1

THE RED BOOK OF LPG ENGINEER

2
Contents
Basics of LPG Effects of Pressure and Temperature
Flammability
Other Hazards
Vapor Pressures of Butane-Propane Mixtures
Properties of Propane and Butane
Properties of Hydrocarbon Gases
Viscosity of Liquid LPG
Flame Temperature and Flame Speed of Gases
Mollier Chart of Propane
Mollier Chart of Normal Butane
Mollier Chart of Isobutane
Calculating Motor Octane Number of a LPG Mixture
Calculating Vapor Pressure of a LPG Mixture
Unit Conversion Tables
Filling Ratio of LPG Tanks
LPG Tanks and Safety
Tank Design Codes
Certication Doesnt Mean Same Quality
Pressure Vessel Steels
Periodic Inspection for LPG Tanks
Codes and Standards for LPG Installations
LPG Tank Accessories
Safety Relief Valves for LPG
LPG Level Gauges
LPG Pumps
LPG Compressors
LPG Vaporizers
LPG Regulators
Vapour Condensing in LPG Piping
Installation of LPG Storage Tanks Safety Separation Distances
Cathodic Protection for Underground LPG Tanks
3
4
4
5
6
7
8
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
18
22
23
25
26
30
31
32
35
37
38
40
41
42
44
45
47
3
LPG or LPG stands for Liqueed Petroleum
Gas. It is the term widely used to describe
a family of light hydrocarbons called gas
liquids. The most prominent members of
this family are propane (C3H8) and butane
(C4H10). Other members of the LP Gas family
are ethane and pentane. These latter fuels
have their own distinctive markets and are not
further discussed here.
Main source of LPG is natural gas; and
crude oil-gas mixtures which come out oil or
natural gas wells. The secondary supplies are
the various rening processes at petroleum
reneries.
The term liqueed gas may seem a
contradiction in terms since all things in nature
are either a liquid, a solid or a gas. Yet, it is the
unique character of LPG that makes it such a
popular and widely used fuel. LPG at normal
temperature and pressure is a gas. It changes
to a liquid when subjected to moderate
pressure or cooling. In liquid form the tank
pressure is about twice the pressure in
a normal truck tyre.
The reason LPG is liqueed is to make it easy
and efcient to transport and store. One unit
of liquid has the same energy content as
270 units of gas. If left as a gas the container
to hold the fuel would be 270 times larger than
what is required as a liquid. In other words,
LPG has density (compactness) for storage
and transportation, yet all the benets of
a clean vaporous fuel when used.
LPG usually consists of a mixture of propane
and butane for standard heating and cooking
purposes. Propane starts vaporizing above
-45C, so it is more versatile for general use.
Butane starts vaporizing above -2C and
requires a propane/butane mixture in cold
environments as it will not vaporize as readily
as propane. LPG is also used in specialized
applications that require a more rigorous
specication. Such applications include
food processing, aerosol propellants and
automotive fuel (autogas).
Inside a storage container, LPG exists both
in liquid and vapor state. The LPG inside the
container is boiling; somewhat similar to boiling
water, but the boiling point of LPG is such low
that it can boil at ambient temperatures. Heat
is also required to boil LPG but generally, heat
removed from ambient air is sufcient.
When some vapor is consumed; a certain
amount of liquid evaporates to ll the space
and the pressure of the container doesnt
change. Although this is not an everyday
practice, just imagine some vapor is added
to the container by using a compressor.
The vapor condenses, and the pressure of
the container doesnt change. When vapor
is consumed at such a rate that exceeds the
heat transfer rate from ambient; then heat
is taken from the product itself. In this case,
removal of vapor decreases the temperature
inside the container, and the pressure
decreases.
The pressure inside the container is depending
to the temperature. When temperature rises,
more liquid evaporates and the pressure
rises. When temperature falls, some vapor
condenses and the pressure falls.
Basics of LPG Effects of Pressure and Temperature
LP-Gas or LPG ...
C3H8 C4H10 kimya forml
biimi
4
LPG is highly ammable when mixed with air in
the correct proportions. If the concentration of
LPG vapor in the air is between 2% to 9.5%;
then the mixture becomes ammable. 2% is
the LEL (lower explosive limit) which means,
below this limit the mixture is too lean to burn.
9.5% is the UEL (upper explosive limit) which
means, above this limit the mixture is too rich
to burn.
However, when an LPG leak occurs it doesnt
homogenously mix with the surrounding air;
some objects may limit or create air currents
and ammable mixture may occur in some
spots.
Flammability Other Hazards
LPG vapor is nearly twice dense than
air. Therefore, when a leak occurs, the
leaking gases tend to ow downwards and
accumulate at ground level or somewhere
below ground level, like sewage or drainage
channels.
LPG itself is odorless and colorless.
An odorant which is added to LPG gives its
characteristic, unpleasant odor and enables
to detect and locate leaks.
Since LPG vaporizes at low temperatures, skin
contact with LPG liquid may contact frostbites.
Effect of frostbite on body is similar to burns,
and medical treatment is also the same as
burns.
LPG is not toxic; but is a simple asphyxiant.
When a leak occurs in a conned space, LPG
vapors will displace the air, prevent the livings
inside from breathing oxygen and may cause
deaths.
LPG burning appliances shall be located in
well ventilated places. If the appliance has a
ue, this must be connected to a chimney.
When these practices are neglected carbon
monoxide poisoning may cause deaths. LPG
water heaters inside bathrooms or ueless
LPG stoves in living spaces poses a big risk
of carbon monoxide poisoning.
5
Vapor Pressures of Butane-Propane Mixtures
Figure 1
Vapor Pressures of
Butane-Propane
Mixtures
6
Properties of Propane and Butane
Table 1
Properties of
Butane and
Propane (*)
FORMULA
Boiling Point at 1.013 bars,C
at 14.696 psi, F
Relative density of gas (air=1.00) at 1.013 bars
(14.696 psia), 15,6C/15,6C (60F/60F)
Relative density of liquid (water=1.00) at 15,6C (60F)
Weight, kg/m at 15,6C
lb/gal. at 60F (**)
Heat of combustion of liquid
MJ/kg at 15,6C
Btu/lb at 60F
GJ/m at 15,6C
Btu/gal at 60F (**)
Heat of combustion of gas
MJ/m at 1.013 bars, 15,6C
Btu/ft at 14.696 psia, 60F
Ratio of vapor volume at 1 bar (14.696 psi) and 15,6C
(60F) to liquid volume at 15,6C (60F)
Vapor volumes
m vapor at 15,6C/kg liquid at 15,6C
ft vapor at 60F/lb liquid at 60F
Ignition temperature in air, C (***)
F
Limits of ammability, percentage of gas in air mixture
at lower point
at upper point
* From API Technical Data Book-Petroleum Rening. The values are for pure propane and butane and do not necessarily
apply to commercial products, which may have other hydrocarbons present in varying amounts.
** From GPSA Engineering Data Book
*** From AGA Gas Engineers Handbook
-42
-43,7
1,55
0,508
4,22
50,004
21,498
25,363
91,101
95,49
2,563
267
0,528
8,45
466
871
2,1
9,5
-0,5
+31,1
2,07
0,584
4,86
49,162
21,136
28,702
102,980
125,7
3,374
230
0,394
6,31
405
761
1,8
8,3
PROPANE
C
3
H
8
N-BUTANE
C
4
H
10
7
Properties of Hydrocarbon Gases
Table 2
Properties
of Several
Hydrocarbon
Gases
8
Viscosity of Liquid LPG
Flame Temperature and Flame Speed of Gases
Table 3
Viscosity of
Hydrocarbon
Gases in
Saturated State
Table 4
Flame
Temperatures
of Hydrocarbon
Gases
9
Mollier Chart of Propane
Figure 2
Mollier Chart of
Propane
10
Mollier Chart of Normal Butane
Figure 3
Mollier Chart of
Normal Butane
11
Mollier Chart of Isobutane
Figure 4
Mollier Chart of
Isobutane
12
When the composition of a LPG mixture is
given; the motor octane number (MON) of
this mixture can be calculated, following this
procedure.
The MON factors for hydrocarbon gases
are given on Table 5 : MON Factors for
Hydrocarbon Gases. The factors are given
as separate columns; for molar, volumetric
or mass percentage composition. Use the
appropriate column with the composition data.
For C2 and lighter hydrocarbons, use the MON
factor for Propane,
For C5 and heavier hydrocarbons, use the
MON factor for N-Butane,
Partial MON of a specic component in the
mixture is calculated by multiplying
[the percentage rate of component] x [MON
factor]
MON of the mixture is the sum of partial
MONs of all components.
Sample Calculation:
The MON of a LPG mixture, with the following mass percentage composition :
Ethane : 2%
Propane : 35%
Iso-butane : 28%
N-butane : 34%
Pentane : 1%
Total MON = (0,02 x 95,9) + (0,35 x 95,9) + (0,28 x 97,1) + (0,34 x 88,9) + (0,01 x 88,9) = 93,786
Since the composition of the mixture was given in % mass, the factors are taken from the appropriate
column (% mass) of the table.
Calculating Motor Octane Number of a LPG Mixture
Table 5
MON
Factors for
Hydrocarbon
Gases
13
When the composition of a LPG mixture is
given; the vapor pressure of this mixture can
be calculated, following this procedure.
According to Daltons Law, the total pressure
exerted by a mixture of gases is the sum of
the partial pressures of the constituent gases.
According to Raoults Law, the partial pressure
exerted by the each component is the product
of the vapor pressure of each component, at
the existing temperature and the mol fraction
of the component.
A sample calculation, alongside with
explanation is given on Table 6 : Calculating
Vapor Pressure of a Mixture.
Calculating Vapor Pressure of a LPG Mixture
Table 6
Calculating Vapor
Pressure of a Mixture
14
Unit Conversion Tables
15
16
17
Table 7
Unit
Conversion
Tables
18
Filling Ratio of LPG Tanks
Heat input from the surrounding environment
will both increase the liquid volume, and the
vapor pressure inside the tank. Therefore,
LPG cylinders and tanks shall be lled up to a
limit. These limits can be determined by using
the following tables:
Table 8 : Maximum Filling Limit By Weight
Table 9 : Maximum Filling Limit by Volume;
which is prepared as 3 separate tables, for
above ground tanks up to 4.5 m (1.200 gal.)
for above ground tanks larger than 4.5 m
(1.200 gal.) and for all underground storage
tanks.
Table 8
Maximum Filling
Limit by Weight
Specic
Gravity at 60
o
F
(15.6
o
C)
0.496 - 0.503
0.504 - 0.510
0.511 - 0.519
0.520 - 0.527
0.528 - 0.536
0.537 - 0.544
0.545 - 0.552
0.553 - 0.560
0.561 - 0.568
0.569 - 0.576
0.577 - 0.584
0.585 - 0.592
0.593 - 0.600
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
0 to 1200 gal
(0 to 4.5 m
3
)
Total Water
Capacity (%)
Aboveground Containers
> 1200 gal
(> 4.5 m
3
)
Total Water
Capacity (%)
Underground
Containers
All Water
Capacities (%)
19
70
71
71
71
72
72
73
73
74
74
75
75
76
76
77
77
78
78
79
80
80
81
82
82
83
84
85
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
71
72
72
72
73
73
74
74
75
75
76
76
77
77
78
78
79
79
80
80
81
82
82
83
84
85
85
86
87
88
89
89
90
91
92
94
95
72
73
73
73
74
74
75
75
76
76
76
77
77
78
78
79
79
80
81
81
82
82
83
84
84
85
86
87
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
73
73
74
74
75
75
76
76
76
77
77
78
78
79
79
80
80
81
81
82
82
83
84
84
85
85
86
87
88
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
74
74
75
75
76
76
76
77
77
78
78
78
79
80
80
80
81
81
82
82
83
84
84
85
85
86
87
88
88
89
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
75
75
75
76
76
77
77
77
78
78
79
79
80
80
80
81
81
82
82
83
83
84
85
85
86
86
87
88
88
89
90
90
91
92
93
94
95
75
76
76
77
77
77
78
78
79
79
79
80
80
81
81
82
82
83
83
84
84
85
85
86
86
87
87
88
89
89
90
91
92
92
93
94
95
77
77
78
78
78
79
79
80
80
80
81
81
82
82
83
83
83
84
84
85
85
86
86
87
87
88
88
89
90
90
91
91
92
93
93
94
95
78
78
79
79
79
80
80
80
81
81
81
82
82
83
84
84
84
85
85
85
86
86
87
87
88
88
89
89
90
91
91
92
92
93
94
94
95
79
79
79
80
80
80
81
81
81
82
82
83
83
83
84
84
85
85
86
86
86
87
87
88
88
89
89
90
90
91
92
92
93
93
94
94
95
79
80
80
80
81
81
81
82
82
82
83
83
84
84
84
85
85
86
86
87
87
87
88
88
89
89
90
90
91
91
92
92
93
94
94
95
95
79
80
80
80
81
81
81
82
82
82
83
83
84
84
84
85
85
86
86
87
87
87
88
88
89
89
90
90
91
91
92
92
93
94
94
95
95
80
80
81
81
81
82
82
83
83
83
84
84
84
85
85
85
86
86
87
87
88
88
88
89
89
90
90
91
91
92
92
93
93
94
94
95
95
0.593
to
0.600
0.553
to
0.560
0.511
to
0.519
0.585
to
0.592
0.545
to
0.552
0.504
to
0.510
0.577
to
0.584
0.537
to
0.544
0.496
to
0.503
0.569
to
0.576
0.528
to
0.536
10
12.8
15.6
18.3
21.1
23.9
26.7
29.4
32.2
35
37.8
40.4
43
46
49
51.5
54
-45.6
-42.8
-40
-37.2
-34.4
-31.5
-28.9
-26.1
-23.3
-20.6
-17.8
-15
-12.2
-9.4
-6.7
-3.9
-1.1
1.7
4.4
7.8
O
C
0.561
to
0.568
0.520
to
0.527
Liquid Temperature
Specic Gravity
Maximum Permitted LP-Gas Volume (Percent of Total Container Volume):
Aboveground Containers 0 to 1200 gal (0 to 4.5 m
3
)
50
-45
-40
-35
-30
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40*
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
120
125
130
O
F
20
75
76
76
77
77
78
78
79
79
80
80
81
81
82
82
83
83
84
85
85
86
87
88
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
94
96
97
98
76
77
77
78
78
79
79
79
80
81
81
82
82
83
83
84
84
85
86
86
87
88
88
89
90
91
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
77
78
78
78
79
79
80
80
81
81
82
82
83
83
84
84
85
86
86
87
87
88
89
90
90
91
92
93
93
94
95
96
97
98
78
78
79
79
80
80
81
81
82
82
82
83
83
84
85
85
86
86
87
87
88
89
89
90
91
91
92
93
93
94
95
96
97
98
79
79
80
80
80
81
81
82
82
83
83
84
84
85
85
86
86
87
87
88
88
89
90
91
91
92
92
93
94
95
95
96
97
98
80
80
80
81
81
82
82
82
83
83
84
84
85
85
86
86
87
87
88
88
89
90
90
91
91
92
93
93
94
95
96
97
97
98
80
81
81
82
82
82
83
83
84
84
84
85
85
86
86
87
87
88
88
89
90
90
91
91
92
92
93
94
95
95
96
97
97
98
81
81
82
82
83
83
83
84
84
85
85
86
86
87
87
88
88
89
89
89
90
91
91
92
92
93
93
94
95
96
96
97
98
98
82
82
83
83
83
84
84
85
85
85
86
86
87
87
88
88
89
89
90
90
91
91
92
92
93
93
94
95
95
96
96
97
98
98
83
83
83
84
84
84
85
85
86
86
86
87
87
88
88
89
89
90
90
91
91
91
92
92
92
93
93
94
95
95
96
97
98
98
83
84
84
84
85
85
85
86
86
87
87
87
88
88
89
89
90
90
91
91
92
92
93
93
94
94
95
95
96
96
97
98
98
99
84
84
85
85
85
86
86
87
87
87
88
88
88
89
89
90
90
91
91
92
92
92
93
93
94
94
95
96
96
97
97
98
98
99
85
85
85
86
86
86
87
87
87
88
88
89
89
90
90
90
91
91
92
92
92
93
93
94
94
95
95
96
96
97
98
98
99
99
0.593
to
0.600
0.553
to
0.560
0.511
to
0.519
0.585
to
0.592
0.545
to
0.552
0.504
to
0.510
0.577
to
0.584
0.537
to
0.544
0.496
to
0.503
0.569
to
0.576
0.528
to
0.536
10
12.8
15.6
18.3
21.1
23.9
26.7
29.4
32.2
35
37.8
40.4
43
46
-45.6
-42.8
-40
-37.2
-34.4
-31.5
-28.9
-26.1
-23.3
-20.6
-17.8
-15
-12.2
-9.4
-6.7
-3.9
-1.1
1.7
4.4
7.8
O
C
0.561
to
0.568
0.520
to
0.527
Liquid Temperature
Specic Gravity
Maximum Permitted LP-Gas Volume (Percent of Total Container Volume):
Aboveground Containers 0 to 1200 gal (0 to 4.5 m
3
)
50
-45
-40
-35
-30
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40*
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
O
F
21
Table 9
Maximum Filling
Limit by Volume
77
77
78
78
79
79
80
80
81
81
82
82
83
84
84
85
85
86
87
87
88
89
90
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
78
78
79
79
80
80
81
81
82
82
83
83
84
84
85
86
86
87
87
88
89
89
90
91
91
93
93
94
95
96
97
98
79
79
80
80
81
81
82
82
83
83
84
84
85
85
86
86
87
87
88
89
89
90
91
91
92
93
94
95
95
96
97
98
80
80
81
81
81
82
82
83
83
84
84
85
85
86
86
87
87
88
88
89
90
91
91
92
93
93
94
95
95
96
97
98
80
81
81
82
82
83
83
84
84
84
85
85
86
86
87
87
88
88
89
90
90
91
92
92
93
94
94
95
96
97
97
98
81
82
82
82
83
83
84
84
85
85
85
86
86
87
88
88
89
89
90
90
91
91
92
93
93
94
95
95
96
97
98
98
82
82
83
83
84
84
84
85
85
86
86
87
87
88
88
89
89
90
90
91
91
92
92
93
94
94
95
96
96
97
98
98
83
83
83
84
84
85
85
86
86
86
87
87
88
88
89
89
90
90
91
91
92
92
93
94
94
95
95
96
97
97
98
99
83
84
84
85
85
85
86
86
87
87
87
88
88
89
89
90
90
91
91
92
92
93
93
94
94
95
96
96
97
98
98
99
84
84
85
85
86
86
86
87
87
88
88
88
89
89
90
90
91
91
92
92
93
93
94
94
95
95
96
97
97
98
99
99
85
85
86
86
86
87
87
87
88
88
89
89
90
90
90
91
91
92
92
93
93
94
94
95
95
96
96
97
98
98
99
99
85
86
86
87
87
87
88
88
88
89
89
90
90
91
91
91
92
92
93
93
94
94
95
95
96
96
97
97
98
98
99
99
86
87
87
87
88
88
88
89
89
89
90
90
91
91
91
92
92
93
93
94
94
95
95
96
96
97
97
98
98
99
99
99
0.593
to
0.600
0.553
to
0.560
0.511
to
0.519
0.585
to
0.592
0.545
to
0.552
0.504
to
0.510
0.577
to
0.584
0.537
to
0.544
0.496
to
0.503
0.569
to
0.576
0.528
to
0.536
10
12.8
15.6
18.3
21.1
23.9
26.7
29.4
32.2
35
37.8
40.4
-45.6
-42.8
-40
-37.2
-34.4
-31.5
-28.9
-26.1
-23.3
-20.6
-17.8
-15
-12.2
-9.4
-6.7
-3.9
-1.1
1.7
4.4
7.8
O
C
0.561
to
0.568
0.520
to
0.527
Liquid Temperature
Specic Gravity
Maximum Permitted LP-Gas Volume (Percent of Total Container Volume):
All Underground Containers
50
-45
-40
-35
-30
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
O
F
22
LPG Tanks and Safety
Whats the key factor for success of a
business? Protability, productivity, efciency,
sales, cash ow? If were talking about LPG
business, the key factor, denitely is safety.
A minor leak may conclude an explosion which
will ruin a whole storage terminal, kill hundreds
of people and demolish the neighboring
buildings. The nancial loss will be several
times of the value of the whole terminal.
Consider the legal compensation for deaths
and injuries and the cost will be even higher.
Any owner and operator of a LPG system is
taking the risk several million Euros; and all this
can happen within minutes.
Some real data from several LPG accidents in
the history, will show the importance of safety:
The Mexico City Bleve is considered among
the worst industrial disasters of 20
th
century.
The LPG storage terminal of PEMEX has
completely demolished within 5 hours. There
were 600 dead and 7.000 injuries. Everything
triggered by the failure of a 8 vapor line, and
the rst BLEVE has occurred just within 10
minutes.
The Feyzin Renery Bleve has occurred in
1966. A re has began, involving 5 spherical
LPG tanks, with 1.200 to 2.000 m capacities,
and the result is 81 death, 130 injuries and
losses exceeding 125 million US dollars.
In Viareggio Train Derailment several LPG
tank wagons caught re and the result is 32
death, 100 people left homeless and around
1.000 residents of the town were evacuated.
Looking from the safety aspect, tanks are
denitely the most important element among
the various other components of a LPG
system. Tanks are the elements which keep
highly ammable and hazardous gases under
control. A failure of a pump, carousel or
compressor may stop the production for some
time, and the operator will lose some money.
However, a failure of a tank means 10 minutes
to a disaster.
The tank may look simple but tank
manufacturing is denitely a complex business.
It requires the co-operation of several
engineering disciplines. Design, material,
welding, NDTs, corrosion protective coating
are important topics of tank manufacturing.
Moreover, every single item and every step of
the process shall be tested, veried and these
shall be recorded to enable tracking. This is
a multiple aspect work, which requires high
technology, knowledge, experience and hard
working.
a tank failure means..
23
Tank Design Codes
Think of a pressurized nitrogen buffer tank.
Nitrogen is neither ammable, nor corrosive;
but a pressurized nitrogen tank may expose
serious health risks. Pressure, is a form of
stored energy and the sudden release of this
energy, as a result of vessel failure can be
destructive or fatal. Consider this pressure
is exerted by a liqueed gas, and the risk
is higher. This gas is also ammable, which
raises the risk even higher.
The risks involving pressure vessels were
well known for more than 100 years. Since
the beginning of industrialization era, the
invention of steam machine, steam boilers
have became common. At the same time,
industrial accidents related with steam boilers
has appeared, in some cases causing deaths
of many people. The rst examples of pressure
vessel design codes were prepared in those
days. Experience from several countries,
many installations and millions of different
application has distilled and forged into the
design codes; which form the basis for design,
manufacturing, operating, repairing and
maintaining pressure vessels.
Two worldwide adopted and widely accepted
design code throughout LPG industry are,
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessels Code
(BPVC) of USA; and the Pressure Equipments
Directive (PED) of European Union. The reason
may be the leadership of USA in oil industry
and the leadership of Germany in chemical
industry.
ASME BPVC has organized in Sections on
different topics, e.g. Section III includes the
rules for nuclear facility components and
Section X is for ber reinforced plastic vessels.
The whole Code is more than 16.000 pages.
Section VIII is the section which is most related
to LPG tanks.
Section VIII, Rules for Construction of Pressure
Vessels consists of three divisions. Division 1
is general rules, Division 2 is alternative rules.
Division 3, which gives alternative rules for
pressures above 10.000 psi (690 bar) is out of
our scope.
PED of Europe is a legislative framework which
is obligatory throughout the EU, covering the
equipment subject to a pressure hazard. This
directive doesnt include as much details as
BPVC, and the harmonized standards takes
the role here. Some examples to harmonized
standards are AD Merkblatt of Germany,
BS5500 of UK, and CODAP of France. In fact,
these standards are older than PED and have
dominated the industry many years before the
appearance of PED.
AD Merkblatt is the most popular among those
and others still popular in their home country
and in the countries inuenced by those.
There are not major differences between
the harmonized standards, since they are
conforming and harmonized to the same
framework directive. However there may be
some minor differentiation in details, between
AD Merkblatt, BS5500 and CODAP.
However, ASME BPVC and PED have different
approach. These can be considered as are two
different ways, going to the same destination.
The materials, methods, procedures and
certication of those are different for ASME
and PED. The difference in the approaches
of PED, BPVC Division 1, and BPVC Division
2 are given on Table 10 : Brief Comparison of
Design Codes.
An important regulation for tank vehicles
and vehicle mounted tanks, especially when
the vehicle will be used for transportation
inside the European Union is ADR. ADR is
the European Agreement Concerning the
International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by
Road. The recent version covers more than
1.000 pages.
It is a mandatory regulation, involving both
the technical and operational aspects of
transportation of dangerous goods. ADRs
scope includes any type of dangerous goods,
...era and the
invention..
24
ranging from nuclear wastes to cosmetic
products. ADR has some clauses relating
to the design, manufacturing, installation,
labeling, periodic maintenance and
re-qualication of LPG cylinders, vehicle
mounted tanks, ISO tank containers and
similar.
The requirements of ADR can be summarized
as follows; even the smallest part or detail, like
the installation method of a bumper, is required
to depend on an engineering design, to be
tested, approved and certied by an authority.
PED and European
Harmonized Standards
ASME Division 1
ASME Division 2
Wall thickness of tanks are smaller; light tanks, savings in materials
More comprehensive engineering, more detail in tests, higher cost of
engineering
Long term reliability depend on strict quality management and maintenance
Wall thickness of tanks are bigger, heavier tanks, higher cost of materials
Basic engineering, simpler tests, lower cost of engineering
Long term reliabilitiy depend on bigger safety factors
ASMEs interpretation of European approach.
Wall thickness of tanks are close to PED design; light tanks, savings in
materials
More comprehensive engineering, more detail in tests, higher cost of
engineering
Less certied manufacturer, less manufacturing experience
Brief Comparison of Design Codes
Table 10
Brief Comparison
of Design Codes
25
Certication Doesnt Mean Same Quality
A LPG tank must be designed and
manufactured according to an applicable
design code. This is the Step 1 of the quality
ladder. However, there can be a signicant
difference in safety between two LPG tanks
designed and manufactured according to the
same design code. Lets see how and why:
- A design code, and the other codes,
standards and regulations it refers makes
ten thousands of pages information. Google
the technical forums on the web, and youll
see thousands of topics on design codes,
where engineers discussing how to interpret
the Clause X of the code. Here specic
experience matters.
- The information given in the design code
is open to anybody who buys and reads it.
Recent technological developments and
innovations, patented technologies and
processes, and similar information which pave
the road to the excellence dont take place in
design codes.
- Design codes rather determine the minimum
requirements for safety than the requirements
for highest quality. The features which create
better safety, higher quality are above than the
code requirements.
- The buyer shall pay attention to the coverage
and details of the certicate. The paperwork of
full certication may be quite similar in look to
certication of surveillance to hydrostatic test.
ten thousands of
pages of information.
26
Pressure Vessel Steels
European Standard EN 10028-3 : Flat
products made of steels for pressure
purposes. Weldable ne grain steels,
normalized covers a range of weldable,
ne grain steels supplied in the normalized
condition and intended for pressure purposes.
This is a very common pressure vessel material
when the vessel design and manufacturing
is made according to Pressure Equipment
Directive and harmonized European
Standards.
It has three steel grades; P275, P355, and
P460 which indicate each grades minimum
yield strength in MPa (for plates 16 mm thick
and below).
These are further subdivided on the basis of
impact testing (transverse) temperature:
N and NH indicate impact testing at -20 C or
above,
The designation EN 10028-3 P355NL1 shows that
P : This is a grade of steel for pressure purposes
355 : Minimum yield strength is 355 MPa
NL1 : Impact tested in the transverse direction at -40 C
The designation EN 10028-3 P460N shows that
P : This is a grade of steel for pressure purposes
460 : Minimum yield strength is 460 MPa
N : Impact tested in the transverse direction at -20 C
NL1 at -40 C or above, and
NL2 at -50 C or above.
Plates to EN 10028-3 are widely specied
in the manufacturing of pressure vessels
throughout Europe and the standard is
regularly seen in other parts of the world where
equipment has been originally designed by a
European company.
27
Chemical Composition of Steels According to EN 10028-3
Table 11
Chemical
Composition of
Steels According
to EN 10028-3
hizalama
28
US standard ASTM A516 : Standard
Specication for Pressure Vessel Plates,
Carbon Steel, for Moderate- and Lower-
Temperature Service covers carbon steel
plates intended primarily for service in welded
pressure vessels, where improved notch
toughness is important. This also is a very
common pressure vessel material when the
design and manufacturing is made according
to ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code.
According to different strength levels, the
plates are available in four grades; Grade
55, 60, 65, and 70. The steel shall be killed
and shall conform to ne austenitic grain size
requirements. The mechanical properties
such as tensile strength, yield strength, and
elongation shall be determined by a tension
test for the plates.
Table 12
Chemical
Composition of
ASTM/ASME
A516 Steels
Chemical Composition of Steels According to ASTM/ASME
kelerdeki yeil
noktalar
29
Table 13
Mechanical
Properties of
ASTM/ASME
A516 Steels
Mechanical Properties of Steels According to ASTM/ASME A516
30
Periodic Inspection for LPG Tanks
Issan recommends the following periodical
inspection for LPG storage tanks. However
local codes, regulations and standards may
require further tests and controls, or more
frequent checks.
Issan recommends to have LPG tanks
re-qualied by a notied body, following the
test procedure given by this notied body and
hiring NDT services when necessary, every
10 years.
1 year
5 years
10 years
External visual inspection
Leak test of fanged and screwed connections
Check temperature, pressure and level gauges are operating
Check excess fow valves, emergency shut off valves and similar are operating
Check cathodic protection is functional, for underground storage tanks.
Possible leaks, malfunctioning equipment, paint defects shall be fxed
Testing safety relief valves
Check start to discharge pressure and tight closure of valve when pressure is
released. Check for visual corrosion and defects on valve body and internals.
Safety relief valves shall be renewed when necessary
Re-qualifcation by a notifed body, following their advices and hiring NDT
services when necessary.
The following inspection and tests are must, further shall be determined by the
notied body according to the test results and operating conditions:
Internal visual inspection
Corrosion mapping by measuring plate thickness (ultrasonic measurement)
Hydrostatic pressure test at 1.3 times of design pressure
Period Recommended Inspection, Test and Controls
31
Codes and Standards for LPG Installations
NFPA 58, Liqueed Petroleum Gas Code,
prepared and published by National
Fire Protection Association of USA is a
well respected and worldwide accepted
guideline for LPG industry. This is a code,
not a standard and the diffence is, a code is
adopted by governmental bodies and enforced
by law. This is a comprehensive and useful
guide, which will answer most questions.
NFPA 58 also formed a base on many local
standards. However, the rules dened by
local authorities, -local codes, regulations and
standards- may differ from NFPA 58. In this
case, the owner shall consider to conform the
strictest rule, which will be the safe choice.
The difference between a code and a
standard is; code is adopted by one or more
governmental bodies and enforced by law.
A list of codes, standards and regulations
which may be helpful to LPG engineers are
given as follows.
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code
AD 2000 Code
ADR European Agreement concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road
EEMUA 190 Guide for the Design, Construction and Use of Mounded Horizontal Cylindrical Steel
Vessels for Pressurized Storage of LPG at Ambient Temperatures
API 2510 Design and Construction of LPG Installations
API 2510A Fire-Protection Considerations for the Design and Operation of Liqueed Petroleum
Gas (LPG) Storage Facilities
Model Code of Safe Practice Part 9: Liqueed Petroleum Gas.
Vol.1. Large bulk pressure storage and refrigerated LPG; by Energy Institute of UK
Codes of Practice(s) published by UK LPG
EN 12493 LPG equipment and accessories - Welded steel tanks for liqueed petroleum gas
(LPG) - Road tankers design and manufacture
EN 12252 LPG equipment and accessories - Equipping of LPG road tankers; German version EN
12252
EN 1442 Transportable rellable welded steel cylinders for LPG - Design and construction
EN 1440 Periodic inspection of transportable rellable LPG cylinders
EN 14678-1, 2 and 3 LPG automotive lling stations
ayn eyi yukarda da yazmm.
... LPG road tankers.
32
LPG Tank Accessories
The mandatory tank accessories determined
by the recent version of NFPA 58, published
in 2011, are given on Table 11 : Tank
Appurtenances According to NFPA 58.
One can easily see that the simpler forms
of safety equipment are for the smallest
tank (lower risk), and vapor connections
(less amount of leak, lower risk). The basic
approach is to establish more than one,
independent, reliable means of shutoff. There
are several options in the market, which
have certain strength and weaknesses when
compared with the other.
First of all, the design engineer must always
keep in mind that, only a manual shut-off valve
can offer a positive shutoff. Excess ow
valves, back ow check valves and internal
valves are very helpful safety equipment, but
may not offer complete sealing. In any case,
a manual shutoff valve must be installed in
series to these equipment.
It is inevitable to do some repairs or
maintenance on a LPG system, while isolating
this part from where theres LPG. In this
case, there must be at least two means of
separation equipment in series; and preferably
one of those must be a blind ange or similar.
There are many instances that a valve seal,
which seem perfect before beginning the
repair works, has failed during these works
and resulted a re. The reason which leads
this failure may be an increase of temperature,
or pressure, or mechanical shocks during the
repair, welding, hydrostatic test works. When
not possible, the safest option, complete
decanting and gas-freeing shall be preferred.
Restricted orice is the simplest and cheapest
form of safety precaution; among those
referred in Table 14 : Tank Appurtenances
According to NFPA 58. It is denitely fail-safe.
However, its application is only limited to small
LPG ows.
An excess ow valve is a purely mechanical
device. It shuts off automatically when the
gas ow exceeds a certain rate. When a LPG
line has ruptures or breaks off, therell be a
sudden increase of ow. Excess ow valves
enables ow in both direction, but controls
the ow just in one direction. However they
cannot offer a perfect sealing; theres always
a small leak from an already shut off excess
ow valve. Several sizes and models of excess
ow valves are available; which are designed
for installation inside the tank, onto the tank
nozzles and onto the pipe lines.
A backow check valve, also a purely
mechanical device, allows ow in only
one direction. This can be used at inlet
connections of LPG tanks, which will prevent
any ow from the tank to outside. They
offer better sealing than excess ow valves,
especially the double check models. It is
allowed to use double check valves as a ller
valve for small LPG tanks. These incorporate
both a metal-to-metal seat check and a soft
seat check; combining the advantages of both.
Table 14 :
for the small tanks and vapor
connections; where the amount of
possible leak, therefore the risk is small
there's yerine
contains
Restricted... yeni
paragraf olarak
balasn.
increase of flow,
which will trigger the
closure of excess
flow valve.
Designers must
consider that excess
flow valves cannot
offer ...
"already shut off"
veya trnak iaretini
tmden kaldralm.
33
Table 14
Tank Appurtenances
According to NFPA 58
34
Excess ow valves and check valves for LPG
tank service are designed so that, external
damages will not hamper their function. The
valve either completely remains inside the tank;
or has weakened shear points. An external
force will cause the valve to shear from this
point, keeping the critical sealing parts in place.
Internal valves are equipment which almost
completely remain inside the tank when
tted. By this way, the valve is protected
from any type of external force, blast, re, or
similar. Internal valves may offer automatic
closure function in cases of excess ow,
re or remote operation. These may be
operated mechanically via cables, hydraulic
or pneumatic actuators. Internal valves may
also function as an integral part of a control
system. For example, the internal valves on a
LPG tanker truck can be set to automatically
close when the parking brake is released. For
example, internal valves may be connected to
a re detection system, or gas leak detection
system for automatic closure.
Internal valves are robust equipment, but
eventually will need some repair. This can only
be done after the tank is completely decanted.
An other disadvantage is, they often require
modied anges/coupling for installation;
which means an internal valve may not t on
an existing LPG tank.
Emergency shut-off valves are remote
actuated shut-off valves which can be installed
onto a piping. These may be actuated via
cables, hydraulic or pneumatic operation;
and can be connected to a control system.
Emergency shut-off valves may be connected
to the re alarm system, or gas leak detection
system for automatic closure.
Manual valves also have different models,
any of which offers certain advantages on
the others. Quarter turn ball valves offer good
performance in most conditions. They have
very small resistance to ow, therefore the best
choice for pump inlet lines. There are re-safe
models of ball valves, which are designed to
offer sealing under re; which is an important
safety feature. Fire safe valves have additional
metal-to-metal seats which function when the
soft seals are destroyed by re.
An other example is...
A fire safe valve has
additional..
35
Safety Relief Valves for LPG Safety Relief Valves for LPG
Safety relief valves are essential safety equipment
for LPG installations. Any closed system
containing liquid LPG is prone to the risk of high
pressures. Heat transfer from the surrounding
will increase the pressure to such levels that the
equipment will fail, releasing highly ammable
vapors to the environment. Safety relief valve is an
effective, controlled means of relieving dangerous
pressure and preventing BLEVE.
BLEVE is the abbreviation of Boiling Vapor
Expanding Liquid Explosion. This is the most
dangerous re accident which may happen to
a LPG tank. The re in contact with the tank
makes the liquid to boil, increasing the pressure
and at the same time heating up the tank shell.
Increasing temperature weakens the tank shell,
and the failure of the tank results the whole
contents to release to the environment, a massive
explosive gas cloud and a heavy explosion.
The safety relief valves of a LPG storage tank
shall be sized and selected considering the re
conditions. An empirical formula, which is based
on some experimental data in the past, which is
used for sizing safety relief valves is as follows :
F = 53,632 x A0,82
Where:
F = Discharge ow rate (SCFM air)
A = Total outside surface area of the container (ft)
Safety relief valves are essential safety equipment
for LPG installations. Any closed system
containing liquid LPG is prone to the risk of high
pressures. Heat transfer from the surrounding
will increase the pressure to such levels that the
equipment will fail, releasing highly ammable
vapors to the environment. Safety relief valve is an
effective, controlled means of relieving dangerous
pressure and preventing BLEVE.
BLEVE is the abbreviation of Boiling Vapor
Expanding Liquid Explosion. This is the most
dangerous re accident which may happen to
a LPG tank. The re in contact with the tank
makes the liquid to boil, increasing the pressure
and at the same time heating up the tank shell.
Increasing temperature weakens the tank shell,
and the failure of the tank results the whole
contents to release to the environment, a massive
explosive gas cloud and a heavy explosion.
The safety relief valves of a LPG storage tank
shall be sized and selected considering the re
conditions. An empirical formula, which is based
on some experimental data in the past, which is
used for sizing safety relief valves is as follows :
F = 53,632 x A0,82
Where:
F = Discharge ow rate (SCFM air)
A = Total outside surface area of the container (ft)
Pressure relief valves are also mandatory for
underground and mounded tanks, however the
relief capacity shall be 30% of an above ground
tank.
Safety relief valves must be spring loaded,
however pilot operated models with a spring-
loaded pilot are allowed for tanks with > 151 m
capacity. The safety relief valves suitable for LPG
service are pop-action, or full-lift types, which
means that the valve opens fully at once, not
gradually or proportional to the rate of pressure
increase.
The start to leak setting of the pressure relief
valve shall be 100% of the container pressure
Figure 5
BLEVE
36
rating. The manufacturer of the relief valve has a
plus tolerance, not exceeding 10% of this set
pressure, marked on the valve.
Safety relief valves must be so installed that
to relieve vapors. No block valves are allowed
at installation, except the specially made SRV
manifolds, which prevents blocking of all SRVs.
A common industrial practice, even further
the code requirements, is to have some extra,
backup relieving capacity. Depending on the size
of tank, the tank is preferably equipped with:
2 safety relief valves, one of which is
spare (100% backup)
3 or 4 safety relief valves, one of
which is spare (50% or 33% backup,
accordingly)
The outlets of SRVs shall piped vertically upward
for tanks > 7,6 m. Rain caps and/or drain holes
must be considered to protect the SRV against
accumulating water. For underground storage
tanks, the height of this piping shall be min. 2,1
meters (7 feets). Anything which will limit the
discharge, are not allowed on this pipe, e.g.
bends, obstructions, tight caps, etc.
Safety relief valves shall be checked and tested
every 5 years; and shall be replaced at 10 years
intervals. During inspection, the valve shall be
checked visually against defects and corrosion,
then the valve shall be connected to a suitable
test bench, including a calibrated pressure gauge.
At the test bench some pressure will gradually
applied to the valve to determine the start to
leak pressure. The start to leak pressure shall
be within 100% to 110% of the pressure valve
rating; and the SRV will close again, with no leak
after the pressure is released.
Every piece of piping or hose, in which liquid LPG
may be trapped between two isolation valves
shall be equipped with a hydrostatic relief valve.
Even looks similar, hydrostatic relief valves are
different types, which are suitable to discharge
liquid LPG.
37
LPG Level Gauges
Overlling is an important risk for LPG tanks;
therefore LPG tanks shall be equipped with more
than one level gauge.
Fixed liquid level gauge, which is not more than
a bleeder valve/internal piping combination
is simplest and most reliable form of level
checking. It can be installed on above ground or
underground tanks, even applicable to smallest
sizes. A combination of xed liquid level gauges
can be installed to check several levels.
A rotary level gauge is also a simple and reliable
mechanical device; consisting of a rotary hollow
tube dipping inside the tank, a bleeder valve
connected on the other end of this tube outside
the tank, and a dial to see the measured level.
The dial is prepared to show % full of the tank.
The operator loosens the bleeder valve then
slowly rotates the handle, while the end of tube
inside the tank moves from top of tank, slowly
to the bottom. While rotating the handle, the
operator checks the level at which vapor ow
replaces to liquid.
Rotary level gauges can be installed only on
above ground tanks. Theyll need a platform,
ladder or similar to enable operator access.
Magnetic oat gauges or simply oat gauges
consist of two pieces. The oat-arm assembly
which works inside the tank and the dial
assembly which remains outside the tank.
gauges for LPG installations; but LPG is a hard
application. Low cost types dont work properly
with LPG, and the models suitable for LPG
application are generally more expensive. This
makes electronic level gauges feasible for big size
tanks or specic applications.
For tanks up to 10 m there are ller valves
offering automatic over ll protection, with a oat
operated mechanism. This can be done for
bigger sizes, using an electric signal, an actuated
valve and the control system. A pneumatic
actuated ball valve works ne for this application.
The level signal can be taken from the oat
gauge, however its a better approach to use
a separate level detector for overll protection.
Vibrating fork type level detectors offer a good
performance/cost ratio for overll protection
applications.
Figure 6
Fixed Level (left) and
Rotary Level (right)
Gauges
The mechanical movement of the internal
parts are conveyed to the outer part by using a
magnetic piece.
The oat follows the changes in liquid level and
this movement mechanically conveyed to the dial,
which shows the level as % full. Advantages of
oat gauge are:
- Requires no source of energy
- Can be used on both underground and above
ground tanks. Can be installed at the centre or on
the top of the tank
- Doesnt require operator access
- Can be incorporated with a level transmitter,
enabling remote reading or the level signal can be
further processed as an input to a control system.
There are several types of electronic level
Magnetic.. yeni
paragraf
There are'dan
itibaren yeni paragraf
a control circuit
38
LPG Pumps
Pumps are essential elements of LPG systems,
for liquid transfer in various applications. The main
challenge is; LPG is a uid on saturated state.
This means, a slight difference of temperature,
a slight pressure drop, or a slight resistance to
ow will cause the liquid to evaporate rapidly.
Principally, pumps can only handle liquids and
not vapors. The most important feature of LPG
pumps is to handle some vapor when mixed with
liquid. It is essential for pump operation and can
be achieved by some special features.
There are several models of LPG pumps, but
mainly divided into two groups.
Positive displacement pumps, in which the
liquid is encapsulated in a volume and forced to
move with the movement of this volume. These
may be reciprocating (piston), or rotary (vane or
gear pumps). In positive displacement pumps,
the outlet pressure and ow rate remains nearly
constant, independent of the inlet and outlet
conditions. When the pump rpm is increased, the
outlet pressure doesnt change but the ow rate
increases.
Dynamic pumps are machines in which the
liquid gains a speed (kinetic energy), then this
is converted to pressure (potential energy). In
dynamic pumps, the outlet pressure and ow
rate depends on the inlet and outlet conditions.
Same pump can operate at different pressure/
ow rate combinations. The performance curve
of a centrifugal pump is such that, it can produce
higher pressure at low ow, and can handle
higher ow rates at low differential pressures.
When the pump rpm is increased, both the ow
rate and the outlet pressure increases.
Cylinder lling or autogas dispensing operations
require very high differential pressure. The tank
being lled is so small, and the lling time should
be limited. Moreover, the ow must be forced
through narrow openings inside the cylinder
valve. The inside cross section of the multivalve
on an autogas tank is not much bigger. The
best option to fulll this requirements is the multi
stage centrifugal pump. A variant of this model
is the side channel pump with open, radial
blade impellers which can handle some vapor
with liquid and called as self priming. These
pumps often have a centrifugal rst stage, in
order to reduce NPSH (net positive suction head)
requirement.
Regenerative turbine pumps, which are also a
member of centrifugal pumps range, can achieve
such high differential pressures in a single stage
design. They have a single impeller, with open
radial blades. These models can be preferred for
small scale cylinder lling applications, autogas
dispensing and vaporizer feeding.
Gear pumps are used in some truck mounted
applications for bulk transfer; but are not
common.
The most common truck pumps are of rotary
vane design. These offer the high ow rate,
compact design, low to moderate pressure
and low rpm (since driven by the truck engine,
running at idle speed) advantages to bulk delivery
application. The physical contact of rotating parts
inside these pumps create some wear, however
these parts have a quite long service life and can
be replaced at reasonable cost.
Although not common, LPG tanks are installed
on the roofs of high rise buildings (higher than
100 m.) in some countries. In this case, a pump
with higher differential pressure is required for bulk
deliveries. Multistage, side channel pumps are the
solution for these applications.
these requirements
39
Net positive suction head-required (NPSHR) is the
minimum inlet pressure required at the pump inlet
to avoid cavitation. Net positive suction head-
available (NPSHA) by the system must be greater
than the required, for efcient pump operation.
In order to achieve this, the pressure drop at
the inlet piping of the pump must be kept to
minimum; by following these guidelines:
- the inlet piping shall be kept as short as possible
- bends and reducers shall be avoided
- stainer shall be one or two size bigger
- full bore ball valves shall be preferred
- the inlet line shall be so designed that the ow
velocity is under 1 m/s
Figure 7
Operating Principle
of Regenerative
Turbine Pumps
inlet strainer
40
LPG Compressors
Compressors are machines which transfer gases
and vapors, however liqueed gases may also
be transferred by using a compressor. Cavitation
is a big problem in pump operation; and in
some liquid transfer applications, the pump
inlet conditions may be too poor for an efcient
operation. In such cases, using a compressor
may be more efcient for liquid transfer.
An other advantage of compressor over pump
is, the ability to transfer vapors. This is a must
while gas freeing a tank before any repair. The
vapors in the tank may not simply vent into the
atmosphere, but must be transferred into an
other storage tank.
In such trading applications where the buyer
already pays for the that the Compressor is
by far the best choice while evacuating a LPG
transportation tank after a road accident; and
transferring the liquid and vapors into a safe tank,
during haz-mat operations.
In evacuating transport tanks, using a
compressor is more efcient than using a pump,
and is generally the preferred method. During this
process, the liquid level continuously drops and
cavitation begins below a certain level. However,
the compressor may easily transfer all liquid, after
that even the product in vapor phase. Vapor
recovery takes a long time, and isnt feasible
unless there is a nancial loss.
How liquid is transferred by using a compressor
is shown on Figure 10 : Liquid Transfer by Using
a Compressor. Please note, that the direction of
ow for liquid is, reverse of the direction of ow for
vapor. The compressor reduces the pressure of
the tank being lled, and increases the one being
evacuated; thus creating a pressure differential
between two tanks. This pressure differential
drives the liquid ow.
How vapor recovery is made, is shown on Figure
11 : Vapor Recovery. The four way valve, back
ow check valve and isolation valves on the
piping enables quick swift from liquid transfer
to vapor recovery. As shown on the gure, the
vapors are introduced into the liquid phase of
the tank. The compression process adds some
heat to the compressed gas, which is useful
during liquid transfer. However, cooling the vapor
is necessary during vapor recovery, otherwise
the tank pressure will increase too high. The hot
vapor cools down while passing through the
liquid.
Figure 8
Liquid Transfer by
Using a Compressor
Figure 9
Vapor Recovery
vented
In case of using a
pump for this process
41
LPG Vaporizers
LPG is stored in liquid state, and needs to be
evaporated before use. Evaporation either
occurs naturally, by absorbing heat from the
surroundings, or heat should be applied to LPG.
Natural vaporization, which depends on the heat
taken from the surrounding environment may
work for domestic applications and in moderate
climates. Applications with high gas demand,
and installations at cold environment will require
vaporizers.
Vaporizers are classied according to the medium
which gives heat energy.
Direct red vaporizers burn LPG directly to
obtain heat. Theyve high performance/cost ratio
and compact, ready to use equipment. They
dont need electricity, therefore applicable for
site, temporary or portable applications where
electricity is not available.
Electric operated models are generally used
for 25 to 300 kgs/hour LPG capacity. Theyre
compact, safe and generally preferred for
domestic, commercial and light industrial
applications.
For higher demands; there are hot water or steam
operated models. These require an external
generator of steam or hot water, therefore either a
separate boiler shall be installed or the vaporizer
shall be connected to an existing boiler. These
models are cost effective when theres some
extra boiler capacity.
In general, small scale installations rely on a single
vaporizer; however in most cases two vaporizers
are installed in parallel. In this case, one of the
vaporizers will have enough capacity to feed
the whole system and the other will serve as a
backup.
Different combinations with 3 or 4 vaporizers in
parallel, one of which is serving as backup, are
also possible.
42
LPG Regulators
Regulators are the essential equipment for bulk
installations, which reduces the gas pressure
and maintains a constant level of pressure for
proper operation of boilers, burners, stoves
and similar gas consuming appliances.
Typically a gas stove or burner requires a
gas pressure of 11 in. water column; which
is nearly equal to 300 mm. water column or
30 milibars. The regulator should maintain
this pressure regardless of the changes in
gas ow rate; whether a small pilot or several
appliances are operative. It must also protect
the appliances from excessive pressure,
especially when a faulty condition exists.
Regulator selection for a specic application
needs to analyze
- inlet pressure and variations due to climatic
changes, etc.
- outlet pressure demand,
- expected gas ow
- pressure losses in piping between the
regulator and the appliance
Figure 12 : Regulator Performance Diagram
shows the effects of inlet pressure and gas
ow to regulator performance. A regulator may
only perform well under right conditions.
A drop of inlet pressure will seriously decrease
a regulators capacity.
Although single regulator may be used to
reduce container pressure directly to the
pressure which appliance needs; two stage
regulation has many advantages.
In two stage regulation; rst stage regulator
is mounted on the storage tank. For high
capacity applications, rst stage regulator
will be installed at vaporizer outlet. The outlet
pressure for rst stage regulators may be up to
2 bar, but typically this value is 10 psi, which
equals to 700 mbar. Then the pressure is
reduced down to 30 mbar at the second stage
regulator. Several advantages of two stage
regulation are:
-since the outlet pressure of rst stage
regulator is high, the pressure can compensate
pressure losses in pipe; therefore small pipe
sizes may be used.
- second stage regulator is closer to the
appliance, and pressure losses in second
stage piping dont disturb the performance of
appliances.
- more uniform appliance pressure is obtained
- when high pressure gas expands to a lower
pressure, a chilling effect occurs inside the
Figure 10
Regulator
Performance
Diagram
43
regulators. In case moisture is present in
the LPG; this chilling effect may cause the
regulator to freeze-up and be clogged. Since
pressure difference is not so high as in single
stage regulation, two stage regulation greatly
reduces the risk of freeze-ups.
- in general, capacity range of rst stage
regulators are very wide. They allow to handle
capacity increases simply adding second stage
regulators.
- second stage regulator is closer to the
appliance, and pressure losses in second
stage piping dont disturb the performance of
appliances.
- more uniform appliance pressure is obtained
- when high pressure gas expands to a lower
pressure, a chilling effect occurs inside the
regulators. In case moisture is present in the
LPG; this chilling effect may cause the regulator
to freeze-up and be clogged. Since pressure
difference is not so high like single stage
regulation, two stage regulation greatly reduces
the risk of freeze-ups.
- in general, capacity range of rst stage
regulators are very wide. They allow to handle
capacity increases simply adding second stage
regulators.
Figure 11
Two stage
regulation
An important, additional feature of the regulator
is, to prevent excess pressure in the low pressure
side. A relief valve is integrated in the regulators,
which, in such case, relieves the excess pressure
from the vent hole.
Regulators have adjusting screws and/or different
spring alternatives which allow to adjust the
outlet pressures within a range, to satisfy different
requirements.
bu blm yukarnn
tekrar olmu.
44
Vapour Condensing in LPG Piping
In general, 5 to 15 psi ( 350 mbar to 1 bar) is the
normal range of pressure setting for the rst stage
regulators. The second stage regulators will offer
greater capacity when higher rst stage pressures
are selected. However; if the intermediate
pressure is high enough, the gas may condense
in the piping, especially when the temperature
is low. Butane, or butane rich mixtures are more
prone to condensation and such risk begins for
propane at temperatures below -25
o
C.
Vapour condensation will create safety and
operational issues, and therefore shall be
avoided. Selecting a rst stage outlet pressure
below the values given on Table 15 : Dew Point
Pressures for LPG Mixtures, will overcome the
vapor condensation problem.
Table 15
Dew Point Pressures
for LPG Mixtures
45
Installation of LPG Storage Tanks
Safety Separation Distances
LPG tanks shall be xed on concrete
foundations. The dimensions of concrete
columns shall t to the size of tank. The
foundation design shall be made by a qualied
civil engineer, considering both the normal
operating conditions, and the extra weight
during hydrostatic testing of the tank. The
weight of tank accessories, ladders, platforms,
valves, instrumentation and piping; snow and
wind loads shall be taken into account.
In underground tank applications, the
customer shall prepare the tank basin and tank
foundation. The size of the basin shall t to the
size of tank. The concrete foundation design
shall be made by a qualied civil engineer,
considering normal operating conditions; and
the anchorage to prevent oating. Since LPG
is less dense than water, heavy rains may
cause oating of the tank. The tank foundation
must be heavy and the anchorages must be
strong enough to prevent oating. The tank
basin may be surrounded by a concrete wall.
In this case, necessary openings shall be
made to ensure drainage of the tank basin.
The location and installation of LPG storage
tanks shall conform to local regulations
and standards. LPG storage tanks must be
separated from potential sources of re, or
important buildings and structures which will
be protected against re. The minimum safety
separation distances, according to NFPA 58
are given on Table 16 : Safety Separation
Distances for LPG Tanks.
The user must also conform to the local
regulations and standards.
The safety separation distance between the
LPG storage tank and the following shall be
at least the gures given on Table 16 : Safety
Separation Distances for LPG Tanks:
1. An important building
2. Group of buildings
3. The line of adjoining property
4. Main roads
5. Adjacent LPG storage tanks
LPG storage tanks shall be installed outdoors.
Tanks shall not be stacked one above another.
For above ground tanks, safety separation
distances are measured from the tank shell.
For underground tanks, the safety separation
distances are measured from any potential
point of LPG discharge; like safety relief valve,
LPG lling connection, and/or liquid relieving
type level indicators.
Table 16
Safety Separation
Distances for
LPG Tanks
The earlier versions
of NFPA 58 were
implying to measure
safety separation
distances for
underground tanks
The recent version implies to
measure from the tank shell,
also for underground and
mounded tanks
46
The distance from any part of an underground
tank to any building or the line of an adjoining
property shall be at least 3 m.
There should be minimum 3 m. distance
between the LPG tank and a potential source
of ignition, any opening to the buildings, and
openings to direct-vent appliances, mechanical
air intakes, sewer and drainage channels.
Electric devices shall be considered as a
potential source of ignition.
Loose or piled combustible material, such as
weed or long, dry grass shall be separated
3 m. from the tank. To ensure it, rounded
pebbles may be laid along the surrounding of
tank.
The horizontal distance between LPG tanks
above the ground and tanks that contain
liquids with a ash point lower than 90C,
should be at least 6 m.
No part of any tank above the ground
should ever be located on a site that would
be horizontally 2 m away from an energy
transmission line with nominal voltage between
0,6 10,5 kW; and 7,5 m away from one with
nominal voltage greater than 10,5 kW, from all
directions.
Multiple underground tanks with a capacity of
1 m or higher, should be located such that
cranes and similar machines can easily access
their ends and edges.
For a single above ground tank, with less than
5 m water capacity; the safety separation
distance could be reduced up to 3 m. In order
to consider this as a single tank, its distance
from any tank with a capacity greater than 1
m, should be at least 7,5 m.
In applying the distance between buildings
and LPG tanks of 125-gal (0,5-m or more
water capacity, a minimum of 50 percent of
this horizontal distance shall also apply to all
portions of the building that project more than
5 ft (1,5 m) from the building wall and that are
higher than the relief valve discharge outlet.
This horizontal distance shall be measured
from a point determined by projecting the
outside edge of such overhanging structure
vertically downward to grade or other level
upon which the container is installed. This
is not applicable to installations in which
overhanging structure is 15 m or more above
the relief valve discharge outlet.
Neighboring storage of other ammable or
hazardous materials, will result an increased
risk. Refer to regulations and standards, or
make a risk analysis in such cases.
The above ground tanks shall be grounded
and the performance of grounding shall be
checked annually. The resistance of the
grounding circuit (system to ground) shall be
less than 5 Ohm.
47
Tank Itself -600 mV < V
ref
< -350 mV
V
ref
> -350 mV : Paint Defect
V
ref
< -600 mV : Measurement Error
V
ref
> -650 mV : Replace Worn-out
Anodes
V
ref
< -1100 mV : Disconnect
Excessive Anodes
V
ref
> -1200 mV : Replace Worn-Out
Anodes
Measurement Nominal Value Comments / Troubleshooting
Tank Connected to
Anodes
Every Single Anode
Cathodic Protection for Underground LPG Tanks
Cathodic protection is compulsory for
underground tanks. Otherwise, any possible
scratches or small defects of paint may cause
severe corrosion. Several methods for cathodic
protection are applicable, however most common
is the method of galvanic anode. The application
of cathode protection should be done as follows:
The appropriate size and number of anodes are
determined according to the tank size and soil
conditions.
The anodes shall be placed vertically at the
center-line of the tank, roughly 1,5 meter away
from the tank shell, and evenly distributed around
the tank.
The connecting cable should not be used for
the purpose of dangling the anode bag into the
hole.
Each anode bag shall be soaked with 20-25 lt.
of water.
The excess of anode cables should not be cut
out, but kept as is and buried in the ground.
The cable connection lug(s) on the vessel shall
be cleaned & grinded for good electric contact,
and the cable terminals shall be connected to
these lugs. After then, the connections shall be
isolated.
The tank basin then flled by salt free, washed
and sieved sand.
The performance of cathodic protection system
shall be checked annually. The potential
difference between the reference electrode, the
tank itself, every single anode, and the complete
system shall be measured and evaluated,
according to Table 17 : Performance Checking of
Cathodic Protection Systems.
Table 17
Performance Checking
of Cathodic Protection
Systems
-1100 mV < V
ref
< -650 mV
-1600 mV < V
ref
< --1400 mV : perfect
-1400 mV < V
ref
< --1200 mV : OK
cathodic