented in =riginal <etters to the 0u+e of Shre"sbur* from Somers -alifa9, =9ford, Secretar* ;ernon, etc8A >t is
full of curiosa8!
1:
@'he illegal alienation of the 5ro"n Estates, partl* b* sale and partl* b* gift, is a scandalous chapter in English
histor*888 a gigantic fraud on the nation8A (F8 B8 Ce"man, @<ectures on #olitical Econom*8A <ondon, 1831, pp8 162,
1:78! GFor details as to ho" the present large landed proprietors of England came into their possessions see @=ur =ld
Cobilit*8 /* Coblesse =blige8A <ondon, 18728 v !$ E$H
1
&ead, e$$, E8 /ur+e?s #amphlet on the ducal house of /edford, "hose offshoot "as <ord Lohn &ussell, the @tomtit
of <iberalism8A
13
@'he farmers forbid cottagers to +eep an* li)ing creatures besides themsel)es and children, under the pretence that
if the* +eep an* beasts or poultr*, the* "ill steal from the farmers? barns for their support; the* also sa*, +eep the
cottagers poor and *ou "ill +eep them industrious, Pc8, but the real fact > belie)e, is that the farmers ma* ha)e the
"hole right of common to themsel)es8A (@( #olitical >nIuir* into the 5onseIuences of Enclosing Baste <ands8A
<ondon, 1783, p8 738!
16
Eden, l8 c8, preface8
17
@5apital Farms8A '"o letters on the Flour 'rade and the 0earness of 5orn8 /* a person in business8 <ondon, 1767,
pp8 12, 678
18
@$erchant Farms8A @(n EnIuir* into the 5auses of the #resent -igh #rice of #ro)isions8A <ondon, 1767, p8 118
Cote8v 'his e9cellent "or+, that "as published anon*mousl*, is b* the &e)8 Cathaniel Forster8
12
'homas Bright: @( Short (ddress to the #ublic on the $onopol* of <arge Farms,A 1772, pp8 6, :8
67
&e)8 (ddington: @>nIuir* into the &easons for or against Enclosing =pen Fields,A <ondon, 1776, pp8 :7, : passim8
61
0r8 &8 #rice, l8 c8, )8 ii8, p8 133, Forster, (ddington, .ent, #rice, and Lames (nderson, should be read and compared
"ith the miserable prattle of S*cophant $ac5ulloch in his catalogue: @'he <iterature of #olitical Econom*,A <ondon,
1838
66
#rice, l8 c8, p8 178
6:
#rice, l8 c8, p8 1328 Be are reminded of ancient &ome8 @'he rich had got possession of the greater part of the
undi)ided land8 'he* trusted in the conditions of the time, that these possessions "ould not be again ta+en from them,
and bought, therefore, some of the pieces of land l*ing near theirs, and belonging to the poor, "ith the acIuiescence of
their o"ners, and too+ some b* force, so that the* no" "ere culti)ating "idel* e9tended domains, instead of isolated
fields8 'hen the* emplo*ed sla)es in agriculture and cattle4breeding, because freemen "ould ha)e been ta+en from
labour for militar* ser)ice8 'he possession of sla)es brought them great gain, inasmuch as these, on account of their
immunit* from militar* ser)ice, could freel* multipl* and ha)e a multitude of children8 'hus the po"erful men dre"
all "ealth to themsel)es, and all the land s"armed "ith sla)es8 'he >talians, on the other hand, "ere al"a*s
decreasing in number, destro*ed as the* "ere b* po)ert*, ta9es, and militar* ser)ice8 E)en "hen times of peace came,
the* "ere doomed to complete inacti)it*, because the rich "ere in possession of the soil, and used sla)es instead of
freemen in the tilling of it8A ((ppian: @5i)il Bars,A >878! 'his passage refers to the time before the <icinian rogations8
$ilitar* ser)ice, "hich hastened to so great an e9tent the ruin of the &oman plebeians, "as also the chief means b*
"hich, as in a forcing4house, 5harlemagne brought about the transformation of free German peasants into serfs and
bondsmen8
6
@(n >nIuir* into the 5onne9ion bet"een the #resent #rice of #ro)isions, Pc8,A pp8 16, 1628 'o the li+e effect, but
"ith an opposite tendenc*: @Bor+ing4men are dri)en from their cottages and forced into the to"ns to see+ for
emplo*ment; but then a larger surplus is obtained, and thus capital is augmented8A (@'he #erils of the Cation,A 6nd ed8
<ondon8, 18:, p8 18!
63
l8 c8, p8 1:68
66
Steuart sa*s: @>f *ou compare the rent of these landsA (he erroneousl* includes in this economic categor* the tribute
of the tas+men to the clanchief! @"ith the e9tent, it appears )er* small8 >f *ou compare it "ith the numbers fed upon
the farm, *ou "ill find that an estate in the -ighlands maintains, perhaps, ten times as man* people as another of the
same )alue in a good and fertile pro)ince8A (l8 c8, )ol8 i8, ch8 9)i8, p8 178!
67
Lames (nderson: @=bser)ations on the $eans of E9citing a Spirit of Cational >ndustr*, Pc8,A Edinburgh, 17778
68
>n 1867 the people e9propriated b* force "ere e9ported to 5anada under false pretences8 Some fled to the
mountains and neighbouring islands8 'he* "ere follo"ed b* the police, came to blo"s "ith them and escaped8
62
@>n the -ighlands of Scotland,A sa*s /uchanan, the commentator on (dam Smith, 181, @the ancient state of
propert* is dail* sub)erted8888 'he landlord, "ithout regard to the hereditar* tenant (a categor* used in error here!, no"
offers his land to the highest bidder, "ho, if he is an impro)er, instantl* adopts a ne" s*stem of culti)ation8 'he land,
formerl* o)erspread "ith small tenants or labourers, "as peopled in proportion to its produce, but under the ne"
s*stem of impro)ed culti)ation and increased rents, the largest possible produce is obtained at the least possible
e9pense: and the useless hands being, "ith this )ie", remo)ed, the population is reduced, not to "hat the land "ill
maintain, but to "hat it "ill emplo*8 @'he dispossessed tenants either see+ a subsistence in the neighbouring to"ns,A
Pc8 (0a)id /uchanan: @=bser)ations on, Pc8, (8 Smith?s Bealth of Cations8A Edinburgh, 181, )ol8 i)8, p8 18! @'he
Scotch grandees dispossessed families as the* "ould grub up coppice4"ood, and the* treated )illages and their people
as >ndians harassed "ith "ild beasts do, in their )engeance, a Dungle "ith tigers8888 $an is bartered for a fleece or a
carcase of mutton, na*, held cheaper8888 Bh*, ho" much "orse is it than the intention of the $oguls, "ho, "hen the*
had bro+en into the northern pro)inces of 5hina, proposed in council to e9terminate the inhabitants, and con)ert the
land into pasture8 'his proposal man* -ighland proprietors ha)e effected in their o"n countr* against their o"n
countr*men8A (George Ensor: @(n >nIuir* 5oncerning the #opulation of Cations8A <ond,8 1818, pp8 613, 6168!
:7
Bhen the present 0uchess of Sutherland entertained $rs8 /eecher Sto"e, authoress of @%ncle 'om?s 5abin,A "ith
great magnificence in <ondon to sho" her s*mpath* for the Cegro sla)es of the (merican republic v a s*mpath* that
she prudentl* forgot, "ith her fello"4aristocrats, during the ci)il "ar, in "hich e)er* @nobleA English heart beat for
the sla)e4o"ner v > ga)e in the He1 Qor" /ribune the facts about the Sutherland sla)es8 (Epitomised in part b* 5are*
in @'he Sla)e 'rade8A #hiladelphia, 183:, pp8 67:, 678! $* article "as reprinted in a Scotch ne"spaper, and led to a
prett* polemic bet"een the latter and the s*cophants of the Sutherlands8
:1
>nteresting details on this fish trade "ill be found in $r8 0a)id %rIuhart?s #ortfolio, ne" series8 v Cassau B8
Senior, in his posthumous "or+, alread* Iuoted, terms @the proceedings in Sutherlandshire one of the most beneficent
clearings since the memor* of man8A (l8 c8!
:6
'he deer4forests of Scotland contain not a single tree8 'he sheep are dri)en from, and then the deer dri)en to, the
na+ed hills, and then it is called a deer4forest8 Cot e)en timber4planting and real forest culture8
::
&obert Somers: @<etters from the -ighlands: or the Famine of 1878A <ondon, 188, pp8 16468 passim8 'hese letters
originall* appeared in /he /imes8 'he English economists of course e9plained the famine of the Gaels in 187, b*
their o)er4population8 (t all e)ents, the* @"ere pressing on their food4suppl*8A 'he @clearing of estates,A or as it is
called in German*, @/auernlegen,A occurred in German* especiall* after the :7 *ears? "ar, and led to peasant4re)olts
as late as 1727 in .ursachsen8 >t obtained especiall* in East German*8 >n most of the #russian pro)inces, Frederic+ >>8
for the first time secured right of propert* for the peasants8 (fter the conIuest of Silesia he forced the landlords to
rebuild the huts, barns, etc8, and to pro)ide the peasants "ith cattle and implements8 -e "anted soldiers for his arm*
and ta94pa*ers for his treasur*8 For the rest, the pleasant life that the peasant led under Frederic+?s s*stem of finance
and hodge4podge rule of despotism, bureaucrac* and feudalism, ma* be seen from the follo"ing Iuotation from his
admirer, $irabeau: @<e lin fait donc une des grandes richesses du culti)ateur dans le Cord de l?(llemagne8
$alheureusement pour l?espnce humaine, ce n?est Iu?une ressource contre la misnre et non un mo*en de bien4dtre8
<es imptts directs, les cor)Res, les ser)itudes de tout genre, Rcrasent le culti)ateur allemand, Iui paie encore des
imptts indirects dans tout ce Iu?il achnte8888 et pour comble de ruine, il n?ose pas )endre ses productions ox et comme
il le )eut; il n?ose pas acheter ce dont il a besoin au9 marchands Iui pourraient le lui li)rer au meilleur pri98 'outes ces
causes le ruinent insensiblement, et il se trou)erait hors d?Rtat de pa*er les imptts directs X l?RchRance sans la filerie;
elle lui offre une ressource, en occupant utilement sa femme, ses enfants, ses ser)ants, ses )alets, et lui4mdme; mais
Iuelle pRnible )ie, mdme aidRe de ce secours8 En RtR, il tra)aille comme un forzat au labourage et X la rRcolte; il se
couche X 2 heures et se ln)e X deu9, pour suffire au9 tra)au9; en hi)er il de)rait rRparer ses forces par un plus grand
repos; mais il manIuera de grains pour le pain et les semailles, s?il se dRfait des denrRes Iu?il faudrait )endre pour
pa*er les imptts8 >l faut donc filer pour supplRer X ce )ide8888 il faut * apporter la plus grande assiduitR8 (ussi le pa*san
se couche4t4il en hi)er X minuit, une heure, et se ln)e X cinI ou si9; ou bien il se couche X neuf, et se ln)e X deu9, et
cela tous les Dours de la )ie si ce n?est le dimanche8 5es e9cns de )eille et de tra)ail usent la nature humaine, et de lX
)ient Iu?hommes et femmes )ieillissent beaucoup pluttt dans les campagnes Iue dans les )illes8A GFla9 represents one
of the greatest sources of "ealth for the peasant of Corth German*8 %nfortunatel* for the human race, this is onl* a
resource against miser* and not a means to"ards "ell4being8 0irect ta9es, forced labour ser)ice, obligations of all
+inds crush the German peasant, especiall* as he still has to pa* indirect ta9es on e)er*thing he bu*s, 888 and to
complete his ruin he dare not sell his produce "here and as he "ishes; he dare not bu* "hat he needs from the
merhcants "ho could sell it to him at a cheaper price8 -e is slo"l* ruined b* all those factors, and "hen the dirct ta9es
fall due, he "ould find himself incapable of pa*ing them "ithout his spinning4"heel; it offers him a last resort, "hile
pro)iding useful occupation for his "ife, his children, his maids, his farm4hands, and himself; but "hat a painful life
he leads, e)en "ith this e9tra resourceQ >n summer, he "or+s li+e a con)ict "ith the plough and at har)est; he goes to
bed at nine o?cloc+ and rises at t"o to get through all his "or+; in "inter he ought to be reco)ering his strength b*
sleeping longer; but he "ould run short of corn for his bread and ne9t *ear?s so"ing if he got rid of the products that
he needs to sell in order to pa* the ta9es8 -e therefore has to spin to fill up this gap 888 and indeed he must do so most
assiduousl*8 'hus the peasant goes to bed at midnight or one o?cloc+ in "inter, and gets up at fi)e or si9; or he gies to
bed at nine and gets up at t"o, and this he does e)er* da* of his life e9cept Sunda*s8 'hese e9cessi)el* short hours of
sleep and long hours of "or+ consume a person?s strength and hence it happens that men and "omen age much more
in the countr* than in the to"nsH ($irabeau, l8 c8, t8>>>8 pp8 616 sII8!
Hote to the second edition$ >n (pril 1866, 18 *ears after the publication of the "or+ of &obert Somers Iuoted abo)e,
#rofessor <eone <e)i ga)e a lecture before the Societ* of (rts on the transformation of sheep4"al+s into deer4forest,
in "hich he depicts the ad)ance in the de)astation of the Scottish -ighlands8 -e sa*s, "ith other things:
@0epopulation and transformation into sheep4"al+s "ere the most con)enient means for getting an income "ithout
e9penditure888 ( deer4forest in place of a sheep4"al+ "as a common change in the -ighlands8 'he lando"ners turned
out the sheep as the* once turned out the men from their estates, and "elcomed the ne" tenants v the "ild beasts and
the feathered birds8888 =ne can "al+ from the Earl of 0alhousie?s estates in Forfarshire to Lohn =?Groats, "ithout e)er
lea)ing forest land8888 >n man* of these "oods the fo9, the "ild cat, the marten, the polecat, the "easel and the (lpine
hare are common; "hilst the rabbit, the sIuirrel and the rat ha)e latel* made their "a* into the countr*8 >mmense
tracts of land, much of "hich is described in the statistical account of Scotland as ha)ing a pasturage in richness and
e9tent of )er* superior description, are thus shut out from all culti)ation and impro)ement, and are solel* de)oted to
the sport of a fe" persons for a )er* brief period of the *ear8A 'he <ondon Economist of Lune 6, 1866, sa*s, @(mongst
the items of ne"s in a Scotch paper of last "ee+, "e read888 ?=ne of the finest sheep farms in Sutherlandshire, for
"hich a rent of ]1,677 a *ear "as recentl* offered, on the e9pir* of the e9isting lease this *ear, is to be con)erted into
a deer4forest8? -ere "e see the modern instincts of feudalism 888 operating prett* much as the* did "hen the Corman
5onIueror888 destro*ed :6 )illages to create the Ce" Forest8888 '"o millions of acres888 totall* laid "aste, embracing
"ithin their area some of the most fertile lands of Scotland8 'he natural grass of Glen 'ilt "as among the most
nutriti)e in the count* of #erth8 'he deer4forest of /en (ulder "as b* far the best gra1ing ground in the "ide district
of /adenoch; a part of the /lac+ $ount forest "as the best pasture for blac+4faced sheep in Scotland8 Some idea of
the ground laid "aste for purel* sporting purposes in Scotland ma* be formed from the fact that it embraced an area
larger than the "hole count* of #erth8 'he resources of the forest of /en (ulder might gi)e some idea of the loss
sustained from the forced desolations8 'he ground "ould pasture 13,777 sheep, and as it "as not more than one4
thirtieth part of the old forest ground in Scotland 888 it might, Pc8, 888 (ll that forest land is as totall* unproducti)e8888 >t
might thus as "ell ha)e been submerged under the "aters of the German =cean8888 Such e9temporised "ildernesses or
deserts ought to be put do"n b* the decided interference of the <egislature8A
1
'he author of the @Essa* on 'rade, etc8,A 1777, sa*s, @>n the reign of Ed"ard ;>8 indeed the English seem to ha)e
set, in good earnest, about encouraging manufactures and emplo*ing the poor8 'his "e learn from a remar+able statute
"hich runs thus: W'hat all )agrants shall be branded, Pc8?A l8 c8, p8 38
6
'homas $ore sa*s in his @%topiaV: @'herfore that on co)etous and unsatiable cormaraunte and )er* plage of his
nati)e contre* ma*e compasse aboute and inclose man* thousand a+ers of grounde together "ithin one pale or hedge,
the husbandman be thrust o"te of their o"ne, or els either b* cone*ne and fraude, or b* )iolent oppression the* be put
bes*des it, or b* "rongs and iniuries thei be so "eried that the* be compelled to sell all: b* one meanes, therfore, or
b* other, either b* hoo+e or croo+e the* muste needes departe a"a*e, poore, sel*e, "retched soules, men, "omen,
husbands, "iues, fatherlesse children, "ido"es, "ofull mothers "ith their *onge babes, and their "hole household
smal in substance, and muche in numbre, as husbandr*e reIuireth man* handes8 ("a*e thei trudge, > sa*, o"te of
their +no"en accustomed houses, f*nd*nge no place to reste in8 (ll their housholde stuffe, "hich is )er* little
"oorthe, thoughe it might "ell abide the sale: *et bee*nge sodainel* thruste o"te, the* be constra*ned to sell it for a
thing of nought8 (nd "hen the* haue "andered abrode t*ll that be spent, "hat cant the* then els doe but steale, and
then iustl* pard* be hanged, or els go about begg*ng8 (nd *et then also the* be caste in prison as )agaboundes,
because the* go aboute and "or+e not: "hom no man "*l set a "or+e though thei neuer so "ill*ngl* profre
themselues therto8A =f these poor fugiti)es of "hom 'homas $ore sa*s that the* "ere forced to thie)e, @7,677 great
and pett* thie)es "ere put to death,A in the reign of -enr* ;>>>8 (-olinshed, @0escription of England,A ;ol8 1, p8 1868!
>n Eli1abeth?s time, @rogues "ere trussed up apace, and that there "as not one *ear commonl* "herein three or four
hundred "ere not de)oured and eaten up b* the gallo"es8A (Str*pe?s @(nnals of the &eformation and Establishment of
&eligion and other ;arious =ccurrences in the 5hurch of England during Kueen Eli1abeth?s -app* &eign8A Second
ed8, 1763, ;ol8 68! (ccording to this same Str*pe, in Somersetshire, in one *ear, 7 persons "ere e9ecuted, :3 robbers
burnt in the hand, :7 "hipped, and 18: discharged as @incorrigible )agabonds8A Ce)ertheless, he is of opinion that
this large number of prisoners does not comprise e)en a fifth of the actual criminals, than+s to the negligence of the
Dustices and the foolish compassion of the people; and the other counties of England "ere not better off in this respect
than Somersetshire, "hile some "ere e)en "orse8
:
@Bhene)er the legislature attempts to regulate the differences bet"een masters and their "or+men, its counsellors
are al"a*s the masters,A sa*s (8 Smith8 @<?esprit des lois, c?est la propriRtR,A sa*s <inguet8
@Sophisms of Free 'rade8A /* a /arrister8 <ond8, 1837, p8 6768 -e adds maliciousl*: @Be "ere read* enough to
interfere for the emplo*er, can nothing no" be done for the emplo*edEA
3
From a clause of Statute 6 Lames >8, c8 6, "e see that certain clothma+ers too+ upon themsel)es to dictate, in their
capacit* of Dustices of the peace, the official tariff of "ages in their o"n shops8 >n German*, especiall* after the 'hirt*
Nears? Bar, statutes for +eeping do"n "ages "ere general8 @'he "ant of ser)ants and labourers "as )er* troublesome
to the landed proprietors in the depopulated districts8 (ll )illagers "ere forbidden to let rooms to single men and
"omen; all the latter "ere to be reported to the authorities and cast into prison if the* "ere un"illing to become
ser)ants, e)en if the* "ere emplo*ed at an* other "or+, such as so"ing seeds for the peasants at a dail* "age, or e)en
bu*ing and selling corn8 (>mperial pri)ileges and sanctions for Silesia, >8, 638! For a "hole centur* in the decrees of
the small German potentates a bitter cr* goes up attain and again about the "ic+ed and impertinent rabble that "ill not
reconcile itself to its hard lot, "ill not be content "ith the legal "age; the indi)idual landed proprietors are forbidden
to pa* more than the State had fi9ed b* a tariff8 (nd *et the conditions of ser)ice "ere at times better after "ar than
177 *ears later; the farm ser)ants of Silesia had, in 1636, meat t"ice a "ee+, "hilst e)en in our centur*, districts are
+no"n "here the* ha)e it onl* three times a *ear8 Further, "ages after the "ar "ere higher than in the follo"ing
centur*8A (G8 Fre*tag8!
6
(rticle >8 of this la" runs: @<?anRantissement de toute espnce de corporations du mdme Rtat et profession Rtant l?une
des bases fondamentales de la constitution franzaise, il est dRfendu de les rRtablir de fait sous IuelIue prRte9te et sous
IuelIue forme Iue ce soit8A (rticle >;8 declares, that if @des cito*ens attachRs au9 mdmes professions, arts et mRtiers
prenaient des dRlibRrations, faisaient entre eu9 des con)entions tendantes X refuser de concert ou X n?accorder Iu?X un
pri9 dRterminR le secours de leur industrie ou de leurs tra)au9, les dites dRlibRrations et con)entions888 seront dRclarRes
inconstitutionnelles, attentatoires X la libertR et X la declaration des droits de l?homme, Pc8;A felon*, therefore, as in
the old labour4statutes8 G(s the abolition of an* form of association bet"een citi1ens of the same estate and profession
is one of the foundations of the French constitution, it is forbidden to re4establish them under an* prete9t or in an*
form, "hate)er the* might be8 888 citi1ens belonging to the same profession, craft or trade ha)e Doint discussions and
ma+e Doint decisions "ith the intention of refusing together to perform their trade or insisting together on pro)iding
the ser)ices of their trade or their labours onl* at a particular price, then the said deliberations and agreements 888 shall
be declared unconstitutional, derogator* to libert* and the declaration of the rights of man, etc8H (@&R)olutions de
#aris,A #aris, 1721, t8 >>>, p8 36:8!
7
/uche1 et &ou9: @-istoire #arlementaire,A t8 98, p8 1238
1
-arrison in his @0escription of England,A sa*s @although perad)enture foure pounds of old rent be impro)ed to
fortie, to"ard the end of his term, if he ha)e not si9 or se)en *eares rent lieng b* him, fiftie or a hundred pounds, *et
"ill the farmer thin+e his gaines )erie small8A
6
=n the influence of the depreciation of mone* in the 16th centur*, on the different classes of societ*, see @(
5ompendium of /riefe E9amination of 5erta*ne =rdinar* 5omplaints of 0i)ers of our 5ountr*men in these our
0a*s,A b* B8 S8 Gentleman (<ondon 1381!8 'he dialogue form of this "or+ led people for a long time to ascribe it to
Sha+espeare, and e)en in 1731, it "as published under his name8 >ts author is Billiam Stafford8 >n one place the
+night reasons as follo"s: Kniht: Nou, m* neighbor, the husbandman, *ou $aister $ercer, and *ou Goodman
5ooper, "ith other artificers, ma* sa)e *oursel)es metel* "ell8 For as much as all things are dearer than the* "ere, so
much do *ou arise in the pr*ce of *our "ares and occupations that *e sell aga*ne8 /ut "e ha)e nothing to sell
"hereb* "e might ad)ance *e price there of, to counter)aile those things that "e must bu* aga*ne8A >n another place,
the +night as+s the doctor: > pra* *ou, "hat be those sorts that *e meane8 (nd first, of those that *e thin+e should ha)e
no losse thereb*E Doctor: > mean all those that li)e b* bu*ing and selling, for as the* bu* deare, the sell thereafter8
Kniht: Bhat is the ne9t sort that *e sa* "ould "in b* itE Doctor: $arr*, all such as ha)e ta+ings of fearmes in their
o"ne manurance Gculti)ationH at the old rent, for "here the* pa* after the olde rate the* sell after the ne"e v that is,
the* pa*e for theire lande good cheape, and sell all things gro"ing thereof deare8 Kniht: Bhat sorte is that "hich, *e
sa*de should ha)e greater losse hereb*, than these men had profitE Doctor: >t is all noblemen, gentlemen, and all other
that li)e either b* a stinted rent or st*pend, or do not manure Gculti)ateH the ground, or doe occup* no bu*ing and
selling8A
:
>n France, the rRgisseur, ste"ard, collector of dues for the feudal lords during the earlier part of the middle ages, soon
became an homme dUaffaires, "ho b* e9tortion, cheating, Pc8, s"indled himself into a capitalist8 'hese rRgisseurs
themsel)es "ere sometimes noblemen8 E$$, @5Uest li compte Iue messire LacIues de 'horaine, che)alier chastelain
sor /esanzon rent Rs4seigneur tenant les comptes X 0iDon pour monseigneur le duc et comte de /ourgoigne, des rentes
appartenant X la dite chastellenie, depuis 99)e Dour de dRcembre $555<>O DusIuUau 99)iiie Dour de dRcembre
$555<O8A G'his is the account gi)en b* $8 LacIues de 'horaisse, +night, and <ord of a manor near /esanzon, to the
lord "ho administers the accounts at 0iDon for his highness the 0u+e and 5ount of /urgund*, of the rents appurtenant
to the abo)e4mentioned manor, from the 63th da* of 0ecember 1:32 to the 68th da* of 0ecember 1:67H ((le9is
$onteil: @'raitR de $atRriau9 $anuscrits etc8,A pp8 6:, 6:38! (lread* it is e)ident here ho" in all spheres of social
life the lionUs share falls to the middleman8 >n the economic domain, e$8, financiers, stoc+4e9change speculators,
merchants, shop+eepers s+im the cream; in ci)il matters, the la"*er fleeces his clients; in politics the representati)e is
of more importance than the )oters, the minister than the so)ereign; in religion, God is pushed into the bac+ground b*
the @$ediator,A and the latter again is sho)ed bac+ b* the priests, the ine)itable middlemen bet"een the good
shepherd and his sheep8 >n France, as in England, the great feudal territories "ere di)ided into innumerable small
homesteads, but under conditions incomparabl* more fa)orable for the people8 0uring the 1th centur* arose the
farms or terriers8 'heir number gre" constantl*, far be*ond 177,7778 'he* paid rents )ar*ing from 1J16 to 1J3 of the
product in mone* or in +ind8 'hese farms "ere fiefs, sub4fiefs, Pc8, according the )alue and e9tent of the domains,
man* of them onl* containing a fe" acres8 /ut these farmers had rights of Durisdiction in some degree o)er the
d"ellers on the soil; there "ere four grades8 'he oppression of the agricultural population under all these pett* t*rants
"ill be understood8 $onteil sa*s that there "ere once in France 167,777 Dudges, "here toda*, ,777 tribunals,
including Dustices of the peace, suffice8
1
>n his @Cotions de #hilosophie Caturelle8A #aris, 18:88
6
( point that Sir Lames Steuart emphasises8
:
@Le permettrai,A sa*s the capitalist, @Iue )ous a*e1 l?honneur de me ser)ir, X condition Iue )ous me donne1 le peu
Iui )ous reste pour la peine Iue De prends de )ous commander8A G> "ill allo" *ou 888 to ha)e the honour of ser)ing me,
on condition that, in return for the pains > ta+e in commanding *ou, *ou gi)e me the little that remains to *ouH (L8 L8
&ousseau: @0iscours sur l?Economie #olitiIue8A!
$irabeau, l8c8, t8>>>, pp8674172 passim8 'hat $irabeau considers the separate "or+shops more economical and
producti)e than the @combined,A and sees in the latter merel* artificial e9otics under go)ernment culti)ation, is
e9plained b* the position at that time of a great part of the continental manufactures8
3
@'"ent* pounds of "ool con)erted unobtrusi)el* into *earl* clothing of a labourer?s famil* b* its o"n industr* in
the inter)als of other "or+s v this ma+es no sho"; but bring it to mar+et, send it to the factor*, thence to the bro+er,
thence to the dealer, and *ou "ill ha)e great commercial operations, and nominal capital engaged to the amount of
t"ent* times its )alue8888 'he "or+ing4class is thus emersed to support a "retched factor* population, a parastical
shop4+eeping class, and a fictitious commercial, monetar*, and financial s*stem8A (0a)id %rIuhart, l8c8, p81678!
6
5rom"ell?s time forms an e9ception8 So long as the &epublic lasted, the mass of the English people of all grades
rose from the degradation into "hich the* had sun+ under the 'udors8
7
'uc+ett is a"are that the modern "oollen industr* has sprung, "ith the introduction of machiner*, from manufacture
proper and from the destruction of rural and domestic industries8
@'he plough, the *o+e, "ere Wthe in)ention of gods, and the occupation of heroes?; are the loom, the spindle, the
distaff, of less noble parentage8 Nou se)er the distaff and the plough, the spindle and the *o+e, and *ou get factories
and poor4houses, credit and panics, t"o hostile nations, agriculture and commercial8A (0a)id %rIuhart, l8c8, p81668!
/ut no" comes 5are*, and cries out upon England, surel* not "ith unreason, that it is tr*ing to turn e)er* other
countr* into a mere agricultural nation, "hose manufacturer is to be England8 -e pretends that in this "a* 'ur+e* has
been ruined, because @the o"ners and occupants of land ha)e ne)er been permitted b* England to strengthen
themsel)es b* the formation of that natural alliance bet"een the plough and the loom, the hammer and the harro"8A
(@'he Sla)e 'rade,A p81638! (ccording to him, %rIuhart himself is one of the chief agents in the ruin of 'ur+e*, "here
he had made Free4trade propaganda in the English interest8 'he best of it is that 5are*, a great &ussophile b* the "a*,
"ants to pre)ent the process of separation b* that )er* s*stem of protection "hich accelerates it8
8
#hilanthropic English economists, li+e $ill, &ogers, Gold"in Smith, Fa"cett, Pc8, and liberal manufacturers li+e
Lohn /right P 5o8, as+ the English landed proprietors, as God as+ed 5ain after (bel, Bhere are our thousands of
freeholders goneE /ut "here do you come from, thenE From the destruction of those freeholders8 Bh* don?t *ou as+
further, "here are the independent "ea)ers, spinners, and artisans goneE
ii
@'he Catural and (rtificial &ights of #ropert* 5ontrasted8A <ond8, 18:6, pp8 284228 (uthor of the anon*mous "or+:
@'h8 -odgs+in8A
iii
E)en as late as 172, the small cloth4ma+ers of <eeds sent a deputation to #arliament, "ith a petition for a la" to
forbid an* merchant from becoming a manufacturer8 (0r8 (i+in, l8 c8!
i)
Billiam -o"itt: @5olonisation and 5hristianit*: ( #opular -istor* of the 'reatment of the Cati)es b* the Europeans
in all their 5olonies8A <ondon, 18:8, p8 28 =n the treatment of the sla)es there is a good compilation in 5harles
5omte, @'raitR de la <Rgislation8A :me Rd8 /ru9elles, 18:78 'his subDect one must stud* in detail, to see "hat the
bourgeoisie ma+es of itself and of the labourer, "here)er it can, "ithout restraint, model the "orld after its o"n
image8
)
'homas Stamford &affles, late <ieut4Go)8 of that island: @'he -istor* of La)a,A <ond8, 18178
)i
>n the *ear 1866 more than a million -indus died of hunger in the pro)ince of =rissa alone8 Ce)ertheless, the
attempt "as made to enrich the >ndian treasur* b* the price at "hich the necessaries of life "ere sold to the star)ing
people8
7
Billiam 5obbett remar+s that in England all public institutions are designated @ro*alA; as compensation for this,
ho"e)er, there is the @nationalA debt8
8
@Si les 'artares inondaient l?Europe auDourd?hui, il faudrait bien des affaires pour leur faire entendre ce Iue c?est
Iu?un financier parmi nous8A Gif the 'artars "ere to flood into Europe toda*, it "ould be a difficult Dob to ma+e them
understand "hat a financier is "ith usH $ontesIuieu, @Esprit des lois,A t8 i)8, p8 ::, ed8 <ondres, 17628
2
$irabeau, l8 c8, t8 )i8, p8 1718
17
Eden, l8 c8, ;ol8 >8, /oo+ >>8, 5h8 18, p8 618
11
Lohn Fielden, l8 c8, pp8 3, 68 =n the earlier infamies of the factor* s*stem, cf8 0r8 (i+in (> 723!, l8 c8, p8 6128 and
Gisbome: @EnIuir* into the 0uties of $en,A 1723 ;ol8 >>8 Bhen the steam4engine transplanted the factories from the
countr* "aterfalls to the middle of to"ns, the @abstemiousA surplus )alue ma+er found the child4material read* to his
hand, "ithout being forced to see+ sla)es from the "or+houses8 Bhen Sir &8 #eel (father of the @minister of
plausibilit*V!, brought in his bill for the protection of children, in 1813, Francis -omer, lumen of the /illion
5ommittee and intimate friend of &icardo, said in the -ouse of 5ommons: @>t is notorious, that "ith a ban+rupt?s
effects, a gang, if he might use the "ord, of these children had been put up to sale, and "ere ad)ertised publicl* as
part of the propert*8 ( most atrocious instance had been brought before the 5ourt of .ing?s /ench t"o *ears before, in
"hich a number of these bo*s, apprenticed b* a parish in <ondon to one manufacturer, had been transferred to
another, and had been found b* some bene)olent persons in a state of absolute famine8 (nother case more horrible had
come to his +no"ledge "hile on a G#arliamentar*H 5ommittee 888 that not man* *ears ago, an agreement had been
made bet"een a <ondon parish and a <ancashire manufacturer, b* "hich it "as stipulated, that "ith e)er* 67 sound
children one idiot should be ta+en8A
16
>n 1727, there "ere in the English Best >ndies ten sla)es for one free man, in the French fourteen for one, in the
0utch t"ent*4three for one8 (-enr* /rougham: @(n >nIuir* into the 5olonial #olic* of the European #o"ers8A Edin8
187:, )ol8 >>8, p8 78!
1:
'he phrase, @labouring poor,A is found in English legislation from the moment "hen the class of "age labourers
becomes noticeable8 'his term is used in opposition, on the one hand, to the @idle poor,A beggars, etc8, on the8 out and
out )ulgar bourgeois8 @'he la"s of commerce are the la"s of Cature, and therefore the la"s of God8A (E8 /ur+e, l8 c8,
pp8 :1, :68! Co "onder that, true to the la"s of God and of Cature, he al"a*s sold himself in the best mar+et8 ( )er*
good portrait of this Edmund /ur+e, during his liberal time, is to be found in the "ritings of the &e)8 $r8 'uc+er8
'uc+er "as a parson and a 'or*, but, for the rest, an honourable man and a competent political economist8 >n face of
the infamous co"ardice of character that reigns toda*, and belie)es most de)outl* in @the la"s of commerce,A it is our
bounden dut* again and again to brand the /ur+es, "ho onl* differ from their successors in one thing v talent8
1
$arie (ngier: @0u 5rRdit #ublic8A #aris, 1868
13
@5apital is said b* a Kuarterl* &e)ie"er to fl* turbulence and strife, and to be timid, "hich is )er* true; but this is
)er* incompletel* stating the Iuestion8 5apital esche"s no profit, or )er* small profit, Dust as Cature "as formerl*
said to abhor a )acuum8 Bith adeIuate profit, capital is )er* bold8 ( certain 17 per cent8 "ill ensure its emplo*ment
an*"here; 67 per cent8 certain "ill produce eagerness; 37 per cent8, positi)e audacit*; 177 per cent8 "ill ma+e it read*
to trample on all human la"s; :77 per cent8, and there is not a crime at "hich it "ill scruple, nor a ris+ it "ill not run,
e)en to the chance of its o"ner being hanged8 >f turbulence and strife "ill bring a profit, it "ill freel* encourage both8
Smuggling and the sla)e4trade ha)e ampl* pro)ed all that is here stated8A ('8 L8 0unning, l8 c8, pp8 :3, :68!
1
@Cous sommes dans une condition tout4X4fait nou)elle de la societR888 nous tendons a sRparer toute espnce de
propriRtR d?a)ec toute espnce de tra)ail8A GBe are in a situation "hich is entirel* ne" for societ* 888 "e are stri)ing to
separate e)er* +ind of propert* from e)er* +ind of labourH (Sismondi: @Cou)eau9 #rincipes d?Econ8 #olit8A t8>>,
p8:8!
6
'he ad)ance of industr*, "hose in)oluntar* promoter is the bourgeoisie, replaces the isolation of the labourers, due
to competition, b* their re)olutionar* combination, due to association8 'he de)elopment of $odern >ndustr*,
therefore, cuts from under its feet the )er* foundation on "hich the bourgeoisie produces and appropriates products8
Bhat the bourgeoisie, therefore, produces, abo)e all, are its o"n gra)e4diggers8 >ts fall and the )ictor* of the
proletariat are eIuall* ine)itable8888 =f all the classes that stand face4to4face "ith the bourgeoisie toda*, the proletariat
alone is a reall* re)olutionar* class8 'he other classes perish and disappear in the face of $odern >ndustr*, the
proletariat is its special and essential product8888 'he lo"er middle classes, the small manufacturers, the shop+eepers,
the artisan, the peasant, all these fight against the bourgeoisie, to sa)e from e9tinction their e9istence as fractions of
the middle class888 the* are reactionar*, for the* tr* to roll bac+ the "heel of histor*8 .arl $ar9 and Friedrich Engels,
@$anifest der .ommunistischen #artei,A <ondon, 188, pp8 2, 118
1
Be treat here of real 5olonies, )irgins soils, coloni1ed b* free immigrants8 'he %nited States are, spea+ing
economicall*, still onl* a 5olon* of Europe8 /esides, to this categor* belong such old plantations as those in "hich
the abolition of sla)er* has completel* altered the earlier conditions8
6
Ba+efield?s fe" glimpses on the subDect of $odern 5oloni1ation are full* anticipated b* $irabeau #ere, the
ph*siocrat, and e)en much earlier b* English economists8
:
<ater, it became a temporar* necessit* in the international competiti)e struggle8 /ut, "hate)er its moti)e, the
conseIuences remain the same8
@( negro is a negro8 >n certain circumstances he becomes a sla)e8 ( mule is a machine for spinning cotton8 =nl*
under certain circumstances does it become capital8 =utside these circumstances, it is no more capital than gold is
intrinsicall* mone*, or sugar is the price of sugar8888 5apital is a social relation of production8 >t is a historical relation
of production8A (.arl $ar9, @<ohnarbeit und .apital,A H$ Rh$ L8, Co8666, (pril 7, 1828!
3
E8 G8 Ba+efield: @England and (merica,A )ol8ii8 p8::8
6
l8c8, p8178
7
l8c8, )ol8i, p8188
8
l8c8, pp86, :, 8
2
l8c8, )ol8ii, p838
17
@<and, to be an element of coloni1ation, must not onl* be "aste, but it must be public propert*, liable to be
con)erted into pri)ate propert*8A (l8c8, ;ol8>>, p81638!
11
l8c8, ;ol8>, p8678
16
l8c8, pp861, 668
1:
l8c8, ;ol8>>, p8116
1
l8c8, ;ol8>, p81:18
13
l8c8, ;ol8>>, p838
16
$eri)ale, l8c8, ;ol8>>, pp86:34:1 passim8 E)en the mild, Free 'rade, )ulgar economist, $olinari, sa*s: @0ans les
colonies ox l?escla)age a RtR aboli sans Iue le tra)ail forcR se trou)ait remplacR par une IuantitR RIui)alente de tra)ail
libre, on a )u s?opRrer la contre4partie du fait Iui se rRalise tous les Dours sous nos *eu98 =n a )u les simples
tra)ailleurs e9ploiter X leur tour les entrepreneurs d?industrie, e9iger d?eu9 des salaires hors de toute proportion a)ec
la part lRgitime Iui leur re)enait dans le produit8 <es planteurs, ne pou)ant obtenir de leurs sucres un pri9 suffisant
pour cou)rir la hausse de salaire, ont RtR obligRs de fournir l?e9cRdant, d?abord sur leurs profits, ensuite sur leurs
capitau9 mdmes8 %ne foule de planteurs ont RtR ruinRs de la sorte, d?autres ont fermR leurs ateliers pour Rchapper X
une ruine imminente8888 Sans doute, il )aut mieu9 )oir pRrir des accumulations de capitau9 Iue des gRnRrations
d?hommes Gho" generous $r8 $olinariQH: mais ne )audrait4il pas mieu9 Iue ni les uns ni les autres pRrissentE G>n the
colonies "here sla)er* has been abolished "ithout the compulsor* labour being replaced "ith an eIui)alent Iuantit*
of free labour, there has occurred the opposite of "hat happens e)er* da* before our e*es8 Simple "or+ers ha)e been
seen to e9ploit in their turn the industrial entrepreneurs, demanding from them "ages "hich bear absolutel* no
relation to the legitimate share in the product "hich the* ought to recei)e8 'he planters "ere unable to obtain for their
sugar for a sufficent price to co)er the increase in "ages, and "ere obliged to furnish the e9tra amount, at first out of
their profits, and then out of their )er* capital8 ( considerable amount of planters ha)e been ruined as a result, "hile
others ha)e closed do"n their businesses in order to a)oid the ruin "hich threatened them 888 >t is doubtless better that
these accumulations of capital should be destro*ed than that generations of men should perish 888 but "ould it not be
better if both sur)ibedEH ($olinari, l8c8, pp831,368! $r8 $olinari, $r8 $olinariQ Bhat then becomes of the ten
commandments, of $oses and the prophets, of the la" of suppl* and demand, if in Europe the @entrepreneurA can cut
do"n the labourer?s legitimate part, and in the Best >ndies, the labourer can cut do"n the entrepreneur?sE (nd "hat, if
*ou please, is this @legitimate part,A "hich on *our o"n sho"ing the capitalist in Europe dail* neglects to pa*E =)er
*onder, in the colonies "here the labourers are so @simpleA as to @e9ploitA the capitalist, $r8 $olinari feels a strong
itching to set the la" of suppl* and demand, that "or+s else"here automaticall*, on the right road b* means of the
police8
17
Ba+efield, l8c8, ;ol8>>, p8368
18
l8c8, pp8121, 1268
12
l8c8, ;ol8>, p87, 668
67
@5?est, aDoute14)ous, grMce X l?appropriation du sol et des capitau9 Iue l?homme, Iui n?a Iue ses bras, trou)e de
l?occupation et se fait un re)enu888 c?est au contraire, grMce X l?appropriation indi)iduelle du sol Iu?il se trou)e des
hommes n?a*ant Iue leurs bras8888 Kuand )ous mette1 un homme dans le )ide, )ous )ous empare1 de l?atmosphnre8
(insi faites4)ous, Iuand )ous )ous empare1 du sol8888 5?est le mettre dans le )ide le richesses, pour ne la laisser )i)re
Iu?X )otre )olontR8A G>t is, *ou add, a result of the appropriation of the soil and of capital that the man "ho has nothing
but the strength of his arms finds emplo*ment and creates an income for himself 888 but the opposite is true, it is than+s
to the indi)idual appropriation of the soil that there e9ist men "ho onl* possess the strength of their arms8 888 Bhen
*ou put a man in a )acuum, *ou rob him of the air8 Nou do the same, "hen *ou ta+e a"a* the soil from him 888 for *ou
are putting him in a space )oid of "ealth, so as to lea)e him no "a* of li)ing e9cept according to *our "ishesH
(5ollins, l8c8 t8>>>, pp8668471, passim8!
61
Ba+efield, l8c8, ;ol8>>, p81268
66
l8c8, p838
6:
(s soon as (ustralia became her o"n la"4gi)er, she passed, of course, la"s fa)orable to the settlers, but the
sIuandering of the land, alread* accomplished b* the English Go)ernment, stands in the "a*8 @'he first and main
obDect at "hich ne" <and (ct of 1866 aims is to gi)e increased facilities for the settlement of the people8A (@'he <and
<a" of ;ictoria,A b* the -on8 58 G8 0uff*, $inister of #ublic <ands, <ond8, 18668!