Chap1-Backround and Status

DIGITAL COMPUTATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC
TRANSIENTS IN POWER SYSTEMS: CURRENT STATUS

Juan A. Martinez-Velasco
Departament d'Enginyeria Elctrica
Universitat Politcnica de Catalunya, Spain
Abstract- This document presents an introduction to time-domain

solution of electromagnetic transients in power systems using a
digital computer. Currently, the most widely used simulation tools
to solve electromagnetic transients are based on the trapezoidal
rule and the method of characteristics (Bergeron's method). Only
works related to this solution algorithm are considered in this
document which covers two main topics : solution techniques and
modeling of power components.
Keywords : Electromagnetic Transients, Time-domain

Simulation, Trapezoidal Rule, Numerical Oscillations, Control
Systems, Modeling.
1. INTRODUCTION
Transient phenomena in power systems are caused by
switching operations, faults, and other disturbances, such as
lightning strokes. They involve a frequency range from DC to
several MHz. A rough distinction is usually made between
electromechanical transients, traditionally covered by transient
stability studies, and electromagnetic transients. The latter type
of transients can occur on a time scale that goes from
microseconds to several cycles; they are a combination of
travelling waves on lines, cables and buses, and of oscillations
in lumped-element circuits of generators, transformers and
other devices. Some electromechanical transients, such as
subsynchronous resonance, for which detailed machine models
are needed, are usually included in this class of transients.
Several tools have been used over the years to analyze
electromagnetic transients. At early stages, miniature power
system models, known as Transient Network Analyzers (TNA),
were used. At present, the digital computer is the most popular
tool, although TNAs are still used; in addition, the new
generation of real-time digital systems are probably the most
adequate tool in some applications for which either a very
high-speed or a real-time simulation is required.
Many techniques have been developed to solve electromagnetic
transients using a digital computer. They can be classified into
two main groups : frequency-domain and time-domain
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techniques. The subject of this document is the digital

simulation of electromagnetic transients in power systems,
using time-domain techniques. Presently, the most widely used
solution method is based on the application of the trapezoidal
rule and the Bergeron's method, also known as method of
characteristics [1] - [6].
This document has been arranged as follows. Section 2 deals
with the basic solution techniques either already implemented
or proposed for implementation in electromagnetic transients
programs (emtps). It covers not only the algorithms aimed at
solving the transient solution, but procedures to reduce
numerical oscillations produced by the trapezoidal rule,
initialization methods, and procedures to solve the interface
between power networks and control systems.
Section 3 presents a summary of modeling works related to the
most important power components taking into account their
frequency-dependent behaviour.
Due to difficulties for developing power component models
accurate enough for a wide frequency range, much work has
been done to provide modeling guidelines for digital simulation
of every type of transient phenomenon. Section 4 summarizes
the work done in this area and reports about works still in
progress.
Some topics, such as parallel computation or real-time emtpbased simulation of electromagnetic transients, which are
closely related to the main subjects of this document are not
covered here.
A selected bibliography related to topics of each part has been
included at the end of this document.
2. SOLUTION METHODS
2.1 TRANSIENT SOLUTION
The studies to solve travelling wave problems by means of a
digital computer were started in the early 1960's using two

different techniques, the Bewley's lattice diagram [7] and the
Bergeron's method [8]. These techniques were applied to solve
small networks, with linear and nonlinear lumped- parameter,
as well as distributed-parameter elements. The extension to
multinode networks was made by H.W. Dommel [1]. The
Dommel's scheme combined the Bergeron's method and the
trapezoidal rule into an algorithm capable of solving transients
in single- and multi-phase networks with lumped and
distributed parameters. This solution method was the origin of
the ElectroMagnetic Transients Program (EMTP), whose
development was supported by Bonneville Power
Administration (BPA).
[11]. These modifications were based on a current source

representation, a piecewise-linear representation or the
compensation method. Some of the advantages and drawbacks
shown by these approaches were discussed in [5] and [11].
Using compensation, nonlinear elements are represented as
current injections which are superimposed to the solution of the
linear network after this solution has been computed. Figure 1
shows the scheme of the compensation method for a single
nonlinear element.
The trapezoidal rule is used to convert the differential equations

of the network components into algebraic equations involving
voltages, currents and past values. These algebraic equations
are assembled using a nodal approach
[G] [v(t)]
where [G]
[v(t)]
[i(t)]
[I]
[i(t)] [I]
(1)
is the nodal conductance matrix

is the vector of node voltages
is the vector of current sources
is the vector of "history" terms.
Figure 1. Principles of the compensation method.

Once the solution of the network without the nonlinear element
has been computed, its contribution is computed from the
following equation
Very often the network contains voltage sources to ground, then

the equation is split up into part A with unknown voltages and
part B with known voltages
t)]
[iA(t)] [IA] [G AB
(2)
vkm
vkm(0) rthev i km
(3)
and the characteristic of the nonlinear element

km
f(i km, dikm/dt, t, ...
(4)
The resulting conductance matrix is symmetrical and remains

unchanged as the integration is performed with a fixed
time-step size. The solution of the transient process is then
obtained using triangular factorization. One of the main
advantages of this procedure is that it can be applied to
networks of arbitrary size in a very simple fashion.
vkm(0) in (3) indicates the voltage solution across the nodes "k"
and "m" without the nonlinear element, while rthev is the
Thevenin equivalent resistance.
Bergeron's method can be efficiently used with lossless and

distortionless lines. However, parameters of actual transmission
systems are frequency-dependent. The first works on
frequency-dependent models were performed for telephone
circuits in the 1920's [9]. The first frequency-dependent
transmission line model developed for EMTP simulations was
implemented in 1973 [10]. Much effort has been made since
then, and some other frequency-dependent line models have
been developed and implemented, see Section 3.2.
The compensation method can be generalized to networks with

several nonlinear components [12]. However, its application is
limited to only one nonlinear element per node.
The original Dommel's scheme could be used to solve linear

networks. However, many power components - transformers,
reactors, surge arresters, circuit breakers - present a nonlinear
behaviour. Several modifications to the basic method were
proposed to cope with nonlinear and time-varying elements
1-2
Iterative solution methods, such as the Newton's method, are

used to solve this step.
Other solution methods has been proposed to solve this

limitation. A very simple procedure based on a predictorcorrector method has been recently presented [13].
An interface for simulation of HVDC links and machines, also
based on the Dommel's algorithm, was presented in [14].
The computation of electromagnetic transients with the
trapezoidal rule is performed in the time-domain. Some other
techniques have been developed to solve network equations
using a time-domain solution (z-transform methods [15], wave
digital filters [16]) or a frequency-domain solution [17]. Some

alternative methodologies taking advantage of the Dommel's
scheme have been recently proposed, they use a hybrid
frequency- and time-domain approach [18], or a state equation
modeling [19].
Programs based on the trapezoidal rule are currently the most
widely used for simulation of electromagnetic transients. This
is due to the simplicity of this integration rule, as well as to its
numerical stability. The trapezoidal rule is an A-stable method
which does not produce run-off instability [20]. However, this
rule suffers from some drawbacks : it uses a fixed time-step size
and can originate sustained numerical oscillations. During the
last twenty years several works have been presented to solve or
minimize most of these drawbacks.
The step size determines the maximum frequency that can be
simulated, therefore users have to know in advance what is the
frequency range of the transient simulation to be performed. On
the other hand, both slow and fast transients can occur at the
same time in different nodes. A procedure by which two or
more time step sizes can be used in the trapezoidal integration
was presented in [21].
a) Scheme of the rectifier
b) Simulation result without the snubber circuit
2.2 NUMERICAL OSCILLATIONS

In many cases, such as switching operations or transitions
between segments in piecewise-linear inductances, the
trapezoidal rule acts as a differentiator, and introduces
sustained numerical oscillations. Several techniques have been
proposed to control or reduce these numerical oscillations.
c) Simulation result with the snubber circuit
One of these techniques uses additional damping to force
oscillations to decay [22]. This damping can be provided by the
integration rule itself or externally, by adding fictitious
resistances in parallel with inductances and in series with
capacitors. This method can have an important effect on the
accuracy of the solution.
Another technique is based on the use of snubber (RC) circuits
in parallel with switches. This option is particularly interesting
in power electronics applications as snubber circuits are very
often placed in parallel with semiconductors to limit
overvoltages across them. Figure 2 shows a very simple case of
a half-wave single-phase rectifier. Plots without and with
snubber circuit in parallel with the diode illustrate this
drawback of the trapezoidal rule, and one possible solution.
1-3
Fig. 2. Numerical oscillations and their solution.

Some of the most efficient techniques developed to avoid
numerical oscillations are based on the temporary modification
of the solution method, only when numerical oscillations can
occur, without affecting the rest of the simulation. One of these
techniques is based on the CDA (Critical Damping
Adjustment) procedure [23], [24]. During a switching
operation, CDA uses a backward Euler rule and two half-size
integration steps. This method does not require recalculation of
the admittance matrix.
Another technique is based on interpolation [25]. Several
approaches have been developed. The procedure presented in
[26] uses two time step sizes and represents switching devices
(power electronics components) by means of characteristic
curves. A modified linear interpolation to solve problems
manifested not only in the network solution, but in the control
system too, has been presented in [27].
2.3 INITIALIZATION
The solution of a transient phenomenon is dependent on the
initial conditions with which the transient is started. Although
some simulations can be performed with zero initial conditions,
for instance some lightning surge studies, there are many
instances for which the simulation must be started from powerfrequency steady-state conditions. Capabilities to obtain the
initial steady-state solution are of great importance in emtps. In
addition, an initialization procedure can be a useful tool on its
own, for instance to calculate resonant voltages due to coupling
effects between parallel transmission lines.
The steady-state solution of linear networks at a single
frequency is a rather simple task, and can be obtained using
nodal admittance equations [5]
[Y] [V]
where [Y]
[V]
[I]
[I]
(5)
is the nodal complex admittance matrix

is the vector of node voltages
is the vector of current sources.
Elements of both [V] and [I] are complex phasor values.

As for the transient solution, this equation is partitioned when
the network contains voltage sources to ground
YAA] [VA]
[I A] [YAB] [VB
(6)
However, this task can be very complex in the presence of

nonlinearities. Saturation effects in transformers and shunt
reactors, rectifier loads and HVDC converter stations can
produce steady-state harmonics.
The initial solution with harmonics can be obtained using some
simple approaches. The simplest one is known as "brute force"
approach : the simulation is started without performing any
initial calculation and carried out long enough to let the
transients settle down to steady-state conditions. This approach
can have a reasonable accuracy, but its convergence will be
very slow if the network has components with light damping.
A more efficient method is to perform an approximate linear ac
steady-state solution with nonlinear branches disconnected or
represented by linearized models. Some emtps have either a
"snapshot" or a "start again" feature. The state of the system is
saved after a run, so later runs can be started at this point.
Using a "brute force" initialization, the system is started from
standstill, once it reaches the steady-state, a snapshot is taken
and saved.
A significant effort has been made during the last years to
1-4
develop efficient procedures for implementation in emtps and

aimed at calculating ac steady-state initial conditions with the
presence of nonlinear components. The techniques can be
divided into three groups : frequency-domain, time-domain,
and hybrid methods.
One of the first methods, known as Initialization with
Harmonics (IwH), was presented in [28]. This procedure uses
an iterative solution based on the superposition of the steadystate phasor solutions at the fundamental frequency and at the
most important harmonic frequencies, with a representation of
nonlinear inductances as harmonic current sources.
An improved version of the IwH method was presented in [29].
This procedure uses a harmonic Norton modeling of nonlinear
branches and a quasi-Newton type method.
Several procedures have been proposed to calculate initial
conditions using time-domain techniques. The search of the
periodic steady-state solution is presented as a two-point
boundary value optimization problem. Techniques developed
during the last years are based on an iterative Newton method.
More recent procedures use a shooting method [30], or a
waveform relaxation technique [31]. The latter paper presents
a procedure with a fast and efficient convergence in networks
with nonlinear power elements and ideal diode-type devices.
Hybrid approaches to calculate initial conditions in nonlinear
networks using both frequency- and time-domain techniques
have also been developed [32].
A different solution method to obtain steady-state solution is
needed when initial operating conditions are specified as power
constraints. An initialization procedure, kown as Multiphase
Harmonic Load Flow (MHLF), was presented in [33] and [34].
In this method, static compensators and other nonlinear
elements, under balanced or unbalanced conditions, are
represented by harmonic Norton equivalent circuits. Further
improvements incorporated a synchronous machine model into
the initialization procedure [35]. A simpler multiphase power
flow solution based on the MHLF procedure was presented in
[36]. If this approach is used for emtp initialization, sources
need to be defined to drive the transient solution at those nodes
for which load flow models were specified.
2.4 CONTROL SYSTEMS
The development of a section for representation of control
systems in transients programs was initially motivated by
studies of HVDC links. The Transient Analysis of Control
Systems (TACS) option was implemented in the BPA EMTP
in 1976 [37]. Although the main goal was the simulation of
HVDC converters, it soon became obvious that TACS had

many other applications, such as the representation of
excitation of synchronous generators, dynamic arcs in circuit
breakers, or protective relays.
Components other than transfer functions can be included in a

TACS section, but they are seen as nonlinear blocks and not
directly added into the simultaneous solution of transfer
functions.
Control systems are represented in TACS by block diagrams

with interconnection between system elements. Control
elements can be transfer functions, FORTRAN algebraic
functions, logical expressions and some special devices. The
solution method used by TACS is also based on the trapezoidal
rule. A control block in the s-domain can be described by the
following relationship
When a nonlinear block is inside a closed-loop configuration,

a true simultaneous solution is not possible. The procedure
implemented in the TACS solution is simultaneous only for
linear blocks, that is s-transfer functions, and sequential for
nonlinear blocks. When these blocks are present, the loop is
broken and the system is solved by inserting a time delay.
These delays inside control loops, as well as the delay between
the network and the control system, are the sources of different
effects. Instabilities, inaccuracies and numerical oscillations
produced by delays have been reported.
X(s)
G(s)U(s)
(7)
where U(s) and X(s) are respectively the input and the output
in the Laplace domain, and G(s) a rational transfer function
N0 N1s ... N ms m
D0 D1s ... D ns n
(8)
Transfer functions are converted into algebraic equations in the

time-domain
(t)
K d u(t) hist(t
(9)
where K is the gain, while c and d are obtained from the

coefficient of the rational transfer function G(s) [5], [37].
A control system with many linear blocks results in a system of
equations with the following general form
Axx] [x] [Axu] [u]

[hist
(10)
The resulting algebraic equations of a control system are by

nature unsymmetrical. Due to this fact, the electric network and
the control system were solved separately in the original TACS
release. The network solution is first advanced, network
variables are next passed to the control section, and then
control equations are solved. Finally, the network receives
control commands. The whole procedure introduces a time-step
delay, see Figure 3.
Although the first release of TACS was a powerful and flexible

tool, new applications have been demanding other capabilities
than those implemented in the original version. One example
are the new digital controls used in static compensators, HVDC
converters and other FACTS devices. The execution of tasks
only when needed, the simulation of conditional branching
(IF-THEN-ELSE) or the manipulation of vector arrays are
capabilities not available in the first TACS releases.
Several works have been performed to overcome main
limitations and minimize problems originated by TACS :
* Improvements to solve internal time delays, initialization
problems and some FORTRAN code limitations, were
implemented and presented in [38].
* Limitations in FORTRAN code capabilities were solved by
developing an interface between TACS and FORTRAN
subroutines. The interface presented in [39] maintains full
TACS capabilities and takes advantage of the FORTRAN
flexibility to represent digital controls.
* Another approach to overcome these limitations was provided
by MODELS [40]. Initially known as "New TACS", the
MODELS program was developed to substitute the TACS
program. However, it became obvious that both options
provided alternate approaches, and therefore TACS was
preserved in those emtps in which MODELS was imbedded.
* Several techniques can be used to solve simultaneously power
network and control system equations and avoid problems
related to the interface delay. Two procedures using
compensation have been recently developed [41], [42].
* A different and simple solution using filter interposition to
solve inaccuracies caused by the interface time delay was
recently presented in [43].
Figure 3. Interface between a network and a control system.
1-5
3. MODELING OF COMPONENTS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
An accurate simulation of every transient phenomenon requires
a representation of network components valid for a frequency
range that varies from DC to several MHz. An acceptable
representation of each component throughout this frequency
range is very difficult, and for most components is not
practically possible.
Modeling of power components taking into account the
frequency-dependence of parameters can be practically made by
developing mathematical models which are accurate enough for
a specific range of frequencies. Each range of frequencies
usually corresponds to some particular transient phenomena.
One of the most accepted classification of frequency ranges is
that proposed by the CIGRE WG 33-02 [184]. According to the
CIGRE document, frequency ranges can be classified as four
groups with some overlapping
* low-frequency oscillations, from 0.1 Hz to 3 kHz
* slow-front surges, from 50/60 Hz to 20 kHz
* fast-front surges, from 10 kHz to 3 MHz
* very-fast-front surges, from 100 kHz to 50 MHz.
This part discusses modeling works for some of the most
important network components - overhead lines, insulated
cables, transformers, arresters, network equivalents, rotating
machines, circuit breakers - taking into account their
frequency-dependent behaviour.
3.2 OVERHEAD LINES
Two types of time-domain models have been developed for
overhead lines and insulated cables :
a) Lumped-parameter models, that represent transmission
systems by lumped elements whose values are calculated
at a single frequency
b) Distributed-parameter models, for which two categories
can be distinguished, constant parameter and frequencydependent parameter models.
The first type of models is adequate for steady-state
calculations, although they can also be used for transient
simulations in the neighbourhood of the frequency at which
parameters were evaluated. The most accurate models for
transient calculations are those which take into account the
distributed nature of parameters and consider their
frequency-dependence.
1-6
A significant number of papers dedicated to analyze the

frequency-dependence behaviour of overhead lines and
insulated cables for digital simulation has been presented
during the last 30 years. And although some efficient models
are presently implemented in the most widely used emtps, new
efforts are being now devoted to the development of more
efficient models.
Some of the first papers presenting frequency-dependent line
models for digital simulation were published during the late
1960's and early 1970's [44], [45]. Most models were aimed at
solving transmission-line equations using a time-domain
solution. Those models were based on the modal theory :
multiphase line equations are decoupled through modal
transformation matrices, so that each mode can be separately
studied as a single-phase line. For unbalanced and
untransposed lines, transformation matrices are frequency
dependent. However, it is possible to obtain a good accuracy
using constant transformation matrices [46], [47].
Several approaches using modal theory have been proposed:
weighting functions [10], recursive convolutions [48] - [50],
state-space formulation [51]. One of the most popular models
was presented in [52]; the paper proposed the solution of a
transmission line model using a modified recursive convolution
and assuming frequency-independent transformation matrices.
The transient solution of this model is based on the rational
function approximation of the propagation and characteristic
admittance functions. The order of the rational functions will
depend on the line geometry, the frequency range and the
desired accuracy. A high accuracy can only be obtained with a
large number of real poles. This can slow down the simulation
of large networks. Low-order fittings have been proposed as a
compromise between the solution accuracy and the model
simplicity [53], [54]. The validity and limitations of constant
transformation matrices, as well as guidelines on how to choose
these matrices, were discussed in [55].
A procedure for representing dissipative multiconductor
transmission lines with frequency-dependent parameters in a
wide frequency range has been recently proposed [56]. The
procedure is aimed at evaluating the correcting terms to be
added to the propagation and characteristic admittance
functions calculated according to the solution presented in [52].
New methods using frequency-dependent transformation
matrices have been recently proposed. They are based on a
Newton-Raphson iteration technique [57], vector fitting and
modal decomposition [58], or polar decomposition [59].
A different solution method based on the superposition
principle and the Hartley transform was presented in [60].
Some recent works have shown that the solution of line

equations can be efficiently performed using a phase-domain
formulation, instead of modal-domain [61] - [68]. Reference
[68] uses a second method which combines modal and phase
domain solutions.
All the previous papers consider transmission line
representations taking into account only conductor geometry.
Some other parts of a transmission line, such as the towers,
have an important influence on its performance in lightning
studies. The concept of nonuniform transmission lines includes
the effect of towers and grounding resistances, as well as
corona effect [69], [70]. In lightning studies, towers are
represented by a surge impedance with an associated travel
time. Literature related to tower modeling can be found in [71]
- [74].
A source of attenuation and distortion of surges and
overvoltages in overhead lines is corona. An important effort
has been made during the last 20 years to understand this effect
and for its representation in transient studies [75] - [79]. Many
interesting papers dealing with corona representation in digital
simulations have also been published [80] - [86].
3.3
decomposition [58], or polar decomposition [59].

Additional works related to cable modeling and some case
studies are presented in [91] - [93].
As mentioned above, a new trend in the solution of cable
equations taking into account frequency-dependence of
parameters is to carry out calculations in the phase-domain
[62], [63], [64], [67].
A method for simulating electromagnetic wave propagation in
coaxial cables represented by finite sections, taking into
account the frequency dependence of cable parameters, was
presented in [94].
3.4
POWER TRANSFORMERS
An accurate representation of a power transformer over a wide

frequency range is very difficult, despite of its relatively simple
design. In addition, two alternative transformer models can be
used whether surge transfer from one winding to another is not
of concern, or surge transfer has to be computed.
Representations for both situations were proposed in the
document written by the CIGRE WG 33.02 [184].
INSULATED CABLES
The formulation of insulated cable equations and their solution

are similar to those used with overhead lines. However, the
large variety of cable designs makes very difficult the
development of a single model for representation of every type
of cable.
One of the first works dealing with a general formulation of
impedances and admittances of single-core coaxial and
pipe-type cables was presented in [87]. The cable models could
be used to evaluate matrices and equivalent pi-circuits of cables
and to obtain steady-state initialization at a single frequency,
but they should be used to perform accurate transient
calculations. The validity of this formulation is restricted, as
mentioned above, to transient calculations in the
neighbourhood of the frequency at which parameters are
evaluated. The derivation of cable impedances and admittances
was the subject of some previous works, see [88] for coaxial
cables and [89] for pipe-type cables.
Reference [90] presented a method to solve cable equations
considering the frequency-dependence of cable parameters. The
solution of the cable equations is performed in the modal
domain and assumes frequency-dependence of modal
transformation matrices. The model is valid for transient
simulations over a wide frequency range. Recent works have
presented new approaches based on vector fitting and modal
1-7
A significant effort on transformer modeling has been made

during the last twenty years. Some modeling approaches for use
in transient programs follow :
1) The representation of single- and three-phase n-winding
transformers is made in the form of a branch impedance
or admittance matrix [95]. This approach is generally used
to derive models for low-frequency and slow-front
transients. Transformer parameters are both nonlinear and
frequency-dependent. Major causes of iron core
nonlinearities are saturation and hysteresis; one of the
main causes of frequency-dependence are eddy currents.
This approach cannot include nonlinear effects of iron
cores. They are incorporated by connecting nonlinear
inductances at winding terminals. Many built-in models
currently available in several emtps use this type of
representation; their derivation is made from nameplate
data.
Iron core nonlinearities have been the subjects of many
interesting papers [96] - [102]. The representation of eddy
current effects has been analyzed in [103] - [106].
2) Detailed models incorporating core nonlinearities can also
be derived by using the principle of duality from a
topology based magnetic model [107] - [110]. This
approach is very useful to create models accurate enough
for low-frequency and slow-front transients.
A different approach to obtain the equivalent circuit of a

three-phase five-legged transformer, valid also for
low-frequency and slow-front transients, was proposed in
[111]. A hybrid model based on core topology, and
consisting of electric and magnetic circuits was presented
in [112].
3) Previous approaches do not consider frequency-dependent
parameters, they are not useful to represent a transformer
at high frequencies, although they can be improved if
lumped capacitances are connected across transformer
terminals. Models taking into account frequency-dependent
parameters can be divided into two groups : models with
a detailed description of internal windings [113] and
terminal models, based on the fitting of the elements of a
circuit that represents the transformer as seen from its
terminals [114] - [118].
Reference [119] presents a simplified model based on the
classical T-form model; this model is extended to high
frequencies by adding winding capacitances and representing
short-circuit branches by RL frequency-dependent equivalent
networks.
A hybrid model for internal resonance studies, and valid for a
wide frequency range - from a few kHz to a few Mhz -, was
presented in [120]. The model is based on a coil-by-coil
detailed model plus intercoil black box models.
Detailed models are needed to obtain internal transient voltage
distribution. These models are reasonably accurate for
insulation design, and generally consist of large networks.
However, they make system models unnecessary large when the
concern is the response at the transformer terminals. Some
efforts have been devoted to obtain reduced transformer models,
using either linear or nonlinear techniques [121] - [124].
Other models, including saturation, hysteresis, as well as
eddy-current losses, have been proposed in [125] - [127]. The
performance of different transformer models, most of them
currently implemented in many emtps, for the simulation of
fast switching transients was analyzed in [128].
Usually models are derived considering the behaviour of the
transformer from its terminals, a method for simulation of
internal faults in power transformers using capabilities
available in some emtps was presented and validated in [129].
3.5 SURGE ARRESTERS
(MOSA). Although many of the arresters still in use are the

older type gapped silicon-carbide, the majority of the new
installed arresters are the gapless metal-oxide type. Literature
related to modeling of surge arresters can be found in [130],
[131], [132].
MOSAs present a frequency-dependent nonlinear characteristic : the voltage across the arrester is a function of both the rate
of rise and the magnitude of the current conducted by the
arrester. Modeling of MOSAs was the subject of a paper written
by the IEEE WG on Surge Arrester Modeling [133]. The paper
proposes a procedure to obtain the parameters of the equivalent
model from manufacturer's data.
A different model that represents the frequency-dependence
behaviour by means of a nonlinear inductance in series with a
nonlinear resistance was proposed in [134]. An algorithm to
derive parameters of the arrester model from test data was also
included.
Modeling guidelines of gapped silicon-carbide surge arresters
for digital simulations of slow-front transients were presented
in [135]. The proposed model is based on current-limiting
arrester design. Recommendations to adapt the model for
lightning studies were also included.
Metal-oxide varistors (MOV) models suitable for digital
simulation of series compensated lines have been the subject of
some recent works [136], [137].
3.6
The simulation of transient phenomena in power systems very

often requires a detailed modeling of just a small part of the
system to be studied. Network equivalents can be used to
represent those parts of the system for which a detailed
modeling is not needed. The goal is to reduce the complexity
and the computation time, while the simulation accuracy is
preserved. Several procedures have been proposed since early
1970's to obtain single- and multi-port network equivalents
[138] - [142].
Most of these procedures are based on the frequency response
of the network to be represented by the equivalent and on the
application of a fitting technique to synthesize either a singleor a multi-port circuit which matches the response of the
network over a wide range of frequencies.
3.7
Two basic types of surge arresters are now in use : gapped

silicon-carbide arresters and gapless metal-oxide surge arresters
1-8
NETWORK EQUIVALENTS
ROTATING MACHINES
The need for detailed synchronous generator models in

transients programs was motivated by some serious
subsynchronous resonance (SSR) incidents in the early 1970's.

Utilities were concerned about some problems involving
interactions between synchronous generators and power
systems.
The simulation of torsional interactions between the
mechanical turbine-generator system and the power system
needs a very detailed representation of the generator and the
power system. Several dynamic three-phase synchronous
generator models were developed and implemented in the BPA
EMTP at mid 1970's [143], [144]. All those models were based
on the Park's transformation for solving the electrical
equations. They incorporated a detailed representation of
mechanical and electrical parts, used a sophisticated solution
method to solve machine-power system interface, and included
interface to control systems.
Although its development was raised by SSR problems, those
models could also be used for other studies, such as loss of
synchronism, load rejection or transmission line reclosure.
Magnetic saturation effects were not included at early stages.
A simple and efficient representation of magnetic saturation
was added to one model in the late 1970's [145].
mutual inductances changes with the rotor position, then the

admittance matrix of the network has to be recalculated at each
time step, which generally increases the simulation time.
Different techniques to solve machine-power system interface
have also been developed and implemented in other transients
programs [149].
Models currently implemented in all emtps are adequate for
simulation of low frequency transients. They are sufficiently
accurate to analyze the interaction between the machine and
the power system, as well as torsional oscillations in the
mechanical part. However, these models are not adequate for
simulation of fast-front transients. Some switching motor
operations can originate steep-front surges and cause large
turn-to-turn winding stresses. Lightning surges transferred
through transformers are also a source of high stresses and
dielectric failures. Recent works have proposed computer
models for analyzing machine behaviour in fast-front transients
and predicting distribution of interturn voltages caused by
steep-fronted surges [150], [151], [152]. Some of these models
have been represented and simulated using emtp capabilities
[150], [152].
Interests in the analysis and simulation of renewable energy

sources motivated the demand for other machine models. A
very powerful and flexible module, known as Universal
Machine (UM), was implemented in the BPA EMTP in 1980
[146]. The UM module allowed the representation of up to
twelve different machine models and expanded the applications
of the program, for instance to the simulation of adjustable
speed drives. The first UM release had several limitations that
were solved in subsequent versions [147]. Two interface
methods, compensation and prediction, are currently used with
this module.
Techniques to develop machine models based on their

frequency response have also been proposed [118], [153].
All the machine models above mentioned are based on the

transformation of phase-quantities into dqo-quantities. The
matrix of self and mutual inductances becomes then constant.
With models based on compensation methods no more than one
machine connected to the same nodes can be simulated. This
limitation is avoided with a prediction-based interface.
However, with this solution method, the prediction of several
electrical variables is needed. This can originate numerical
instability.
3.8
The development of a synchronous generator model using

phase-domain equations instead of Park's transformation to
solve the electrical equations has been recently presented [148].
This solution is numerically stable, as no prediction of any
electrical variable is made, and simplifies the inclusion of
saturation effects. With this approach, the matrix of self and
1-9
Most emtp studies are dealing with large three-phase

synchronous and induction machines. The analysis and
simulation of small and special machines were presented in
[154], [155].
The simulation of an induction machine using the existing
synchronous machine models available in some emtps was
detailed in [156].
CIRCUIT BREAKERS
A circuit breaker opens its contacts when a tripping signal is

sent to it. The separation of the contacts causes the generation
of an electric arc. The phenomenon by which the arc is actually
extinguished is very complicated. Although a large number of
arc models have been proposed, there is no general acceptance
for any of them.
Several approaches can be used to reproduce the arc
interruption phenomenon; the most suitable representations in
a transients program are the so called black-box models [157],
[158]. The aim of a black-box arc model is to describe the
interaction of an arc and a electrical circuit during an
interruption process. They consider the arc as a two-pole, and
determine the transfer function using a chosen mathematical
form and fitting free parameters to measured voltage and

current traces. Rather than internal processes, it is the electrical
behaviour of the arc which is of importance. Several levels of
complexity are possible [159], [160] :
1) The breaker is represented as an ideal switch that opens at
first zero current crossing, after the tripping signal is
given. This model can be used to obtain the voltage across
the breaker, which is to be compared with a pre-specified
transient recovery voltage (TRV) withstand capability for
the breaker. This model cannot reproduce any interaction
between the arc and the system.
2) The arc is represented as a time-varying resistance, whose
variation is determined ahead of time based on the breaker
characteristic. This model can represent the effect of the
arc on the system, but requires advanced knowledge of the
effect of the system on the arc.
3) The most advanced models represent the breaker as a
dynamically varying resistance or conductance. They can
represent both the effect of the arc on the system and the
effect of the system on the arc. No precomputed TRV
curves are required. Most of these models rely on a first
order differential equation
- i , g
where g
v
i
-,P
vi
P[ i , g]
(11)
is the arc conductance

is the arc voltage
is the arc current
are black-box model parameters.
recently presented [165].

A vacuum circuit breaker has a different performance, its
representation has to consider its statistical properties. Models
for this type of breaker were presented in [166] and [167].
Several models can also be used to represent a circuit breaker
in closing operations [5] :
1) The simplest model assumes that the breaker behaves as
an ideal switch whose impedance passes instantaneously
from an infinite value, when open, to a zero value at the
closing time. This performance can be represented at any
part of a power cycle.
A closing operation can produce transient overvoltages
whose maximum peaks depend on several factors, for
instance the network representation on the source side of
the breaker, or the charge trapped on transmission lines in
a reclosing operation. One of the factor which has more
influence on the maximum peak is the instant of closing,
which can be different for every pole of a three-phase
breaker.
Most transient programs allow users to analyze the
influence of this factor and obtain a statistical distribution
of switching overvoltages, usually provided in the form of
an accumulative frequency distribution. Two types of
switches can be represented :
a - The closing time of a switch is systematically varied
from a minimum to a maximum instant in equal
increments of time; this type is known as systematic switch.
These models are generally developed to determine initial

arc quenching, that is to study the thermal period only,
although some can also be used to determine arc reignition
due to insufficient voltage withstand capability of the
dielectric between breaker contacts. Their most important
application cases are short line fault interruption and
switching of small inductive currents.
Many models for circuit breakers, represented as a dynamic
resistance/conductance, have been proposed. A survey on
black-box modeling of gas (air, SF6) circuit breakers was
presented in [158]. The emtp implementation of three dynamic
arc models, adequate for gas and oil circuit breakers, was
presented in [161]. All those models are useful to represent a
circuit breaker during the thermal period, models for
representation of SF6 breakers during thermal and dielectric
periods were discussed and used [162], [163]. The development
of a user-defined model based on the Newton's method was
proposed in [164]. A new model also based on the Newton's
method and a predictor for calculation of the arc resistance was
1-10
b - The closing time is randomly varied according to

either a normal (Gaussian) or an uniform distribution; this
type is known as statistical switch. Data required to
represent these switches are the mean closing time, the
standard deviation and the number of switching operations.
When a pre-insertion resistor is used to mitigate switching
overvoltages, the closing time of both main and auxiliary
contacts are statistically determined.
2) The breaker model assumes that there is a closing time
from the moment at which the contacts start to close to the
moment that they finally make. The withstand voltage
decreases as the separation distance between contacts
decreases, an arc will strike before the contacts have
completely closed if the voltage across them exceeds the
withstand voltage of the dielectric medium. Modeling of
the pre-strike effect and its influence on the switching
overvoltages produced during line energization has been
analyzed in [168].
Similar models can be used with other switching devices, for
which a representation for both opening and closing operations

can be needed.
3.9
OTHER COMPONENTS
Capabilities currently available in most emtps make practically

possible user-developed models of those components for which
a built-in model has not been implemented. In fact, this is the
case for some component models discussed above
* a transformer model for low-frequency transients based on
the principle of duality has not been implemented in any
emtp, the capabilities needed to develope such a model
have been used in some papers [107]
* there is no built-in model for circuit breakers in most
emtps, but its representation can be made using branches
and control features, available in all emtps [160], [164]
* although there is a built-in surge arrester model
implemented in all emtps, it is not adequate for lightning
studies; users have to improve this model by taking
advantage of other capabilities.
Semiconductors are usually represented as ideal switches in all
switching operations, although some transients programs allow
users to consider ignition voltages and holding currents. As
with other components, capabilities available in some transient
programs can be used to develop more accurate representations
[169], [170].
The list of components for which a built-in model is not
available might also include instrument transformers [171] [175], protective relays [176] - [181], fuses [182], [183]. The
implementation of models for instrument transformers and
some types of relays in one emtp was presented in [178].
4. MODELING GUIDELINES
The following aspects are to be considered in digital
simulations of electromagnetic transients [184] :
a) Very often only approximated or estimated values are used
for some parameters whose influence on the representation
of a component can be important or very important. In
general, this happens with some basic parameters and
frequency-dependent parameters in simulations of fast and
very fast front transients. In addition, it is important to
take into account that some parameters may change due to
climatic conditions or be dependent on maintenance.
b) In many overvoltages studies it is the maximum peak
which is of interest. This maximum usually occurs during
1-11
the first oscillation after the transient phenomenon starts.

Large differences in peak values are mainly due to a poor
representation of losses, while deviations in inductances or
capacitances will lead to time shifting of the peak but not
to important differences between the maximum values.
c) The more components the system in study has, the higher
the probability of insufficient or wrong modeling. In
addition, a very detailed representation of a system will
require very long simulation time. Some experience will
be therefore needed to decide how detailed the system
should be and choose the model for the most important
components.
Presently there are several sources where it is possible to
consult modeling guidelines of power components for timedomain digital simulations :
1) One of the first document published on this subject was
that produced by the CIGRE WG 33-02 [184]; it covers
the most important power components and proposes the
representation of each component taking into account the
frequency range of the transient phenomena to be
simulated.
2) Modeling guidelines can also be found in the documents
produced by the IEEE Working Group on Modeling and
Analysis of System Transients Using Digital Programs.
The group was created in 1991 and later split up into 6
Task Forces. Following a different approach to that of the
CIGRE WG, each TF was created to produce
documentation on a particular type of studies : Low Frequency
Transients, Switching Transients, Fast Front
Transients, Very Fast Transients, Power Electronics,
Protection and Control. Up to date, several papers have
been presented [185] - [190].
3) Currently, the IEC Working Group 28-04 is dealing with
the same subject. This WG started its tasks in 1996. The
aim is to produce a document on modeling guidelines for
digital calculation of overvoltages.
5. CONCLUSIONS
Time-domain simulations of electromagnetic transients using
digital computers were started in early 1960's. Currently, most
transients programs are based on the Dommel's scheme which
combines the trapezoidal rule and the Bergeron's method.
Much work has been done to solve some of the main drawbacks
and limitations of the original scheme, i.e solution of nonlinear
networks, elimination of numerical oscillations. In addition, a
significant effort has been dedicated to the development of new
models, specially frequency-dependent models for the most

important power components.
The development of the first tools was mainly motivated by the
calculation of overvoltages. Presently most emtps can be used
for simulating a broad spectrum of transient phenomena in
power systems : subsynchronous resonance, power quality
analysis, AC-DC links, FACTS and Custom Power
technologies, electronically-controlled drives.
Due to the wide range of transient phenomena in power
systems and the complexity of many studies, modeling
guidelines are needed to choose a correct representation of the
most critical components of the system to be simulated. Several
works have been published during the last decade aimed at
providing these guidelines. However, some work is still needed
to solve important limitations, i.e. the representation of some
components is very complex, reliable data are not always
available.
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DIGITAL COMPUTATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC

TRANSIENTS IN POWER SYSTEMS: CURRENT STATUS

Abstract- This document presents an introduction to time-domain

Keywords : Electromagnetic Transients, Time-domain

techniques. The subject of this document is the digital

digital computer were started in the early 1960's using two

[11]. These modifications were based on a current source

The trapezoidal rule is used to convert the differential equations

is the nodal conductance matrix

Figure 1. Principles of the compensation method.

Very often the network contains voltage sources to ground, then

and the characteristic of the nonlinear element

f(i km, dikm/dt, t, ...

The resulting conductance matrix is symmetrical and remains

Bergeron's method can be efficiently used with lossless and

The compensation method can be generalized to networks with

The original Dommel's scheme could be used to solve linear

Iterative solution methods, such as the Newton's method, are

Other solution methods has been proposed to solve this

digital filters [16]) or a frequency-domain solution [17]. Some

a) Scheme of the rectifier

b) Simulation result without the snubber circuit

2.2 NUMERICAL OSCILLATIONS

Fig. 2. Numerical oscillations and their solution.

is the nodal complex admittance matrix

Elements of both [V] and [I] are complex phasor values.

However, this task can be very complex in the presence of

develop efficient procedures for implementation in emtps and

HVDC converters, it soon became obvious that TACS had

Components other than transfer functions can be included in a

Control systems are represented in TACS by block diagrams

When a nonlinear block is inside a closed-loop configuration,

Transfer functions are converted into algebraic equations in the

where K is the gain, while c and d are obtained from the

Axx] [x]  [Axu] [u]

The resulting algebraic equations of a control system are by

Although the first release of TACS was a powerful and flexible

Figure 3. Interface between a network and a control system.

A significant number of papers dedicated to analyze the

Some recent works have shown that the solution of line

decomposition [58], or polar decomposition [59].

An accurate representation of a power transformer over a wide

The formulation of insulated cable equations and their solution

A significant effort on transformer modeling has been made

A different approach to obtain the equivalent circuit of a

(MOSA). Although many of the arresters still in use are the

The simulation of transient phenomena in power systems very

Two basic types of surge arresters are now in use : gapped

The need for detailed synchronous generator models in

subsynchronous resonance (SSR) incidents in the early 1970's.

mutual inductances changes with the rotor position, then the

Interests in the analysis and simulation of renewable energy

Techniques to develop machine models based on their

All the machine models above mentioned are based on the

The development of a synchronous generator model using

Most emtp studies are dealing with large three-phase

A circuit breaker opens its contacts when a tripping signal is

form and fitting free parameters to measured voltage and

is the arc conductance

recently presented [165].

These models are generally developed to determine initial

b - The closing time is randomly varied according to

which a representation for both opening and closing operations

Capabilities currently available in most emtps make practically

Axx] [x] [Axu] [u]