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Chapt7 - Craig - Fundamentals of Stuctural Dynamics
Chapt7 - Craig - Fundamentals of Stuctural Dynamics
Determine the Fourier series representation of a periodic function using the real
form of the Fourier series.
Determine the Fourier series representation of a periodic function using the complex form of the Fourier series.
Determine the steady-state response of an SDOF system to periodic excitation
using either the real form or the complex form.
Use the basic definition to determine the Fourier transform of a transient function
p(t).
Show that the impulse-response function for a linear system and the frequencyresponse function for the system form a Fourier transform pair.
Apply the FFT algorithm to compute the Fourier transform of a periodic function
p(t), and plot the magnitude and phase of the Fourier transform computed.
(7.1)
185
p(t )
T1
Figure 7.1
complex Fourier series are introduced. The complex form is very useful when combined
with the complex frequency-response function of Chapter 4 to study the steady-state
response of damped systems.
7.1.1
!
n=1
an cos n.1 t +
bn sin n.1 t
(7.2)
n=1
where
.1 =
2
T1
(7.3)
is the fundamental frequency (in rad/s), and an and bn are the coefficients of the nth
harmonic. The coefficients a0 , an , and bn are related to p(t) by the equations
a0 =
1
T1
2
an =
T1
bn =
2
T1
+T1
+T1
n = 1, 2, . . .
n = 1, 2, . . .
+T1
(7.4)
186
sufficient accuracy by a relatively small number of terms. Example 7.1 illustrates the
Fourier series representation of a square wave.
Example 7.1 (a) Determine expressions for the coefficients of a real Fourier series
representation of the square wave shown in Fig. 1. Write the Fourier series representation of p(t). (b) Plot truncated series employing, respectively one, two, and three terms
of the Fourier series.
p(t )
p0
t
p0
T1
SOLUTION (a) The integrals in Eqs. 7.4 can be evaluated over the period T1 /2 <
t < T1 /2 and thus written in the form
%
1 T1 /2
p(t) dt
(1)
a0 =
T1 T1 /2
%
2 T1 /2
an =
p(t) cos n.1 t dt
(2)
T1 T1 /2
%
2 T1 /2
bn =
p(t) sin n.1 t dt
(3)
T1 T1 /2
where
p(t) =
<
p0
p0
T1 /2 t < 0
0 t < T1 /2
(4)
a0 = an = 0
This results from the fact that p(t) is an odd function of t [i.e., p(t) = p(t)],
whereas a0 and an are coefficients of even terms in the Fourier series. The coefficient
for the odd terms is
%
4 p0 T1 /2
sin n.1 t dt
(6)
bn =
T1 0
so
9T1 /2
9
4p0 1
bn =
cos n.1 t 99
(7)
T1 n .1
0
But .1 T1 = 2, so
bn =
2p0
(cos n 1)
n
187
(8)
or
4p0
,
n = 1, 3, 5, . . .
n
The Fourier series representation of the square wave is thus
4p0 ! 1
sin n.1 t
p(t) =
n
bn =
n=1,3,...
(b) The plots in Fig. 2 show the contributions over one period of the first three
nonzero terms of the Fourier series representation of the square wave in Fig. 1.
p (t )
p0
t
(a)
T1
p0
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 2 Fourier-series representations of a square wave: (a) square wave; (b) sin(.1 t) term;
(c) two-term representation; (d ) three-term representation.
7.1.2
188
p (t )
Figure 1
Springmass oscillator.
SOLUTION From Eq. 4.9, the steady-state response of an undamped SDOF system
to cosine excitation p0 cos .t is
p0 /k
cos .t
1 r2
u=
(1)
Pn sin n.1 t
(2)
n=1
4p0
n
Pn =
n = odd
(3)
n = even
Un sin n.1 t
(4)
n=1
From Eq. 1, the coefficients Un of the steady-state-response series have the form
Un =
Pn
k (1 rn2 )
(5)
n.1
n
(6)
where
rn =
Finally, combining Eqs. 3, 4, and 5, we get the following Fourier series expression for
the steady-state response:
u(t) =
4p0
k
n=1,3,...
1
sin n.1 t
n [1 (n/6)2 ]
Ans. (7)
189
pPn
4p0
1
wn = 61
n
1
31
51
71
91
71
91
pkUn
4p0
1
31
51
4
n = odd
Pn
= n
(7.5a)
p0
n
=
even
0
n = odd
Un
n[1
(n/6)2 ]
=
(7.5b)
p0 /k
n = even
0
and
.n = n.1
(7.5c)
Note that for the particular frequency ratio n = 6.1 , some of the Fourier components of the excitation are at frequencies below resonance, whereas others are above
resonance. The response would have a very large Fourier component if n.1 were to
fall close to n for some value of n.
190
P n (.)ei(n.1 t)
(7.6)
n=
where the fundamental frequency .1 (rad/s) is related to the period of the function by
.1 T1 = 2. The bar over Pn symbolizes the fact that the coefficients of the series may
be complex, even though the series as a whole represents a real function of time. To
evaluate these components, note that
:
% +T1
0
n &= m
i(n .1 t) i(m .1 t)
e
e
dt =
(7.7)
T1
n=m
So, multiplying Eq. 7.6 by ei(m .1 t) and integrating over one period, we get
Pn =
1
T1
+T1
p(t)ei(n.1 t) dt,
n = 0, 1, . . .
(7.8)
Note that
P n = P n = complex conjugate of P n
(7.9)
and that
1
P0 =
T1
+T1
(7.10)
and e0 = 1
(1)
including negative n terms in this series, the Fourier series can represent a real function of time, p(t).
191
p(t) = P 0 +
+
n=1
n=1
Since P n is assumed to be complex, it can be expressed in terms of its real and imaginary
components as
P n = -(P n ) + i .(P n )
(3)
P n = P n = -(P n ) i .(P n )
(4)
!
n=1
which is real.
Q.E.D.
(b) Making use of Eulers formula, Eq. 1, we can write Eq. 7.8 as
% +T1
1
Pn =
p(t) (cos n.1 t i sin n.1 t) dt
T1
Since p(t) is said to be an odd function of t, the cosine term drops out and
%
i +T1
P +n =
p(t) sin n.1 t dt
T1
(5)
(6)
(7)
Then
P n
i
=
T1
i
=
T1
+T1
p(t) sin(n.1 t) dt
+T1
(8)
p(t) sin n.1 t dt
an = 2-(P n )
bn = 2.(P n )
(7.11)
192
Example 7.4 (a) Determine an expression for the Fourier coefficients P n of the complex Fourier series representation for the square wave of Example 7.1. (b) Sketch
spectra of -(P n ), .(P n ), and |P n |.
SOLUTION (a) Equation 7.8 can be evaluated over the period 0 < t < T1 , giving
%
%
1 T1 /2
1 T1
Pn =
(p0 )ei(n.1 t) dt +
(p0 )ei(n.1 t) dt
(1)
T1 0
T1 T1 /2
9 '
p0 & i(n.1 t) 99T1 /2
i(n.1 t) 9T1
e
(2)
Pn =
e
0
T1 /2
in.1 T1
But .1 T1 = 2, so
<
+1
n = even
ei(n.1 T1 /2) = ei(n) =
1
n = odd
(3)
ei(n.1 T1 ) = ei(2n) = 1
n = even
0
ip0
i(n)
(2e
Pn =
2) = 2ip0
2n
n = odd
n
(b) See Fig. 1.
(4)
(Pn)
n
5
2p0
5p
5
2p0
p
(Pn)
2p0
3p
1
3
1
2p0
3p
2p0
5p
2p0
p
|Pn|
2p0
p
Figure 1
2p0
3p
2p0
5p
7.2.2
193
(7.12)
1/k
[1 (./n ) ] + i [2(./n )]
2
(7.13)
where . is the forcing frequency and n is the undamped natural frequency of the
SDOF system.
When the excitation is periodic, we can use the complex Fourier series representation of Eq. 7.6, repeated here:
p(t) =
P n ei(n.1 t)
(7.6)
n=
U n ei(n.1 t)
(7.14)
n=
Noting from Eq. 7.12 that for harmonic excitation U = H p0 , we see that the corresponding expression for periodic response is
U n = H n P n = |H n ||P n | ei(Hn +Pn )
(7.15)
1/k
[1 (n .1 /n ) ] + i [2(n .1 /n )]
2
(7.16)
Example 7.5 illustrates the use of complex Fourier series in determining the steadystate response of a SDOF system subjected to periodic excitation. The method would
be even more beneficial if the system were a damped system.
Example 7.5 (a) Repeat Example 7.2 by determining an expression for the Fourier
coefficients U n for the undamped SDOF system subjected to square-wave excitation
with n = 6.1 . (b) Sketch magnitude and phase spectra, |U n | and Un .
2
Here we use the dimensional form of H rather than the nondimensional form given in Eq. 4.33.
The subscript n of the undamped natural frequency n should not be confused with the Fourier series
index n.
3
194
(1)
1/k
1/k
=
1 (n.1 /n )2
1 (n/6)2
(2)
From Eq. 5 of Example 7.4, the Fourier coefficients of the square wave are
0
n = even
P n = 2ip0
n = odd
n
Hence, the nth term of the frequency response is
0
U n = H nP n =
i(2p0 )
nk[1 (n/6)2 ]
n = even
(3)
n = odd
(b) From Eq. 4 we can evaluate expressions for the magnitude and phase angle.
|U n | =
2p0 /k
|n [1 (n/6)2 ]|
(5)
Because the nonzero terms in Eq. 4 are pure imaginary, the phase angles will all be
/2. Hence,
:
/2
n = +1, +3, +5, 7, 9, . . .
Un =
(6)
/2
n = 1, 3, 5, +7, +9, . . .
Note that sign changes occur as the resonance frequency is passed at n = 6.1 , that
is, at n = 6.
mn =
pk |Un|
zp0
n
9
an
p/2
wn = 61
p/2
wn = 61
7.3
195
(/2) |U n |
|1/n |
=
,
p0 /k
|[1 (n/6)2 ]|
n = 1, 3, . . .
(7)
4
= 0.444,
9
4
=
= 0.089
45
1 = 1 =
3 = 3 =
7 = 7
9 = 9
5 = 5 =
36
= 0.655
55
P n ei(n.1 t)
Time
domain
p (t )
(7.6)
n=
Frequency
domain
Eq. 7.8
Pn ()
Eq. 7.15
u (t )
Figure 7.3
Eq. 7.14
Un ()
196
where, as given by Eq. 7.8, the Fourier coefficients P n are related to p(t) by
% +T1
1
Pn =
p(t)ei(n .1 t) dt,
n = 0, 1, . . .
(7.8)
T1
.n = n .1
P (.n ) = T1 P n =
2
Pn
/.
(7.17)
(7.18)
1 !
P (.n )ei(.n t) /.
2 n=
(7.19)
P (.n ) =
T1 /2
p(t)ei(.n t) dt
(7.20)
T1 /2
The limits of integration on Eq. 7.20 have been taken as shown so that when T1 ,
the entire time history of p(t) will be included regardless of the specific form of p(t).
As T1 , .n becomes the continuous variable ., and /. becomes the differential d.. Then Eqs. 7.20 and 7.19, respectively, can be written as
%
P (.) =
p(t)ei.t dt
(7.21)
1
p(t) =
2
P (.)ei.t d.
(7.22)
Equations 7.21 and 7.22 are called a Fourier transform pair. P (.) is known as the
Fourier transform of p(t); and p(t) is called the inverse Fourier transform of P (.).
The representation of p(t) by its Fourier transform requires the existence of the integral
in Eq. 7.21. Conditions that must be satisfied for the Fourier transform integral to exist
are discussed in texts on integral transforms (e.g., Ref. [7.1]). These conditions are met
by most physically realizable functions representing forces, displacements, and so on.
Finally, the Fourier transform pair can be written in a more symmetric form if
written in terms of the frequency f = ./2. Then
P (f ) F [p(t)] =
p(t) F [P (f )] =
4 Note
p(t)ei(2f t) dt
(7.23)
P (f )ei(2f t) df
(7.24)
7.3
197
Example 7.6 illustrates the use of straightforward time-domain integration to determine the Fourier transform of a rectangular pulse that is symmetric about t = 0. Note
that the resulting Fourier transform is a real function of frequency.
Example 7.6 Let p(t) be the rectangular pulse defined by
t < T
0
T t T
p(t) = p0
t >T
0
(a) Determine the Fourier transform of this rectangular pulse. Express the transform as
a function of the frequency variable .. (b) Plot the Fourier transform.
SOLUTION (a) From Eq. 7.21,
%
%
i.t
P (.) =
p(t)e
dt =
Therefore,
P (.) =
p0 ei.t dt
(1)
p0 i.T
ei.T )
(e
i .
(2)
sin .T
.T
(b) The Fourier transform P (.) is therefore a real function. It can be plotted
versus the frequency variable . (Fig. 1) and compared with the discrete Fourier series
of Example 7.4.
P ()
2p0T
4p/T
2p/T
2p/T
4p/T
198
7.3.2
Frequency-Response Functions
In Eq. 7.14 we found that the response of an SDOF system to periodic excitation can
be expressed in the form
u(t) =
U n ei(n.1 t)
(7.14)
n=
U n = H nP n
(7.15)
Following the procedure of Eqs. 7.17 through 7.24, we obtain the following Fourier
transform pair for the response of an SDOF system:
U (f ) =
u(t) =
where
u(t)ei(2f t) dt
(7.25)
U (f )ei(2f t) df
(7.26)
U (f ) = H (f )P (f )
(7.27)
which is the product of the system frequency-response function, H (f ), and the Fourier
transform of the excitation, P (f ). Therefore, the response can be expressed by the
following inverse Fourier transform:
%
H (f )P (f )ei(2f t) df
(7.28)
u(t) =
In some cases a table of Fourier transform pairs can be used to evaluate this inverse
transform.[7.1,7.2] However, evaluation of this definite integral generally involves contour
integration in the complex plane, which is beyond the scope of this book.
7.3.3
Parameter Identification
Of great importance (as demonstrated in Chapter 18) is the fact that Eq. 7.27 can be
written symbolically in the form
H (f ) =
U (f )
P (f )
(7.29)
7.4 Relationship Between Complex Frequency Response and Unit Impulse Response
199
In Section 7.5 we describe how the Fourier integral can be approximated by the
discrete Fourier transform (DFT), which, in turn, can be evaluated numerically by use
of the fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithm.
Therefore, the response to this unit impulse is, from Eq. 7.28,
h(t) =
H (f )ei(2f t) df
(7.32)
But from Eq. 7.24, the equation that defines the inverse Fourier transform, this unit
impulse response function is just the expression for the inverse Fourier transform of
the system frequency-response function H (f ). Conversely, it follows that the system
frequency-response function H (f ) is the Fourier transform of the unit impulse response
function h(t), that is,
H (f ) F [h(t)] =
h(t)ei(2f t) dt
(7.33)
Time Domain
h(t)
Impulse Response
<
1/k
[1 (f/fn )2 ] + i(2f/fn )
(7.30)
1 n t
e
sin d t,
m d
(5.30)
F
F 1
t >0
Frequency Domain
H (f )
Frequency-Response Function
200
It is left as an exercise for the reader to show that these SDOF system functions satisfy
Eq. 7.33.
In Chapter 18 it will be noted that some parameter-estimation algorithms work
directly with the frequency-response function H (f ); these are called frequency-domain
algorithms. Other parameter-estimation algorithms make use of the impulse-response
function h(t); these are called time-domain algorithms.
Mag(P )
p(t )
1
0.5
0
0.5
2
t (sec)
(a)
8
n
12
16
(b)
Figure 7.5 Sampled waveform (et with /t = 0.25 sec, N = 16): (a) discrete-time representation; (b) discretefrequency representation.
7.5
201
The effects of this sampling and truncation are to approximate the continuous signal by a periodic signal of period T1 = N /t, sampled at times tm = m /t, m =
0, 1, . . . , (N 1).
The total sample time is T1 , so the fundamental-frequency sinusoid that fits within
this sample time has a period T1 . Therefore, the frequency interval of the discrete Fourier
transform is
/f =
1
1
=
T1
N /t
(7.34)
N1
!
p(tm )ei2(m/t)(n/f ) /t
(7.35)
m=0
N1
!
p(tm )ei(2m(n/N)) ,
m=0
n = 0, 1, . . . , N 1
(7.36)
The inverse DFT can be obtained from Eq. 7.24 in a similar manner. Thus,
p(tm ) =
N1
!
P (fn )ei2(m/t)(n/f ) /f
(7.37)
n=0
This expression for the inverse Fourier transform (IFT) can be written as
p(tm ) =
N 1
1 !
P (fn )ei(2m(n/N)) ,
N /t
n=0
m = 0, 1, . . . , N 1
(7.38)
Equations 7.36 and 7.38 define a discrete Fourier transform pair that is consistent with
the continuous Fourier transform.
The discrete Fourier transform approximates the continuous Fourier transform at
discrete frequencies fn . The accuracy of a DFT representation depends on the sampling
interval /t and the number of samples, or block size, N . In Section 18.4 we discuss
these effects in much greater detail.
Reference [7.1] presents a graphical derivation and a theoretical derivation of the
DFT pair. The resulting discrete Fourier transform (DFT), written in present notation, is
P (fn ) =
N1
!
m=0
p(tm )ei(2m(n/N)) ,
n = 0, 1, . . . , N 1
(7.39)
202
N1
1 !
P (fn )ei(2m(n/N)) ,
N
n=0
m = 0, 1, . . . , N 1
(7.40)
This form is the one that is utilized in computing FFTs.[7.6] However, a scale factor
/t is required to produce an equivalence between this DFT form and the continuous
Fourier transform.
7.5.2
N1
!
Bn WNmn ,
n=0
m = 0, 1, . . . , N 1
WN = ei(2/N )
(7.41)
(7.42)
A measure of the amount of computation involved in Eq. 7.41 is the number of complex
products implied by the form of the equation and the range of m. It is clear that there are
N sums, each of which requires N complex products, or there are N 2 products required
for computing all of the Am s. By taking advantage of the cyclical nature of powers
of WN , the total computational effort can be drastically reduced. Figure 7.6 shows the
repetition cycle for W8mn . The number of complex products for the FFT algorithm is
given by (N/2) log2 N . For example, if N = 512, the number of FFT operations is less
than 1% of the corresponding number of DFT operations. Signal-processing software
products invariably provide for computation of the FFT.[7.6]
W 68 = W 814 =
W 78 = W 815 =
W 58 = W 813 =
W 08 = W 88 =
W 48 = W 812 =
W 18 = W 89 =
W 38 = W 811 =
W 28 = W 810 =
7.5
203
FFT Computations
In Example 7.7 the FFT command in the Matlab computer program is used to compute the Fourier transform of a square wave, similar to the one treated analytically in
Example 7.4 in Section 7.2. Computation of FFTs of nonperiodic signals is discussed
in Section 18.4.
Example 7.7 Let p(t) be the square wave defined over one period by the function
:
2
0.0 t < 0.5 sec
p(t) =
0
0.5 sec t < 1.0 sec
represented by 16 samples over the finite interval 0 sec t < 1 sec. Use the FFT
command in Matlab to determine the Fourier transform of this square wave, and plot
the real and imaginary parts of the resulting Fourier transform.
SOLUTION Relative to an offset average value of 1.0, the square wave is antisymmetric in the time window 0.5 sec t 0.5 sec. The 16 discrete-time sample points
are shown in Fig. 1a. These 16 data points constitute the input to the FFT algorithm.
(See the Comments following this example.)
1.5
(P )
1
0.5
0
2
0.5
f (Hz)
1
0
0.5
t (sec)
(a )
0.5
1
(P )
p (t )
7.5.3
0
0.5
1
f (Hz)
(b)
204
In Fig. 1b the results of a 16-point FFT are plotted versus the discrete frequency
fn for 0 fn fN/2 . The real part (top right) and the imaginary part(lower right) can
be compared with the plots in Fig. 1 of Example 7.4, noting that the square wave in
Example 7.4 is an antisymmetric function with an average value of zero, whereas the
square wave in this example is an antisymmetric function relative to an average value
of 1.0. Other differences are explained in the Comments that follow.
Comments Regarding Matlab FFT Input/Output
1. The FFT algorithm is executed with the command
y = fft (x, N )
where N is the block size and x is the input sequence, that is, the vector of
discrete-time samples of the input function. For structural dynamics applications,
x will be a vector of real numbers. It is desirable to let N be a power of 2.
2. The FFT treats the first N numbers in the input sequence as one period of a
periodic function. For example, the rectangular pulse in Fig. 1a of Example 7.7
will correspond to a square wave that is represented by a Fourier series whose
fundamental frequency is 1.0 sec, with the sampled value at t = 1 sec repeating the sampled value at t = 0 sec. This topic is treated in greater detail in
Section 18.4.
3. Where there is a step discontinuity in the input function, the sampled value is
taken as the average of the value prior to the jump and the value after the jump,
as shown in Fig. 1a of Example 7.7 and in Fig. 7.5a.
4. Because P (fn ) and P (fn ) are complex conjugates of each other, the second
half of the Fourier coefficients are usually not plotted (e.g., as in Fig. 1b of
Example 7.7). Thus, the complex values in the output vector are sequenced by
Matlab as follows:
y(1) = P (f0 ) = average value of input (real)
y(2) = P (f+1 )
..
.
y(N/2 + 1) = P (f+N/2 )
y(N/2 + 2) = P (fN/2+1 )
..
.
y(N ) = P (f1 )
5. To treat the FFT output values as approximations to the complex Fourier coefficients given by Eq. 7.8, it is necessary to divide the output values y(n) by the
block size N .5
5
This scaling is necessitated by the scaling factor T1 introduced in Eq. 7.18, together with the additional
scaling factor of /t between Eqs. 7.36 and 7.39.
Problems
205
REFERENCES
[7.1] E. O. Brigham, The Fast Fourier Transform, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1974.
[7.2] R. A. Gabel and R. A. Roberts, Signals and Systems, 3rd ed., Wiley, New York, 1987.
[7.3] J. W. Cooley and J. W. Tukey, An Algorithm for Machine Calculation of Complex
Fourier Series, Math Computation, Vol. 19, 1965, pp. 297301.
[7.4] D. J. Ewins, Modal Testing: Theory, Practice and Application, 2nd ed., Research Studies
Press, Baldock, Hertfordshire, England, 2000.
[7.5] N. M. M. Maia and J. M. M. Silva, ed., Theoretical and Experimental Modal Analysis,
Wiley, New York, 1997.
[7.6] Using MATLAB, Version 6, The MathWorks, Natick, MA, 2002, pp. 12-41 to 12-48.
PROBLEMS
p (t )
Half-sine waves
p0
t
T1/2
T1
Figure P7.2
3T1/4
p0
5T1/4
3T1/4
Figure P7.1
p0
Figure P7.3
206
7.4 (a) Determine the real Fourier series for the periodic
excitation function in Fig. P7.4. (b) By comparing your
result from part (a) with the answer in Eq. 10 of Example
7.1, what do you observe to be the effect(s) of the upward
shift of the square wave?
p(t)
2p0
t
T0/2
T0/2
Figure P7.4
7.5 The undamped SDOF system shown in Fig. P7.5
is subjected to the excitation p(t) given in Problem 7.1.
(a) Determine a Fourier series expression for the steadystate response of the system if n = 4.1 . (b) Sketch the
spectra for Pn and for Un , similar to those shown in
Fig. 7.2.
Z n ei(n.1 t) ,
n=
W n ei(n.1 t)
n=
z (t )
u (t )
k
k
w(t) =
w=uz
p (t )
( a)
Figure P7.5
z (t )
Z
t
Z
T1
(b)
Figure P7.10
Problems
p (t )
p0
t
2T
Figure P7.11
7.12 Determine the real and imaginary parts of the
continuous Fourier transform of each of the following
functions:
Note: Absolute value of time t.
(a) p(t) = p0 e|t|
0,
t <0
1
0t
(b) p(t) = p0 sin(2f0 t),
2f
0
0,
t>
2f0
207
p (t )
0.25
0.5
Time
Figure P7.15
0.75