RAGGING

INTRODUCTION
Ragging in India is a damaging from of interaction of the seniors in College or
school with the juniors or the newcomers or the first years. It is similar to but not same as
hazing in the United Sates, it is not an initiation. It involves in results (simle or
suggestive se!ual, sarcastic and even hysical", running errands for seniors, and many
other comle! activities. #igh reuted Indian colleges have a wistful history of ragging
esecially medical colleges .It has become increasingly unoular due to more than a few
comlaints of serious injury to the victims and strict laws regarding ragging. Ragging is
now defined as an act that violates or is erceived to violate an individual student$s
dignity.
Since ancient times Indian learning institutions taught about mutual resect in a
resectful manner such as %a&shashila, 'alandha, (i&ramshila, )agaddala, *usagiri,
+ahavihara, etc. ,ut as the time went on, ,ritishers invaded India and introduced the
concet of canning (ragging" in educational institutes- i.e. ill sychological tendency of
judging others by insulting, inflicting ain and sometimes racticing mental and hysical
torture which results in hysical and mental damage. Initially it started in .nglish
colleges and Universities but slowly and steadily it sread and corruted almost entire
Indian educational institutions.
%he e!cuse was to teach the social hierarchy in early career and also learn other
imortant values in life as if they were mature enough &now anything about values and
#ierarchy. +any colleges such as /I+S and Christian +edical College had an
unleasant history of ragging with most of the alumni regarding the time of ragging as
the of their life which was in fact the worst.


2
*resent State unfortunately, the traditional ractice of familiarizing beginners with
their seniors has now turned into a otent tool for ill0treating and oor students if they fail
obey their seniors. Under the rete!t of fun, a oor student is often assaulted, sometimes
even stried and intimidated by his seniors and this ritualized torture leaves an indelible
imression on his mind. %he chilling incident continues to haunt him throughout his life,
and he un&nowingly develoed various sychological disorders.

/fter e!eriencing the evil of ragging a student develos a feeling of revenge for his
$unjustified harassment$ and derives leasure in ragging his juniors on his turn. so the
trend goes on and students continue to suffer.

Ragging has been in considerable debate with regard to how widesread it is, its
nature, the &ind it is revalent in and its effects. %hese are a few samles of the &ind of
1uestions under debate, there are many more these and many of them have oular
oinions (or myths" associated with them.
2hen we loo& at the ragging cases reorted in the media in the last two years to be
able to understand different asects of ragging based on evidence rather than oular
belief, rhetoric anecdotal evidence. %wo years is a good amount of time to be able to
ma&e some 1uantity claims and fairly short to be reresentative of the current scenario.
%he cases here are those reorted in rint media and news channels. %hey have been
collected from the 2orld0 2ide 32eb. /ll cases included in this study are from a news
media house and not from a ersonal memoir, e!erience, blog or narration. %here are 45
ragging cases reorted from 6778 to resent with no relications. It is imortant to
mention some of the limitations of our aroach to rovide a ersective to understand
the findings. %herefore a number and nature of cases 9reorted: is only loosely correlated
to the actual number of cases that too& lace and their nature. %he reorted number is a
essimistic aro!imation of the real number; however the degree of
*essimism is not &nown. /lso, the real number of occurrences of different &inds of
3
ragging could be misreresented (reresented disroortionately" in the reort cases.

RAGGING: THE DEFINITION
%he term ragging means different eole. %o some others, it means wor&ing on
assignments for seniors and doing their daily chores. <or many others it constitutes
hysically tiring, verbally abusive or even se!ually assaulting acts.
#owever, there is a general agreement that there must be a line defined which
should not be crossed. 2ho should define the line and how should it be measured is the
ne!t 1uestion that arises. /gain there are conflicts and several oinions on the same.
Ragging is an act of aggression committed by an individual or a grou of
individuals (say /" over another individual or a grou of individuals (say ," where /, ,y
virtue of their being senior to , somehow get authority and audacity to commit the /
and ,, by virtue of their being new to institution are automatic victims.
(erbal - (erbal ragging is defined as a non0consensual conversation between
the senior and freshman, where the senior humiliates the freshman, forces
him to answer ersonally = social 3 unaccetable 1uestions= toics, teases
=harasses him = her, does an e!hibition of his=her sueriority leading to mental
trauma, uneasiness, discomfort for the fresher.
*hysical- *hysical ragging is defined as a non0consensual act by a senior
towards the junior with the goal of hitting, inflicting hysical injury or
comromising the dignity of the fresher. /lso, the act of as&ing the fresher to
do something which is not normal human hysical disosition; could create
hysical injury, health roblems or lose of dignity for the freshman are
considered hysical ragging. *ossible e!amles for the former are- beating
the fresher, touching the fresher with one:s shoes=feet, hitting the fresher with
objects, etc. %he latter would comrise as&ing the fresher to sla him= herself,
4
sit in a: cuc&oo: osition, drin&= eat something inedible, stand for long on one
feet, swee his=her room, etc.
Se!ual- Se!ual ragging is defined as an non0consensual act by a senior, that
of as&ing the junior to do something which is damaging or comromises the
se!ual dignity of the junior, doing an act for se!ual dignity of the junior;
doing an act of se!ual nature with the junior. %his shall comrise of as&ing
the junior to stri, have unnatural se!, masturbate in ublic, touch rivate
arts, etc.
PROBLEM OF RAGGING
Ragging is a sychological henomenon. %he sychology of seniors who indulge in
ragging in site of having faced the just a year ago and the sychology of fresher who
surrender their self -resect comletely to them.
Ragging is an interesting e!amle of grou ush0ulls. %he sociology of grous0
seniors is a strong, e!isting grou and a large number of new members suddenly join this
grou on a articular day. %his grou dynamics lays a major role in dynamics lays a
major role romoting, crossing to the seniors who indulge in sensitive acts in certain
cases; fresher too from a grou and in most such cases things tend to turn ugly with
violent clashes being common among the two grous.
Ragging is a roblem of enduring suffering because everyone around me is suffering
too. %en times out ten, the silence of the victims gains strength from the fact everyone in
their batch is subjected to the same treatment.
Ragging is a roblem of dreams and arental e!ectations. >reams that seem to
have been fulfilled at the oint of gaining admission into the college. .!ectations which
are threatened when someone wants to withdraw from the college due to in the human
environment around.
5
Ragging is a roblem of law enforcement and saving reutations. In site of several
legislations assed over the years, laws of the land are seldom enforced. College
reutations ta&e riority over information being assed to law enforcement agencies of
the government. ?>o you &now what will haen if the media comes to &now about it@?
Auestions li&e these routinely ressurize freshets into withdrawing comlaints.
Ragging is a roblem which enjoys social accetance. Indeed, there is no other way
to e!lain the belief among some arents that ragging is actually good for their &ids to
face u and tolerate horrible things haening to them in their colleges@ Students who
revolt against ragging are believed to have Bbro&en down?. Is this what our society has to
offer someone who has garnered@ %he courage to stand u against something wrong is
being done to him=her@
Ragging is a roblem of social ignorance. Ragging is a roblem of false beliefs.
%here are so many myths and factually incorrect assumtions floating around under
which almost the entire society is blissfully ignorant. Ignorance of the reality, denial of its
very e!istence by the society at large. .very discussion trying to ma&e sense of this issue
within the general ublic finds a large number of common beliefs that ragging ma&es the
fresher bold enough to face the world.
CURRENT EXTENT OF RAGGING
%his section intended to discuss more than 677 reorted cases of severe hysical,
mental and se!ual abuses, that could be collected from internet newsaer achieves (see
/endi!", in the name of ragging in the ast C years in the country. %his list could be
just a miniscule fraction of the actual number of ragging cases that have occurred, as not
all the incidents of ragging are comlained to the college authorities, not every comliant
is reorted in the newsaer and not every newsaer reort is saved in the online
achieves. %his figure certainly indicates an emergency li&e situations but serious effort
has to be made to disseminate this information to the society, before it accets ragging as
a social evil. >etail analyses of the remaining cases will be released shortly.
6
KIND OF RAGGING
Dut of 4E, we could ascertain the &ind of ragging only 5E cases. %he distribution of
the &ind of ragging to the fresher was subjected are summarized below.
%otal cases 4E
Find of ragging identified 5E
*hysical and se!ual ragging 68
*hysical ragging 7G
(erbal 76
'ot &nown 6E
46H cases were that of hysical ragging, majority of which comrise of beating the
fresher. Se!ual ragging cases comrise of another IIH, where EIH cases not only
comrised of se!ual abuse, but hysical violence. In general, the se!ual ragging cases
comrised of as&ing the fresher to stri, dance na&ed, imitate ornograhic ostures, etc.
In two cases, one at (isa ,hatt, Santini&etan and the other at school of +edical
.ducation, Fottayam, the fresher were actually raed by the seniors on the name of
ragging.
%he instance of verbal ragging are low however this is an obvious bias due to
disroortionate reorting. Jiven that the verbal ragging cases are milder than hysical
or se!ual ragging cases, they are generally not reorted. Dn the other hand one would
believe that the ratio of cases of hysical ragging should be reresentative, given that its
imortance with regard to social norms is high. /lso, one would e!ect the number of
se!ual ragging cases being underestimated given the shame and taboo associated with it
for the victim and his = her family.
In absolute terms, the number of cases of hysical ragging being 68 and se!ual (Inc.
se!ual with hysical ragging" being EI is startling. It should be noted that each of these
are criminal offences in themselves, thus oints toward more than 67 criminal offences
eretuated under the guise of ragging each year. /lso, these are a essimistic estimate.
%his debun&s the oular myth that se!ual and hysical ragging is no more revalent
7
after the Sureme Court )udgment of 677E.
CONSEQUENCES OF RAGGING
/ lot of debate on ragging is hinged on its aarent harmlessness and fun nature.
%his belief is not only wrong, but a convenient oversimlification. / 1uantification of the
outcomes of the ragging is summarized in the following. >eath refers to any death caused
due to a ragging incident and not necessarily that of the fresher. Injury refers to reorted
hysical injury or hositalization. 9>etrimental effect on mental health: imlies
sychological disorders and deression. 9(ictim:s left college,: imlies that the ragging
victim fled the college due to ragging are further threads. In most cases, we are unable to
ascertain whether the victim returned or not. 9(iolence: refers to any violence or
indisciline that resulted in the college as a conse1uence of ragging. It doesn:t refer to the
violence eretrated on the victim by the senior during ragging.
>eaths due to ragging EE
Suicide attemts E7
Injury 6I
>etrimental effect on +ental #ealth E6
(ictim left College 8
(iolence and indisciline E7
Ragging has caused a total of E7 deaths in the last 6 years, E7 of which were that of
young college 3going students. Surrisingly, all these deaths are not those of fresher
C.Kalitha, the mother of +u&esh ended her life due to the controversy surrounding the
se!ual abuse of her son during ragging (/ndhra *radesh, Setember 6774".
%hree of the ragging deaths were that of seniors- 6 seniors were &illed by a first year
student when he was being ragged ((idya 'agar, +*, and /ug 6774"; I senior ended his
8
life when he was unished for ragging. %he other L deaths were those of freshman, 4 who
committed suicide due to ragging and one due to the result of brutal ragging (e1uivalent
to murder". %his statistics debun&s the oular myth that ragging is just a cause of trouble
for fresher. It has led to the death of senior students and even ruined a family as in case of
C. Kolita. %he roblem is far more comlicated than in general assumed.
Suicide attemts refer to by fresher:s which may or may not have led to death.
%here were a total of E7 suicide attemts, out of which three individuals were not saved.
In the case, that these individuals were not saved the total death count would go to E5.
Such a high number of suicide attemts by well0educated individuals coming from an
economically0sufficient class of the society are highly disturbing. It has to also be
considered bruises and that ragging is a unishable offence according to Indian Kaw.
Dut of 56 cases for which 9injury: could be ascertained, a whoing 6I cases (85H"
led to hysical injury (li&e fractures" or hositalization to students. %his totally debun&s
by all metrics the notion that ragging is harmless fun. %he fliant attitude of the media
and the society in this regard is unfortunate and unjust. In many cases, more than one
student was injured; 8 freshman were injured, one in sine and a fracture in hand for the
other (/ndhra *radesh, >ec 6778", 4 freshman beaten with iron rods (%hin&er,
Farnata&a, +ar 6778",etc. In the case in )ammu, a junior girl was beaten u by senior
girls leading soft tissue injury.
Dut of 56 cases where it could be ascertained, E6 cases led to mental health
roblems to victims (some leading to suicide".
(ictim:s condition after being forced into grou se! by seniors, (isva ,art,
Sentini&etan, )ul 6774. ,y the time released; the girl was in a state of hysical and mental
trauma. Kater she was hositalized for her treatment and under unconsciousness she &et
saying, BI:m not a thief, I:m not a fallen girl?, said the victim:s local guardian, /mirtha
#azra. (Auoting *rint +edia"
9
%his e!amle clearly shows how traumatic the e!erience of ragging could be for
the fresher. .ven though some fresher:s may not be driven to a sychologically unstable
state immediately, the emotional scars of hysical and se!ual ragging are bound to affect
the mental stability of the victim.
/n astonishing outcome of ragging is the violence and indisciline it causes in the
college aart from its effect on fresher. /t least E7 cases of ragging caused other
roblems in college which included violent clashes, violence with teachers and
journalists, stri&es, vandalism and brea&age and involvement of unions and local arties.
/gain, this turns the oversimlifying arguments, with ragging being an ice0brea&er for
the fresher, on its head.
/ study into the various outcomes of ragging clearly shows that it is a menace to the
society. EE deaths and an additional 6I cases of injured students are e!tremely disturbing.
2e also see that 8 victims fled from college due to ragging, which is e!tremely sad and a
challenge to a merit based system of admission. Cases of mental health roblems are just
reresentative and indicates long term and subtle mental instabilities a victim may
e!erience in life. <inally, the violence and indisciline ragging creates in the college
inhibits the efficient delivery of education in colleges, which is their main urose. %hese
numbers show that claiming ragging as harmless fun is totally baseless and its
oversimlification as an ice0brea&er is roblematic and immature.
PLACE OF RAGGING
%he oular belief is that ragging is most widely sread in medical and engineering
colleges. Dut of 45 cases, we were able to ascertain the nature of college for 8E cases.
%heir distribution is resented in following.
%otal colleges identified 8E
+.>IC/K C EL.4H
10
.'JI'..RI'J EG I8.IH
*DKM%.C#'IAU.S 8 C.GH
Dthers, Inc., 'ursing,

,usiness, *arma, EC IL.IH
Sciences, /rts,
Commerce, /rchitecture
Clearly the highest number of ragging cases is reorted from .ngineering Colleges
(I8.IH" of ragging cases are reorted from colleges running ,.Sc., ,./., ,.,./.,
vocational courses. %his debun&s the oular myth about the reason why seniors rag is
lin&ed with the tight schedule and stress of studies in rofessional courses. Dne cannot be
sure how reresentative these statistics are of the roortion of actual occurrences of
ragging incidents. Dne can argue that ragging cases have become a tradition in medical
colleges and thus do not e!osed to the media. Dnly further study through surveys or
more evidence could substantiate or negate this theory.
%hough the distribution of ragging cases among different courses is not comletely
clear, the verdict is loud and clear regarding the lace of ragging in colleges. 2hoing
G5H cases of ragging were conducted in hostels (or out 3 of 3 camus housing" versus a
small E4H which haened on camus or other laces off0camus. Dut of the 55 cases
where the lace of ragging could be ascertained, IL were done in hostels, while L were
on0camus. %his shows a big roblem with the current discourse in the media, which
floods ages with hotos of ragging on camuses at the beginning of every academic
year. %hese hotos are not reresentative of the real 9lace of action: of ragging, where it
ta&es form of human0right abuse. %hese ictures misguide the ublic to a 9harmless fun:
view of ragging causing the roblem of denial.
11
ANTI-RAGGING HELPLINE AND ANONYMOUS COMPLAINTS
India$s 'ational /nti0Ragging #elline started wor&ing in )une 677C to
hel students in distress due to ragging. It consists of an email id and a 65 hour toll free
number, where it is not necessary for the student to tell his or her name, although it is
advisable that the students register the comlaints in their name. *rovision for
anonymous comlaints was consider of utmost imortant at the time of establishment of
the helline, since the victim after ma&ing the comlaint remains with or in the close
vicinity of the culrits, away from a fully secure environment. Since many
ragging deaths, li&e /man Fachroo$s, occurred due to seniors ta&ing a revenge of the
comlaint made, anonymous comlaints were e1ually allowed at the helline.
2ithin E8 minutes of receiving the comlaint, it is forwarded to the #ead of the
institution and the local olice authorities through hone and email, who ta&e romt
action against the eretrators of ragging. %he functioning of the helline is monitored by
an indeendent 'JD, at resent /men +ovement, which lists all the comlaints received
and the action ta&en on them.
%here has been a change in the email id of the helline,
from hellineNantiragging.net to hellineNantiragging.in. %he second email id is in
wor&ing condition since 67E6, when the ortal antiragging.in was launched. %he
helline rovides a comlaint number to each victim, and the victim should in1uire about
the action ta&en within 65 to 5G hours.
/s er UJC regulations, it is mandatory for a college to register an <.I.R. with
olice against the culrits if any violence, hysical abuse, se!ual harassment,
confinement etc. ta&es lace with any fresher. /fter receiving any such comlaint from
the #elline, it becomes the duty of the #ead of the institution to register the <.I.R. with
olice within 65 hours. In 67EI, a olice case was registered against the >irector, >ean
and Registrar of a reuted college in >elhi for, among other charges, not informing the
olice and registering <.I.R. within 65 hours of receiving the ragging comlaint. (<ailing
to inform a ublic authority, I*C EL4".
12
%he database of the /nti0Ragging #elline indicates that it has been to an e!tent
successful in ensuring a safer environment in colleges from where it registered the
comlaints. In many a cases though, it forwarded the comlaint to the University Jrants
Commission (UJC" for an action against those colleges which refused to ta&e any action
against the culrits.
Controver!
/ major concern that was highlighted against the helline was that it registered a
minuscule ercentage (7.EH" of the total hone calls it received, and that meant it
registered comlaint in one out of one thousand calls it received. Secifically, the toll0free
helline (EG770EG708866" received E48,6CL calls in the three months of 'ovember 67E6
to )anuary 67E6, hence LL calls an hour and at least a call a minute. ,ut, only EC7
comlaints were registered in this eriod. In its defense the helline said that most of the
calls it received were of in1uiry in nature, of the eager students to &now whether the
helline number wor&ed or not. +any a time:s students changed their minds also midway
not to register the comlaint. It also said that many of the calls were hoa!es as it was a
toll0free number.
Anon!"#t!
/mid such concerns in media that the helline staff may be sometimes avoiding
registration of comlaints, registering through email at hellineNantiragging.in is
generally considered best since receiving an email cannot be avoided. %his is also a good
way for those students wishing to register the comlaint without disclosing their names,
as after ma&ing an anonymous email id students send their comlaints to the helline, as
shown by the helline database. Such anonymous comlaints though, may be
registered at the helline number EG770EG708866 also. In some cases, as reorted by the
helline database, the colleges did not ta&e action in comlaints filed with fa&e names,
citing that no such fresher was a students of the college, whereas action was ta&en in
comlaints filed in an anonymous name, such as $8 fresher:s of .ngineering$.
13
'evertheless, the helline has been to an e!tent effective in ensuring action against
the culrits, and ensuring a safer environment at education institutions at least in the
cases it registers, although regular news aearing in media of ragging incidents warrants
it to be even more effective.
ANTI-RAGGING MO$EMENT
2ith the situation of ragging worsening yearly, there is emerging a sontaneous
anti0ragging movement in India. Several voluntary organizations have emerged, who
conduct drives for ublic awareness and arrange for suort to victims.
Dnline grous li&e Coalition to Uroot Ragging from India (CUR.", Sto ragging,
'o Ragging <oundation became the major /nti Ragging grous on the Internet. /mong
them, the 'o Ragging <oundation has transformed into a comlete 'JD and got
registered as Society against (iolence in .ducation (S/(." which is India$s first
registered /nti Ragging non0rofit organization ('JD". %hese grous are wor&ing on
issues related to ragging. .ach of them is running anti ragging websites and online
grous.
%he Indian media has been laying a crucial role by e!osing ragging incidents and
the indifference of many concerned institutions towards curbing the act. %he Sureme
Court of India has directed, in its interim judgment that action may be ta&en even against
negligent institutions.
14
CASE STUDY %
Rajesh was born in a oor family. #e secured to mar& in his twelfth ublic e!am
and was admitted in a reuted .ngineering college in Chennai. /s he was from rural area
he was often ragged by his seniors. %hey threatened him to write their assignments; clean
their rooms, clean their toilets, etc. if he refused to obey them they would beat him
rec&lessly.
>ue to their torture, he was sychologically affected by a disease &nown as
ohedeohobia (fear of men". >ue to this he was not able to continue his studies in that
college. %his fearless restricted him to come out of his room. #is studies got soiled and
his career turned to be a big 1uestion mar&. /t last this fear forced him to commit suicide.
15
CASE STUDY &
/ tragedy had occurred to a girl, due to ragging roblem. / college mate of a girl
named Swathi, often tortured her and forced her to love him, but she refused to love him.
>ue to her refusal, the boy became temered and attac&ed her with acid. #er face was
burnt. .veryone on seeing her injured face hurt her with words. She was not able to come
out of her room. She was sychologically deressed. #er studies were affected and her
life became a 1uestion mar&. She was not able to face even her arents due to her fear. /t
last fear overtoo& her and she committed suicide. #er arents lost their only daughter and
now leading a lonely, deressed life. / simle thoughtless action of a boy affected the
whole family. /ccording to the comlaint lodged by Swathi:s arents olice arrested.
16
CASE STUDY '
2.S% ,.'J/K- E7 #UR% I' C/+*US CK/S# D(.R R/JJI'J
>URJ/*UR- <irst0year and final0year students of ,engal college of .ngineering and
technology in >urgaur clashed at the college hostel late on 2ednesday (67EI07C074"
after the first 3year students accused their seniors of ragging. %en students have been
arrested for rooting on camus, based on comlaints at 'ew %own olice by the college
authorities.
17
CASE STUDY (
J/'J /%%/CFS S%U>.'%S D(.R R/JJI'J ISSU.
,y .!ress 'ews Service0 'ama&&al *ublished- 74
th
Setember 67EI 7L-8C/+
Kast Udated- 74
th
Setember 67EI 7L-8C/+
%ension gried the Jovernment /rts College located in Rasiuram for several
hours after a gang of outsiders allegedly thrashed a few students for allegedly ragging
some juniors. Sources said that the trouble started after a grou of outsiders, including the
brother of a junior student, stormed into the college and ic&ed u a 1uarrel with some
students 1uestioning as to why juniors were harassed. Suddenly the gang began thrashing
a few senior students.
/s the situation was going out of control, college authorities informed the olice,
following which a team from Rasiuram olice station rushed to camus and held
in1uiries. B2e have been in1uiries holding with both sides and roer action will be
ta&en after ascertaining the facts,? said, %.%hamaraiselvan, Insector of Rasiuram olice
station. +eanwhile, the college authorities denied any ragging issue behind the 1uarrel.
18
SOLLUTION
Ragging must be rohibited in India. %he erson who is ragging should be strictly
unished. Ragging is roving to be the greatest roblem that our society is facing as of
now. Jovernment must ma&e the laws very strict. /nti 3Ragging committees should be
started in colleges. Seven unishments should be given. Dn the other hand we must also
stand and raise our voice against ragging.

19
CONCLUSION
Ragging is a social course which is deely rooted in se!ually reressive social
structure of many third world countries. %he Jovernment and the other law enforcing
agencies have ta&en stes to ut an end for ragging. %his roject deals with analysis of
ragging in other words this roject tries to throw some light in this direction create an
awa&ening.
Ragging is the biggest fear of any student entering college, esecially those moving
away from home to live in hostels. In fact, many time students choose colleges based on
the erceived e!tent of ragging in different colleges. %his reort attemts to analyses
some of these roblems and tries to find the underlying reasons and suggest aroaches.
/wareness related to monitoring student activities is sreading in our country. 2e
need to ta&e a necessary ste to revent ragging from the root. If eole are more aware
about it, if we can ma&e the eole believe that ragging is a social crime, the rate of
ragging could be brought down.
20
REFERENCE
/llison, %he Ragging in India, 'ew >elhi; Si! senses *ress, 677I. *rint.
Jreg K. Auffey. %he Jolden /ge of Indian #igh School ,as&etball, Chennai; Sathya
*ress, 6778. *rint.
+ane&a, Jandhi *enguin ,oo& of #indu names, 'ew >elhi; Classis *ress, 677E. *rint.
Robert, %ress all. %he R/JJ.> 0 *hilanthroists. Irlent; Jrent Richard:s *ress, ECE5.
*rint.
2illiam, 2ard. %he #istory Kiterature and +ythology of the #indu, +umbai; +inerva
sress, ECC4. *rint.