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Εισαγωγη Στη Θεωρια Ανισοτητων
Εισαγωγη Στη Θεωρια Ανισοτητων
Metaptuqiakn Spoudn
{Didaktik kai Mejodologa twn Majhmatikn}
Eisagwg sthn
Jewra twn Anisottwn
Kwnstantnoc Giannakc
Ajna, 2007
iii
Perieqmena
Eisagwg
I
vii
Oi jemelideic anisthtec
1 H anisthta tou
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
Cauchy
3
H anisthta Cauchy 3
Epagwgik apdeixh 3
Ap to poiotik sto posotik sumprasma
H axa thc genkeushc 8
H tautthta tou Lagrange 10
H sntomh apdeixh 13
Cauchy
17
H anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou 17
H genik anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou
3 Kurtthta
3.1
3.2
3.3
20
25
29
4 H anisthta tou
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
II
H
older
33
Istorik sqlia 34
Apdeixh thc anisthtac tou Holder 35
Antstrofh thc anisthtac tou H
older 37
Upoprosjetikthta kai hmigrammikopohsh 40
'Ena apotlesma eustjeiac gia thn anisthta tou H
older
Parembol 42
Eidik jmata
5 H anisthta tou
5.1
5.2
45
Carleman
Eisagwg 47
H apdeixh tou Carleman 48
47
41
vi Perieqomena
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
H apdeixh tou P
olya 49
H apdeixh tou Knopp 55
H apdeixh tou Redheffer 56
To suneqc anlogo thc anisthtac tou Carleman
61
62
67
8 Summetrik ajrosmata
8.1
8.2
57
73
73
69
Eisagwg
Oi anisthtec pazoun kentrik rlo sta Majhmatik, idiatera sthn Anlush.
Afethra autc thc ergasac enai h pepojhs mac ti, pra ap th jemelidh
shmasa twn anisottwn kai tic shmantikc efarmogc touc, h enasqlhsh me
autc prosfrei idiaterh euqarsthsh: h diadikasa thc eplushc problhmtwn
enai jemelidhc anjrpinh drasthrithta, mia drasthrithta gemth sugkinseic, dhmiourgikthta kai agph gia th zw.
Ta teleutaa qrnia, oi majhmatikc anisthtec enai paragkwnismnec, ja
lege kanec ti apousizoun ap ta sqolik majhmatik drmena. Pisteoume
ti h tsh aut prpei kai mpore na anatrape. 'Ena keflaio afierwmno stic
jemelideic anisthtec, me thn katllhlh parousash kai me thn prosjkh miac
sullogc problhmtwn, ja mporose na apotelsei th bsh gia na sqolik {seminrio problhmtwn} to opoo ja prosfere poll stouc majhtc pou agapon
ta Majhmatik. Me thn ergasa aut elpzoume na prosfroume kpoiec idec
gia thn pragmatopohsh autc thc idac.
H ergasa qtzetai grw ap thn istora kai tic poiklec apodexeic jemeliwdn anisottwn. Baszetai sto klasik biblo twn Hardy LittlewoodPolya
kai sto exairetik prsfato biblo tou Steele.
Sto prto mroc thc ergasac meletme analutik tic tsseric jemelideic anisthtec: thn anisthta Cauchy-Schwarz, thn anisthta arijmhtiko
gewmetriko msou, thn anisthta tou Jensen kai thn anisthta tou H
older:
Sto prto Keflaio meletme thn anisthta CauchySchwarz: an a1 , . . . , an
kai b1 , . . . , bn enai do n dec pragmatikn arijmn, tte
q
q
|a1 b1 + a2 b2 + + an bn | a21 + a22 + + a2n b21 + b22 + + b2n .
H klasik aut anisthta mac dnei thn eukaira na suzhtsoume kpoiec sugkekrimnec genikc arqc teqnikc pnw stic opoec oikodometai h {jewra
twn anisottwn}. Perigrfoume tsseric apodexeic thc anisthtac: (a) apdeixh me th mjodo thc majhmatikc epagwgc, (b) apdeixh msw thc prosjetikc
anisthtac
n
n
1X 2 1X 2
|a1 b1 + + an bn |
ai +
b ,
2 i=1
2 i=1 i
h opoa odhge sthn anisthta Cauchy an ekmetalleutome swst thn paratrhsh ti h teleutaa enai omogenc, (g) apdeixh msw thc tautthtac tou
viii Perieqomena
Lagrange
n
X
!2
ai bi
i=1
n
X
a2i
i=1
n
X
b2i
i=1
1 XX
(ai bj aj bi )2 .
2 i=1 j=1
(d) apdeixh me to {tqnasma} tou triwnmou: h pol komy kai sntomh aut
apdeixh ofeletai ston Schwarz, o opooc qreisthke to suneqc anlogo thc
anisthtac Cauchy kai thn plrh dierenhsh twn periptsewn isthtac se aut.
Sto detero Keflaio meletme th {deterh anisthta} tou Cauchy, thn
anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou: gia kje akolouja mh arnhtikn
pragmatikn arijmn a1 , a2 , . . . , an isqei h anisthta
(a1 a2 an )1/n
a1 + a2 + + an
.
n
ak bk
n
X
k=1
!1/p
apk
n
X
!1/q
bqk
k=1
Perieqomena ix
1. Th shmasa thc plrouc perigrafc twn periptsewn stic opoec mia
anisthta isqei san isthta, kai thn nnoia thc eustjeiac miac anisthtac.
2. Thn parllhlh porea twn suneqn anisottwn (gia oloklhrmata sunartsewn) me tic diakritc anisthtec (gia peperasmna ajrosmata ajrosmata
seirn) kai thn anagwg twn men stic de.
3. Th diadikasa genkeushc miac anisthtac se eurtero plasio kai to rlo
pou pazei h {katllhlh apdeixh} thc arqikc anisthtac tso sto na skeftome
so kai sto na ulopoisoume aut th genkeush.
Sto detero mroc thc ergasac parousizoume kpoia eidik jmata: ta perisstera aforon klasikc anisthtec oi opoec apodeiknontai me th bojeia
twn jemeliwdn anisttwn kai twn mejdwn pou anaptqjhkn sto prto mroc.
Sto pmpto Keflaio parousizoume diforec apodexeic thc anisthtac tou
P
Torsten Carleman (1923): An n=1 an enai mia seir mh arnhtikn pragmatikn
arijmn, kai an sumbolsoume me n to gewmetrik mso twn a1 , a2 , . . . , an , tte,
X
n=1
n e
an .
n=1
Metax twn apodexewn pou meletme enai h arqik apdeixh tou Carleman, h
{magik} apdeixh tou P
olya, kai h suneqc kdosh thc anisthtac pou ofeletai
ston Carleson.
Sto kto Keflaio perigrfoume thn arnhtik apnthsh sto exc erthma
tou Minkowski: Enai swst ti kje mh arnhtik polunumo grfetai san
jroisma tetragnwn pragmatikn poluwnmwn? O Minkowski kane thn eikasa
ti h apnthsh enai arnhtik. To 1888, o Hilbert apdeixe ti h apnthsh enai
katafatik mno stic exc periptseic: tan to polunumo enai miac metablhtc
kai o bajmc tou P aujaretoc, tan o bajmc tou P enai 2 kai to pljoc twn
metablhtn aujareto, kai tloc, tan to P enai polunumo me do metablhtc
kai qei bajm 4. H apdeixh tou Hilbert tan makroskelc, polplokh kai
mmesh. Ta prta sugkekrimna paradegmata mh arnhtikn poluwnmwn pou
den grfontai sth morf ajrosmatoc tetragnwn pragmatikn poluwnmwn
djhkan to 1967 ap ton T. S. Motzkin kai to 1969 ap ton R. M. Robinson,
sqedn ogdnta qrnia met thn apdeixh thc parxhc ttoiwn poluwnmwn ap
ton Hilbert. Ta sugkekrimna aut paradegmata qrhsimopoiosan thn {teqnik
thc anisthtac arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou} thn opoa perigrfoume.
Sta do teleutaa Keflaia apodeiknoume klasikc anisthtec anaditaxhc,
tic anisthtec twn Newton kai McLaurin gia tic stoiqeideic summetrikc sunartseic, kai thn anisthta tou Muirhead.
Se la ta Keflaia dnoume istorik stoiqea gia ta apotelsmata pou parousizontai.
Mroc I
Oi jemelideic anisthtec
Keflaio 1
|a1 b1 + a2 b2 + + an bn |
q
q
a21 + a22 + + a2n b21 + b22 + + b2n .
Kje for pou blpoume mia prtash pou exarttai ap ton fusik arijm
n, enai arket pijann h majhmatik epagwg na odhgsei sthn apdeix
thc.
Axzei na shmeisoume ti kanna ap ta basik egqeirdia thc lgebrac thc
anlushc den dnei epagwgik apdeixh thc anisthtac Cauchy: o lgoc enai ti
Aut mac arke gia na xekinsoume thn epagwg mac, den prosfrei mwc
kama updeixh gia ton trpo me ton opoo ja suneqsoume. An jloume na
elpzoume ti ja anakalyoume kpoia axilogh ida sto prto mac bma,
prpei na exetsoume thn perptwsh n = 2.
Tte, h morf pou parnei h anisthta Cauchy enai h exc:
(1.1)
Aut h anisthta enai apl, kai me mia mati mporome na dome giat alhjeei.
Gia qrh thc apdeixhc mwc, ac prospoihjome ti h (1.1) den enai profanc.
a21 b21 + 2a1 b1 a2 b2 + a22 b22 a21 b21 + a21 b22 + a22 b21 + a22 b22 .
'Etsi, afo knoume tic fusiologikc apaloifc kai sugkentrsoume louc touc
rouc sto dio mloc, blpoume ti h anisthta (1.1) enai isodnamh me thn
(1.2)
Aut h isodnamh anisthta pragmatik mac frnei sth lsh tou problmatc
mac. Ap thn gnwst tautthta x2 2xy + y 2 = (x y)2 blpoume ti
(1.3)
q
kai =
H mnh duskola pou mpore na sunantsei kanec se autn thn apdeixh emfanzetai sto teleutao bma, pou qreizetai na dome pc na qrhsimopoisoume
thn P (2). Sth sugkekrimnh perptwsh, to tqnasma pou apaitetai tan mllon mtriac duskolac, dnei mwc mia ida gia thn fsh twn proklsewn pou ja
sunantsoume se perisstero polploka problmata.
{katanhshc enc posotiko apotelsmatoc msw thc estashc pnw stic poiotikc sunpeic tou}.
Mia mesh poiotik sunpeia thc anisthtac Cauchy enai to gegonc ti
(1.4)
an
X
k=1
a2k
< kai
b2k
k=1
< , tte
|ak bk | < .
k=1
xy C(x2 + y 2 )
gia kje x, y R.
0 (x y)2 = x2 2xy + y 2 ,
kai amswc ja parathrsoume ti
(1.5)
xy
1 2 1 2
x + y
2
2
gia kje x, y R.
Tra, an efarmsoume aut thn anisthta gia x = |ak | kai y = |bk |, kai an
prosjsoume gia la ta k , brskoume thn prosjetik anisthta
(1.6)
|ak bk |
k=1
k=1
k=1
1X 2 1X 2
ak +
bk ,
2
2
Kje for pou sunantme mia kainorgia anisthta, enai {kajkon} mac
na elgxoume thn isq thc.
Sth sugkekrimnh perptwsh, aut pou parousizei endiafron enai na sugkrnoume th na prosjetik anisthta me tic posotikc ektimseic pou prokptoun ap thn anisthta Cauchy.
H prosjetik anisthta (1.6) qei do rouc sto dexi thc mloc en h
anisthta tou Cauchy mno nan. Mia prth ida ja tan na sundusoume touc
do rouc thc (1.6), kai nac fusiologikc trpoc gia na ulopoisoume autn
thn ida enai na kanonikopoisoume tic akoloujec {ak } kai {bk } ste kajna
ap ta ajrosmata sto dexi mloc na isotai me 1.
'Etsi, an kama ap tic do akoloujec den enai h mhdenik, mporome na
jewrsoume tic nec metablhtc
1/2
1/2
X
X
kai yk = bk
b2j ,
a2j
xk = ak
j
X
X
X
x2k =
ak /
a2j = 1
k=1
kai
X
k=1
k=1
X
X
yk2 =
bk /
b2j = 1.
k=1
Tra, an efarmsoume thn anisthta (1.6) gia tic akoloujec {xk } kai {yk },
parnoume to {ajo} nw frgma
X
k=1
|xk yk |
k=1
k=1
1X 2 1X 2
xk +
yk = 1.
2
2
(1.7)
1/2
1/2
X
X
|ak bk |
a2j
b2j .
j=1
k=1
j=1
H prosjetik anisthta (1.6) mac odghse se mia apdeixh thc anisthtac tou
Cauchy h opoa enai sntomh kai apl. Thn dia mwc stigm, mac eisgei se na
pol shmantik jma:
(1.8)
ak bk =
1/2
a2j
j=1
k=1
1/2
b2j
j=1
An perioristome sthn mh tetrimmnh perptwsh pou kama ap tic do akoloujec den enai tautotik mhdenik kai, tautqrona, ta do ajrosmata tou dexo
mlouc thc (1.8) enai peperasmna, tte blpoume ti la ta bmata pou qrhsimopoisame sthn apdeixh thc (1.7) antistrfontai. 'Etsi, blpoume ti h isthta
sthn (1.8) qei san sunpeia thn
(1.9)
xk yk =
k=1
2
k=1
k=1
1X 2 1X 2
xk +
yk = 1.
2
2
(1.10)
xk yk
1 2 1 2
x + y
2 k 2 k
gia kje k = 1, 2, . . . ,
kai sunepc, an, stw kai gia ma tim tou k , eqame gnsia anisthta sthn
(1.10), tte den ja mporosame na qoume isthta sthn (1.9). Blpoume loipn
ti isthta sthn (1.8) mpore na isqei mno an xk = yk gia kje k = 1, 2, . . ..
Ap ton trpo orismo twn xk kai yk , aut shmanei ti tte
(1.11)
ak = bk
gia kje k = 1, 2, . . . ,
1/2
1/2
X
=
a2j
b2j .
j=1
j=1
Parathrste ti to epiqerhma pou qrhsimopoisame gia thn dierenhsh thc perptwshc thc isthtac den tan dskolo. Parla aut, to sumprasma perigrfei
na {mikr jama}:
(1.12)
ha, bi =
n
X
aj bj ,
j=1
(1.13)
H suntoma enai pntote wraa, all uprqoun akmh bajtera oflh me autn
ton sumbolism, ta opoa prokptoun an ton efodisoume me mia pio afhrhmnh
ermhnea. Sugkekrimna, an V enai nac pragmatikc dianusmatikc qroc (gia
pardeigma, o Rd ), tte lme ti mia sunrthsh V V R me (a, b) 7 ha, bi
enai eswterik ginmeno kai lme ti o (V, h, i) enai nac pragmatikc qroc me
eswterik ginomno, an to zeugri (V, h, i) qei tic akloujec pnte idithtec :
(i) hv, vi 0 gia kje v V ,
(ii) hv, vi = 0 an kai mno an v = 0,
(iii) hv, wi = hv, wi gia kje R kai gia kje v, w V ,
(iv) hu, v + wi = hu, vi + hu, wi gia kje u, v, w V , kai tloc,
(v) hv, wi = hw, vi gia kje v, w V .
Mporome ekola na elgxoume ti h suntomografa pou eisgetai sthn (1.12)
qei lec autc tic idithtec, all uprqoun poll akma paradegmata qrsimwn
eswterikn ginomnwn. Gia pardeigma, an jewrsoume tuqn snolo {wj :
j = 1, 2, . . . , n} jetikn pragmatikn arijmn, tte mporome pol ekola na
orsoume na eswterik ginmeno ston Rn , jtontac
(1.14)
ha, bi =
n
X
j=1
aj bj wj .
Z
(1.15)
hf, gi =
f (x)g(x)dx.
a
Geniktera, an w : [a, b] R enai mia suneqc sunrthsh ttoia ste w(x) > 0
gia kje x [a, b], tte mporome na orsoume na eswterik ginmeno sto C[a, b]
jtontac
Z b
hf, gi =
f (x)g(x)w(x)dx.
a
Antimetwpzoume tra ma ap tic euqristec stigmc pou nac kalc sumbolismc mac odhge se na kal jerhma. Parousisame thn nnoia tou eswteriko
ginomnou gia na diatupsoume thn anisthta Cauchy me apl trpo, kai tra
blpoume ti o sumbolismc tou mac odhge proc mia endiafrousa eikasa:
an kai mno an v = w
Eqame parathrsei ti h (x y)2 0 dnei thn xy x2 /2 + y 2 /2. Prospajome loipn na dome an kpoia anlogh ida ja mporose na doulyei
sto afhrhmno plasio.
(1.17)
hv, wi
1
1
hv, vi + hw, wi.
2
2
Aut enai akribc to anlogo thc prosjetikc anisthtac pou odghse sthn
deter mac apdeixh thc anisthtac Cauchy. Ap d kai pra, {akoloujome
thn pepathmnh}.
Ed emaste uperbolik tuqero, afo qoume dh anakalyei mia teqnik
pou tairizei sthn perptwsh thn mjodo thc kanonikopohshc, pou metatrpei
mia prosjetik anisthta se mia pollaplasiastik anisthta. O roc {kanonikopohsh} den shmanei panto to dio prgma, an mwc proume thn progensterh
anlush san odhg mac, aut pou jloume ed enai na kanonikopoisoume ta v
kai w ste to dexi mloc thc (1.17) na isotai me 1.
Afo h anisthta (1.16) isqei tetrimmna an kpoio ap ta v kai w isotai
me mhdn, mporome na upojsoume, qwrc blbh thc genikthtac, ti ta hv, vi
kai hw, wi enai kai ta do mh mhdenik, opte oi kanonikopoihmnec metablhtc
(1.18)
= v/hv, vi 2
v
= w/hw, wi 2
kai w
enai kal orismnec. An antikatastsoume autc tic timc gia v kai w sthn
1
1
1. Aut mac lgei ti hv, wi hv, vi 2 hw, wi 2 .
(1.17), brskoume h
v, wi
Dhlad, aut akribc pou jlame na dexoume.
Tloc, gia na dome pte isqei isthta, arke na epanalboume to sullogism mac sthn antstrofh katejunsh. An isqei isthta sthn afhrhmnh anisthta Cauchy (1.16) gia kpoia mh mhdenik diansmata v kai w, tte
kai w
enai kal orismnec kai h isthta
oi kanonikopoihmnec metablhtc v
1
1
= 1. Aut me th seir tou shmanei
hv, wi = hv, vi 2 hw, wi 2 mac lei ti h
v, wi
v
wi
= 0 (gia na to dome, aplc anaptssoume to eswterik
ti h
v w,
w
= 0. Me lla lgia,
ginmeno). H teleutaa mwc sqsh shmanei ti v
1
1
v = w pou jsame = hv, vi 2 /hw, wi 2 .
(1.19)
qoume isthta an kai mno an ta (a1 , a2 ) kai (b1 , b2 ) enai anloga me thn
nnoia ti
a1 = b1 kai a2 = b2
Cauchy). Dexte ti
an (b1 , . . . , bn ) 6= 0 tte qoume isthta sthn anisthta tou Cauchy an kai mno an
uprqei stajer ste ai = bi gia kje i = 1, 2, . . . , n. An dh gnwrzete mia
apdeixh auto tou isqurismo, prospajste na skeftete kpoia diaforetik.
H tautthta (1.19) mac dnei mia sntomh lsh gia to Prblhma 1.5.1 sthn
perptwsh n = 2. Ja mporosame loipn na prospajsoume na lsoume to genik prblhma epektenontac katllhla thn tautthta (1.19) stic n diastseic.
'Etsi, jewrome to polunumo Qn = Qn (a1 , a2 , . . . , an , b1 , b2 , . . . , bn ) pou prokptei wc diafor twn tetragnwn twn do meln thc anisthtac tou Cauchy,
dhlad
'Eqoume dh de ti to Q2 mpore na grafte san tetrgwno enc poluwnmou, kai tra to prblhma enai an uprqei anlogh anaparstash tou Qn
sth morf enc tetragnou enc ajrosmatoc tetragnwn.
(1.20)
Qn =
n X
n
X
a2i b2j
i=1 j=1
n
n X
X
ai bi aj bj .
i=1 j=1
(1.21)
Qn =
1 XX
1 XX 2 2
ai bj 2ai bj aj bi + a2j b2i =
(ai bj aj bi )2 .
2 i=1 j=1
2 i=1 j=1
(1.22)
n
X
i=1
!2
ai bi
n
X
i=1
a2i
n
X
i=1
b2i
1 XX
(ai bj aj bi )2 .
2 i=1 j=1
ai bk = ak bi
gia kje 1 i n,
ai = bi
gia kje 1 i n.
Dhlad, h tautthta tou Lagrange mac lei ti, gia mh mhdenikc akoloujec,
mporome na qoume isthta sthn anisthta tou Cauchy an kai mno an oi do
akoloujec enai anlogec. 'Etsi, qoume mia plrh kai akrib apnthsh sto
prto mac prblhma.
Aut h anlush thc perptwshc thc isthtac upogrammzei to gegonc ti h
summetrik morf
n
n
1 XX
(ai bj aj bi )2
Qn =
2 i=1 j=1
epidqetai do qrsimec ermhneec.
(1.23)
f (x)g(x)dx
a
! 12 Z
! 12
2
g (x)dx
f (x)dx
H anisthta aut emfansthke gia prth for se na Memoire tou Victor Yacovlevich Bunyakovsky to opoo ekdjhke ap thn Akadhma Episthmn thc St.
Petersburg to 1859. O Bunyakovsky (1804-1889) eqe spoudsei sto Parsi me
ton Cauchy, kai gnrize th doulei tou Cauchy stic anisthtec. Thn xere
mlista tso kal, pou anafertan sthn klassik morf thc anisthtac tou
Cauchy gia ta peperasmna ajrosmata qrhsimopointac thn kfrash dishmh.
Epiplon, o Bunyakovsky den dstaze mprost sth diadikasa tou orou: msa
se mia gramm, pernose ap thn anisthta tou Cauchy gia peperasmna ajrosmata sto suneqc thc anlogo (1.23). Entelc sumptwmatik, aut to suneqc
anlogo onomzetai {anisthta (C)} sto Memoire tou Bunyakovsky, san na
eqe sto mual tou ton Cauchy.
To Memoire tou Bunyakovsky tan grammno sta Gallik, fanetai mwc
ti den kuklofrhse eurwc sth Dutik Eurph. Eidiktera, fanetai ti den
eqe gnei gnwst sto G
ottingen to 1885, thn perodo pou o Hermann Amandus Schwarz (1843-1921) oloklrwne th jemelidh melth tou gia tic elqistec
epifneiec.
Sthn porea thc melthc tou, o Schwarz qreisthke na didistato oloklhrwtik anlogo thc anisthtac tou Cauchy. Pio sugkekrimna, qreiaztan na
dexei ti an S R2 kai an f : S R kai g : S R, tte ta dipl oloklhrmata
ZZ
ZZ
f 2 dxdy,
A=
ZZ
B=
f gdxdy,
S
g 2 dxdy
C=
S
(1.24)
|B|
C,
enai pnta mh arnhtik kai, epiplon, to p(t) enai gnsia jetik ektc an oi f
kai g enai anlogec. Aut deqnei ti h diakrnous tou enai mikrterh sh
tou mhdenc, ra oi suntelestc tou ikanopoion thn B 2 AC , kai an oi f
kai g den enai anlogec, tte qoume thn gnsia anisthta B 2 < AC . 'Etsi,
knontac qrsh mic aplc algebrikc paratrhshc, o Schwarz exasflise la
sa qreiaztan na xrei.
H apdeixh tou Schwarz apaite th sofa na jewrsoume to polunumo p(t),
an mwc prospersoume aut to bma, tte h apdeixh enai ekplhktik sntomh.
Epiplon, to epiqerhma tou Schwarz, qwrc kama apoltwc tropopohsh, dnei mia
apdeixh thc morfc (1.16) thc anisthtac tou Cauchy gia ta eswterik ginmena,
dieukrinzontac ki eke thn perptwsh thc isthtac. Den enai loipn parxeno
to gegonc ti loi oi suggrafec majhmatikn didaktikn biblwn protimon na
apodeiknoun thn anisthta tou Cauchy me to epiqerhma tou Schwarz, parlo
pou jumzei lgo ton taqudaktulourg pou bgzei to lag (ed, to polunumo)
ap to kaplo. Ac dome thn apdeixh sthn perptwsh twn n dwn a1 , . . . , an
kai b1 , . . . , bn : Jewrome to trinumo
(1.25)
a1 x + b1 = a2 x + b2 = = an x + bn = 0.
'Epetai ti isqei isthta sthn anisthta Cauchy an kai mno an oi n dec
a1 , . . . , an kai b1 , . . . , bn enai anlogec.
Keflaio 2
(2.1)
xy
y2
x2
+
2
2
gia kje x, y R.
(2.2)
4 xy < 2x + 2y
kai aut h anisthta qei mia pol pi plosia ermhnea. Jewrome to snolo
lwn twn orjogwnwn me embadn A kai mkh pleurn x kai y . Afo A = xy , h
anisthta (2.2) mac lei ti
(2.3)
(a1 a2 an )1/n
a1 + a2 + + an
.
n
(2.4)
(a1 a2 a3 a4 )1/4
.
2
4
(a1 a2 a8 )1/8
,
2
8
(2.5)
gia kje k 1.
i =
a1 + a2 + + an
A
n
gia n < i 2k .
n
o1/2k
k
a1 + a2 + + an + (2k n)A
2k A
a1 a2 an A2 n
=
= A.
2k
2k
Tra, an froume lec tic dunmeic tou A sto dexi mloc, blpoume ti
k
(2.6)
(a1 a2 an )1/n
a1 + a2 + + an
.
n
Bohjhtik prtash:
(2.7)
(2.8)
(2.9)
Ap tic (2.8) kai (2.9) katalabanoume ti gia na isqei h (2.9) arke na isqei h
(2.10)
isodnama grfetai
(2.11)
, allic,
(2.12)
pou isqei. 'Ara, smfwna me thn arq thc majhmatikc epagwgc h bohjhtik
mac prtash (2.7) isqei gia la ta n N.
Deterh apdeixh thc anisthtac arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou. 'Eqoume de
ti h anisthta (2.3) gia n = 2. Upojtoume ti h anisthta isqei gia ton
fusik n, dhlad isqei
(2.13)
a1 + a2 + + an n(a1 a2 an )1/n ,
kai ja dexoume ti isqei gia ton fusik n + 1. H bohjhtik mac prtash (2.7)
gia b = (an+1 )1/(n+1) kai a = (a1 a2 an )1/n(n+1) gnetai
(2.14)
dhlad
(2.15)
(2.16)
dhlad h (2.3) isqei kai gia ton fusik n + 1. Smfwna me thn arq thc
majhmatikc epagwgc, h anisthta isqei gia kje n N.
(2.17)
pj (t) 0,
n
X
pj (t) = 1,
j=1
kai
lim pj (t) = pj .
Katpin, efarmzoume thn (2.7) gia tic n-dec (p1 (t), p2 (t), . . . , pn (t)), kai, tloc,
afnoume to n na pei sto peiro kai parnoume to zhtomeno.
H teqnik thc apdeixhc miac anisthtac prta gia rhtoc kai met gia
pragmatikoc me {prasma sto rio} enai pol suqn qrsimh, qei mwc
kpoia meionektmata. Gia pardeigma, to gnsio miac anisthtac mpore na
qaje tan pernme sto rio, qrhsimopointac loipn autn thn teqnik
den qoume plrh katanhsh gia tic periptseic isthtac. Merikc forc
aut h apleia den enai shmantik, gia na ergaleo mwc tso shmantik
so h anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou, oi sunjkec ktw ap
tic opoec gnetai isthta enai shmantikc. Ja protimosame mia apdeixh
h opoa na antimetwpzei louc touc rouc thc anisthtac me eniao trpo,
kti pou h mjodoc thc prosggishc me rhtoc den mpore na epitqei.
To neiro tou
P
olya
(2.18)
1 + x ex
gia kje x R.
(2.20)
x ex1
gia kje x R,
ak eak 1
Pollaplasizontac, blpoume ti o gewmetrikc msoc G = ap11 ap22 apnn frssetai ap thn posthta
( n
)
!
X
pk ak 1 .
(2.21)
R(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) = exp
k=1
A = p1 a1 + p2 a2 + + pn an .
Aut enai to shmeo sto opoo to prblhma gnetai endiafron.
To prto prgma pou parathrome enai ti, ap thn anisthta A eA1 ,
o R enai nw frgma kai gia ton arijmhtik mso A. Dhlad, qoume th dipl
anisthta
( n
)
!
X
p1
(2.22)
max{a1 apnn , p1 a1 + + pn an } exp
pk ak 1 .
k=1
k =
ak
A
pou A = p1 a1 + p2 a2 + + pn an ,
kai an efarmsoume thn anisthta (2.21) gi autc tic nec metablhtc, tte
parnoume
)
!
( n
n a p1 a p2
a pn o
X ak
1
2
n
max 1,
1 = 1,
exp
pk
A
A
A
A
k=1
kai sunepc,
a p 1 a p 2
2
a pn
n
1.
A
A
A
Frnontac sto dexi mloc tic dunmeic tou A kai qrhsimopointac thn upjesh
ti p1 + p2 + + pn = 1, katalgoume sthn genik anisthta arijmhtiko
gewmetriko msou (2.19).
Koitzontac psw sta bmata autc thc apdeixhc thc anisthtac (2.19),
blpoume ti mporome ekola na prosdiorsoume tic propojseic ktw ap tic
opoec isqei san isthta. Exetzontac to prto bma blpoume ti qoume
ak
< e(ak /A)1
A
(2.23)
kai qoume pnta
ektc an
ak
= 1,
A
ak
e(ak /A)1 ,
A
ra
(2.24)
a p1 a p2
1
a p n
n
(
< exp
n
X
k=1
ak
pk
A
!
1
= 1,
a1 = a2 = = an .
Poic tan o
George P
olya
Keflaio 3
Kurtthta
3.1 H anisthta tou Jensen
Mia sunrthsh f : [a, b] R lgetai kurt an gia kje x, y [a, b] kai gia kje
0 p 1 qoume
(3.1)
H anisthta tou Jensen sundei kat jemelidh trpo thn nnoia thc kurtthtac
me thn jewra twn anisottwn.
(3.2)
n
X
j=1
pj xj
n
X
pj f (xj ).
j=1
Sthn perptwsh n = 2 h anisthta tou Jensen (3.2) enai o orismc thc kurtc
sunrthshc, to nstikt mac loipn upodeiknei na yxoume gia mia apdeixh me
epagwg. Aut h prosggish apaite na susqetsoume msouc rouc mkouc n1
me msouc rouc mkouc n, kai aut mpore na gnei me diforouc trpouc.
Mia fusiologik ida enai na apomonsoume ton teleutao prosjeto kai
na kanonikopoisoume ti apomnei. Pio sugkekrimna, parathrome prta ti
den qnoume se genikthta an upojsoume ti 0 < pn < 1 kai, se autn thn
perptwsh, mporome na gryoume
n
X
j=1
pj xj = pn xn + (1 pn )
n1
X
j=1
pj
xj .
1 pn
26 Kurtothta
Tra, ap ton orism thc kurtc sunrthshc kai ap thn epagwgik upjesh
me aut th seir blpoume ti
n
n
X
X
p
j
f
pj xj pn f (xn ) + (1 pn )f
xj
1
pn
j=1
j=1
pn f (xn ) + (1 pn )
n1
X
j=1
n
X
pj
f (xj )
1 pn
pj f (xj ).
j=1
(3.3)
(3.4)
n
n
X
X
f
pj xj =
pj f (xj )
j=1
j=1
(3.5)
x1 = x2 = = xn .
H apdeixh enai pli apl, pwc kai h apdeixh thc anisthtac tou Jensen,
h shmasa mwc tou apotelsmatoc enai meglh.
S = {j : xj 6= max xk }
1kn
p=
pj ,
x=
jS
X pj
jS
xj ,
kai y =
X pj
xj ,
1p
j S
/
n
X
(3.6)
f
pj xj = f (px + (1 p)y) < pf (x) + (1 p)f (y).
j=1
X pj
jS
n
X
f (xj ) + (1 p)
X pj
f (xj )
1p
j S
/
pj f (xj ).
j=1
Tloc, ap autn thn anisthta kai ap thn gnsia anisthta (3.6), blpoume
ti
n
n
X
X
f
pj xj <
pj f (xj ),
j=1
j=1
kai aut antifskei proc thn upjesh (3.4). 'Etsi, qoume to zhtomeno.
An h
f : (a, b) R enai do forc paragwgsimh kai f 00 (x) 0 gia kje x (a, b),
tte h f enai kurt sto (a, b). An f 00 (x) > 0 gia kje x (a, b), tte h f enai
gnhswc kurt sto (a, b).
Gia thn apdeixh, afo jloume na susqetsoume th sunrthsh f me tic paraggouc thc, enai pol fusik na xekinsoume me thn anaparstash thc f pou
mac dnei to jemelidec jerhma tou Apeirostiko Logismo. Sugkekrimna, an
stajeropoisoume mia tim x0 [a, b], qoume thn anaparstash
Z x
(3.7)
f (x) = f (x0 ) +
f 0 (u) du gia kje x [a, b],
x0
28 Kurtothta
kai aut mac dnei thn ida na qrhsimopoisoume to gegonc ti, afo f 00 0, h
sunrthsh f 0 enai axousa. Gia thn akrbeia, h upjes mac den periqei kama
llh plhrofora, prpei loipn h anaparstash (3.7), h monotona thc f 0 kai
kpoia arijmhtik na mac odhgsoun sto sumprasma.
Gia na proqwrsoume, jewrome a x < y b kai 0 < p < 1. Jtontac
q = 1 p kai efarmzontac thn anaparstash (3.7) gia ta x, y kai x0 = px + qy ,
blpoume ti h posthta
Z
(3.8)
=q
px+qy
f (u) du p
px+qy
f 0 (u) du.
Gia kje u [x, px + qy] qoume f 0 (u) f 0 (px + qy), opte isqei h anisthta
Z px+qy
(3.9)
p
f 0 (u) du qp(y x)f 0 (px + qy),
x
Sunepc, ap thn oloklhrwtik anaparstash (3.8) gia thn kai ap tic anisthtec (3.9) kai (3.10), blpoume ti 0.
Gia ton detero isqurism tou problmatoc, arke na parathrsoume ti an
f 00 (x) > 0 gia kje x (a, b), tte oi anisthtec (3.9) kai (3.10) enai gnsiec.
'Etsi, h anaparstash (3.8) gia thn dnei > 0, to opoo apodeiknei thn
gnsia kurtthta thc f .
n
n
X
X
exp
pj yj
pj eyj .
j=1
j=1
xj j
n
X
pj xj .
j=1
Blpoume loipn ti, me ekplhktik sntomo kai kajar trpo, h anisthta tou
Jensen mac odhge sth genikeumnh anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou.
Aut h optik gia thn anisthta arijmhtiko-gewmetriko msou enai apokaluptik gia thn fsh kai th shmasa thc. H kentrik jsh pou katqei
h anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou sth jewra twn anisottwn
antanakl to jemelidh rlo thc ekjetikc sunrthshc, h opoa dr san
isomorfismc anmesa stic do pi shmantikc omdec: thn prosjetik omda twn pragmatikn arijmn kai thn pollaplasiastik omda twn jetikn
pragmatikn arijmn.
1
1
1
ab sin = ac sin = bc sin .
2
2
2
An proume ton mso ro twn trin isottwn, mporome na gryoume
1
2A
1
1
1
(3.11)
(ab + ac + bc) =
+
+
.
3
3
sin sin
sin
A=
Aut h sqsh mac parakine na exetsoume thn kurtthta thc sunrthshc 1/ sin x.
H grafik parstash thc x 7 1/ sin x gia x (0, ) thn upodeiknei, kai aut
epibebainetai ap to kritrio thc paraggou: qoume
00
1
1
cos2 x
(3.12)
=
+ 2 3 > 0 gia kje x (0, ).
sin x
sin x
sin x
Sunepc, afo ( + + )/3 = /3, ap thn anisthta tou Jensen blpoume ti
1
1
1
1
1
2
+
+
= ,
3 sin sin
sin
sin(/3)
3
kai, ap thn (3.11), parnoume th zhtomenh anisthta
(3.13)
1
4
(ab + ac + bc) A.
3
3
(3.14)
4
a2 + b2 + c2 A.
3
30 Kurtothta
Prgmati, gia na persoume ap thn (3.13) sthn anisthta tou Weitzenb
ock,
arke na jumhjome ti
ab + ac + bc a2 + b2 + c2 ,
kti pou mporome na apodexoume me do toulqiston trpouc: h anisthta tou
Cauchy kai h anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou douleoun exsou kal
se autn thn perptwsh.
(3.15)
k=1
k=1
1
1
M x2 f (x) kai h(x) = f (x) mx2
2
2
g(x) =
X
1
M x2 f (x)
pk
2
k=1
1
M x2k f (xk )
2
k=1
1
M
2
n
X
pk (xk x)2 .
k=1
k=1
pk (xk x)2 =
1 XX
pj pk (xj xk )2 ,
2 j=1
k=1
Keflaio 4
(4.1)
n
X
k=1
ak bk
n
X
!1/p
apk
k=1
n
X
!1/q
bqk
k=1
(4.2)
1 1
+ = 1.
p q
lder
34 H anisothta tou Ho
(4.3)
n
X
!tr
ak bsk
k=1
n
X
!ts
ak brk
k=1
n
X
!sr
ak btk
k=1
(4.4)
pou Sp =
n
X
ak bpk , p > 0.
k=1
O Rogers dwse do apodexeic gi autn thn anisthta: sthn prth qrhsimopoose thn {tautthta twn tessrwn grammtwn}, en sthn deterh qrhsimopoiose thn anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou, thn opoa grafe sth
morf
(4.5)
1 w2
xw
1 x2
n
xw
n
w1 x1 + w2 x2 + + wn xn
w1 + w2 + + wn
w1 +w2 ++wn
.
a bs a bs2
b1 1 1 b2 2
(4.6)
a bsn
bnn
ts
a bs a bs2
b1 1 1 b2 2
(4.7)
a bsn
bnn
rs
(4.8)
a bs a bs2
a bsn
bnn
'Epetai ti
(4.9)
dhlad,
(4.10)
(4.11)
n
X
k=1
wk yk
n
X
k=1
!(p1)/p
wk
n
X
k=1
!1/p
wk ykp
lder 35
4.2 Apodeixh thc anisothtac tou Ho
O Holder xekinose ap thn anisthta tou Jensen: an : [0, +) R enai
mia kurt sunrthsh, tte gia kje y1 , . . . , yn 0 kai gia kje w1 , . . . , wn > 0
qoume
(4.12)
.
w1 + w2 + + wn
w1 + w2 + + wn
Efarmzontac autn thn anisthta gia thn kurt sunrthsh (x) = xp , parnoume
(4.13)
w1 y1 + w2 x2 + + wn yn
w1 + w2 + + wn
Me lla lgia,
(4.14)
n
X
!p
wk yk
k=1
n
X
k=1
!p1
wk
n
X
!
wk ykp
k=1
(4.15)
1/p
ak = wk yk
1/q
kai bk = wk .
(4.16)
1/p
ak
= b1/q
gia kje 1 k n.
H prth skyh pou mac rqetai sto mual enai asfalc na prospajsoume
na prosarmsoume kpoia ap tic apodexeic thc anisthtac tou Cauchy: enai
mlista arket qrsimo na dome giat kpoiec ap autc den mporon na mac
bohjsoun. Gia pardeigma, an p 6= 2, to epiqerhma tou Schwarz den mpore na
doulyei afo den uprqei kpoio trinumo pou na sqetzetai fusiologik me to
prblhma. 'Omoia, h apousa enc ttoiou triwnmou shmanei ti enai apjano
na brome kpoia tautthta tpou Lagrange pou na odhge sthn anisthta.
Erqmaste tsi sthn pi isqur apdeixh thc anisthtac tou Cauchy, autn
pou xekinei me thn {tapein anisthta}
(4.17)
xy
1 2 1 2
x + y
2
2
gia kje x, y R.
lder
36 H anisothta tou Ho
Aut h anisthta mac jumzei ti, ap thn genik anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko
msou (2.9) petai ti
x y
(4.18)
x+ +
y +
+
+
(4.19)
1 1
+ =1
p q
uv
1 p 1 q
u + v
p
q
gia kje u, v R+ .
Aut idanik genkeush thc (4.17) enai gnwst wc {anisthta tou Young}.
H sunqeia thc apdeixhc thc anisthtac tou Holder enai h sunhjismnh. An
knoume tic antikatastseic u 7 ak kai y 7 bk sthn (4.19) kai an ajrosoume
wc proc 1 k n, parnoume thn
(4.20)
n
X
ak bk
k=1
k=1
k=1
1X p 1X q
ak +
bk ,
p
q
kai, gia na persoume ap autn thn prosjetik anisthta se mia pollaplasiastik anisthta, mporome na efarmsoume to tqnasma thc kanonikopohshc to
opoo qoume dh qrhsimopoisei. Qwrc periorism thc genikthtac mporome na
upojsoume ti kama ap tic do akoloujec den enai tautotik mhdenik, opte
mporome na orsoume tic kanonikopoihmnec metablhtc
!1/q
!1/p
X
X
n
n
q
p
b
.
a
kai
bk = bk
a
k = ak
k
k=1
k=1
1 p
a
k bk = a
+
p k
1 q
b
q k
gia kje k = 1, 2, . . . , n.
lder 37
4.3 Antistrofh thc anisothtac tou Ho
Tte, ap ton qarakthrism thc isthtac sthn anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko
msou (4.18), blppoume ti gia kje 1 k n prpei na isqei a
pk = bqk . Tloc,
epistrfontac stic arqikc metablhtc ak kai bk , blpoume ti apk = bqk gia kje
1 k n, pou h stajer isotai me
n
!1/q n
!1/p
X q
X p
=
bk
ak
.
k=1
k=1
'Eqoume tsi dsei qarakthrism gia tic periptseic isthtac sthn anisthta
tou H
older.
Jerhma 4.3.1 (h antstrofh thc Holder h nnoia tou dusmo). An 1 < p < kai an C enai mia stajer me thn idithta
n
X
(4.21)
(
ak xk C
k=1
n
X
)1/p
|xk |p
k=1
Aut to apotlesma mac bohjei na exhgsoume giat h emfnish twn suzugn ekjetn (p, q) tou Riesz enai anapfeukth. Oi mh grammiko periorismo
enai pntote dsqrhstoi, kai ed blpoume ti oi x metablhtc emfanzontai kai
sta do mlh thc upjeshc (4.21). Gia na tic apaleyoume qreiazmaste na
tqnasma.
Mia ida pou douleei arket suqn tan qoume elejerec metablhtc kai
sta do mlh miac sqshc enai na {sunwmotsoume} ste na knoume ta do
mlh na moizoun so gnetai perisstero. Aut h {arq thc exswshc twn do
meln} den enai telewc safc, sthn perptws mac mwc upodeiknei ti gia kje
1 k n ja prepe na epilxoume to xk tsi ste na isqei h ak xk = |xk |p .
Me lla lgia, jtoume xk = sign(ak )|ak |p/(p1) , pou sign(ak ) = 1 an ak 0
kai sign(ak ) = 1 an ak < 0. Me autn thn epilog, h sunjkh (4.21) parnei
th morf
( n
)1/p
n
X
X
p/(p1)
p/(p1)
|ak |
C
|ak |
.
(4.23)
k=1
k=1
lder
38 H anisothta tou Ho
H anisthta tou
Minkowski
H anisthta tou Holder kai h anisthta dusmo (4.22) mporon na epanadiatupwjon me polloc trpouc, o pi morfoc mwc ap louc apaite thn eisagwg
kpoiou nou sumbolismo. An a = (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) enai mia n da pragmatikn
arijmn, gia kje 1 p < grfoume
(4.24)
kakp =
n
X
!1/p
|ak |
k=1
ak bk kakp kbkq ,
k=1
pou gia 1 < p < to zeugri (p, q) enai oi sunjeic suzugec ekjtec pou
prosdiorzontai ap thn sqsh
1 1
+ =1
p q
en gia p = 1 jtoume q = .
H posthta kakp onomzetai p nrma, `p nrma, thc n dac, gia na dikaiologsoume mwc autn thn onomasa, prpei na elgxoume ti ntwc ikanopoie
lec tic idithtec pou apaitontai ap ton orism thc nrmac. Pio sugkekrimna,
prpei na epalhjesoume tic exc treic idithtec:
(i) kakp 0, me isthta an kai mno an a = 0.
(ii) kakp = || kakp gia kje R.
(iii) ka + bkp kakp + kbkp gia lec tic n dec a kai b.
Oi prtec do idithtec prokptoun mesa ap ton orism (4.24), h trth
mwc idithta enai bajterh. Enai gnwst wc {anisthta tou Minkowski} kai,
parlo pou den enai dskolo na apodeiqje, enai jemelidhc.
(4.26)
n
X
k=1
!1/p
|ak + bk |p
n
X
k=1
!1/p
|ak |p
n
X
!1/p
|bk |p
k=1
Epiplon, an kakp 6= 0 kai an p > 1, tte isqei isthta sthn anisthta (4.25) an
kai mno an (1) uprqei stajer R ste |bk | = |ak | gia kje k = 1, 2, . . . , n,
kai (2) oi ak kai bk qoun to dio prshmo gia kje k = 1, 2, . . . , n.
lder 39
4.3 Antistrofh thc anisothtac tou Ho
Uprqoun pollc diaforetikc apodexeic thc anisthtac tou Minkowski, h
mjodoc mwc pou qrhsimopoijhke ap ton F. Riesz enai h pi gohteutik
idiatera an kpoioc jlei na parousisei thn anisthta tou Minkowski amswc
met ap thn parousash thc anisthtac tou H
older. To erthma enai: {ja
mporose na mac bohjsei h H
older}? Amswc met, h lgebra rqetai na mac
bohjsei.
Afo to nw frgma pou zhtme enai to jroisma do rwn, enai logik na
spsoume to arister mloc se do mrh:
n
X
(4.27)
|ak + bk |p
k=1
n
X
k=1
n
X
k=1
Aut h dispash dnei dh thn anisthta tou Minkowski (4.26) gia p = 1, opte
mporome plon na upojsoume ti p > 1. Efarmzontac thn anisthta tou
Holder qwrist se kajna ap ta ajrosmata thc (4.27), blpoume ti
n
!1/p n
!(p1)/p
n
X
X
X
|ak | |ak + bk |p1
|ak |p
|ak + bk |p
k=1
kai
n
X
k=1
k=1
p1
|bk | |ak + bk |
n
X
k=1
!1/p
p
|bk |
k=1
n
X
!(p1)/p
p
|ak + bk |
k=1
(4.28)
lder
40 H anisothta tou Ho
p isqei h tautthta
(4.29)
kakp = max
n
X
`p
nrmac).
Gia kje 1
)
ak xk : kxkq = 1 ,
k=1
(4.30)
h(a + b)
wW
wW
w0 W
w1 W
k=1
(4.31)
n
X
k=1
ak yk kykq max{s S}
gia kje y Rn .
lder 41
4.5 Ena apotelesma eustajeiac gia thn anisothta tou Ho
'Etsi, ap thn antstrofh anisthta Holder gia to zeugri suzugn ekjetn
(q, p) prosxte thn enallag twn rlwn twn p kai q parnoume thn deterh
anisthta kakp max{s S}. Sunduzontac tic do anisthtec parnoume thn
hmigrammik anaparstash (4.29) gia thn h(a) = kakp .
n
n
X
X
p
aj .
aj n(p1)/p
j=1
j=1
p
n
n
X
X
(4.32)
(a) :=
apj n1p
aj ,
j=1
j=1
tte qoume (a) 0 kai, gia na persoume sto endiafron shmeo auto tou
orismo, to kritrio thc isthtac sthn anisthta tou H
older mac lei ti (a) = 0
an kai mno an uprqei kpoia stajer ttoia ste aj = gia kje j =
1, 2, . . . , n. Dhlad, h sunjkh (a) = 0 ikanopoietai an kai mno an lec oi
suntetagmnec tou a enai sec.
Autc o qarakthrismc odhge me th seir tou se mia seir apotelesmtwn
eustjeiac:
)2/p aj ( +
)2/p
lder
42 H anisothta tou Ho
p/2
(4.34)
j=1
p
n
n
n
X
X
X
p/2
aj .
(aj )2 = (a) :=
apj n1p
j=1
j=1
j=1
p
n
n
X
X
p/2
aj = 0.
(4.35)
n2 2
aj + n1p
j=1
j=1
p
2
n
n
X
X
p/2
(4.36)
n2p
aj
aj .
j=1
j=1
4.6 Parembol
H `1 nrma kai h ` nrma enai oi do akraec metax twn `p normn, kai se
arketc periptseic mporome sunduzontac mia `1 anisthta me mia ` anisthta
na proume antstoiqh anisthta gia thn `p nrma, pou 1 < p < .
To teleutao mac jerhma dnei na shmantik pardeigma efarmogc autc
thc dunatthtac. 'Eqei epshc skop na dsei mia ida gia na ap ta plon
diadedomna jmata pou sunantme sthn jewra twn anisottwn thn parembol.
4.6 Parembolh 43
n
n
n
m X
X
X
X
cjk xk A
|xk | kai
max
cjk xk B max |xk |
1jm
1kn
j=1 k=1
k=1
k=1
(4.37)
p 1/p
n
n
!1/p
m X
X
X
1/p
1/q
p
A B
cjk xk
|xk |
j=1 k=1
k=1
gia kje xk , 1 k n.
To pio enoqlhtik stoiqeo thc anisthtac (4.37) enai h parousa twn p
rizn. Ja jlame loipn na brome nan trpo gia na tic exafansoume. H
rza sto dexi mloc den dhmiourge problmata giat kanonikopointac to x
mporome, qwrc periorism thc genikthtac, na upojsoume ti kxkp 1. Ti ja
mporosame mwc na knoume gia thn p rza sto arister mloc?
Eutuqc, diajtoume na ergaleo pou enai apoltwc katllhlo gia thn perstash. H antstrofh thc anisthtac tou Holder mac lei ti, gia na apodexoume
thn anisthta (4.37), arke na apodexoume ti, gia la ta diansmata x kai y
pou ikanopoion tic kxkp 1 kai kykq 1, isqei h anisthta
m X
n
X
(4.38)
j=1 k=1
cjk xk yj
m X
n
X
j=1 k=1
m X
n
X
j=1 k=1
1/p
cjk xpk
m X
n
X
1/q
cjk yjq
j=1 k=1
lder
44 H anisothta tou Ho
O prtoc roc enai ekoloc, afo h prth mac upjesh kai h kxkp 1 mac
dnoun to frgma
m X
n
X
(4.39)
cjk xpk A
j=1 k=1
n
X
xpk A.
k=1
H ektmhsh tou deterou rou den enai pol duskolterh. Arke na qrhsimopoisoume thn deterh upjesh kai thn kykq 1, se sunduasm me na qondroeidc
frgma:
(
)
m X
n
m
n
m
X
X
X
X
q
q
(4.40)
cjk yj
yj max
cjk B
yjq B.
j=1 k=1
j=1
1kn
k=1
j=1
Mroc II
Eidik jmata
Keflaio 5
n = (a1 a2 an )1/n ,
tte,
(5.2)
X
n=1
n e
an .
n=1
1
1
(5.3)
1 + 2 + + k + + n+k ak
+ +
,
k
n+k
kai h teleutaa posthta tenei sto peiro tan n , diti h armonik seir
apoklnei. Ap thn anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou qoume n n ,
me isthta (gia kje n) an kai mno an h akolouja enai stajer. An loipn
P
h seir
enai mh mhdenik, h anisthta tou Carleman
n=1 an sugklnei kai
P
exasfalzei thn sgklish thc n=1 n kai ap autn sumperanoume ti prpei na
qoume isqur gnsia anisthta sthn anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou
n n .
1
(5.4)
1+
< e.
n
(5.5)
1 + 2 + + n n (a1 + a2 + + an )
gia kje {an } kai kje n, opte to prblhma angetai sto erthma an h {n }
enai nw fragmnh. Pio sugkekrimna, prpei na dexoume ti n e gia kje
n.
Smfwna me th mjodo twn pollaplasiastn Lagrange, prpei na lsoume
thn exswsh F = 0, pou
1
1
2 + +
n
2a1
na1
1
1
2 + +
n
2a2
na2
1
n
nan
(a1 + a2 + + an 1).
1+
(5.7)
1 + 2 + + n = (a1 + a2 + + an ) = .
(5.8)
1 = n (a1 a2 ),
1
2 = n (a2 a3 ), ,
2
1
n = n a n .
n
An tra jsoume
(5.9)
ak+1
tk = k 1
ak
(k = 1, 2, . . . , n 1),
lya 49
5.3 H apodeixh tou Po
oi exisseic Lagrange grfontai
(5.10)
n tk ak = k
(k = 1, 2, . . . , n 1),
n nan = n .
k+1
Gia k = 1, 2, . . . , n 2, qrhsimopointac thn (5.10) kai thn k+1
= kk ak+1
elgqoume ekola ti
k+1
k
k
k+1
1 k
1 k
ak
tk
k+1
(5.11)
tk+1 =
=
=
.
t
t 1
n ak+1
n k ak+1
n k
k
To jma enai me poin trpo mpore kanec na qrhsimopoisei autc tic anadromikc sqseic gia na katalxei sthn n e. O Carleman orzei mia akolouja
sunartsewn Tk () me T1 () = 1/ kai
k
Tk ()
1
(5.12)
Tk+1 ()k+1 = Tk ()k 1
(k = 1, 2, . . .).
k
Ap thn anadromik sqsh (5.11) gia ta tk blpoume ti Tk (n ) = tk gia k =
1, 2, . . . , n 1. Epshc,
n1
(n1)
1
n1
an
1 n
(5.13)
Tn (n )n =
= n nn = nn ,
n n an1
an1
n an
ra, Tn (n ) = n. Tra, deqnoume me epagwg ti
(5.14)
Tk () <
k
k+1
(k = 1, 2, . . .)
k+1
k
1
1
1
k+1
k+1
k+1
(5.15)
Tk+1 ()
<
= <
.
k
1 k(k+1)
e
k+2
Sunepc,
(5.16)
Tk+1 () <
k+1
k+2
2 2 e
1
(5.17)
n = e
+
O
.
(log n)2
(log n)3
H {apdeixh}
H apdeixh tou Polya enai pol sntomh all musthridhc: orzoume c1 , c2 , c3 , . . .
epagwgik, tsi ste na ikanopoietai h sqsh
c1 c2 cn = (n + 1)n
(5.18)
gia kje n. Me lla lgia,
(5.19)
ck =
(k + 1)k
.
k k1
(a1 a2 an )1/n
X
(a1 c1 a2 c2 an cn )1/n
n+1
n=1
X
a1 c1 + a2 c2 + + an cn
n(n + 1)
n=1
n=1
1
n(n + 1)
k=1
n=k
X
X 1
1
=
ak ck
n n+1
=
k=1
ak ck
k=n
ak
k=1
(k + 1)k 1
k k1 k
ak .
k=1
lya 51
5.3 H apodeixh tou Po
{Kotaxe, den brskomai ed mno kai mno gia na se jaumzw. Jlw na
mjw pc na lnw ki eg problmata. 'Omwc, den mpor na d pc enai
anjrwpnwc dunatn na mou rjei h ida tou orismo sou. Ti me majaneic
me aut pou mou deixec?}
{Aut to bma den enai tetrimmno. Moizei to pio shmantik. An mporosa na peist ti qei kpoiec pijanthtec epituqac an mou dinec kpoia
aitiolghsh gia thn epilog sou, ja mporosa swc na fantast pc to
skfthkec kai na parakoloujsw thn sunqeia me megalterh autopepojhsh kai endiafron}.
Oi prtec antidrseic enai aplc jumwmnec, oi epmenec mpanoun kpwc
perisstero sthn ousa, h de teleutaa enai h kalterh: fanernei nan skeptmeno akroat pou zhtei do basik prgmata: na de ti to sugkekrimno bma
thc apdeixhc enai swst all kai na de ti aut to bma enai to endedeigmno.
Kat ton Polya, na bma miac majhmatikc apdeixhc enai katllhlo an
sundetai ousiastik me ton telik skop kai mac frnei pio kont s autn.
Den arke mwc na enai katllhlo: ja prpei kai na fanetai katllhlo ston
akroat. An to bma enai apl, na stoiqeidec bma routnac, o akroatc
mpore ekola na fantaste pc aut sundetai me ton stqo thc apdeixhc. An
pli h parousash enai pol prosektik proetoimasmnh, tte mpore h sndesh
tou bmatoc me ton stqo na upodeiknetai eparkc. An mwc, parlo pou to
bma fanetai shmantik, h sqsh tou me ton stqo den enai kajlou orat, tte
o akroatc qei kje dikawma na aisjnetai apogohteumnoc.
Sto pardeigma tou P
olya, oi suntelestc cn emfanzontai san {ap mhqanc
jec}. To epiqerhma pou apodeiknei thn anisthta baszetai akribc sthn
epilog autn twn suntelestn, kai apodeiknei thn anisthta pentakjara kai
grgora. To prblhma mwc enai ti to bma dikainetai sto tloc, en sthn
arq moizei akatanhto.
Pc loipn ja mporose o omilhtc na to exhgsei ap thn arq? H plrhc
aitiolghsh apaite arket qrno kai qro: ja doje stic epmenec paragrfouc. Kat ton P
olya, aut pou qreizetai enai mia merik aitiolghsh, kpoiec
peistikc nxeic gia touc lgouc pou odghsan fusiologik sto sugkekrimno
bma.
H apdeixh
To mustik psw ap thn apdeixh tou P
olya tan h psth tou sth genik arq
ti prpei kanec na qrhsimopoie mia anisthta stic periptseic pou enai pi
akribc. Jumhjete ti jloume na dexoume ti gia kje akolouja jetikn
pragmatikn arijmn a1 , a2 , . . . isqei h anisthta
(5.20)
X
k=1
(a1 a2 ak )1/k e
ak .
k=1
H empeira mac ap thn anisthta tou Cauchy gia seirc upodeiknei ti nac
qrsimoc trpoc na proseggsoume na posotik apotlesma pwc h anisthta (5.20) enai na meletsoume prta na aplostero poiotik apotlesma: gia
(5.21)
ak <
k=1
k=1
P
k=1
k=1 (a1 a2
(5.22)
n
X
(a1 a2 ak )1/k
k=1
k
n
n
n
X
X
X
1
1X
aj =
aj
,
k j=1
k
j=1
k=1
k=j
lya 53
5.3 H apodeixh tou Po
Fusiologikc dokimc
Ja mporosame na dokimsoume touc arijmoc
1s a1 , 2s a2 , 3s a3 , . . . , ns an , . . . ,
pou s mia parmetroc thn opoa ja epilxoume me ton bltisto trpo. Akoloujntac ta bmata tou arqiko upologismo mac, grfoume
1/k
(a1 a2 ak )
k=1
X
(a1 1s a2 2s ak k s )1/k
(1 2 k)s/k
k=1
a1 1s + a2 2s + + ak k s
k(k!)s/k
k=1
ak k s
k=1
1
.
j(j!)s/j
j=k
(5.23)
ap pou prokptei ti
X
n=k
1
n(n!)s/n
'
Z
(s+1)
x(s+1) dx
n=k
'e
es s1 k s .
Eisgontac autn thn ektmhsh sto prohgomeno frgma mac, blpoume ti briskmaste pol kont sto na dexoume ti
(5.24)
(a1 a2 ak )1/k C
k=1
ak ,
k=1
(a1 a2 ak )1/k
k=1
X
(a1 c1 a2 c2 ak ck )1/k
(c1 c2 ck )1/k
k=1
a1 c1 + a2 c2 + + ak ck
k(c1 c2 ck )1/k
k=1
ak ck
k=1
X
j=k
1
.
j(c1 c2 cj )1/j
'Ed, prpei fusik na stajome kai na skeftome. Ap thn sqsh sthn opoa
katalxame, blpoume ti gia thn apdeixh thc anisthtac tou Carleman arke
na epilxoume touc pargontec ck , k = 1, 2, . . . tsi ste ta ajrosmata
(5.25)
sk = ck
j=k
1
,
j(c1 c2 cj )1/j
k = 1, 2, . . .
na ikanopoioun thn sk e.
'Opoion drmo ki an akoloujsoume gia thn epilog twn ck , telik ja qreiaste na ektimsoume to jroisma sk . Kal enai loipn na knoume aut th
doulei so gnetai eukolterh. H empeira deqnei ti uprqoun pol lgec seirc me ourc pou na upologzontai akribc me ekolo trpo. Gia thn akrbeia,
lec qoun sqsh me thn thleskopik tautthta
X
1
(5.26)
j=k
bj
1
bj+1
1
.
bk
(5.27)
X
j=k
X
1
=
j(j + 1)
j=k
1
1
j
j+1
1
k
(5.28)
(c1 c2 cj )1/j = j + 1,
j = 1, 2, . . . .
(5.29)
sk = ck
X
j=k
X
1
ck
1
=
c
= ,
k
j(j + 1)
k
j(c1 c2 cj )1/j
j=k
c1 c2 cj1 = j j1
kai c1 c2 cj = (j + 1)j .
Diairntac, parnoume
(5.30)
cj =
j
(j + 1)j
1
.
=
j
1
+
j j1
j
(5.31)
1/k
(a1 a2 ak )
k=1
k
X
1
1+
ak ,
k
k=1
kai aut h anisthta mac frnei sthn anisthta tou Carleman. Gia thn akrbeia,
h (5.31) enai isqurterh ap thn anisthta tou Carleman: an jsoume x = 1/k
sthn gnwst anisthta 1 + x ex , blpoume ti
k
1
1+
<e
k
gia kje k = 1, 2, . . . .
(5.32)
cn =
a1 + 2a2 + + nan
.
n(n + 1)
(5.33)
N
X
n=1
cn =
N
X
n=1
a n N cN <
N
X
an .
n=1
Efarmzontac tra thn anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou gia touc arijmoc
(5.34)
a1
2a2
nan
,
,...,
,
n+1 n+1
n+1
(5.35)
n!a1 a2 an
cn
(n + 1)n
1/n
=
(n!)1/n
n .
n+1
(5.36) (b1 1)1 +2(b2 1)2 + +n(bn 1)n +nn a1 b1 +a2 b22 + +an bnn .
Gia thn apdeixh autc thc anisthtac, apomonnoume prta thn metablht bn kai
prospajome na brome ekenhn thn epilog thc gia thn opoa enai duskoltero
na isqei h anisthta. Me lla lgia, zhtme thn tim tou x pou megistopoie
thn sunrthsh (x) = nn x an xn pnw ap louc touc mh arnhtikoc x. Me
stoiqeidh apeirostik logism blpoume ti to mgisto sumbanei tan nn =
nan xn1 , dhlad tan xn1 = n /an . Gi autn thn tim tou x parathrome ti
(5.37)
'Etsi, h arqik mac anisthta ja isqei gia kje bn 0 an isqei sthn perptwsh
pou, epiplon, ikanopoietai h
(5.38)
(5.39)
nn a1 + a2 + + an .
1
1
1
a2 + + 1 +
an .
(5.40) 1 +2 + +n +nn (1+1) a1 + 1 +
2
n
Gia thn akrbeia, h anisthta aut apodeqjhke me thn epiplon upjesh ti ak >
0 gia kje k , lgw sunqeiac mwc exakolouje na isqei an aplc upojsoume
ti ak 0. Petntac ton ro nn ap to arister mloc, qrhsimopointac thn
k
1 + k1 < e kai afnontac to n , parnoume thn anisthta tou Carleman.
Shmewsh: Mia prosektik angnwsh thc apdeixhc tou Redheffer deqnei ti
isthta isqei sthn (5.40) an kai mno an
k k1
1
(5.41)
ak = 2a1
=
O
.
(k + 1)k
k
Knopp
Z
Z
1
(5.42)
exp
log f (t) dt dx < e
f (x) dx,
x 0
0
0
pou f enai tuqosa mh arnhtik oloklhrsimh sunrthsh sto (0, ).
Gia thn apdeixh qreizetai na jumhjome ta exc: (a) An orsoume mia sunrthsh g msw thc
Z x
1
(5.43)
g(x) = 2
yf (y) dy,
x 0
tte
(5.44)
f (x) dx =
0
g(x) dx.
0
Aut h isthta enai mesh sunpeia tou jewrmatoc tou Fubini, afo
Z x
Z
Z
1
yf (y) dy dx
g(x) dx =
x2 0
0
Z0
Z
1
=
yf (y)
dx dy
2
x
0
y
Z
=
f (y) dy.
0
d () d.
Ja qreiastome autn thn anisthta mno sthn perptwsh pou = exp kai
d = dx/(b a) sto disthma [a, b].
Parathrome ti h x log x x enai antipargwgoc thc log x. Xekinntac ap
thn log f (y) = log(yf (y)) log y , grfoume
Z x
Z x
Z
1
1 x
1
exp
log f (y) dy
= exp
log(yf (y)) dy
log y dy
x 0
x 0
x 0
Z x
1
= e1log x exp
log(yf (y)) dy
x 0
Z x
e 1
exp(log(yf (y))) dy
x x 0
Z x
e
=
yf (y) dy,
x2 0
pou sto proteleutao bma qrhsimopoisame thn anisthta tou Jensen.
Oloklhrnontac autn thn anisthta sto (0, ) kai efarmzontac thn tautthta
(5.44), parnoume thn anisthta (5.42).
Carleson
O Carleson apodeiknei thn exc anisthta: an m(x) enai mia kurt sunrthsh
sto [0, ) me m(0) = 0, tte gia kje p > 1 isqei h anisthta
Z
Z
0
(5.46)
I1 :=
xp em(x)/x dx ep+1
xp em (x) dx := ep+1 I2 .
0
(5.47)
kai sunepc,
Z
k p1
Z
xp em(x)/x dx =
A/k
xp e
m(kx)
kx
dx
xp e
m(kx)
kx
xp e
m(x)
k1
0
kx k m (x)
dx
!1/k Z
p m(x)/x
x e
0
dx
A
dx
!(k1)/k
p m0 (x)
x e
0
dx
(5.48)
I1 k
(p+1)k
k1
I2 .
Parathrntac ti
lim k k/(k1) = e,
(5.49)
k1
parnoume to zhtomeno.
Carleman
h opoa sumpptei me thn anisthta tou Knopp an knoume thn epiplon upjesh
ti h f enai fjnousa: arke na jsoume f (x) = em(x) .
Ap thn (5.50) mporome na apodexoume thn {diakrit} anisthta tou Carleman, epilgontac katllhlh sunrthsh m. Kat arqn, o Carleson parathre
ti prokeimnou na apodexoume thn anisthta tou Carleman, mporome na upojsoume ti h akolouja {an } enai fjnousa: aut enai swst diti, ap lec tic
anadiatxeic thc {an }, ekenh pou dnei th megalterh seir gewmetrikn mswn
n enai aut gia thn opoa h {an } enai fjnousa.
An mac dsoun mia ttoia fjnousa akolouja {an }, jewrome thn sunrthsh
m pou enai kat tmmata grammik kai ennei ta shmea
1
1
1
(0, 0), 1, log
, 2, log
+ log
,....
a1
a1
a2
Tte, mporome na elgxoume ti
(5.51)
m0 (x)
dx =
an
n=1
kai
n+1
(5.52)
Z
em(x)/x dx
n+1
em(x)/n dx = n ,
(5.53)
X
n=1
n e
X
n=1
an .
Keflaio 6
Ajrosmata tetragnwn
poluwnmwn
6.1 H eikasa tou Minkowski
Gia thn apdeixh thc tautthtac tou Lagrange xekinsame me na polunumo
pou gnwrzame ti enai mh arnhtik, kai, qrhsimopointac stoiqeidh lgebra,
dexame ti mporose na grafte san jroisma tetragnwn. H tautthta pou
prokuye mac dwse mia anexrthth apdeixh thc anisthtac tou Cauchy kai,
tautqrona, mia difanh ermhnea gia tic ikanc kai anagkaec sunjkec ste na
isqei isthta. Se aut to Keflaio ja suzhtsoume to exc prblhma:
Prblhma. Enai swst ti kje mh arnhtik polunumo grfetai san jroisma tetragnwn? Dhlad, an to pragmatik polunumo P (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )
ikanopoie thn
P (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) 0 gia kje (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) Rn ,
mporome na brome s N kai pragmatik polunuma Qk (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ), 1
k s, ste
P (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = Q21 + Q22 + + Q2s ?
To erthma aut tjhke ap ton Minkowski, o opooc kane thn eikasa ti h apnthsh enai arnhtik. Aut pou odghse ton Minkowski sto prblhma
den enai entelc kajar: kat psa pijanthta, endiafertan gia kpoia arijmojewrhtik apotelsmata pwc to klassik jerhma tou Lagrange to opoo
isqurzetai ti kje fusikc arijmc enai to jroisma tessrwn ligterwn
tleiwn tetragnwn. 'Opwc kai na enai, o Minkowski anakonwse thn eikasa
tou ston David Hilbert, kai to 1888, o Hilbert dhmoseuse mia apdeixh gia thn
parxh mh arnhtikn poluwnmwn ta opoa den grfontai san jroisma tetragnwn pragmatikn poluwnmwn. Pio sugkekrimna, o Hilbert apdeixe ti h
apnthsh enai katafatik mno stic exc periptseic: tan to polunumo enai
2
b
4ac b2
(6.1)
P (x) = ax2 + bx + c = a x +
+
,
2a
4a
kai aut h anaparstash sqedn apantei sto erthm mac. Arke na elgxoume ti oi teleutaoi do prosjetoi grfontai san tetrgwna pragmatikn
poluwnmwn.
An jewrsoume meglec timc tou x, blpoume ti h P (x) 0 qei san
sunpeia thn a > 0, kai an jsoume x0 = b/2a, tte ap to jroisma (6.1)
blpoume ti h P (x0 ) 0 qei san sunpeia thn 4ac b2 0. To sumprasma
enai ti oi do prosjetoi sto dexi mloc thc tautthtac (6.1) enai mh arnhtiko,
ra to P (x) grfetai sth morf Q21 + Q22 , pou Q1 kai Q2 enai ta pragmatik
polunuma pou orzontai ap tic
b
4ac b2
(6.2)
Q1 (x) = a x +
kai Q2 (x) =
.
2a
2 a
Q(x) = Q21 (x) + Q22 (x) kai R(x) = R12 (x) + R22 (x),
tte to P (x) anaparstatai ki aut san jroisma do tetragnwn. Pio sugkekrimna, an qoume
(6.3)
(6.4)
{Q1 (x)R1 (x) + Q2 (x)R2 (x)}2 + {Q1 (x)R2 (x) Q2 (x)R1 (x)}2 .
pou R(r) 6= 0,
(6.5)
(6.6)
0 = P (r)
0 = P (r) = P (r),
(6.7)
(6.8)
P (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = c +
n
X
i x2i ,
i=1
(a1 a2 an )1/n
a1 + a2 + + an
,
n
P (x, y) = x4 y 2 + x2 y 4 3x2 y 2 + 1
enai mh arnhtik gia kje epilog twn metablhtn x kai y . Ja prospajsoume
na apodexoume ti gi aut to polunumo h anaparstash
(6.9)
gia kpoion fusik s, enai ntwc adnath. Ta ergalea pou qoume sta qria
mac enai stoiqeidh, enai mwc arket. Mia mikr dierenhsh deqnei ti h
anaparstash (6.9) enai pol perioristik.
Gia pardeigma, parathrste prta ti o bajmc tou poluwnmou P (x, y)
enai soc me 6, ra, kanna ap ta polunuma Qk den mpore na qei bajm
megaltero ap 3. Epiplon, an jsoume y = 0, blpoume ti
(6.10)
Qk (x, y) = ak + bk xy + ck x2 y + dk xy 2
Keflaio 7
Prblhma.
ak bk ?
a2k
(7.1)
k=1
k=1
k=1
(1 + a2 )1/2 (1 + b2 )1/2
kai 1 + ab.
ak
ak
(7.3)
M
m 0.
bk
bk
Ektelntac touc aparathtouc pollaplasiasmoc, ap thn (7.3) katalgoume
sthn isodnamh anisthta
(7.4)
gia kje k = 1, 2, . . . , n.
(7.5)
n
X
a2k + (mM )
k=1
n
X
b2k (m + M )
k=1
n
X
ak bk .
k=1
ak + (mM )
bk
2
k=1
k=1
k=1
k=1
)
(
n
X
1
ak bk .
(m + M )
2
k=1
Tra, frnontac lec tic stajerc sto dexi mloc, erqmaste se mia anisthta
pou ikanopoie tic apaitseic mac. An jsoume
(7.6)
A=
m+M
2
kai G =
mM ,
(7.7)
n
X
k=1
!1/2
a2k
n
X
k=1
!1/2
b2k
AX
ak bk .
G
k=1
k=1
k=1
Mporome ekola na katanosoume thn anisthta (7.8) qwrc na basistome sth diasndes thc me th jewra pijanottwn. Oi efarmogc thc se llec
perioqc twn Majhmatikn enai otwc llwc pollc. H pijanojewrhtik
mwc ermhnea thc anisthtac (7.8) enai exairetik endiafrousa. Sth glssa twn pijanottwn, lei ti an X enai mia tuqaa metablht me thn idithta
P (X = xk ) = pk gia k = 1, 2, . . . , n, tte
(7.9)
(7.10)
P (|X | )
1
E (|X |2 )
2
isqei gia kje > 0. H apdeixh autc thc anisthtac enai pol apl, enai
mwc tso shmantik gia th jewra pijanottwn pou h anisthta ditaxhc tou
Chebyshev (7.8) suqn apokaletai h llh anisthta tou Chebyshev.
H anisthta tou Chebyshev (7.8) enai tetragwnik, kai oi upojseic mac frnoun sto no thn teqnik thc metatropc thc ditaxhc se tetragwnik anisthta.
Ed, h monotona twn f kai g qei san sunpeia thn tetragwnik anisthta
(7.11)
j,k=1
k=1
j,k=1
n
X
)
f (xk )g(xk )pk
k=1
'Etsi, h anisthta (7.11) mac dnei mia apdeixh thc anisthtac tou Chebyshev.
< b1 b2 bn < ,
(7.12)
n
X
k=1
ak bnk+1
n
X
k=1
ak b(k)
n
X
k=1
ak bk .
a1 b2 + a2 b1 a1 b1 + a2 b2 .
Aut ebai akribc h morf pou parnei h (7.12) sthn perptwsh n = 2. To
prblhma tra enai na dome an h dia ida mpore na mac bohjsei na qeiristome
to pio genik jroisma
n
X
S() =
ak b(k) .
k=1
S( ) S()
'Etsi, me ton metasqhmatism 7 petuqanoume do stqouc. Prton, megalnoume thn posthta S : qoume S() S( ). Deteron, to pljoc twn
antistrofn sthn enai gnhswc mikrtero ap to pljoc twn antistrofn
sthn .
S()
n
X
ak bk .
k=1
Keflaio 8
Summetrik ajrosmata
8.1 Oi klasikc anisthtec twn Newton kai Maclaurin
H k -ost stoiqeidhc summetrik sunrthsh twn n metablhtn x1 , x2 , . . . , xn
enai to polunumo
X
ek (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) =
xi1 xi2 xik .
1i1 <i2 <<ik n
e0 (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = 1,
e1 (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = x1 + x2 + + xn
kai
e2 (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) =
xj xk ,
1j<kn
en (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = x1 x2 xn .
Oi sunartseic autc emfanzontai se louc kuriolektik touc kldouc twn Majhmatikn. Mia pol shmantik iditht touc enai ti sundoun touc suntelestc enc poluwnmou me kpoiec sunartseic twn rizn tou: an to polunumo
P (t) grfetai sth morf P (t) = (t x1 )(t x2 ) (t xn ), tte qei kai thn
anaparstash
(8.1)
Ek (x) = Ek (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) =
ek (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )
n
,
k
74 Summetrika ajroismata
wc exc:
Oi anisthtec twn
Newton
(8.2)
kai
(8.3)
1/(n1)
1/2
(xyz)1/3
xy + xz + yz
3
1/2
x+y+z
,
3
dhlad mac dnoun mia eklptunsh thc anisthtac arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou. Sthn genik perptwsh, oi anisthtec tou Maclaurin dnoun mia olklhrh
axousa akolouja parastsewn anmesa ston gewmetrik mso (x1 x2 xn )1/n
kai ton arijmhtik mso (x1 + x2 + + xn )/n.
Ap ton
Newton
ston
Maclaurin
msw gewmetrac
(8.4)
log Ek (x)
log Ek+1 (x)
,
k
k+1
kai aut h anisthta enai akribc h k -ost ap tic anisthtec tou Maclaurin.
To pragmatik prblhma enai na apodexoume tic anisthtec tou Newton.
'Opwc ja permene kanec gia na jemelidec kai palai apotlesma, uprqoun
pollc diaforetikc proseggseic. Oi perissterec ap autc knoun kpoia
stigm qrsh Apeirostiko Logismo, mwc o Newton den dhmoseuse pot kpoia apdeixh twn anisottwn tou, opte den gnwrzoume poi akribc tan h
mjodoc pou qrhsimopohse.
Q(t) =
n nk
Ek (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )tnk1
k
n
k=0
n1
X n 1
=
Ek (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )tnk1 ,
k
1 0
P (t) =
n
n1
X
(1)k
k=0
n nk
n!
nk
(n 1)!
n1
=
=
=
.
k
n
k!(n k)! n
k!(n k 1)!
k
An oi xk , k = 1, 2, . . . , n ankoun sto disthma [a, b], tte to polunumo P (t) qei
n pragmatikc rzec sto [a, b], kai to jerhma tou Rolle mac lei ti h pargwgoc
P 0 (t) prpei na qei n 1 pragmatikc rzec sto [a, b]. An sumbolsoume autc
tic rzec me y1 , y2 , . . . , yn1 , tte prokptei h tautthta
Q(t) =
1 0
P (t)
n
(t y1 )(t y2 ) (t yn1 )
n1
X
n1
=
(1)k
Ek (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn1 )tnk1 .
k
k=0
(8.6)
(0 k n 1).
To arister mloc thc tautthtac (8.6) enai mia sunrthsh tou n distatou
diansmatoc x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) en to dexi mloc enai mia sunrthsh tou
(n 1) distatou diansmatoc y = (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn1 ). An loipn apodexoume
mia anisthta thc morfc
76 Summetrika ajroismata
(8.7)
gia kje x Rn kai gia kje 1 j < n. Gia n = 1 h prtash den qei nhma,
opte to epagwgik mac epiqerhma xekinei me thn H2 . Se autn thn perptwsh,
arke na elgxoume ma mno anisthta, thn
(8.8)
2
2
, isodnama, thn gnwst anisthta x1 x2 x1 +x
.
2
Logik, ja mporosame tra na epiqeirsoume to epagwgik bma, prokeimnou mwc na katalboume kaltera th logik twn pragmtwn, jewrome prta
thn H3 , h opoa perigrfetai ap do isqurismoc:
(8.9)
(8.10)
(8.11)
x1 + x2 + x3
3
(x1 x2 x3 )
x1 x2 + x1 x3 + x2 x3
3
2
.
1
3
1
1
1
+
+
x1 x2
x1 x3
x2 x3
1
1
1
+
+
x1
x2
x3
2
,
1
1
1
1
1
1
+
+
2 + 2 + 2.
x1 x2
x1 x3
x2 x3
x1
x2
x3
Me sa qoume de wc tra, enai pol ekolo na apodexoume autn thn anisthta. Mporome na efarmsoume thn anisthta tou Cauchy sta diansmata
(1/x1 , 1/x3 , 1/x2 ) kai (1/x2 , 1/x1 , 1/x3 ), na ajrosoume tic trec anisthtec
(
)
1
1 1
1
1 j < k 3.
+ 2 ,
xj xk
2 x2j
xk
'Etsi, qoume apodexei thn H3 kai qoume prei mia ida gia ton trpo me ton
opoo ja doulyoume sto epagwgik bma.
To epagwgik bma
H Hn apoteletai ap n 1 anisthtec oi opoec qwrzontai se do omdec.
Prton, gia to x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) qoume tic n 2 anisthtec stic opoec
emfanzontai oi posthtec Ej (x), 0 j < n,
(8.12)
(8.13)
'Opwc edame kai sth suzthsh gia thn H3 , lec oi anisthtec thc prthc omdac
(8.12) prokptoun ap thn epagwgik upjesh Hn1 kai ap thn tautthta (8.6).
An tra anaptxoume thn (8.13) kai an me to smbolo x
j ennoome ti o xj
paralepetai, tte blpoume ti h anisthta pou mnei na apodeiqte enai h
X
2
(8.14)
x1 x
j x
k xn x1 x2 xn
n(n 1)
1j<kn
n
1 X
n
x1 x2 x
j xn
j=1
2
n
X
X
1
1
1
1
n
(8.15)
.
n
xj xk
xj
2
1j<kn
j=1
78 Summetrika ajroismata
amswc sto no. An uiojetsoume th glssa twn summetrikn sunartsewn, h
anisthta (8.15) mpore na grafte sth morf
x2 y 3 + x2 z 3 + y 2 x3 + y 2 z 3 + z 2 x3 + z 2 y 3
(8.16)
xy 4 + xz 4 + yx4 + yz 4 + zx4 + zy 4 .
(8.17)
a2 b3 = (ab4 ) 3 (a4 b) 3
2 4 1 4
ab + a b.
3
3
Mnei na dome me poin trpo ja thn qrhsimopoisoume. An sth jsh tou (a, b)
proume diadoqik ta diatetagmna zegh (x, y) kai (y, x), tte to jroisma twn
do anisottwn pou ja prokyoun mac dnei thn
x2 y 3 + y 2 x3 xy 4 + x4 y.
Me ton dio akribc trpo, parnoume anlogec anisthtec prosjtontac thn
(8.17) gia ta zegh (x, z), (z, x) kai ta zegh (y, z), (z, y). Tloc, prosjtontac
tic trec anisthtec pou ja prokyoun, katalgoume sthn zhtomenh anisthta
(8.16).
To epiqerhma pou perigryame efarmzetai, sqedn qwrc tropopoiseic, se
kje summetrik jroisma rwn thc morfc xa y b , an mwc epiqeirsoume na
qeiristome ajrosmata pou periqoun rouc thc morfc xa y b z c , blpoume ti
An = (1 , 2 , . . . , n ),
= (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) kai H(), tte gia kje n-da x1 , x2 , . . . , xn jetikn
arijmn isqei h anisthta
X
X
2
2
n
1
n
1
(8.18)
x
x(1)
x(2)
x(n)
.
(1) x(2) x(n)
Sn
Sn
en to -jroisma isotai me
X
1
2
3
x(1)
x(2)
x(3)
= xy 4 + xz 4 + yx4 + yz 4 + zx4 + zy 4 .
Sn
Sunepc, h anisthta tou Muirhead (8.18) ntwc genikeei thn anisthta (8.16).
Tloc, prin proqwrsoume sthn apdeixh, ja prepe na parathrsoume ti den
uprqei periorismc sqetik me to prshmo twn suntetagmnwn twn kai sthn
80 Summetrika ajroismata
anisthta tou Muirhead. 'Etsi, gia pardeigma, an proume = (1/2, 1/2, 0) kai
= (1, 2, 0), tte h anisthta tou Muirhead mac lei ti, gia kje trida
jetikn pragmatikn arijmn x, y kai z , isqei h anisthta
x2
x2
y2
y2
z2
z2
2( xy + xz + yz)
+
+
+
+
+ .
y
z
x
z
x
y
(8.19)
Muirhead
(1 , 2 , . . . , n ) =
Sn
Y (1) (2)
(n) p
2
n
1
x
x
x
=
x
x
x
.
(1) (2)
(n)
(1) (2)
(n)
Sn
Ap ed kai pra, h anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou kai kpoia arijmhtik ja doulyoun gia mc. Pi sugkekrimna, qoume
X
X Y (1) (2)
(n) p
2
n
1
x
Sn Sn
X X
(1)
(2)
(n)
p x(1)
x(2)
x(n)
Sn Sn
Sn
Sn
Sn
(1)
(2)
(n)
x(1)
x(2)
x(n)
Sn
1
2
n
x(1)
x(2)
x(n)
Sn
1
2
x(1)
x(2)
n
x(n)
,
Bibliografa
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(1954), 932933.
[2] A. Cauchy, Cours dAnalyse (1821).
[3] J. Duncan and M. A. McGregor, Carlemans inequality, Amer. Math. Monthly
101 (2003), 424431.
[4] G. H. Hardy, J. E. Littlewood and G. Polya, Inequalities, Cambridge University
Press (1952).
[5] G. Polya, Proof of an inequality, Proc. London Math. Soc. 24 (1926), 57.
[6] G. Polya, With, or without, motivation, Amer. Math. Monthly 57 (1949), 684
691.
[7] S. Rosset, Normalized symmetric functions, Newtons inequalities, and a new
set of stronger inequalities, Amer. Math. Monthly 96 (1989), 815819.
[8] J. M. Steele, The CauchySchwarz Master Class, Cambridge University Press
(2004).