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Lectures On Fourier Series: S. Kesavan Institute of Mathematical Sciences Chennai-600 113, INDIA
Lectures On Fourier Series: S. Kesavan Institute of Mathematical Sciences Chennai-600 113, INDIA
S. Kesavan
Institute of Mathematical Sciences
Chennai-600 113, INDIA
Contents
1 Introduction
2 Orthonormal Sets
11
12
15
23
7 Fej
ers Theorem
27
8 Regularity
30
9 Pointwise Convergence
39
10 Termwise Integration
44
11 Termwise Differentiation
47
References
52
Introduction
was known and a solution of the boundary value problem had been found
from the general solution of that equation. The concept of fundamental
modes of vibration led them to the notion of superposition of solutions and
Bernoulli proposed a solution of the form
y(x, t) =
bn sin
n=1
nat
nx
cos
c
c
(1.1)
(where c is the length of the string). The initial position of the string f (x)
will then be represented by
f (x) =
X
n=1
bn sin
nx
c
(0 x c).
(1.2)
At that time, the word function had a very restricted meaning and was
understood as something given by an analytic expression. Euler thought that
the initial position of a plucked string need not always be a function, but
some form where different parts could be expressed by different functions. In
other words, function and graph meant different things. For every function,
we can draw its graph but every graph that can be drawn need not come
from a function.
Euler strongly objected to Bernoullis claim that every solution to the
problem of a plucked string could be represented in the form (1.1), on two
counts. First of all the right-hand side of (1.1) was a periodic function, while
the left-hand side was arbitrary. Further, the right-hand side of (1.2) was
an analytic formula and hence a function, while the left-hand side, f , could
be any graph. So Euler believed that dAlemberts solution was valid when
f was any graph while Bernoullis solution was applicable only to a very
restricted class of functions.
J. B. Fourier (17681830) presented many instructive examples of expansions of functions in trigonometric series in connection with boundary value
problems associated to the conduction of heat. His book Theorie Analytique
de la Chaleur (1822) is a classic. Fourier never justified the convergence of
his series expansions and this was objected to by his contemporaries Lagrange, Legendre and Laplace. Fourier asserted that any periodic function
could be written as a trigonometric series.
Dirichlet (18051859) firmly established in 1829 (nearly seventy years
after the controversy started), sufficient conditions on a function f so that
its Fourier series converges to its value at a point.
Since then a lot of ideas and theories grew out of a need to understand
what these series meant. Amongst them are Cantors theory of infinite sets,
the rigorous notion of a function, the theories of integration due to Riemann
and Lebesgue and the theories of summability of series.
In mathematical analysis, we always try to find approximation of objects
by simpler objects. For example, we approximate real numbers by rationals.
By truncating the Taylor series of a function, we approximate the function by
a polynomial. However, for a function to admit a Taylor series, it has to be
infinitely differentiable (but this is not sufficient!) in some interval but this is
quite restrictive. Indeed Weierstrass approximation theorem states that any
continuous function defined on a finite closed interval can be approximated
uniformly by a polynomial.
Now, consider the set of all functions {1} {cos nt, sin nt | n N} on
4
(1.4)
n=1
form an algebra (i.e. the set is closed under pointwise addition, multiplication and scalar multiplication) and it does not vanish at any point and
separates points. By the Stone-Weierstrass theorem (which generalizes the
Weierstrass approximation theorem), every periodic continuous function on
[, ] can be approximated uniformly by trigonometric polynomials.
A trigonometric polynomial of the form (1.4) can also be written in exponential form:
N
X
f (x) =
cn exp(inx).
(1.5)
n=N
bn = i(cn cn )
or, equivalently,
an + ibn
an ibn
; cn =
.
2
2
If n is a non-zero integer, then exp(inx) is the derivative of exp(inx)/in,
which also has period 2. Thus
(
Z
1 if n = 0
1
exp(inx) dx =
(1.6)
2
0 if n 6= 0.
cn =
am =
f (x) cos mx dx
Z
(1.8)
1
exp(inx),
n=
or, equivalently,
a0 X
+
(an cos nx + bn sin nx) .
2
n=1
Orthonormal Sets
X
`2 = x = (xi ) |
|xi |2 < .
i=1
th
Then again, the set of sequences {en }
n=1 where en has 1 as the n entry and
zero at all other places, is orthonormal in `2 .
nx | n N} is orthonormal in
Example 2.4. The sequence { 12 } { sinnx , cos
L2 (, ).
Pn
(2.2)
Proof. We have kx i=1 (x, ei )ei k2 0. Expanding this, we get, using the
fact that the {ei } are orthonormal,
2
kxk +
n
X
i=1
|(x, ei )| 2
n
X
i=1
|(x, ei )|2 0
x2 (x2 , e1 )e1
.
kx1 (x2 , e1 )e1 k
xk+1
kxk+1
Pk
Pki=1
(xk+1 , ei )ei
Thus, inductively we obtain {e1 , . . . , en }. This procedure is called the GramSchmidt orthogonalization procedure.
Thus, if H is a finite dimensional space, we can construct an orthonormal
basis for H.
Henceforth, we will assume that H is infinite dimensional and separable.
Definition 2.2. An orthonormal set is complete if it is maximal with respect
to the partial ordering on orthonormal sets in H induced by inclusion.
Let {en } be an orthonormal sequence in an infinite dimensional (separable) Hilbert space. Let x H. Define
yn =
n
X
(x, en )en .
i=1
m
X
kyn ym k =
i=n+1
|(x, ei )|2
and the right-hand side tends to zero, by Bessels inequality. Thus, {yn } is a
Cauchy sequence and so converges in H. We define the limit to be
(x, ei )ei .
i=1
P
Proposition 2.3. The vector x
j=1 (x, ej )ej is orthogonal to each ei .
Further,
X
X
2
2
kx
(x, ei )ei k = kxk
|(x, ei )|2 .
(2.4)
i=1
i=1
Pn
P
Proof. Given any n, set yn = i=1 (x, ej )ej . Then yn
i=1 (x, ei )ei in H.
Now, if 1 i n, clearly (x yn , ei ) = 0. Fix i, and the above relation
holds for all n i. Thus,
X
(x
(x, ej )ej , ei ) = 0.
j
Now,
kx yn k
= kxk +
= kxk2
n
X
i=1
n
X
i=1
|(x, ei )| 2
n
X
i=1
|(x, ei )|2
|(x, ei )|2 .
x=
X
j
(x, ej )ej .
(2.5)
(2.6)
x
kxk
n
X
(x, ei )ei .
i=1
Thus the linear span of {ei } is dense in H. Conversely, if the linear span is
dense, then, if x is orthogonal to all the ei , it follows that x = 0. Thus {ei }
is complete.
Remark 2.1. In view of (2.5), a complete orthonormal set is also called an
orthonormal basis.
Example 2.5. Consider the sequence {en } in `2 (cf. Example 2.2). This
sequence is complete in `2 since
kxk2 =
X
i=1
|xi |2 =
X
i=1
|(x, ei )|2 .
Example 2.6. Consider the Hilbert space L2 (, ). It is known that continuous functions with compact support are dense in this space. Such functions
are periodic (they vanish at and ) and we saw in 1 that, by virtue
of the Stone-Weierstrass theorem, they can be uniformly approximated by
10
, |nN
2
form a complete orthonormal set in L2 (, ). In particular, if
f L2 (, ), we have, by Parsevals identity,
1
|f | dx =
2
Z
2
f (t) dt +
" Z
2
2 #
Z
1
1
f (t) cos nt dt +
f (t) sin nt dt
+
n=1
which yields
1
|f |2 dx =
a20 X
+
|an |2 + |bn |2
2
n=1
(2.7)
i=1 (x, ei )ei and the quantities (x, ei ) are called the Fourier coefficients.
a0 X
+
(an cos nt + bn sin nt)
(3.1)
2
n=1
bn = dn sin n .
In other words,
dn =
a2n + b2n ,
(3.2)
This result is one of the forms of what is called the Riemann-Lebesgue lemma.
We now prove a very useful generalization of this.
12
lim
f (t)h(t) dt = 0.
(4.2)
g(t)|h(t)
dt
+
g(t)h(t)
dt
0
0
0
Z
+
g(t)h(t) dt
2
0
and for large enough the secondR term can also be made to be less than
0
13
(4.3)
Proof.
Z c
1
1
1
cos t dt = (sin c)
c
c
|c|
Z c 0
1
1
2
sin t dt = (1 cos c)
c
c
|c|
0
We nowP
give an immediate application of this result. Given a convergent series
n=1 n , we know that n 0 as n . We now ask if a
trigonometric series
a0 X
+
(an cos nt + bn sin nt)
2
n=1
is convergent, whether an 0 and bn 0 as n .
Theorem
P 4.2 (Cantor-Lebesgue Theorem). If a trigonometric series
a0
+
n=1 (an cos nt + bn sin nt) converges on a set E whose (Lebesgue) mea2
sure is positive, then an 0 and bn 0.
Proof. Without loss of generality, we may assume that E has finite
p measure.
We rewrite the trigonometric series as in (3.2) where dn = a2n + b2n and
n = cos1 (an /dn ). Since the series converges, it follows that for all t E,
dn cos(nt n ) 0
as n . Assume that {dn } does not converge to zero. Then, there exists
> 0 and a subsequence {nk } such that
dnk > 0,
for all k. Then, it follows that cos(nk t nk ) 0 as k for all t E.
Since E is of finite measure, it follows, from the dominated convergence
theorem, that
Z
E
cos2 (nk t nk ) dt 0.
14
(4.4)
Now cos2 (nk t nk ) = 21 [1 + cos 2(nk t nk )]. But then E L1 (R) and so
Z
Z
cos 2(nk t nk ) dt =
E (t) cos 2(nk t nk ) dt
E
R
Z
= cos 2nk E (t) cos 2nk t dt +
RZ
+ sin 2nk E (t) sin 2nk t dt
R
and both the integrals on the right-hand side tend to zero by Corollary 4.1.
It then follows that
Z
(E)
cos2 (nk t nk ) dt
>0
2
E
which contradicts (4.4). This shows that dn 0 and so an 0 and bn
0.
a0 X
f (t)
+
(an cos nt + bn sin nt)
2
n=1
(5.1)
n
X
ck exp(ikt).
k=n
k=n
Z
1
f (x)Dn (t x) dx
=
2
where
Dn (t) =
n
X
exp(ikt).
(5.3)
k=n
By the 2-periodicity, it follows that the integral does not change as long as
the length of the interval of integration is 2. This proves (5.4b). The relation
16
f (t + x)Dn (x) dx =
f (t y)Dn (y) dy
2n + 1
t = 2k, k N {0}.
Further,
1
2
(5.5)
Dn (t) dt = 1.
(5.6)
sin t
, t 6= 0
(, t) =
t
,
t=0
17
(5.7)
where and t are real numbers. The associated discrete Fourier kernel is
given by
1
sin(n + 2 )t
t 6= 0
(5.8)
n (t) =
t
n + 12
t = 0,
where t R and n is a non-negative integer.
sin(t/2)
2n + 1 as t . Thus Dn is continuous. Similarly, it is easy to see that the
continuous and discrete Fourier kernels are also continuous.
Definition 5.2. The Fej
er kernel is defined by
n
1 X
Kn (t) =
Dk (t).
n + 1 k=0
(5.9)
Kn (t) =
(5.10)
(5.11)
2
.
(n + 1)(1 cos )
(5.12)
from which we deduce (5.10). The relation (5.11) follows directly from the
definition (cf. (5.9)) and the relation (5.6). That Kn is non-negative follows
immediately from (5.10). So does relation (5.12).
18
We now derive some estimates for integrals of the Dirichlet and Fourier
kernels. First we need a technical result.
Lemma 5.1. Let {Ak } be a sequence of real numbers such that A2k1 > 0
and A2k < 0 and such that |Ak+1 | < |Ak | for all k N. Then, for every
k N, we have
0 < A1 + . . . + Ak < A1 .
(5.13)
Proof. Let k be odd. Then
A1 + (A2 + A3 ) + (A4 + A5 ) + . . . + (Ak1 + Ak )
is such that each term in parentheses is negative. Thus the sum is less than
A1 . Again
(A1 + A2 ) + (A3 + A4 ) + . . . + (Ak2 + Ak1 ) + Ak
is such that each term in parentheses is greater than 0 and Ak > 0. Thus
the sum is greater than 0. This proves (5.13) in the case k is odd. The proof
when k is even is similar.
Proposition 5.4. Let 0 a < b . Let n 0 be an integer. Then
Z b
sin(n
+
1/2)t
(5.14)
dt 4.
sin(t/2)
a
Proof. Let
Ak =
k/(n+1/2)
(k1)/(n+1/2)
sin(n + 1/2)t
dt,
sin(t/2)
1 k n + 1.
Then in each such interval, the numerator of the integrand varies like sin t
between (k1) and k. On the other hand sin(t/2) is positive and increases.
Thus clearly hA1 > 0 and Ak alternates
h in signi and decreases in absolute value.
(k1)
k
n
Now let a n+1/2 , n+1/2
or a n+1/2
, .
i
n
If a is in the interior of any of these intervals (or, if a n+1/2
, , when
k = n + 1), we have
Z a
sin(n + 1/2)t
dt
sin(t/2)
(k1)/(n+1/2)
19
Thus
Z a
0
sin(n + 1/2)t
dt = A1 + . . . + Ak1 +
sin(t/2)
(k1)/(n+1/2)
sin(n + 1/2)t
dt
sin(t/2)
a
0
sin(n + 1/2)t
dt < A1 .
sin(t/2)
Now, in the interval [0, /(n + 1/2)], the integrand is positive and decreasing
with maximum value (2n + 1) at t = 0. Thus
A1 < (2n + 1)
Now
Z
= 2.
(n + 1/2)
Z b
Z a
sin(n + 1/2)t
sin(n + 1/2)t
sin(n + 1/2)t
dt =
dt
dt
sin(t/2)
sin(t/2)
sin(t/2)
0
0
4
(5.15)
for > 0.
Proof. Define
Ak =
k/
(k1)/
sin t
dt =
t
20
k
(k1)
sin t
dt.
t
Then, again, {Ak } has alternating signs and decreases in absolute value. As
in the previous lemma, we get
Z a
sin t
0<
dt < A1 .
t
0
Since sint t 1, we get A1 and so
Z
Z b
Z a
sin t
sin t b sin t
dt =
dt
dt 2.
t
t
t
0
0
a
The discrete Fourier kernel is a very good approximation of the Dirichlet
kernel.
Proposition 5.6. Let f L1 (0, ). Let 0 < r . Then
Z r
Z r
sin(n + 12 )t
sin(n + 21 )t
dt
=
lim
dt
lim
f (t)
f
(t)
t
n 0
n 0
sin 2t
2
(5.16)
t0
sin t t
Define
1
1
t 6= 0
t = 0.
dt =
(t) sin nt dt+
(t) cos nt dt
2
sin(t/2) t/2
0
0
0
and, by the Riemann-Lebesgue lemma (cf. Corollary 4.1), both the integrals
on the right-hand side tend to zero as n and the result follows.
21
Both the functions Dn (t) and n (t) enjoy the Riemann-Lebesgue property.
More precisely, we have the following result.
Proposition 5.7. Let f L1 (0, ) and let 0 < r . Then
Z
Z
lim
f (t)Dn (t) dt = lim
f (t)n (t) dt = 0.
n
(5.17)
Now,
f (x t)Dn (t) dt =
f (x + t)Dn (t) dt
using the evenness of Dn and so once again this integral also tends to zero.
This completes the proof.
Note that the Fourier coefficients depend on the values of a function f
throughout the interval [, ]. However, if f and g are in L1 (, ) and
for some t [, ] and r > 0, we have f g in (t r, t + r) it follows
from the above theorem that the Fourier series of f will converge at t if, and
only if, the Fourier series of g converges at t and in this case the sums of the
Fourier series are the same. Thus the behaviour of the Fourier series at a
point t depends only on the values of the function in a neighbourhood of t.
This is in strong contrast with the behaviour of power series. If two power
series coincide in an open interval, then they are identical throughout their
common domain of convergence.
22
A basic question that can be asked is the following: does the Fourier series
of a continuous 2-periodic function, f , converge to f (t) at every point t
[, ]?
Unfortunately, the answer is No! and we will study this now.
Proposition 6.1. We have
lim
|Dn (t)| dt = +.
(6.1)
|Dn (t)| dt 4
= 4
| sin(n + 21 )t|
dt
t
(n+ 12 )
> 4
> 4
=
n Z
X
| sin t|
dt
t
k=1 (k1)
n Z k
X
k=1 (k1)
n
X
k=1
| sin t|
dt
t
| sin t|
dt
k
1
k
f (t)Dn (t) dt
1
kn k
2
|Dn (t)| dt
1 m d(t, En )
1 + m d(t, En )
Let us now recall a few results from topology and functional analysis.
Theorem 6.1 (Baire). If X is a complete metric space, the intersection of
every countable collection of dense open sets of X is dense in X.
Equivalently, Baires theorem also states that a complete metric space
cannot be the countable union of nowhere dense sets.
One of the important consequences of Baires theorem is the BanachSteinhaus theorem also known as the uniform boundedness principle.
24
(6.3)
sup k xk =
(6.4)
or,
A
(6.5)
Then, by Baires theorem E is also a dense G -set. (Each Exi is the countable
intersection of dense open sets and so, the same is true for E). Thus for each
f E, the Fourier series of f diverges at xi for all 1 i . Define
s (f ; x) = sup |sn (f )(x)|.
n
25
Proposition 6.3. The set E V is a dense G -set such that for all f E,
the set Qf (, ) where its Fourier series diverges, is a dense G -set in
(, ).
Proposition 6.4. In a complete metric space, which has no isolated points,
no countable dense set can be a G .
Proof. Let E = {x1 , . . . , xn , . . .} be a countable dense set. Assume E is
a G . Thus E =
n=1 Wn , Wn open and dense. Then, by hypothesis, Wn \
ni=1 {xi } = Vn is also open and dense. But
n=1 Vn = , contradicting Baires
theorem.
Thus, there exists uncountably many 2-periodic continuous functions on
[, ] whose Fourier series diverge on a dense G -set of (, ).
Having answered our first general question negatively, let us now prove a
positive result.
Proposition 6.5. Let f be a 2-periodic function on [, ] which is uniformly Lipschitz continuous, i.e. there exists K > 0 such that
|f (x) f (y) K|x y|
for all x, y. Then, the Fourier series of f converges to f on [, ].
Proof. Choose 0 < r < such that
Z
1 r |t/2|
dt <
.
r | sin(t/2)|
2K
t/2
This is possible since sin(t/2)
is a bounded continuous function, and hence
integrable on [, ]. If C is an upper bound for this function, we need only
Z
1
|sn (x) f (x)| =
f (x t) f (x) Dn (t) dt .
2
26
t)
f
(x)
D
(t)
dt
+
n
2
2
r
On the other hand,
Z r
Z
1
K r |t|| sin(n + 1/2)t|
dt
f (x t) f (x) Dn (t) dt
2
2 r
| sin t/2|
r
Z
K r
|t|/2
dt < .
r | sin(t/2)|
2
Fej
ers Theorem
1
n (x) f (x) =
2
f (x t) f (x) Kn (t) dt,
t)
f
(x)
K
(t)
dt
n
4M
P
aro summable or (C, 1)
Given a series
n an , we say that it is Ces`
summable to a if n a as n , where
n =
s1 + . . . + sn
,
n
sk being the partial sums of the series. Thus the Fourier series of a continuous
2-periodic function is always Ces`aro summable to the function.
Thus if f is a continuous 2-periodic function whose Fourier series is given
by
a0 X
+
(an cos nt + bn sin nt),
2
n=1
Starting from this, we can deduce Weierstrass approximation theorem. Indeed, let f C[1, 1]. Define g(t) = f (cos t), for t [, ]. Then g is
2-periodic and continuous. Further, g is an even function and hence its
Fourier series will only consist of cosine terms. Let the Fourier series of g be
given by
a0 X
+
ak cos kt.
2
k=1
Then
n
k
a0 X
+
1
n (t) =
ak cos kt.
2
n+1
k=1
1
ak cos kt <
f (cos t)
2
n+1
k=1
1
ak cos k(cos t) <
f (t)
2
n+1
k=1
29
(7.2)
Regularity
exists. Then f is bounded in a subinterval (a, a+) (where > 0) and so, by
the mean-value theorem, f is uniformly continuous on (a, a + ). Thus it can
be continuously extended to [a, a + ]. Consequently f (a+) = limta f (t),
exists.
Again by the mean-value theorem, applied to f where f(a) = f (a+) and
f (t) f (a+)
= f 0 (a+).
ta
(8.1)
f (t) f (a)
.
ta
n
X
i=1
|f (xi ) f (xi1 )|
and
V (f ; a, b) = sup V (P; f )
P
the supremum being taken over all possible partitions of [a, b]. The quantity
V (f ; a, b) is called the total variation of f over the interval [a, b].
Definition 8.2. A real (or complex) valued function defined on [a, b] is said
to be of bounded variation on [a, b] if V (f ; a, b) < .
Example 8.1. Any monotonic function defined on [a, b] is of bounded variation. In this case
V (f ; a, b) = |f (b) f (a)|.
31
=
.
2
4j
j
P
Thus for all n, V (f ; 0, 1) 2 nj=1 1j and so V (f ; 0, 1) = .
|f (xj ) f (xj1)| =
n
X
f (xi ) f (xi1 )
n
X
f (xi ) f (xi1 )
i=1
and
n(P; f ) =
i=1
+
where, again, the supremum are taken over all possible partitions of [a, b].
32
(8.2)
(8.3)
(8.4)
(8.5)
Relations (8.4) and (8.5) yield (8.3), since V (f ; a, b) < implies that
P (f ; a, b) < and N(f ; a, b) < . Now
V (P; f ) = p(P; f ) + n(P; f )
gives us
V (f ; a, b) P (f ; a, b) + N(f ; a, b).
(8.6)
33
(8.7)
(8.8)
then F 0 = f a.e. on [a, b]. We now ask the question as to when a function
can be expressed as an indefinite integral of an integrable function.
34
i=1
Thus
V (F ; a, b)
Hence the result.
xi1
|f (t)| dt < .
35
R
R
R
Rb
Then | E f dx| E |f | dx a (|f | fN ) dx + E fN dx < . This completes
the proof.
Definition 8.3. A function f : [a, b] R is said to be absolutely continuous on [a, b] if for every > 0, there exists > 0 such that whenever we
have a finite collection of disjoint intervals {(xi , x0i )}ni=1 satisfying
n
X
i=1
we have
n
X
i=1
(x0i xi ) <
36
n
X
k=0
Now,
n
X
k=1
Also
|xk+1 yk | < .
|f (c) f (a)| + (c a)
or f (c) = f (a) for all c (a, b). Hence the result.
37
b
a
|F20 | dx
+
a
a
Z b
Z b
F20 dx
F10 dx +
=
|F | dx
|F10 | dx
b
0
38
f 0 (t)g(t) dt.
(8.9)
Proof. Consider the function f 0 (x)g 0 (y) on [a, b][a, b]. Consider the integral
Z bZ x
f 0 (x)g 0 (y) dy dx.
a
Pointwise Convergence
In this section, we will prove the convergence theorems of Dirichlet and Jordan.
Proposition 9.1. Let f L1 (0, ) and assume that f 0 (0+) exists. Then
Z
sin(n + 12 )t
1
1
lim
f (t)
dt = f (0+).
(9.1)
n 0
t
2
Proof. Adding and subtracting f (0+) in the integrand, we get
Z
Z
Z
sin(n + 21 )t
sin(n + 12 )t
sin(n + 21 )t
dt =
dt+f (0+)
dt.
(f (t)f (0+))
f (t)
t
t
t
0
0
0
39
The second integral on the right-hand side becomes (after a change of variable),
Z (n+ 1 )
2
sin t
dt
t
0
which converges to /2 as n . Thus,
1
lim f (0+)
n
sin(n + 21 )t
1
dt = f (0+).
t
2
Hence we need to show that the first term tends to zero as n . Let > 0
be an arbitrarily small number. Choose 0 < r < such that for 0 < t r,
f (t) f (0+)
0
<
f
(0+)
t
( cf. (8.1)). Then,
Z
(f (t) f (0+))
R
sin(n+ 21 )t
r
dt
0 (f (t) f (0+))
t
sin(n + 21 )t
dt =
R
r
(f (t) f (0+))
sin(n+ 12 )t
t
dt.
and
Z r
f
(t)
f
(0+)
1
0
< r <
f
(0+)
sin(n
+
)t
dt
t
2
0
Z
1
sin(n + )t dt =
2
t
sin cos nt dt +
2
cos
t
sin nt dt
2
Theorem 9.1. (Dirichlet) Let f L1 (, ) be a piecewise smooth function. Then its Fourier series converges to 12 (f (t+) + f (t)) at all points
t [, ]. In particular, if f is continuous at a point t, then its Fourier
series converges to f (t) at that point.
Proof. Recall that (cf. (5.4e))
Z
1
sn (t) =
(f (t + x) + f (t x))Dn (x) dx.
2 0
Now, by (9.1), we have
1
lim
n
1
lim
n 2
Thus,
sin(n + 21 )x
1
f (t + x)
dx = f (t+).
x
2
f (t + x)
sin(n + 21 )x
x
2
dx =
1
f (t+).
2
sin(n + 21 )x
1
f (t x)
dx = f (t)
x
sin 2
2
1, t < /2
0, /2 t /2
f (t) =
1, /2 < t .
This function is piecewise smooth and is odd. Thus, its Fourier series consists
only of sine functions. Now,
Z
Z
1
2
bn =
f (t) sin nt dt =
sin nt dt.
2
41
Thus,
2
,
n
n odd
0, n = 4k, k N
=
4
n , n = 4k + 2, k N
bn
3 5 7
which yields the well known Gregory series
1 1 1
= 1 + +
4
3 5 7
In order to prove the next result, we recall a version of the mean value
theorem for integrals.
Proposition 9.2. Let g : [a, b] R be continuous and let f : [a, b] R
be non-negative and monotonic increasing. Then, there exists c [a, b] such
that
Z
Z
b
g(t) dt.
f (t)g(t) dt = f (b)
(9.2)
Remark 9.1. The result is false if f is not non-negative. To see this, take
f (t) = g(t) = t on [1, 1]. Then the left-hand side will be
Z 1
2
t2 dt = .
3
1
The right-hand side is
f (1)
t dt =
1 c2
2
and we can never have c [1, 1] such that the two are equal.
Remark 9.2. In the mean value theorem of differential calculus, the point
c will be in the interior of the interval. In case of mean value theorems for
integrals, this need not be necessarily the case. For instance, if f 1 on
[a, b] and if g is strictly positive on that interval, then we cannot have (9.2)
with c (a, b).
42
(9.3)
Z
(f
(t)
f
(0+))
dt
1
0
t
sin(n + 2 )t
f (t)
dt =
t
R sin(n+ 21 )t
0
dt.
+ f (0+) 0
t
As already shown in the proof of Proposition 9.1, the second integral converges to /2. Thus, as before, it is enough to show that the first integral
tends to zero as n .
Let > 0 be an arbitrarily small number. Choose 0 < r such that
|f (t) f (0+)| < /4, 0 < t r.
(9.4)
Then, splitting the first integral over [0, r] and [r, ], we see that the integral
on [r, ] tends to zero by the Riemann-Lebesgue property for n (cf. Proposition 5.7) since f (t) f (0+) is integrable over that interval. Thus, for n
sufficiently large, we have
Z
1
1
sin(n
+
)t
2
< .
(f
(t)
f
(0+))
dt
2
t
r
f
(0+))
dt
2
t
0
43
10
Termwise Integration
P
In general, when we have a series f (x) = n fn (x), we can integrate the
series term-by-term if the series is uniformly convergent. However, we have
seen that Fourier series (under appropriate hypotheses) converge to (f (t+) +
f (t))/2 at a discontinuity. Thus, if the function is discontinuous, uniform
convergence is ruled out and the above principle does not apply. However,
Fourier series are special and enjoy special properties. Vis-`a-vis integration,
we have the following result.
Theorem 10.1. Let f L1 (, ) be extended periodically over R and have
the Fourier series
a0 X
+
(an cos nt + bn sin nt).
2
n=1
Then,
(i) the series obtained by termwise integration, viz.
X
an
bn
a0
x+
sin x cos x + C
2
n
n
n=1
where
C =
X
bn
n=1
44
Rx
converges to 0 f (t) dt.
(ii) This convergence is uniform if f L2 (, ).
Proof. Let
Z
F (x) =
a0
f (t)
dt.
2
f (t)
a0
2
dt
c0 X
+
(cn cos nt + dn sin nt).
2
n=1
1
F (t) sin nt
n
1
n
f (t)
a0
2
sin nt dt.
c0 X
+
F (t) =
2
n=1
an
bn
sin nt cos nt .
n
n
X
c0
bn
=
.
2
n
n=1
45
a0
2
sin nt.
X
c0
bn
=
,
2
n
n=1
1
it follows that
P for any f L (, ), the Fourier sine coefficients bn are
such that n bn /n is convergent. The absolute convergence of this series,
however, is true under the additional hypothesis that f L2 (, ).
X
sin nt
n=2
log n
(10.1)
cos 2t cos(n + 21 )t
sin kt =
2 sin 2t
k=1
and so
n
X
1
1
sin kt
t
sin a2
| sin 2 |
k=1
46
for t [a, 2 a] for any a (0, ). Thus, by Dirichlets test, the given series
in (10.1) converges uniformly in [a, 2 a] for any a (0, ). However, the
series
X
X
bn
1
=
n
n log n
n=2
n=2
is divergent and so the given series cannot be a Fourier series.
P
Remark 10.3. Note that in a Fourier series, it is necessary
P that n bn /n
is convergent. However, there is no such condition on
n an /n. Indeed,
Stromberg (1981) has shown that the series
X
cos nt
log n
n=2
is a Fourier series!
11
Termwise Differentiation
Consider the Fourier series of the 2-periodic extension of the function f (t) =
t on [, ]. Of course, such an extension has jump discontinuities at all odd
multiples of . Nevertheless,
f (t) = 2
X
(1)n+1
n1
sin nt
(1)n+1 cos nt
n=1
47
a0 X
+
(an cos nt + bn sin nt).
2
n=1
X
f 0 (t+) + f 0 (t)
=
(nbn cos nt nan sin nt).
2
n=1
(11.1)
c0 X
+
(cn cos nt + dn sin nt).
2
n=1
Since f is 2-periodic, we have
1
=
c0
Again, for n 1,
cn =
=
f 0 (t) dt = 0.
f 0 (t) cos nt dt
1
f (t) cos nt
X
n=1
n2k a2n
< , and
48
X
n=1
(11.2)
with equality if, and only if, the curve is a circle. For the circle, we do indeed
have equality since L = 2r and A = r 2 , where r is its radius. On the other
hand, for any curve of given length L, the maximum possible value for the
enclosed area is L2 /4, which is achieved for the circle. Thus, this establishes
the circle as the optimal solution. The uniqueness follows from the only if
part of the proof.
Let us assume that a simple closed curve C is parametrized by the equations x = x(s), y = y(s), where s is the arc length, which varies over the
interval [0, L]. We assume that the functions x(s) and y(s) verify the hypotheses of Theorem 11.1. We reparametrize the equations using the parameter
2
s
t =
L
so that t [0, 2] and x and y are 2-periodic smooth functions in t with
piecewise smooth derivaives. Let
P
x(t) = a20 +
(a
cos
nt
+
b
sin
nt)
n
n
n=1
(11.3)
P
c0
y(t) = 2 + n=1 (cn cos nt + dn sin nt).
49
Thus,
x0 (t) =
0
n=1 (ndn
y (t) =
Since
we get that
n=1 (nbn
dx
ds
2
(11.4)
dy
ds
2
= 1,
2
2 2
dy
L
dx
+
=
.
dt
dt
2
Then, by Parsevals identity, it follows that
2
Z " 2 2 #
X
L
dx
1 2
dy
2
dt =
n2 (a2n + b2n + c2n + d2n ).
=
+
2
0
dt
dt
n=1
(11.5)
Now, the enclosed area A is given by
Z
Z 2
X
dy
n(an dn bn cn ).
(11.6)
A =
x dy =
x(t) (t) dt =
dt
C
0
n=1
X
L 4A = 2
(nan dn )2 + (nbn + cn )2 + (n2 1)(c2n + d2n )
2
n=1
x(t) =
a0
2
+ a1 cos t + b1 sin t
y(t) =
c0
2
b1 cos t + a1 sin t
x(t)
c0 2
a0 2
+ y(t)
= a21 + b21
2
2
50
and so the curve has to be a circle, thus proving the uniqueness of the optimal
solution.
The isoperimetric inequality exists in all dimensions. The n-dimensional
ball is the unique domain with given (n 1)-dimensional surface area and
maximizing the enclosed (n-dimensional) volume amongst all possible domains.
In three dimensions, the analogue of (11.2) reads as
S 3 36V 2
where S is the surface area and V is the enclosed volume.
If Rn is a bounded domain, then let us denote its n-dimensional
(Lebesgue) measure by ||n and the (n 1)-dimensional surface measure of
the boundary (which has to be suitably defined) by ||n1 . The classical
isoperimetric inequality now reads as
1
1
1 n
2
=
n
( 2 + 1)
51
References
[1] Bachman, G., Narici, L. and Beckenstein, E.
Analysis, Springer.
[2] Churchill, R. V.
McGraw-Hill.
52